Writing and Speaking to Enhance Learning in the English Classroom

Introduction: Writing in the classroom can be a valuable assessment and/or study tool, one which provides insight into a student’s comprehension of concepts as well as gaps in a student’s learning. Thus, writing can inform planning and intervention strategies (Janzen 2005). In addition, writing and speaking in the classroom address a fundamental need of students whose dominate intelligence is linguistic. (For information on multiple intelligences see the Multiple Intelligences website sponsored by Birmingham Grid for Learning: http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/what.cfm.) Finally, while instruction may include long and/or creative writing assignments, the focus of this document is short, informal writing assignments followed by manageable speaking activities.

Rationale for Writing: Writing is a proven method of engaging thinking. “Writing provides students an opportunity to recall, clarify, and question what they know and what they still wonder about” (Fisher 140). Students need opportunities to find their words. When lessons involve writing, students turn their learning into their own language, thereby, helping them internalize the content.

I. Writing in Response to Learning Objectives :Designing lessons around a daily objective is good instructional practice not only because it focuses teachers’ instruction but also because it focuses students’ attention on the task before them. Having students respond to the objective in some manner is an effective way to engage them in the instructional expectations for the day. Asking students to repeat an objective is one quick strategy for engaging students; however, inherent in a written response is accountability—the student must produce words. Below find quick, simple writing strategies for engaging students in their daily objective:A. Writing Questions Regarding the Objective: Students may be directed to write a question

about an academic or direction term with which they are unfamiliar or any other question they have about the upcoming learning. The teacher can field these questions before the lesson begins and clarify definitions, directions, expectations, etc. as needed. (Note: Anything the student asks that will be addressed in the lesson can be identified as such so that the lesson integrity is not forfeited.)

B. Writing in Response to Teacher-Posed Questions: Students may be directed to write a quick response to questions the teacher poses regarding the daily objective. This writing can be done in a daily journal where students write objectives and respond to the questions as part of bell work. Doing this allows the teacher to assess the learning readiness of the students and review and/or explain concepts as needed before new information is presented. See examples below:English Objective: In an essay of two(+) pages, students will interpret and evaluate the impact of ambiguity in “The Young Housewife.” Teacher Questions: 1. How do the terms interpret and evaluate apply to this assignment?2. What are the definitions of impact and ambiguity?

C. Rewriting the Objective using Original Language: Students may be required to paraphrase the objective using their own words and their own explanation of academic terms in the writing, e.g., in a student’s rewrite ambiguity might become “a vague or uncertain quality.”

II. Quick-Writing to Engage Students:A quick-write is a useful instructional tool that can be used as an anticipatory set, a mid-lesson engagement strategy, or as a closure activity. As a set a quick write works well to review concepts from the previous day. Amid lessons, the benefits of quick writes are threefold: to provide think time when challenging students with high-level thinking questions, to prepare students for checking for understanding, and/or to prepare them for a pair-share or whole-class discussion (provides rehearsal and clarifying opportunities). Finally, as closure quick writes work well to assess student learning. Quick writes, while highly effective, may pose difficulty for a teacher inexperienced at using the strategy; consequently, the writing strategies and logistical considerations included here are designed to address potential difficulties.

A. Quick-Writes for Journaling/Anticipatory set

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1. Type of (and Purpose for) Writing: a. Explain a recently-learned concept as if you were explaining it to a younger sibling or

friend (to review).b. Summarize the previous day’s learning (to review).c. List everything known about a concept (to engage prior knowledge and prepare students

for upcoming learning).d. Write an explanation of a concept covered in previous day’s learning (to assess mastery).e. Predict the outcome of an experiment (to engage critical thinking).f. Reflect on mastery via self-assessment (to promote meta-cognition).g. Link subject-matter/concepts to familiar contexts (to create meaningful contextualization).

See Appendix IA for several ideas on creating meaningful contextualization and IB for specific journaling prompts/ideas.

2. Quick Write Logistical Considerations:a. Establish Routines/Communicate Clear expectations:

i. Time limits ii. Length and/or nonstop expectations. iii. Where students will write (a notebook, assignment back, etc.)

b. Model System of Implementation:i. Students write in their notebooks in a section designated for journaling. ii. The writing should be timed, 1 to 3 minutes nonstop, depending on the cognitive

challenge inherent in the prompt.

iii. Students write freely—without concern for writing conventions. This writing is a thinking

tool, and the time is strictly for thinking—not criticizing—which will happen if students stop to reread, correct a spelling, etc.

iv. Writing can be assessed for completion only—teachers do not need to read these thoughts

which will become public in a piece of writing, in a discussion, on a test, etc. (Note: Students can be advised to repeat key words/concepts in the prompt if they get stuck during the nonstop timeframe.) ORIf teachers want to read student journal writing, there are strategies for making that assessment more reasonable than reading every word students write (given the demands on teacher’s time). Consider collecting journals weekly, bi-weekly or once a month and use one of the assessment options listed below. Be sure to make the assessment procedure known to students each assessment cycle: Give students two grades—a completion grade and a quality grade. Select one or

two entries to read and assess, which you will mark. Points can be divided nearly evenly for each grade so that if the quality is not there, students are not too heavily rewarded for simply attempting the entries.

Have students select one or two entries they want read. Teachers read those and respond to one.

Require students to reread their entries and select one entry (from several) to develop and submit for a grade—perhaps doubling the original length requirement. This could be done every three weeks to a month.

B. Quick-Writes Embedded in Note-Taking: Amid teaching new concepts, teachers can break up the lesson with a writing task which allows students to grapple with new concepts while providing teachers with an informal assessment opportunity. 1. Type of (and Purpose for) Writing:

a. Ask a “what if” question to engage students in prediction based on prior knowledge and to promote opportunities for students to discover a new possibility (to engage students in critical thinking and discovery).

b. Ask students to rewrite a concept in their own words (to review and/or check for understanding).

c. Ask students to describe a concept and include appropriate academic vocabulary (to review and/or check for understanding).

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d. Ask students to explain how they might apply a concept to a problem (to engage critical thinking and check for understanding).

e. Ask students to identify real-life applications of the concept or skill being studied (to create meaningful contextualization).

2. Logistical Considerations:a. Provide students with a purpose and heading for the writing as well as directions for a

place to put it—either within notes or in a journal separate from notes.b. Require students to use a provided sentence starter or list of academic terms in their

response.c. Limit timed-writing to a relatively short period (1 to 2 minutes), depending on the

cognitive demands of the writing prompt.d. Employ clear procedural expectations, e.g., nonstop writing, assessment procedure, etc.e. Establish quality expectations, e.g., use of academic or original language, depth of

thinking, length of writing, etc.f. Create follow-up procedures, e.g., pair-share, whole-class discussion with participants

identified through random call, etc.C. Quick-Writes for Closure: Ideally, lessons begin with both the learning objective and an

explanation of how that objective will be assessed. Effective closure, then, returns focus to the learning objective: “A closure brings the lesson full circle… It can serve as the time to reiterate the lesson objectives, clarify the organization of the lesson, summarize the lesson body, check for understanding, and preview the upcoming lesson. Most importantly, a closure can maximize student engagement time through a variety of reflective activities” (Bulger 6).1. Using Quarter-sheet Response as Informal Assessment:

a. Quarter-sheet Response Options:i. Summarize learning for the day.ii. Define a difficult concept introduced that day.iii. Compare two concepts.iv. Write the step(s) of a process and then write an explanation of the step(s).v. Explain how an activity helped them learn. (Assume it did but allow suggestions.)

b. Teacher Response to Quarter-sheet Closure: Read these responses; comment on them the next

day, and follow through as appropriate. 2. Learning Log or Closure Journal Sentence Starters:

(Implement a closure log or journal much like an opening journal; see section II.A.2.) a. One thing I learned today was… (Three things I learned today were…)

b. Something from today’s lesson that I want to find out more about is…c. Something I found difficult to understand today was…d. Something that surprised me about _________ was…e. I really enjoyed today’s lesson (or found it difficult) because…f. On a scale of 1 – 5, I assess my understanding of____ to be ____ because …

3. Other Writing Options for Closure:a. 3-2-1 Response—Students respond to a three-part prompt, e.g., three facts they

learned in the day’s lesson, two ideas covered they feel they understand well, one question they still

have for the teacher.

b. Exit Slip—Students record their thoughts about a lesson or respond to a specific prompt on an exit slip (quarter sheet) and turn it in as a “ticket out the door” at the end of class.

c. Three “What’s”—Students respond to the following: What did you learn today? So what? (How

is this important? relevant? useful?) Now what? (How does this relate our unit outcomes? What

we studied previously? What we’ll study next?)d. Write, Pair-Share, Class Discussion—Students express thoughts on paper regarding the

day’s

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lesson; then turn and talk with a partner. (See pair-share protocol and precision partnering in V.B.1.). The teacher has students report out their own or their partner’s experience.

e. Snowball Fight—Students respond to a prompt on a sheet of paper; then they are asked to

crumple the piece of paper up into a (snow) ball. Next they are instructed to engage in a snowball fight (or snow storm) with their fellow classmates. Students can throw once or a few times. Following “throws” teacher directs the class to stop and each student to pick up a snowball. The teacher calls on students to open up the ball and read aloud the written responses.

f. Quiz—Students take a short quiz pertaining to the day’s learning which can be scored in class

for the purpose of reflection. (Note: The following day, the same quiz—with some minor alterations—can be used as bell work to reinforce the importance of the concepts and to

give students another “hit” of the material.)

4. Logistical Considerations: When implementing closure writing activities, the considerations are consistent with using writing as an anticipatory set (II.A.2) or using writing embedded in lessons (II.B.2). The one recommended difference is that students get some kind of response from the teacher the following day. Informal, verbal response is enough to build student motivation as long as it is immediate and specific—covering trends in student weakness, excellence where observed, and adjustments in instruction made to address student needs.

III. Writing to Build Vocabulary Capacity:Systematic vocabulary instruction is useful for insuring students are able to speak the academic language of the class. Short written responses can be effective when used in the initial instruction of academic terms as well as to help students make connections or apply concepts.

A. Academic Vocabulary Glossary: Creating a single place where students gather valuable academic words can be a very effective means of both teaching and reinforcing concepts. It is best of have the words organized in such a manner that when students look back at them, not only a definition but also some kind of application example and a mnemonic device is included in the format. This organization provides opportunity for more in-depth instruction from the onset as well as a useful tool for accessing the material again when time has passed from its introduction. Below is an option:

Academic Vocab

Definition Example/Application

Mnemonic Device

ambiguity an element of uncertainty in a text in which something can be interpreted a number of different ways

The ending of The Lady or the Tiger—what’s behind the door on the right? The reader never finds out…

ambi—both, on both sides…ambi-dextrous: use of both hands…ambi-guity: could go “both” ways…

B. Other Writing Opportunities Using Academic Vocabulary:1. Word Map w/Justification: Give students the academic vocabulary from a lesson or unit as

review and have them create a word map which demonstrates the relationships between concepts. Afterward have them write an informal justification for the map they have created. (See model in the appendix II.)

2. Silly Story: Students are required to write a silly story in which all, or a portion of, the academic vocabulary words are included. Below is one option for implementing this activity:

a. Give students a brief period of time to write the silly story in class (5 to 7 minutes). Encourage creativity and fun BUT the words must be used correctly in context.

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b. Allow students one minute to edit their stories and underline the vocabulary words they used.

c. Put students in quick groups of four (by seating arrangement).d. Require students to read their work aloud, thereby promoting ownership of the work. (Do

not allow them to have others read their work. Encourage them to use their creative voice and enjoy.)

e. Direct each group to select a favorite story, one worthy of sharing with the class.f. Randomly call a few of these students to share their stories—depending on time. (See

model story in the appendix III.)

IV. Writing in Note-taking and Graphic Organizers:“Students often have trouble studying from their notes because rereading their notes does not necessarily help them identify the concepts they do not understand. Lecture notes reflect how the instructor organizes and thinks about the subject matter. Through writing activities, students can put that information into their own words, thus coming to ‘own it’” (Writing). From summaries and reflections written at the conclusion of Cornell Notes to KWL charts to writing exercises embedded within note taking (designed to engage students with the content), there are many writing activities which can enhance science instruction and improve student learning.

A. Cornell Notes: Cornell Note structure is effective not only because it helps students organize material but also because it requires them to either summarize or reflect on their learning. A summary is relatively simple to assign but a reflection might be more useful to engage students with the learning at a deeper level. Some general reflection topics are listed below:1. Connect today’s learning to yesterday’s. Focus on how ____________ is related to ___________.2. In what way do you see __________ demonstrated/displayed in nature? Technology? Your life

at home?3. How does understanding __________ help you to solve ____________?4. When/where have you observed ___________ in your experience? 5. In what ways is ___________ like ___________?

B. KWL(H): A KWL(H) is a useful tool for engaging prior knowledge as students list what they know as well as for creating motivation as a result of students investigating what they want to know. Finally, a KWL is a useful tool for self-assessing as students summarize what they have learned. It is a four-column graphic in which students write what they know (K), what they want to know (W), what they learned (L) and how they learned it (H)—which has recently been added to the strategy to encourage meta-cognition. This strategy can be used for a unit, lesson series or single lesson. Below is a possible process for implementation:

1. K (What I know…): a. In the first column of the graphic, students list everything they know about a

concept. They can be encouraged to write nonstop or at least encouraged to complete this within a designated time period. They should also be encouraged to write everything—no matter how “small” they think the idea may be.

b. These ideas can be shared out, and essential concepts identified and listed on a whiteboard. This exercise sets up the day’s lesson and serves as a “relief” to those students confident in their background knowledge as well as a “heads-up” to those students who need to review fundamentals. Perhaps, more importantly, this exercise allows teachers to identify and dispel misconceptions regarding a unit of study.

c. The “K” step of the KWL process is an important step for helping students realize that they do know some relevant information and the new learning is not “foreign” but rather an extension of what they already know.

2. W (What I want to know…): a. Have students scan text, looking at bold-faced type, illustrations and charts to help them

focus on what they want to know in order to understand the concepts at play. It is support designed to help students think and ask questions like a researcher.

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b. Again, teachers may ask students to share out their queries to both address the issues that will not be covered in the day’s learning but are essential to it as well as to assure students of what will be covered.

c. The “W” step of the KWL is an important motivational step. It holds students accountable to designing their own query which then becomes motivation for learning answers. Like the “K” step it also serves to “set up” the learning and prepare students for what is coming next.

3. L (What I learned…):a. At the end of the lesson (or unit), students are asked to list all they have learned. This is a

great review exercise as well as a chance to celebrate what students have learned. b. The “L” step is important for students to realize all they’re learning and acknowledge

their own growth.

4. H (How I learned…):a. Finally, do a quick review of the learning strategies you used and the activities in which

students were engaged to help them learn the content. Ask students to identify those strategies/activities which were most helpful as well as what was helpful about them.

b. The “H” step is important for helping students to reflect on those strategies which help them learn the most. It is an exercise in helping them to grow as independent learners.

C. Venn Diagram: Venn Diagrams, overlapping circles, are used to illustrate comparison/contrast. Those items placed inside the overlapped space represent commonalities while those placed

in the outer portion of the circles represent differences. A Venn Diagram can bevery useful for helping students to identify similarities and differences betweenconcepts. Sometimes it is a subtle difference that changes everything; using aVenn can move the “subtle” into the “sun.” (See appendix I.A.5 on comparison.)

D. Other Graphics from Freeology.com:

Time line—used to organize ideas chronologically…or to demonstrate sequence.

Cognitive Dictionary—used for vocabulary development (predict, research, create a mnemonic image).

Cause and Effect—used to focus attention on specific causes/subsequent effects.

V. Speaking in the Classroom (Guided Interaction):Research indicates that whoever is doing the talking is doing the learning; however, many of our classrooms are set up in such a way that students sit passively while a teacher talks. The students may be involved in note-taking; however, sometimes, even note-taking imposes little cognitive demand on students because they are simply copying information from PowerPoint slides. Talking,

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Venn Diagram

on the other hand, creates opportunities to grapple with ideas, to “try them on for size,” to apply them, evaluate them and more. Talking, by nature, encourages engagement—which is at the heart of all learning.

Research Regarding the Benefits of Guided Interaction: Guided Interaction: A Theoretical Framework (adapted from Tate, 2007)

Teachers help students strengthen memory when they provide opportunities for them to teach the entire class, partners, or small groups (Tileston, 2004).

The amount of time spent on direct instruction with students should be directly tied to the student’s age. For example, if the students are six, expect them to attend for six minutes without needing to change to a different activity. From age 15 to adult, 20 minutes is the limit on listening without the benefit of activity (Tileston, 2004).

Because one student’s ideas encourage other students to search their neural networks for similar ideas, brainstorming and discussion are good strategies for activating prior knowledge (Gregory & Chapman, 2002).

Students should be provided with opportunities to talk with one another because the brain needs breaks in the learning (Tileston, 2004).

Social climate strongly influences the way the brain processes information (Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999.)

The main component in the success of cooperative learning is its ability to free students from the fear that shuts the brain down and the negatively that impacts its ability to learn (Dougherty, 1997).

The brain learns 90% of what it teaches to another brain (SDE, 1995; Sousa, 2001).

A. Routines/Clear expectations: There are many reasons to engage students in academic conversation—from creating opportunities for students to clarify and expand their ideas to increasing memory of critical concepts to building listening skills. Many times, however, teachers are apprehensive about allowing students to interact due to concern over disruption. The language to be used during interactions as well as the system for interacting should be made clear: explicitly taught, modeled, observed, praised, and discussed after partner interaction. (An investigation of partner success is easily done with ¼ sheet responses focused on how the partnership was able to honor the expectations). Deviations from the practice must be addressed (adapted from Zwiers, 2008).Planning for Guided Interaction: By explicitly teaching classroom expectations through description, modeling, images and consistent enforcement, teachers encourage the success of guided interaction. In addition, partnering students with precision promotes successful student interaction (Kate Kinsella). Precision partnering means that students are paired according to skill level, temperament and personality. Finally, guided interaction must be explicitly planned—and much work done up front to insure objectives are met. However, with the proper planning, guided interaction can be the most powerful tool in a teacher’s kit.1. Skill level—If you classify skill level into low, medium and high, students can be paired one-

level lower or higher, so no high with low; the difference in ability is too great. Also, low-level students should not be paired with other low students—not enough support in the pairing. Otherwise, skill-level combinations should be successful—low with medium, medium with medium, high with medium, etc.

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feel they could work and one they could not. This information and skill level consideration will help teachers create compatible, productive partners. Note: It is a good idea to create a seating chart that places these partners near one another.

B. Types of Guided Interaction: 1. Pair-Share: The benefit of pair-share is that students can often determine correct

responses to questions they might not be able to solve alone. The support and “group think” open allows students to discover learning vs. being “fed” information. (Appendix IV: Variations on Pair-Share.)a. General Preparation: Teachers must prepare for guided interaction; there is initial

work. However, in time many of the preparation pieces become routine and the activity becomes very natural and easy to incorporate. Below is a list of considerations:i. Teach pair-share protocol (model protocol below).ii. Assign partners.iii. Partners decide who is #1 and who is #2.iv. Assign prompt and speaking/listening roles, including who will speak first, #1 or #2. v. Provide sentence starter and model expectation for its use in partner work.vi. Explain how students will be expected to share out to the entire group.vii. Teach how you will signal the end of talk time and what student attention returned

to you should look like—eyes on you, mouth closed, etc.

b. Pair-share Protocol (four L’s plus “thanks”—adapted Kinsella): i. Look: face partner, make eye contactii. Lean: lean forward and nod as appropriate.iii. Listen: demonstrate listening by repeating, summarizing or commenting on some of

what your partner said prior to speaking.

iv. Low Voice: use a partner voice—loud enough for your partner but not others to hear.

v. Thanks: Thank your partner for sharing his/her ideas.c. When to Use Pair-Share (See Variations of this Strategy in Appendix IV):

i. To check for understanding (precursor to specific questions asked in whole-class forum).

ii. To prompt a discussion when there are too few responses.iii. To allow participation when too many students want to answer all at once.iv. To prepare students for a whole-class discussion (provides rehearsal and clarifying

opportunities).v. To provide think time for higher order thinking questions.vi. To review information (re-teach ideas to one anther).

2. Jigsaw: The Jigsaw method is a cooperative learning technique in which students work in small groups. Jigsaw can be used in a variety of ways for a variety of goals, but it is primarily used for the acquisition and presentation of new material, review, or informed debate. In this method, each group member is assigned to become an “expert” on some aspect of a unit of study. After reading about their area of expertise, the exerts from different groups meet to discuss their topic, and then return to their groups and take turns teaching their topics to their group mates. This strategy is an efficient way for students to learn content while developing their listening, engagement and empathy skills as well as their ability to interact with their peers. See Model Jigsaw in Appendix V.

3. Appointments: The benefit of using appointments is the various conversations that students will have as they grapple with summarizing, applying, evaluating concepts. It is the conversation, the sharing, explaining and justifying, that pushes and expands the thinking. a. Description: Appointments are pair-share opportunities which have been pre-arranged

and which require students to get up and move. Using appointments can be an effective means of getting students to interact, which promotes positive climate.

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Appointments are also an effective means of providing students support with difficult concepts through the feedback/sharing of several peers. Finally, using appointments is time-efficient in that students can interact with several other students in a short period of time.

b. Logistics:i. Number 1 - ___ (the number of appointments you will use that period) on a note sheet.ii. Allow students one minute to find a partner. Their objective is to find partners who

do not sit adjacent to them at any angle. Each student must place his/her name on a partner’s appointment list for the same number as that partner appears on his/her list, e.g., if Sonia is Jose’s 2nd appointment, then Jose must be on Sonia’s list as her 2nd appointment as well. (It seems obvious but failing to model this can lead to disaster!)

iii. Warn students in advance that if they do not find their own appointment partners within the one-minute time limit, you will find them partners.

iv. After one minute, have students sit. Then go through the list checking to make sure each time is filled for each student. Ask: “Is there anyone who does not have a number 1 appointment?” Assign appointment partners and/or create one group of three. Repeat.

v. Variations: Some teachers create six appointments at the beginning of the quarter and then the students use them all quarter. This is an effective variation for avoiding the set-up minute each time you use the appointments; however, you must “deal” with absences instead. Another fun variation is to change from numbers to seasons or landscape, etc. So students would meet with their beach or mountain partners, fall or summer partners, etc.

c. How to Use Appointments: i. Students could answer a question with their first appointment, check it with their

second (30 seconds [+] depending on difficulty of the problem), and check again with their third.

ii. Students could be asked to brainstorm a response to a question independently. Then they could meet with appointment 1 to share their brainstorm (1 to 3 minutes). They are to share ideas. Then they go to appointment 2 to double check and then write a final response with appointment 3. (This would be appropriate for a high-order, challenging question.)

iii. Students could complete academic vocabulary work with one appointment—both agreeing on examples that demonstrate each meaning clearly. Then students can go to the next appointment to compare examples.

4. Discussion Lines: The motivation for doing Discussion Lines is that students are out of their seatsand have the opportunity to speak with several students in a short period of time. This can be done in two long lines of students facing one another or in shorter lines around rows of desks. If the number of students is odd, then have one person at the end of one line create a group of three. a. Logistics:

i. Give initial directions before having students stand: how the lines should look xxxxxxxxxxxx how the lines will rotate what materials to bring to the lines xxxxxxxxxxxx what voice volume to use Discussion Lines how much time they will spend with each discussion partner how you will get their attention (the signal) once discussion time ends

ii. Have students step back between conversations as needed to better hear your directions. (Also they can all see you—and you them—when they step back.)

b. Recommendations:i. Use this for high-level thinking questions that need “grappling.”ii. Have students share over a single idea with several partners before switching to a

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iii. Always time discussions—keep it short, 30 to 90 seconds before rotating.

5. Socials: Ironically, a “social” is a listening, not speaking, activity, which gets students out of their seats to share randomly with several partners into whom they may “bump.” The purpose is to facilitate students sharing their ideas—perhaps a thesis statement, topic idea, or theme—while listening to several other ideas without the complications/distractions of conversation. This is an opportunity for students to really evaluate their own ideas—as they repeat and listen to them several times as well as an opportunity to “measure” their ideas against those of their classmates. Finally, the activity provides students with a wealth of ideas from which they may “borrow.” a. Logistics:

i. Give initial directions before having students stand: Explain that students are about to engage in a sharing activity during which

they are to share their written idea only and then remain quiet and listen to a partner’s idea (no conversation).

Make it clear they are to walk around the entire time. Direct them to stop to share with every “unengaged” person at the social. Remind them to use a partner voice volume.

ii. Provide a listening objective: “Listen to and evaluate your own ideas as you hear them again

and again. Listen for interesting ideas from your peers which might be a nice addition to

your work thus far.” b. Recommendations:

i. Use this for exchange of “formal” thoughts—those which have been drafted into a thesis or topic idea, or a theme, or for student-drafted poetry.

ii. Always time socials—keep it short, 2 minutes-ish.iii. Follow socials with reflection time. Have students write down their

thoughts regarding what they have written and what they have heard. This should be followed with pair-share (or another discussion format) to further facilitate reflection.

6. Speed Dating: This is a variation on Discussion Lines. The class is divided in half to create two circles—one inside the other. Students in the inner circle face out to create partners with the outer circle which faces in. Only one circle need rotate in order to switch partners.

7. Tea Parties: A tea party is an effective strategy to use as an anticipatory set to bridge

prior knowledge with new content. It is a whole-class activity which involves a written prompt, music, and sharing. The prompt is usually three-part and tiered to move from lower to higher-level questions. Students address the prompts independently and take their responses to the sharing portion of the activity, which occurs in three steps: Students walk around during the music and when music stops, students turn to the nearest person and share their ideas regarding the first prompt. When the music begins again, students repeat moving to the second and then third prompt with each partner. Strategy shared by Jake Ramirez—thank you. a. Logistics:

i. Consider music selections: Consistent Mood—use music that is thematic, correlating with lesson. Taper Mood—start with an energizing song, something fast-tempo like hip-hop,

rock, etc. Move to a mid-tempo piece to slow or reduce the energy and then to a slow-tempo song to close this part of the lesson and prepare students to return to seat work.

ii. Give initial directions before having students stand: Explain that students are about to engage in a sharing activity that will be paced

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Provide sentence frames to help students respond to prompt as well as to initiate conversation.

They are to move continuously during music. When the music stops, they are to stop and share with the classmate nearest

them. Give students a “landmark” by which they designate first and second to share,

e.g. students closest to the door, biggest feet, tallest, etc. share first. Remind them to use the sentence frame to begin their sharing and then to

continue with whatever ideas they wrote or think of as they share. Both partners share and then respond to one another to create a conversation.

Remind them to use a partner voice volume. Explain that as the music resumes, they are to thank their partner and move

on…iii. Provide objectives: “Your language objective is to honor the sentence frame and

engage in using academic language in a shared discourse. Your content objective is to

expand your evidence base regarding your position on….”

b. Recommendations:i. Use this to engage prior knowledge (through writing) and expand prior knowledge

(through experiences of peers).ii. Use this as closure upon finishing (the reading of) a literary selection—during which

students are to grapple with a single difficult question, rather than three tiered questions. During this activity, students should be encouraged to bring a pencil and write down some of their peers’ ideas as they share—just single words and/or phrases which will remind them of the idea later when they reflect.

iii. Keep time for music and discussion relatively short: music 30 - 45 seconds, discussion 1 – 2 minutes.

iv. Follow a tea party with reflection time (quick write) thereby allowing time for students to synthesize their ideas and the ideas they heard as well as time to record the ideas that occurred to them as they shared.

8. Whole-Class Discussion Process:

a. Provide prompt for quick write (30 sec to 2 min.)—students given think time via writing.b. Pair share—provide direction for speaking and listening for each partner (1 & 2), or if in

groups, provide each group member a number and an order for who will speak first regarding each discussion prompt.

c. Random call on students to share—train students to be participants.d. Take volunteers—let “professional participants” have a chance. (This will encourage

them to stay involved even if they are not allowed to respond first.)

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Appendix

I. Creating Meaningful Contextualization Makes new concepts or language forms comprehensible by introducing or “contextualizing” them

via demonstration, culturally-responsive resources, text, prompts, references, or realia. Elicits students’ prior knowledge and builds motivation to engage in new learning; connects new

academic concepts to high-interest themes and contexts that are meaningful to students.A. Strategies for Creating Meaningful Contextualization:

1. Quick writes on Familiar topics : Ask students questions about what they know, what they think, what they feel…let them write and share to create context for learning, for example:“We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness...” Quoted from: _______________________________When:_____________ Personal Response: What do you think the writers mean by “all people are created equal”? Do you agree/disagree? Why/Why not?

2. Popular culture : Use pop culture, art and music, to engage students in thinking and to create a context for content, for example:Music: Use the “What about Now” song and video by Daughtry to demonstrate one

perspectiveof man’s potential for demonstrating humanity toward man or for introducing the theme that even one person has the power to make meaningful changes in the world.

Art: Use artwork to engage students in the harmful effects of cigarettes.

3. Current events : Use allusions to and/or comparisons of political issues, sports play-offs,

campus happenings, awards shows, TV documentaries, scientific discoveries, newspaper headlines, technological breakthroughs, historical events, etc. to create meaningful contextualization as long as students are provided with essential background to ensure access to concepts.

4. Visuals : The visual image of an idea creates contextualization for both remembering and understanding it. Given this, provide visuals on an LCD or Smart Board or draw your impressions of an image together—for example, draw a plant or animal cell, the evaporation process, the setting or plot of a story, a cause and effect chart of the events leading to the Revolutionary War, etc.

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Health and Wellness Prompt: What do you know about smoking cigarettes? Look at

Basquiat’s artwork titled Tabac. Do you think his message regarding cigarettes is positive or negative? What is your attitude toward smoking? Explain. Add this question to create a Biology Prompt:

How do you think cigarettes might affect the nervous system? Explain your response.

5. Identifying Similarities and Differences : In Classroom Instruction that Works, Marzano distinguishes identifying similarities and differences as the most effective research-based instructional strategy. Whether similarities and differences are explicitly presented by the teacher, identified independently by the student, or represented through graphic or symbolic form, the strategy enhances student understanding. Given this, build contextualization and help students connect and integrate new ideas by comparing, classifying, and creating metaphors and analogies. Use Venn diagrams; have students compare something they have seen, observed, or experienced to new content being taught; compare previously taught concepts to new concepts and demonstrate in a graphic how each concept is both similar to and different from the other. For example, use a Venn diagram to compare Poe’s stories “The Cask of Amontillado” and “Tell-Tale Heart”; focus on the narrator and the ending of each story, or compare polynomials to monomials, plant cells to animal cells, the rules for softball to those of baseball, or baseball to cricket.

6. Familiar contexts linked to subject-matter concepts : (Elicit student’s prior knowledge to help them engage in new learning.) Have students “recall a time when…” students felt something, observed something,

or experienced something consistent with what characters or historical figures may have felt.

Ask “Have you ever…been to, seen, noticed when, wondered why…” questions which pull the student into thinking about something familiar related to the new content.

Compare new concepts to familiar ones, for example, a four square box to a quadrant plane.

Have students brainstorm all they can remember about previously-learned material and then build on what they know.

Create a “familiar context” by showing a video clip of a concept. Have students argue both sides of a controversial issue; begin with what they

think/feel and then move them into “imagining” what the other side thinks, feels, desires.

B. Using Journaling to Create Meaningful Connection to the Literature:Journal Question Types:

Model Prompts based on The Most Dangerous Game

Prediction/Pre-reading: To what do you think the title refers? What are some dangerous games? What is the most dangerous game? Explain.

Do animals have rights? What do you think about the killing of animals for food, medical testing, furs, sport? Explain.

Personal Experience shared with Characters:

“Did I just say that out loud?” Ever regret something you said? Explain.

Are your first impressions usually accurate? Explain. Are you a thrill seeker? As it pertains to your recreation and

entertainment do you enjoy an element of danger? Provide examples supporting your claim either way.

Theme: Are you proud to be an American? Why/why not? What is prejudice? Have you personally experienced or witnessed

an act of prejudice? Explain.Literary Term Practice: External Conflict: Recall a time you had a conflict with a peer.

Was it an argument? A fist fight? What was the situation? How was it resolved?

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Great Depression Soup-line Photo Writing Prompt: Imagine that the only way you could eat would be

to go stand in line on the street to wait for free soup and bread. How would this make you feel? Why would it make you feel this way? Predict how the people in the photo might have felt. (Base your response on personal experience and/or observation and the visual evidence in the photo.)

Setting: What was the setting of your last adventure? Was it local? On the coast? Out of state? Country? What made that setting different from your everyday location?

Flashback: Flashback to a time you were really frightened. Where were you? What was happening around you?

Viewpoint: If Ivan could speak, how would he tell the story of Ship-Trap Island? Ideas shared by Ken Hanf, MUHSD, BTSA

II. Model Word Map Based on Poetry Lesson (partial word list):

Poetry = refrain R H rhyme Y T meter H M alliteration/consonance

imagery metaphor simile personification Justification: The diagram begins at the top with the word poetry and an “equal” sign side by side to create the image of a math problem, for below it are the pieces of the “poetry formula.” In boxes stacked like building blocks are the words refrain, rhyme, meter and alliteration/consonance. They are stacked like bricks because they are foundational to rhythm. Refrain creates rhythm at the sentence level, rhyme at the word level, meter at the syllable level, and alliteration and/or consonance at the sound level. Each type of repetition works to both hold the poem together and move the reader forward. These repetitions carry the reader toward the next sound like the rhythm in music carries listeners through a song. Adjacent to each box is an arrow pointing toward the word rhythm, which winds its way down the page because the rhythm in a poem is its movement—hence a “flowing” or winding word. Beneath the building blocks of rhythm are the words imagery, metaphor, simile and personification because these are the “ribbons” of beauty which elevate poetry beyond prose. The mind “pictures, sounds, tastes” of imagery and the comparisons of figurative language (metaphor, simile and personification) engage the reader’s imagination and invite him/her to take the adventure of the writer’s words.

III. Model Vocabulary Story:Directions: Write a silly story using any seven of your nine vocabulary words (receding, disarming, prolonged, imprudent, surmounted, unruffled, invariably, impulse, protruding). Be sure your understanding of the vocabulary (definition and part of speech) is clear.

Model from Most Dangerous Game Vocabulary List : Despite his receding hairline, hair that seemed in a race to meet the crown of his head, he sat with confidence and smiled, unruffled by the woman’s scorn. He hoped his smile was disarming but felt the tension in the corners of his mouth as he held the smile frozen in place. (We all know

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how difficult it is to hold a smile for a prolonged period of time!) He knew it would be imprudent to drop the corners of his mouth at this point, invariably matching her scorn with his smile for what seemed hours. Finally, dry-lipped and sore-jawed, he cleared his throat (“hu-hum”), having surmounted the tiny hint of fear edging its way into the hollows of his stomach and squeaked, “P-P-Please, [hu-hum] pass the salt.”

IV. Variations of the Pair-Share Strategy:A. Pair-Square: After students share with a partner, rather than going directly to a class

discussion, students can be asked to share with another set of partners. This allows students more opportunity for clarifying ideas, for using academic language, for grappling with ideas and formulating opinions.

B. Partner-Share: When the discussion moves from the pair to the entire class, have students share their partner’s ideas rather than their own. Let students know this is your plan in advance, for the strategy promotes good listening and the asking of clarifying questions throughout the partner discussions.

C. Listen-Pair-Share (to music, a lecture, a peer’s ideas, a read passage, etc.), Read-Pair-Share,

Pair-share as Discussion (in response to a teacher question; in preparation for a class discussion).

V. Jigsaw Model:Learning Objective: Students will be able to identify and explain the comparison made in examples of different types of figurative language. (Students should be told in advance that this will be measured by an independent quiz at the end of the period.) Divide students into groups of four. The groups should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity,

race, and ability. Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most

mature student in the group. Assign each member of the group a number: 1 – 4. Divide the lesson into four sections. Assign each student a responsibility according to his/her

number: (1) Learning the definition of simile and explaining the comparison made in each example.(2) Learning the definition of metaphor and explaining the comparison made in each example.(3) Learning the definition of personification and explaining the comparison made in each example.(4) Learning the definition of hyperbole and explaining the comparison made in each example.

Make sure students have direct access to their own definitions and examples (via handout or book).

Give students time to read over their definitions and examples. Provide time for them to jot notes regarding the comparisons being made.

Form temporary “expert groups” composed of students who share the same number/type of figurative language. Note: If your class size is such that you will have expert groups larger than four students, divide those groups into smaller numbers so that you have two expert groups on each concept.

Give students in these expert groups time to discuss their examples and to rehearse the explanations they will make to their jigsaw group.

Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups. Ask each student to present his /her type of figurative language and examples (with

explanations) to the group. Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.

During these jigsaw presentations, all group members should be taking notes. Use proximity throughout the lesson to observe the process. If any group is having either

behavior or content issues, make appropriate interventions. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students quickly come to realize

that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.

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Works Cited

Basquiat, Jean Michel. Tabac. <http://www1.uol.com.br/bienal/23bienal/especial/ieba01g.htm>.Bulger, Sean M. et. al. Stack the Deck in Favor of Your Students by Using the Four Aces of Effective

Teaching. University of North Carolina at Wilmington: Center for Teaching Excellence. http://www.uncw.edu/cte/et/articles. Fisher, Douglas and Nancy Frey. Improving Adolescent Literacy: Strategies at Work. New Jersey: Pearson

Education, Inc. 2004.Freeology.com. http://freeology.com/graphicorgs/page5.php. Great Depression Soup Line Photo. Getty Images. http://www.gettyimages.com/Home.aspx.Janzen, Heidi. Integrating Writing into the Mathematics Classrooms. Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. 2000-2005.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/teachingtoday/subject/int_writing_math.phtmlKinsella, Kate. Structuring Accountable Learning and Academic Interaction for ALL Students in English

Language Arts. Workshop. September 2009.Multiple Intelligences. Birmingham City Council. 2002 – 2010.

http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/what.cfm. Tate, Marcia. Shouting Won’t Grow Dendrites. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, 2007.Writing to Learn Science and Mathematics. Comets Workshops.

http://www.rit.edu/ntid/msse/pages/workshops/writingtolearnwkshop.html#why. Zwiers, Jeff. Building Academic Language. San Francisco: Josssey-Bass, 2008.

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