Anglo- Saxon History and Old English Language and Literature

(Pre- History- 1066 AD)1. Pre- Roman/ Pre- Historical up to 55 BC2. Roman Occupation 55 BC- 410 AD3. Anglo- Saxon Period 140 AD- 787 AD4. Viking Invasions 787 AD- 1066 AD5. Norman Conquest begins in 1066- William the Conqueror

1. Pre- Roman/ Pre- Historical up to 55 BC- The Island we know as England was occupied by a race of people called the Celts. One of the tribes was called Brythons or Britons (where we get the term Britain)- The Celts were Pagans and their religion was known as animism, a Latin word for “ spirit”. Celts saw spirits everywhere.- Druids were their Priests, their role was to go between the gods and the people.

2. Roman occupation- it started in 55 BC by Julius Caesar- was completed in 1st century by Claudius- Hadrian`s wall was built about 122 AD- Romans leave in 410 AD, because Visigots attacked Rome- St. Augustine was a monk, lands in Kent in 597 and converts King Aethelbert to Christianity; becomes first Archbishop of Canterbury

Cultural and Historical Results of Roman Occupation- MILITARY

- strong legions- armed forces- pushed Celts into Wales and Ireland- prevented Vikings from raiding for several years- INFRASTRUCTURE

- 1st Government (fell apart when they left)- roads, walls, public baths ( some remains still exist)- RELIGION

- Christianity beginning to take hold, especially after St. Augustine converts King Aethelbert- Latin heavily influenced the E language- thanks to military- relative peace- Christianity- begins to take hold in E (didn`t fully displaced Paganism for several hundred years.)

3. Anglo- Saxon Period 410 AD- 787 AD- tribes came from Scandinavia and Germany- 410- 450 Angles & Saxons invade from Baltic shores & Germany, and the Jutes invade from the Jutland peninsula in Denmark.- 7 Anglo- Saxon kingdoms eventually became the Anglo- Saxon heptarchy ( England was not unified) or “ Seven Sovereign Kingdoms”)

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Anglo- Saxon Heptarchy= Seven Sovereign Kingdoms

1. Kent 5. Northumbria2. Essex 6. Mercia3. Sussex 7. Wessex

4. East Anglia

4. Viking Invasions 787 AD- 1066 AD- Vikings were sea- faring ( explorers, traders, warriors) Scandinavians during the 8th- 11th century- Vikings were Scandinavian invaders as Jutes & Anglo- Saxons were. They were called “ Northmen” which is related to yet another culture ( French) which made conquest of E- the Normans, William the Conqueror in 1066- However, when Vikings raids began around 787, the A- Saxons were different culturally from Vikings. Exept for the Celts* and Romans, all of the cultures who successfully invaded E in 1st millennium were from Northern Europe at one time or another.The angles, Saxons, Frisians, and Jutes were from the Baltic region and the Normans (1066) were primarily from Normandy and had originally been from Norway.* the Celts were considered as natives in the times of Roman occupation and Norman conquest.

Results of Viking invasions- POLITICALLY & CULTURALLY

- continued political instability and conflicts (tribal war), there was no central government or church- the A- Saxon code

- LINGUISTICALLY-- the E language is born during the 1st millennium Old English- OE is mainly Germanic in grammar and lexicon- there were lots of dialects- Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes, Danes, Swedes

Alfred the Great- one of the 1st A- Saxon kings to push Vikings back, to begin consolidating power, unifying of the separate A- Saxon kingdoms.

5. Norman Invasion from 1066 AD- in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings, the Normans defeated the E and started a centuries- long conquest of England- effects:

- French becomes an official language of politics & power, had an enormous effect on OE- England begins unifying under French political system, much of which is still with us today

Old History of English language- OE dates from approximately 400- 1066- Middle English- ME1066- 1485- they are quite different to the eye and ear. OE is nearly impossible to read or understand without studying it much like and English speaker today would study French, Latin or Chinese.

English language is a combination of:- Celtic C- 55 BC

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- Latin 55 BC- 410 AD- German 410 AD- 1066 AD- French 1066 AD- 1485 AD -OE & ME- very difficult language, but one perfect for limitless and beautiful expression

Earliest Times

The Island- Britain has a milder climate, European is mainland- there are differences in climate between N & S, E & W- the N is about 5 °C cooler than S- E & W are mountainous & hilly- S & E has agricultural conditions- Britain is island and B history has been connected with the sea

Britain`s Prehistory- B has not always been an island, it became one only after the end of the last Ice Age- 1st evidence of human life is a few stone tools, dating from one of the warmer periods, 250 000 BC; 2 different kinds of inhabitants = 2 different kinds of tools:

- Earlier group- tools from flakes of flint- Other group- tools from a central core of flint

- around 5 000 BC- B became an island- about 3 000 BC- 1st people crossed the sea from Europe- small boats. These people kept animals and grew corn crops.- they probably came from Iberia- Spanish peninsula or the N African coast- settled W parts of Britain & Ireland- Great barrows made of earth or stone- found on the chalk uplands of S Britain- these parts became overfarmed while by 1 400 BC climate became drier. After 3 000 BC the chalkland people start building great circles of earth banks and ditches. Inside- wooden buildings. These “henges” were centres of political, religious and economic power.- the most spectacular was Stonehenge- built in separate stages over a period of more than 1 000 years.

STONEHENGE- was recognized over a very large area, probably over the all B islands (isles) and was sort of capital, to which the chiefs of other groups came from all over B. Earth or stone “henges” were built over all B.- about 1 300 BC- new forming of society- a settled farming class- farming society developed in order to feed people at the henges it became more important and powerful as it grew richer

The Celts- 700 BC- began to arrive from central Eu and Russia. They were technically advanced and good at farming.- they are ancestors of many B people- Celtic language is still spoken- they traded across tribal borders; their priests- Druids- were important in their tribes- they could not read or write-the most powerful leader- Celts to stand up to the Roman was a woman- Boadicea- the civitas- included Celtic tribal capitals- places of administration of Romans- they controlled Celtic population on countryside through them

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The Romans- they brought the skills of reading and writing to B- they invaded B because Celts started to fight against them- a number of town dwellers spoke Latin and Greek*- they established Romano- British culture across the Southern half of B- they couldn`t conquer Caledonia, Scotland- they built Hadrian`s wall along N borders to protect themselves- the occupation is over in 5th century * this language disappeared when A- Saxons invaded B in 5th century

Roman Life- the coloniae- towns peopled by roman settlers- the municipia- large cities in which the whole population was given Roman citizenship

- the civitas- included the old Celtic tribal capitals- Romans built roads, some buildings had a central heating

The Saxon invasionThe Invaders- after 430 AD- Germanic tribes began to settle- the newcomers were come from 3 powerful tribes- Saxons, Jutes, Angles- were warlike and illiterate- Jutes Kent, S coast- Angles E, N Midlands- Saxons between them- some Celts were driven into mountains in the far W Wales called by Saxons; some to the Cornwall; some to the lowlands Scotland- many Celts became slaves of the SaxonsCeltic culture left the names of rivers & cities- London, Leeds

Government & Society- King` s Council- called Witan- was a formal body, issuing laws and charters. It was not at all democratic and the king could decided to ignore the Witan` s advice but his own authority without their support was in danger. - Saxons- divided the land into new administrative areas- shires, counties- the land was divided into 2 or 3 very large fields. These were then divided into long thin stripes, Each family had a number of stripes. It was made to make the best use of village land. A- Saxons changed the shape of E agriculture.

Christianity- the partnership of church & state- in 597 monk Augustine was sent to re- establish Christianity in E- Celtic churches brought the Christianity to ordinary people- church established the monasteries or minsters for ex. Westminister, which was places of learning and education and this gave the power to hand of those who could read & write- A- Saxon England- known exporter of- cheese, woolen goods, hunting dogs, pottery, metal goods.

The Vikings- they arrived at the end of the 8th century from Norwy, Sweden & Denmark- They accepted Christianity and didn` t disturb local population- King Alfred make a treaty with them- Wessex

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- Alfred won a decisive battle & 8 years later he captured London Who should be Vikings- Cnut- leader of the Danish vikings, became king. When he died, after him the Edward was chosen to be a king.- Edward, known as “the Confessor”- encouraged the church building- after Edward death- who should be king? The Witan- a royal council- chose a Harold.

- was a problem with a Harold, because there was a Duke William of Normandy:1. king Edward had promised a crown to him2. Harold himself was not interested in to be king

- Danish Vikings wanted king from their tribe in 1066 Harold had to march to defeat the Danes- after this William landed in E with his army Harold was defeated and killed in the battle near Hastings, Norman William the Conqueror won- William marched to London, was crowned king of England in Westminister Abby on Christmas Day in 1066

The Early Middle Ages

Conquest and Feudual Rule Norman Conquest- Norman guards at Westminister Abbey attacked William the Con. and the coronation ended in mass- by 1086 there were only 2 Saxon greater landlors and 2 saxon bishops- his army included Normans and other French land seekers

Feudalism- William gave parts of England as a reward to his captains- half of the Norman nobles, a quarter to the Church, and kept a fifth himself- England had one powerful family instead of a large number of powerful nobles- feudalism comes from the French word feu-basis of the feudual society was holding of land, main purpose- economic- land was owned by a king but it was held by others- vassals- the greater nobles gave part of their land to leader nobles, knight and other freemens- the nobles had to give a part of the produce of the land to a king- man had to promis loyality and service to his lord- this was called homage- when a noble died, his son usually took over his estate- if he was a child, the king would take the produce of the estate until the boy was old enough- the king could benefit from the death of a noble- he wanted to know exactly who owned which piece of land to be able to plan his economy

Kingship: a Family Business- William the Conqueror was king of the E with no lord above him, but duke of Normandy and had to recognize the King of France as his lord- had 5 descendants- he died in 1087, he left Normandy to Robert and England to William II. Robert went to fight Muslims in the Holy Land and left William II. in charge of Normandy- William II died in 1100, had no descendants. Henry, son of William the Conqueror too, was crowned 3 days later. Robert wanted invasion- finally it was proved as a failure. Henry invaded Normandy in 1106, captured Robert- Normandy and England reunited under one crown

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- another struggle for crown between Matilda- Henry; s daughter and Henry` s nephew Stephen of Blois. Stephen claims the crown- Nobles chose him.- civil war between Matilda & Steven led to agreement that Stephen could keep the throne, but only if Matilda; s son could succeed him.

- Henry II- the first unquestioned ruler of English throne. He died in 1189 defeated by his sons and French king.

- Richard I Lionheart went to 3rd Crusade with Filip II French king-Richard was followed by his greedy brother John, unpopular with the nobles, the merchants and the church- 1209 King John quarrelled with the pope John gave in and accepted pope`s choice of archbishop- in 1215 nobility and merchants marched to London, at Runnymede and John was forced to sign a new agreement, which limited his power The Great Charter (Magna Carta)

Magna Carta and the Decline of Feudalism- symbol of political freedom. The king promised freemen protection from officiers and right to a fair and legal trial- the main aim- to make sure that the king John did not go beyond his rights as feudal lord- consequences:

- Magna Carts marks collapse of English feudalism- nobles were acting as vassals but as a class (at Runnymede) established a comittee of 24 lords

- vassals beginning to change into tenants- feudalism begins to weaken

The power of the kings in EnglandChurch and the State- 1066 the beginning of the struggle between Church and State- 1. quarrel between William Rufus and Anselm Archbishop of Canterbury. After William` s death Anselm refused to do homage to William` s successor Henry I- finally the king agreed that only the Church could create bishops-2. quarrel in 1162 Henry II `s friend Thomas Becket was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry hoped that Thomas would help him bring the Curch more under the control, Becket refused. Henry went to Canterbury to murder Becket- Becket the Martyr

The Beginning Of Parliament- come from French discussion meeting- king John signed Magna Carta unwillingly. The nobles rebelled and pushed John out- John` s son, Henry III wanted to be completely independent of the people who had controlled his life- Henry upset the nobles under the leadership of Simon de Montford. In 1258 they took over government and elected a council of nobles- the quarrel between the king and the idea of parliament finally Henry defeated and killed Simon de Montford in 1265. Henry died in 1272- his son Edward took the throne.- Edward I had been able to make statutes, or written laws and had been able to make political decisions. The king could only raise the rest by taxation

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- Edward I was the 1st to create a “representative institution” which could provide then money he needed. This institution became the House of Commons. Unlike the House of Lords it contained a mixture of “gentry” and merchants from the towns- the co- operation of these groups, through the House of Commons, became important to Britain` s later political and social developement

Dealing With CeltsWales- William I had allowed his lords to win lands by conquest in Wales 12th century much of Wales was held by them- in 1284 Edward united west Wales with England, bringing the English county system- Edward I made his own baby son ( later Edward II) Prince of Wales from that time the eldest of the ruling king or queen has usually been made Prince of Wales

Ireland- Ireland had been conquered by Norman lords in 1169- Henry II made Dublin, the old Viking town, the capital of his new colony; much of western Ireland remained in the hands of Irish chiefs, while Norman lords governed most of the east- they quietly avoided English authority as much as possible

Scotland- by the 11th century there was 1 kingdom of Scots, and he ruled over the S & E of Scotland + areas of the W coast later- in 1209 a crisis took place over the succession to the Scottish throne- the most likely to succeed were John de Baliol and Robert Bruce, Edward I invited to settle the matter- Edward invaded Scotland and put John de Baliol on the Scottish throne; Edward stole the sacred Stone of Destiny from Scone Abbey on which, so the legend said, all Scottish kings must sit- he believed, that if he sat on that throne, Scottish would accept him as a king

Edward` s treatment of the Scots created a popular resistance movement1. William Wallace- his “people; s army” was itself destroyed by Edward in 12972. Robert Bruce- was able to raise his army an defeat he English army in Scotland- Edward died on the way north in 1307 and his son turned back to England- Bruce was accepted as king of Scots

The Growth of Government- William the Conqueror had governed E and Normandy by travelling from one place to another to make sure that his authority was accepted- English kings sent nobles and knights to act as sheriffs, but even this system needed people who could administer taxation, justice and carry out the king` s instructions- at first this “administration” was based in Winchester, in 1209 moved to Westminister ( still there today)- important changes in taxation between 1066 and 1300- the administration began to grow very quickly

Law and Justice- the king was responsible for law and justice

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- Norman laws mixed with the old Saxon laws- King` s judges had no special knowledge or training. Quality of the judges depended on the choice of the king- England was unlike the rest of Eu because it used common law- in other parts of Eu legal practice was based on the Civil Law of the Roman Empire, and the Canon law of the Curch

Religious beliefs- priests was one of the community. His church belonged to the local lord, and was often built next to the lord` s haouse- the Church also tried to prevent priests from marrying. This was true of those who wanted to be nuns or monks- in 13th century brought a new movement, the “brotherhoods” of friars

Ordinary people in Counry and Town- in 1066- population- 1,5- 2 million, in the countryside, in S & E parts of England- the poor- divided by the feudal class system- “manorial system”- the exchange of land for labour, ¾ of country people were serfs- 1300- population- 4 million- harder to grow food for everyone- poverty, hunger- rise in price, inflation- weakened feudal ties- Jewish community- lended money, lived under royal protection- knights- in debt to Jewish money lenders- Edward I- wanted the support of the knightly class- 1290- the Jews- forced to leave the country

Robin Hood- lived in Sherwood Forest near Nottingham- criminal- robbed the rich ones and gave it to the poor ones.

Language, Literature and Culture- connected with the 12th -century Renaissance- new schools- in many towns. All of them taught Latin.12th century- 2 schools of higher learning- Oxford, Cambrige

The Late Middle Ages

Century of war, plague and disorder- 14th century- disastrous for Britain and Europe wars and plagues- Britain & France- long struggle against the French crown- Ireland and Wales were trying to throw off English rule- political strength of merchants and gentry grew stronger- alliance between merchants and gentry- important for later political development- armed men and nobles were able ability to challenge the authority of the Crown- many killed kings

War with Scotland and France-England`s wish to control Scotland suffered a major setback at Bannockburn in 1314- Scots looked for allies- they turned to the king of France- “Auld (old) Alliance” lasted into 16th century- The king of France began to interfere with England`s trade-The Duke of Burgundy- refused to recognize the overlordship of French kings

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- 1324- The French king seized parts of Gascony- it traded fine wines for Englands corn and woollen cloth- Burgundy was Englands major trading partner (Burgundy- province of Flanders)- England threatened Burgundy with economic collapse by stopping wool exports to Flanders. The Duke of Burgundy was forced to make an alliance with England against France.- Edward III. declared war on France in 1337- Hundred years war (1337-1453)- England lost possessions in France- struggle between English and French continued into the 15th century

The age of Chivalry- Edward III and his eldest son the Black Prince- symbols of the Code of chivalry- - legend of King Arthur and Round Table- Perfect knight serves God and king and defends lady in need- The Order of the Garter- “Honi soit qui mal y pense”- Let him be ashamed who sees wrong in it- motto of the Royal family

The Century of plagues- Terrible plague- Black Death in years 1348-9, one third of Britain`s population died- Villages disappeared, land was overused, other plagues killed animals, earlier in the century- Its influence on economy- lack of people to work on fields, they could ask for more money, end of serfdom- A new class of farmers “yeomen”- small farmers who rented the manorial lands- Peasants life became more comfortable, new houses were built- big economic changes during the 14th century, the replacement of wool by finished cloth as England main export- Flemish cloth industry collapsed, thousands of people go to Britain to find work- the richets towns were: London, Wales, Yorkshire- Londons nearest trade rival was Bristol

The poor in revolt- Edward III-expensive king, expensive wars against France and Scotland- His grandson Richard II became king in 1377, he inherited the problems of discontent, he had diplomatic skills- Tax, in 1381 the tax increased to three times the previous amount, there was revolt in East Anglia and in Kent, 2 of the richer part of the country- New tax led to revolt.- the leader of the revolt was Wat Tyler, the Peasants Revolt- only lasted for four weeks- the king promised the end of the serfdom, WT was killed- as soon as the rebellion was over, Richard`s position changed, the danger of revolt by the angry poor was a warning to the king

Heresy (kacírstvo) and orthodoxy- In 1381 one rebel priest had called for the removal of all bishops and archbishops as well as all the nobles- The greed of the Church was one obvious reason for its unpopularity- There was another reason why the people of England dislike paying taxes to pope- The peasants stormed London in 1381, they executed the Archbishop of Canterbury- Another threat to the Church during the 14th cent was the spread of religious writings- This heresy was known as “Lollardy” came from Latin word meaning “ to say prayers”

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- One of the leaders of Lollardy was John Wycliffe, an Oxford professor- he translated the Bible from Latin in 1396, he was not allowed to publish his new Bible in England, and was forced to leave Oxford

The crisis of kingship- There were many kings in the late middle ages:

Edward II was murdered, and his son Edward III became a king Richard II was also killed, didn`t have any children- Henry IV- established royal authority Henry V- Henry VI Edward IV- Richard III Henry Tudor

- The first crisis in 1327- Edward II- deposed and murdered- Richard II- the second king who was killed- 2 possible heirs- 7- years old grandson of Edward III`s second son; Henry of Lancaster, son of John Gaunt- Henry IV as the king Wales in revolt- Edward I as a conqueror Wales in 1280s- Many Welsh were forced to join the English army- Owain Glyndwr rebelled against the English king- idea of Welsh nation- National war created feeling of national identity

The struggle in France- During the Hundred Years War- After death of Henry IV- the king Henry V, his son- a favourite king - He began fighting with France again- The war with France began again in 1415- Henry married Catharine of Valois- French kings daughter, he died- his son Henry VI become the king- The English army was twice defeated- Joan of Arc, by the Church burnt as a witch in 1431- War was over in 1453

The Wars of the roses- The nobility were divided between “Lancastrians” with Henry VI and “Yorkists” with the Duke of York- After the death of the Duke of York, his son Edward IV won the throne in 1461- After death of Edward IV, his sons were put in Tower by Richard III - new king, both prices were murdered, Richards guilt was never proved- Henry Tudor, claims the throne- “Wars of the Roses”- York`s symbol was a white rose and Lancaster`s a red one

SCOTLAND

- Scotland suffered from repeated wars many of the disasters that affected England at this time- Scotland paid heavily for its “ Auld Alliance” with France because Scotland supported France

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The Hunderd Years Warm England renewed its claim to overlordship of Scotland, and Edward IVs army occupied Edinburg in 1482

- From 1399 the Scots demanded that a parliament should meet once a year, and kings often gathered together leading citizens to discuss matters of government

- The connection with France helped develop education in Scotland. Following the example of Paris, universities were founded in Scotland at St. Andrews in 1412, Glasgow in 1451 and at Aberdeen in 1495.

The condition of women- There were 2 different ideas about women- the women should be pure and holy like the Virgin Mary - women like Eve sinful and moral danger to men- The most important thing was to marry. It couldn`t be the decision of the couple, but the family made a decision- First thing, what the women had to do was to give a child to the men, mostly sons- Position of women improved in case her husband died. Then she took control of the money.- Women might have to merry again, but there was one condition- men wanted their land. For women it was hard to look after it alone.

Language and Culture- “Mystery plays”- were performed at important religious festivals. They were very popular form of culture.- After the old Anglo- Saxon language continued to be spoken by ordinary people, on the other side, it was no longer written- Middle English was the language of the 14th and 15th century and was totally different from Anglo- Saxon- There were 2 writers who helped the rebirth of English literature- William Langland, Geoffrey Chaucer- Education developed enormously during the 15th century. The powerful men founded many schools. Winchester school and New College Oxford!- the middle ages ended with a major technical development:- William Caxton`s first English printing press

The Tudors 1485- 1603

Tudor rule- most glorious in E history:- Henry VII built the foundations of powerful monarchy- Henry VIII- kept a magnificent court by breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church - Elizabeth defeated the powerful navy of Spain

- less glorious view of the Tudor century:- Henry VIII wasted the wealth saved by his father.- Elizabeth sold the official posts- The laws and actions of her government were often cruel in effect.

The New Monarchy- Henry VII- during the Wars of the Roses, England`s trading position had been badly damaged- German Hanseatic League (confederation of merchant guilds along the coast of Northern Europe) had destroyed English trade with the Baltic and northern Europe

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- only a new year after his victory at Bosworth 1485, Henry VII made an important trade agreement with the Netherlands wich allowed E trade to grow again- He forbade anyone, except himself, to keep armed men- Henry used the “ Court of Star Chamber”, traditionally teh king`s council chamber, to deal with lawless nobles- He raised the taxes for wars which he then did not fight. He never spent money unless he had to.- He died in 1509 and left behind the huge total s million pounds, about 15 years` worth of income- He spent money mostly on the building ships for a merchant fleet.

Henry VIII- was cruel, wasteful with money, and interested in pleasing himself.- The carefully saved money of Henry VII was soon gone.- He reduced the amount of silver used in coins- It was a damaging policy- He dissolved monasteries in order to fill up the state budget.

The Reformation- The Church was a huge landowner. In fact the monasteries were unpopular because many monks no longer led a good religious life but lived in wealth and comfort

- In 1510 Henry had married Catherine of Aragon. But by 1526 she had still not had a son who survived infancy and was now unlikely to do so.- Henry tried to persuade the pope to allow him to divorce Catherine. Henry`s chief minister, Cardinal Wolsey hoped that his skills, and his important position in the Church, would be successful in persuading then pope. But the pope was controlled by Charles V, Spanish king- Catherine`s nephew. The pope forbad Henry`s divorce.

- Cardinal Wolsey only escaped execution by dying of natural causes on his way to king`s court. In 1531 Henry persuaded the bishop to make him head of the Church in England, and this became law after Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy in 1534.- Henry was now free to divorce Catherine and marry his new love, Anne Boleyn. He hoped Anne would give him a son to follow him on throne.- Henry wanted to control the Church and to keep its wealth in his own kingdom. He did not approve of the new ideas of Reformation Protestantism introduced by Martin Luther in Germany and John Calvin in Geneva. He believed in the Catholic faith. - The pope had rewarded Henry with the title Fidei Defensor- Defender of the Faith.- Wolsey`s place as the king`s chief minister was taken by one of his assistants, Thomas Cromwell. - Between 1536 and 1539 Henry and Cromwell closed 560 monasteries and other religious houses. Henry gave or sold much of the monasteries` lands to merchants. The monks and nuns were thrown out. Many were unable to find work and became wandering beggars.- Henry died in 1547 leaving behind his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, and his 3 children. Mary, the eldest, was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon. Elizabeth was the daughter of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, whom had executed because she was unfaithful. Nine- year- old Edward was the son of Jane Seymour, the only wife whom Henry had really loved, but who had died giving birth to his only son.

Henry and his wives1. Catherine of Aragon- divorced2. Anne Boleyn- executed

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3. Jane Seymour- died4. Anne of Cleves- divorced5. Kathryn Howard- executed6. Katherine Parr- widowed

The Protestant- Catholic struggle- Edward VI, Henry VIII`s son, was only a child when he became king, so the county was ruled by the council. All the members of this council were from the new nobility created by the Tudors. They were keen Protestant reformers because they had benefited from the sale of monastery lands.- In 1552 a new prayer book was introduced to make sure that all churches followed the new Protestant religion. Most people were not happy with the new religion. they had been glad to see the end of some of the Church`s bad practices like the selling of pardons for forgiveness of sin. But they did not like the changes in belief. - Mary, the Catholic daughter of Catherine of aragon, became queen when 16 aged Edward died in 1553. a group of nobles tried to put Lady Jane Grey, a Protestant, on the throne. But Mary succeded in entering London and took control of the kingdom.- However, Mary was unvise and unbending in her policy and beliefs. She was the first queen of E since Matilda, 400 years earlier.- If Mary married an Englishman she would be under the control of man of lesse importance. If she married foreigner it might place E under foreign control. - she chose King Philip of Spain- unfortunate choice. Ordinary people- did not like it. Mary asked the parliament for its opinion about her marriage plan. Parliament unwillingly agreed and it only accepted Philip as king of E for Mary`s lifetime.- Mary`s marriage was her 1st mistake of her unfortunate reign. She then began burning Protestants. 300 people died during her 5 year reign.- Elizabeth, Mary`s half- sister, became queen when Mary died in 1558. She wanted to find peaceful answer to the E Reformation. She wanted to put together those parts of society which were in religious disagreement. Elizabeth made sure that the Church was still under her authority. She made the Church part of the state machine.- The struggles continued to endanger Elizabeth`s position for the next 30 years. Both Spain and France were Catholic.- Kings of both of these countries wanted to marry Elizabeth and so join E to their own country.- The pope would persuaded Catholic countries to attack E because of the Protestant Queen. There was also danger from Catholic nobles in E, they wanted to replace her with the Catholic queen of Scotland, Mary. She was the heir to the E throne because she was Elizabeth`s closest living relative, and because Elizabeth had not married.- in 1587 Mary was executed, because Mary had named Philip as her heir to the throne of E, and because with this claim Philip of Spain has decided to invade E. Many people believed that to be a Catholic is to be an enemy of England.

Trade- E ships were attacking Spanish ships as they returned from America loaded with silver and gold.- Elizabeth apologized to Spain but kept her share of what had been taken from Spanish ships. Philip knew quite well that Elizabeth was encouraging the “sea dogs” as they were known- John Hawkins, Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher, but there were many others who were also trying to built E sea trade and to interrupt Spain`s. - Philip decided to attack E in 1587- he hoped that enough Catholics in E would be willing to help him. Philip`s large army was already in the Netherlands, where he wanted to defeat rebelling Dutchs. He built a great fleet of ships, an “Armada”, to move his army across the English Channel from the Netherlands. But in 1587 Francis Drake attacked and destroyed part of this fleet in Cadiz Harbour.

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- The Spanish Armada was defeated more by bad weather than by English guns. Some Spanish ships sunk, but most were blown northwards by the wind. For E it was a glorious moment. Peace was only made with Spain once Elizabeth was dead.

- The first E colonists sailed to America towards the end of the century. One of the best known was Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought tobacco back to England.- John Hawkins carried his first slave cargo in 1562. By 1650 slavery had become an important part of trade.- During Elizabeth`s reign more “chartered” companies, as they were known were established. A “charter” gave a company the right to all the business in the particular trade or region.- The Eastland Company- Scandinavia, Baltic- The Levant Company- Ottoman Empire- The Africa company- slaves- The East India Company- India- spices

The Stuarts 1603- 1714

Crown and Parliament- Stuarts less successful then the Tudors- Quarrelled with Parliament civil war- In the end Britain= “parliamentary monarchy”

Basic Changes in Society - 17th cent. economic power moved into the hands of merchants and landowning classes- Crown could not rise money or govern without their cooperation- These groups represented by “House of Commons”

Parliament against the CrownElizabeth:- 1601 commons angry over Elizabeth`s policy of selling monopolies- Parliament did not demand on any changes

James I:- believe in the “divine right” of kings ( king chosen by God= only God could juidge him)- Preferred ruling with the small council- When Elizabeth died, she left a debt- Parliament insisted to discuss James` home and foreign policy in return for raising a tax (James refused)- He appointed Sir Edward Coke as “chief justice”His decisions:

- limited kings power- king was not above law- king and his council not to make new law

- Edward Coke was removed from this position, but he continued to make trouble- He reminded Parliament of Magna Carta, interpreted it as a great charter of English freedom- This was not really true, but politically useful information for Parliament-1611- 1621- James`s successful rule without Parliament- Based on the peace, could not afford the cost of an army

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- 1618 beginning of “Thirty years war”- parliament wanted to go to war against Catholics- James refused- Until his death James kept quarrelling with Parliament

Charles I:- More quarrelling with the Commons- Charles dissolved Parliament- He quarrelled with Parliament everytime it was recalled- He raised money without Parliament ( borrowing money from merchants, bankers and landowning trade)1628- Petition of Rights= Charles badly needed money so in return he promised to the Parliament that he would only raise money by “Act of Parliament” and would not imprison anyone without lawful reason- To prevent the use of petition Charles dissolved parliamentCharles successfully ruled without the Parliament:- He god rid of much dishonesty- Balanced his budgets- Made administration efficient- In 1637 was Charles at the height of his power, it seemed that Parliament might never meet again

Religious disagreement- Anglican Church and bishop as a head of the English Church was supported by James I, later by Charles I- Presbyterian Kirk (Church) in Scotland with no bishop had political and religious power to the literate classes in Scotland= the reason why James did not support Puritans, who wanted democratic church- During James I` s reign, Catholics tried to blow up Houses of Parliament with king inside- 5 November. This day is celebrated as the Guy Fawkes Day

Bishops war 1639- 1640

- Charles disliked Puritans, he married a French Catholic and he appointed William Laud (enemy of the Puritans) as Archbishop of Canterbury- Archbishop Laud tried to apply the English Church in Scotland, but it lead to national resistance, which ended up in Bishops war- Charles knew his army was unlike to win against the Scots without help of the Parliament, so he agreed to respect Scottish political and religious freedom and paid them to return home- Charles was made rule under parliamentary control after 11years of absolute rule by signing Triennial Act (Parliament had to meet at least once every three years)

Civil War- James and Elizabeth colonised Ulster (north of Ireland) and replaced Catholic Irish with Scottish and English Protestants- In 1641 Ireland exploded in rebellion and 3000 people were killed- Charles and Parliament quarrelled over control of rebels- In 1642 Charles tried to arrest five MP`s (members of parliament) – unsuccessfully, king was forced to move to Nottingham, where he gathered an army to defeat Parliament- Civil war began- The Royalists known as “Cavaliers” against “Roundheads”- Parliamentarian soldiers- Parliament controlled the most important sources of wealth- The Royalist army was finally defeated at Naseby in 1645

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What about King Charles I?- in 1645 the Royalist army was defeated- Oliver Cromwell captured the king, but Charles still encouraged rebellion against Parliament even after he had been in prison- rebellion was defeated and Parliament army wanted king`s death for treason - Charles I was executed on 31 January 1649

Britain as Republic- a republic was declared, known as the Commonwealth of England from 1649- 1660- Cromwell got rid of The House of Lords and The Anglican Church- Cromwell took control of Parliament, formed Rump Parliament- parliament left over from the actual legitimate parliamenat- Cromwell conquered Scotland and Ireland

Oliver Cromwell- born in 1599- the Lord Protector from 1653- 1658- created a new model of army- Navigation Acts 1651- series of laws that restricted the use of foreign shipping for trade between England and its colonies- suffered from malaria and other kidney infections, he died in 1658

Navigation Acts 1651- were a series of laws- only British ships could transport imported and exported goods from the colonies- the Acts were originally aimed at excluding the Dutch from the profits made by English trade

Again, disagreement...- between army and Parliament- resulted in dissolution of Parliament- group called Levellers wanted equality among all men, also wanted fot men over 21 years to have right to elect MP`s, religious freedom- Levellers rebelled, but were defeated

Lord Protector- Cromwell became Lord Protector on 16 December 1653- he had greater powers then King Charles I had had- very unpopular- governed country through army

Lord Protector is dead!- He was buried with great ceremony- In 1661, Oliver Cromwell`s body was exhumed from Westminister Abby, and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution- Afterwards the head changed hands several times, before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge

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The Protectorate?- Collapsed after Cromwell`s death in 1658- In 1660 Charles II returned to his kingdom- Charles II was careful to make peace with Parliament- Parliament itself remained generally weak- Charles II- his reign was carefree and relaxed

Catholicism, The Crown and the constitutional monarchy- Charles II wanted peace between the different religious groups, including Puritans and Catholics. Anglican Parliament against it.- Possibility of Charles becoming a Catholic the Test Act in 1673- law which has been valid to nowadays- no Catholic can hold public office. This also led to formation of first political parties in Britain.

Political parties in Britain-Whigs and Tories ( groups of MP`s) became the basis of Britain`s two- party parliamentary system of government.Whigs- afraid of absolute monarchy and Catholics- believed in religious freedom- Authority of the Crown depends upon the consent of Parliament- were Against Charles`s Catholic brother James inheriting the crownTories- opposed the Whigs - upheld the authority of the Crown and the Church- natural inheritors of the “Royalist” position

James II-After hearing fake news of Catholic plot to murder Charles and put James on throne Parliament passed an Act forbidding any Catholic to be member of either the Commons or the Lords, but it still couldn`t prevent James from inheriting the Crown.- Became king after his brother`s death in 1685 - tried to:

- remove the laws preventing Catholics from holding public office- bring back Catholic Church, and allow it to exist beside the Anglican Church- bring together the Catholics and the Puritans (usually called as “Nonconformists”)

William of Orange- after James`s son was born in 1688 Tories, Whigs and Anglicans stopped waiting for James`s daughter Mary`s succession. They invited her husband, the Protestant ruler of Holland, William of Orange, to invade Britain.- William entered the London, but the crown was offered only to Mary. When he said he would leave Britain unless he also became a king, Parliament offered the crown to them both. Popular histories usually refer to their joint reign as that “William and Mary”

Theories of government and power- James II had fled from England Parliament had decided that he had lost his right to the crown because he had tried to undermine “the constitution of the kingdom by braking the original contract between King and People”- based on theories about the nature of government

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- 1680`s- Algeron Sidney and John Locke- Theory: government based on the consent of the people, the powers of the king must be strictly limited, the Parliament should have more power than the king- 1688- these theories were fulfilled

The glorious revolution- (1688)- Parliament made William king, not by inheritance but by their choice- Parliament now more powerful than the king

Bill of rights- (1689)- definitely established the measure of Parliament`s power over the monarch

The Act of Settlement-( 1701)-only a protestant could inherit the crown- remained in force ever since, even now a Catholic cannot inherit the throne

Life and Thought- influenced also religion and science- Everything in the universe had a natural explanation- Britain- leading European power

Revolution in religion- the influence of Puritanism increased- New translation of Bible- Formation of new small religious groups or “sects”- Two important: Quakers and Baptists- Waves of emigrants and immigrants

Revolution in scientific thinking- many new discoveries- Francis Bacon- every scientific idea must be tested by experiment- Founded the royal society

Life and work in the Stuart age- the situation improved in the second half of the seventeenth century- by the middle century the government had already begun to control the trade- waterways became important for transport- by 1690 most towns had proper shops, towns with shops are larger than villages- traffic jams were as bad as today- new class of rich- aristocrats, after 1650 the rich began to meet in new coffeehouses- some old nobility did not accept the new rich as equals- ordinary people visited drinking houses, called “alehouses”

Family life- increase in population during the Tudor`s--- fall during th Stuart age

- the people married later- more men remained unmarried

- Power of the monarch more absolute- authority of husband increased- responsibility on the head of family- frequent beating of children

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- protestant religion- new importance to the individual- women stand up- many Scottish women died for their beliefs- greater education, religious democracy in Scotland

The 18 th century

Politics and finance- in 1714, Parliament chose the German- speaking elector of Hanover who was crowned as George I.- Sir Robert Walpole- George`s minister, considered as Britain`s first Prime Minister- developed the idea of Cabinet- in 1728 Daniel Defoe wrote:” Trade is the wealth of the world. Trade makes the difference between rich and poor, between one nation and another.”- The navy controlled Britain`s trade routes and endangered those of its enemies- For the rest of the century Britain`s international trade increased rapidly.

George III- wanted to take a more active part in governing Britain- wished to be free to choose his own ministers- The right to vote was based on ownership of land- As a result from almost million were only 250 000 voters

Parliament- not democratic!!!- Most ordinary landowners also held land as tenants from the greater landowners- Voting was not done in secret- No tenant would vote against wishes of his landlord- Aristocrats were able to control those who sat in Parliament

John Wilkes- was a Whig- did not like the new government of George III- he believed- free speech was the basic right of every individual

Newspapers in their turn increased the amount of political discussion.

Vilkes`s victory- he had shown that Parliament did not represent ordinary people- their individual freedom was not assured- the age of public opinion had arrived

Radicalism and the loss of the American colonies- quarrel over taxation- “Teaparty” in Boston- all cargo of tea had been thrown to the sea because of high taxations- the American War of Independence had begun 1775- 1783- “radicals” Edmund Burke and Tom Paine

Ireland- the protestant parliament passed laws to prevent the Catholics from taking any part in national life- new laws were passed which divided Catholic families- Protestant formed “Orange Lodgges”

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- Ireland was united with Britain in 1801

Scotland- “Jacobite” revolt to win back the throne from Stuarts- Bonny Prince Charlie`s army defeated an English army- the rebellion was finished- the English army behaved with cruelty

Town life- the population in England and Wales in

- 1700 was: 5,5 million- 1750 was: 8,8 million; including Ireland and Scotland, the population was 13 million

- in 1700 England was still a land of small villages, but by the middle of the century were some large cities: Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, Leeds- all the towns smelled bad. people leaving in the streets the rubbish and the streets were muddy and narrow. The towns were centres of diseases. Poor people found comfort in drinking alcohol and in trying to win money from card games.- during the 18th centuries, streets were built wider, so that carriages drawn by horses could pass each other. From 1734, London had a street lighting system. Each house owner had to pay a local tax.- Soon London and the other towns were so clean and tidy that they became the wonder of Europe. Samuel Johnson: “When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life. For there is in London al that life can afford”

There were 4 main classes of people in 18th century:1. the wealthy merchants2. the ordinary merchants and traders3. ste skilled craftsmen4. the large number of workers who had no skill and who could not be sure of finding work from one day to another

The rich- however the difference between rich and poor could be very great- the men went hunting and riding, and carried out “improvements” to their estate- women`s lives were more boring, although during winter there were frequent visits to London, where dances and parties were held- people believed that the natural spring waters in “spa” towns such as Bath were good for their healthIdea about women-One lord wrote:” Women are only children of larger growth... A man of sense only plays with them... he neither tells them about, nor trusts them, with serious matters.”

The countryside- cultural life Edinburgh was in total contrast with life in the Scottish Highlands- the clan chiefs began to realise thet money could be made from sheep for the wool trade- between 1790-1850 hundreds of thousands Highlanders lost they old way of life- each village stood in the middle of 3 or 4 large fields and villagers together decided what to grow- a “seed drill”, a machine for sowing corn seed in straight lines and at fixed intervals, was invented by Jethro Tull- usually most animals were killed before winter because there was never enought food to keep them until the following spring

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- richer farmers wanted to change the system of farming, including the system of landholding- the population had started to grow at a greatly increased rate

New looking at upbringing and education of children- children began to b considered as a distinct group of people not as small adults.- there were also changed handbooks about children- “Severe and frequent whipping is, I think, a very bad practice”. “The first object in the education of a child should be to acquire its affection, and the 2nd to obtain its confidence. The most likely thing to expand a youthful mind is... prise.”

- as to the girls, there was idea, that healthy appearance is very unfashionable. Popular was pale skin, slim body, tight waist, because woman should look frail.- to achieve this visage, parents gave their daughters only little food and forced them into corset clothes.

Poorer classes- people left their villages and went to the towns to find work because of several years of bad harvest.- children of poors had always work as soon as they could walk.- they were useful for factory owners, because they were cheap and easy to discipline.- at the end of century, child labour began to be seen as shame.

- 2 men campaigned for almost 30 years to persuade Parliament to pass a Regulating Act in 1788 to reduce the cruelty involved.

“Speenhamland Acts”- a system of laws for poor workers where the local taxes were used as supplement wages based on the bread price, started in Speenhamland, Berkshire, 17795- it was a form of outdoor relief- this system was not practised everywhere and sometimes it was misused by employers who started to low the wages after these Acts

Industrial revolution 18 th -19 th century

Several influences that revolutionised Britain`s industry- money- labour- a greater demand for goods- new power and better transport- for landless workers- opportunity to make and sell more goods than ever before

Industrial growth and fuel- the use of wood was replaced by the use of coal.- this made Britain the leading iron producer in Europe.John Wilkinson- a man with a total belief in iron- built the 1st iron bridge over the river Severn- an iron boat- an iron chapel

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- buried in iron coffin- improved Watt`s steam engine making parts of engine more accurately with his special skills in ironworking

Innovations- textiles- cotton spinning (spinning mule- krosná)- steam power- the improved steam engine invented by James Watt was initially mainly used for pumping out mines, from 1780 was applied to power machines- enable rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on the places where the waterpower was not available- iron founding

Transport- the cost of goods was made cheaper than ever by improved transport.- new waterways were dug between towns and transport by these canals was cheaper than the transport by land- roads were also improved during the century- railways

Revolution in France- Britain avoided revolution partly because of a new religious movement- founded by John Wesley

Methodism- He was an Anglican priest who travelled around the country preaching and teaching. For 53 years John Wesley travelled 224000 miles onn horseback, preaching in every village.- in the end Wesley was forced to leve the Curch of England and start a new Methodist Church.

Revolution in France and the Napoleonic wars- in France the revolution had been made by “bourgeoisie”or middle class, leading the peasants and urban working classes- the Whig party was split- famous Whig leader- Charles James Fox- hardly any working class voices were heard, but the 1st working class political organisation, the Corresponding Society, was established at this time- The French Revolution had created fear all over Europe- one by one the European countries were defeated by Napoleon- most of Europe fell under Napoleon`s control- honority general Nelson first defeated Napoleon on the sea near Trafalgar- Napoleon, weakened by his disastrous invasion of Russia, surrendered in 1814- Wellington, with the timely help of Prussian army, finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium in June 1815

20 th century

Britain at War- start of 20th century Britain was the greatest world power- by the end of the 70`s Britain was no longer a world power at all- The reasons were:

- the cost and effort of two WW- the cost of keeping up the empire- economic problems

- the most important reason was the basic weaknesses in Britain`s industrial power

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The 1st WW- in 1916 the government force men to join army whether they wanted to or not- 1st July 1916 Britain attacked German positions on the river Somme- in 1918 Britain had an army of over 5 million men- 1918- America entered war, Germany surrended- 1919- Versailles- France and Britain- conditions of peace

The results of the war- people lost their relatives- British “war poets” influence of public opinion the war: “Act against God and man.”- hope for better future- Government- promises of better conditions of life

The rise of Labour Part- during the war- growth of the Labour Party- Rights to vote: Men over 21

women over 30 (working class)

The labour party has been created.- 1924- the first Labour Party- aim- “kind of socialism”- fitting (adapted) to the post- war Britain- was supported by working class

Karl Marx- Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: “People from working classes can`t be truly socialists.”- Important: Nation- wanted the improvement of financial situation, but not become a socialists

Labour Movement- Labour movements were supported:

- by working class- by radicals in Parliament

1914- Beatrice Webb: “The landslide in England towards social democracy proceeds steadily, but it is the whole class that is sliding, not only one class of manual workers.”

Bolshevik Movement and Communism- invitation of communism/ resistance from Labour Party- Communism: - silently undermining socialism

- trade unions formed, workers` strike actions

Results of 1924- Liberal Party- almost disappeared- Liberals (capitalist ideas) joined the Conservative party- most liberals (“reformers”) joined the Labour party

The rights of Women- 1918- women gained the right to vote- John Stuart Mill had tried unsuccessfully to include notes for women in the 1867 Reform Bill- until 1882 a women had to give up all her property to her husband when she married him- by 1850 wife beating- a serious social problem in Britain

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- after 1870 women were allowed to vote, to be elected to borough or country council, to study the same subjects as men, but without degree- in 1888- “where women do the same work as men, they should receive equal pay”- in 1897 women starts to demand the right to vote in national elections- “suffragettes”- by 1918 29% of the total workforce of Britain was female- other forms of the liberation of women: - wearing of lighter clothing, shorter hair and skirts, beginning of smoking and drinking openly and wearing of cosmetics, 10x higher number of divorces

Ireland- home rule for Ireland delayed in 1914- threat of civil war: Irishmen called to join the army- at Easter 1916, republican rebellion in Dublin; Easter Rising, leaders executed- elections won by republicans everywhere except Ulster, independence for southern Ireland- 1921 Independence of Southern Ireland, Northern Ireland still united with Britain- civil war between Irishmen themselves, republicans defeated- 1937 southern Ireland republic declared, Northern Ireland united with Britain till nowdays.

Disappointment and depression- promise of land “fit for heroes” not easily kept- increased taxation, doubled the size of the civil service, greater control of national life- increasing disagreement- strikes- 1926 General strike by all workers- Coalminers strike in 1921 was defeated- Trade Union Congress- formed- General strike ended after 9 days- serious economic crisis, known as “the great Depression”, all over the Europe and America- two- thirds of the national wealth in hands of 400,000 people- 1 per cent of the population- WW II- Britain had done nothing to increase its fighting strength since 1918- public opinion had been against war.

The 2nd World warSituation after WW I- 1919- peace with Germany was established- 1920- League of Nations was established- Hitler did not accepted the world peace- joined with Mussolini.

Hitler- the symbol of occupation- Hitler/ Japan- the silent “watchers”- the efforts to delay the war- war was unstoppable- 1939- Poland was attacked by Germany - UK at war with Germany

War- Stage no. 1- 1940- France was defeated- first phase of the War- the battle at the sea Dunkirk- the decesive location of War- Winston Churchill- new prime minister- persuading the nation to fight against aggressor

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- UK- lost of sea weapons at Dunkirk- Churchill: ”No negotiations, but blood, toil, tears and sweat.”

War- Stage no. 2” - “Air offence of Germany against UK- UK was bombed- feelings of defeat- Churchill and his talent to persuade: “The fight is worth to win.”

War- European struggle- war- the typical European struggle- everybody takes control over everybody- Suez Canal, oil in Middle- East (conflict GB, France, Israel vs. Egypt)- tragic failure of Britain- loss of areas

War- Transition at fight- 1941- Germany attacked USSR- terrible mistake- 1941- Japan attacked Pearl Harbour- USA- terrible mistake- USSR and USA- new powers to the war

War and its progress- Hitler- impossibility of taking control over USSR- 1944- UK and USA occupation of France- Germany “down on knees”- but bombing of Drazdan- mass destruction in Japan- testing of nuclear weapons

War- Japan defeat- atomic bomb- the most powerfull weapon ever used- atomic mushroom- 11 miles tall- the terrible growth of temperature- water and air- boiling- many after- effects- WAR ENDED ON 2nd SEPTEMBER 1945.

Post- war Europe/ WorldCounting of the cost of war:

- half of British troops dead - 300 000 soldiers and 60 000 civilians died at air raids

- Gypsies, Jews were mostly annihilated- economy was destroyed

- lands- terrible appearance - the growth of nation was slowed- down

T wentieth century since 1945 The age of uncertainty

- the victorious Allies created the United Nations- ideas of the Atlantic Charter formed into “Security Council”- four allies (Soviet union, US, France, Britain)

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- Europe- the eastern part under communist- Soviet control, the western part under a capitalist system protected by US power

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- US president Harry S. Truman siging the Nato aliiance pact before members of Congress, 1949- Warsaw Pact of the eastern block

3 important technical developments- nuclear weapons- missiles- the first nuclear energy power station in the world

The Suez Canal- in 1956 Briatin, together with France and Israel, attacked Egypt because Egypt decided to take it over.

The welfare state- free secondary education for all- new National Health Service- National Assisatnce Act- financial help for the old, the unemployed- basic social rights- the right to work

- the right to proper health care- the Labour government- control of credit (the Bank of England), power (coal, iron, steel) and transport (railways, airlines)

Youthful Britain- Britain had been became conimically dependent on the US (Marshall plan)- thanks to this plan, Britain was able to recover quickly from the war- working people now had a better standard of living than ever before- wages were about 30% higher than in 1939 and prices had hardly risen at all- it was the age of youth- young people began to influence fashin, particulary in clothing- mini skirts, and music- Beatles- became internationally known- RINGO STAR, PAUL MCCARTNEY, Jonh LENNON, ..- young people rebelled against the sexual rules ao Christian society- they standard living together without getting married- divorce became much easier, and by 1975 one marriage in three ended in divorce

A popular monarchy- during the 20th century the monarchy became more popular than ever before- George V, used the BBC radio service to speak to all peoples of the Commonwealth and the empire. His broadcast was enormously popular- George V celebrated his Silver Jubilee, and drove through crowded streets of cheering people in the poorest parts of London- he had become a people`s king.- in 1936 the monarchy experienced a serious crisis when George`s son, Edward VIII, gave up the throne in order to marry a divorced woman.- during the 2. WW George VI, Edward`s brother, became greatly loved for his visits to the bombed areas of London.- since 1952, when Elizabeth II became queen, the monarchy has steadily increased in popularity.

The loss of empire- Germany lost colonies- Iraq and Palestine under British control- 1945 independence of Iraq

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Situation in India- in 1947 Britain lost India- birth of 2 countries- India- Hindu state

- Pakistan- Muslim state- Mahatma Ghandi- nationalist movement

Commonwealth- group of formal part of British empire with own polices without interference- birth in 1931- todays 53 members

Lost areas - Hong Kong- 1997- Suez- 1954- Gibraltar- 1976

Britain, Europe and US- as long as Europe did not interfere with Britain`s trade, and as long as the balance of power in Europe was not seriously disturbed, Britain could happily neglect European affairs- since 1812 Britain co-operated with the other European powers to ensure peace- some Europeans should try to create a European union that would prevent a repetition of war

British politician spoke“Our hearts are not in Europe; we could never share the truly European point of view nor become real patriots of Europe. Besides, we never give up our own patriotism for an Empire which extends to all parts of the world... The character of the British people makes it impossible for us to take part seriously in any Pan- European system.”

Britain- in 1949 Britain joined with other Western European countries to form the Council of Europe- in 1957 Britain refused to join six other European countries in the creation of a European Common Market- Britain was not willing to surrender any sovereignty or control over its own affairs.- the difficulties in financial and economic situation increased, so Britain could not afford to stay out of Europe- when Britain tried to join, the French president General de Gaulle refused to allow it- in 1973, after de Gaulle`s retirement, Britain became a member.- although trades with Europe increased, most British continued to feel that they had not had any benefit. This feeling was strengthened by the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher- the closer co- operation in the European Community was welcomed, but only if this did not mean any lessening sovereignty- many Europeans saw this as a contradiction- felt its “special relationship” with the US was particulary important- in the middle of the 19th century most British took the part of the South in the American Civil War (1861- 1865)- later, the US was openly critical of Britain`s empire- after the war, Britain found itself unable to keep up with military arms race between the US and the Soviet Union- Britain could only use these missiles by agreement with the US, Britain was tied more closely to the US- remained between the European and American positions

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- British foreign policy was more closely linked to that of the US, but particulary with regard to the Soviet Union- Britain joined the US in boycotting the Moscow Olympics. Britain sided with the US, which alarmed its European partners

- Britain had not made up its mind whether its first political loyalty was to Europe or to the Atlantic.

NORTHERN IRELAND- 1921 – Ireland was divided, the population of the new republic was only 5% Protestant- Ulster- the new province of Northern Ireland, 67% of the people were Protestant- Many people in Northern Ireland considered that their system of government was

unfair. It was a self- governing province, but its government was contolled by the Protestants, who feared the Catholics.

- 1969- Ulster people, both Catholics and Protestant, began to gather on the streets and demand a fairer system.The police could not keep control, and republicans who wanted to unite Ireland turned this civil rights movement into a nationalist rebellion against British rule.

- British soldiers were sent to help the police- Violence was continued with bomb attacks and shootings by republicans, which the

British army tired to prevent. - 1972 – the Northern Ireland government was removed and was replaced with direct

rule from London- 1985 – Britain and Ireland made a formal agreement at Hillsborough. This agreement

was bitterly opposed by Protestant political leaders in the province. But their failure to pu a stop to the Hillsborough Agreement resulted in a growing challenge from those Protestants who wanted to continue the struggle outside Parliament and possibly in a military form.

SCOTLAND AND WALES- 1970s – in Wales, a nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, the party of „fellow countrymen“,

became a strong political force- 1979 – Welsh nationalism lost support when the people of Wales turned down the

government´s offer of limited self- government- almost certainly this was because many of them did not welcome wider official use of

the Welsh language

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- The Scottish Nationalist Party – SNP became the 2nd party in Scotland, pushing the Conservatives into 3rd place

- Scotland was offered tha same limited form of self- government as Wales. The government decided that 54% was not a big enough majority

- Result – the SNP itself collapsed at the next election, losing nine of its eleven seats- The SNP remained active in Scottish politics- In both countries most people continued to support the Labour Party, partly in protest

against mainly Conservative England

THE YEARS OF DISCONTENT- Britain suddenly began to slip rapidly behind its European neighbours aconomically.

This was partly the result of a new and unpleasant experience, a combination of rising prices and growing unemployment. Governments were uncertain about how to solve the problem, and no longer agreed that the state has responsibility to prevent unemployment.

- Women too, had reason for discontent. They spoke out increasingly against sexism, in advertising, in enployment and in journalism, protested about violence against women- demanded more severe punishment for sexual crime.

- in the 15´s- the first black immigrants started to arrive from the West Indies, looking for work. By the 1960 there were250,000 “ coloured” immigrants in Britain and also the first signs of trouble with young whites.

- The Saturday afternoon football match, the favourite entertainment of many British families, gradually became the scene of frightening and often meaningless violence

- The miners refused to accept the closing of mines and went on strike but strike failed- Industrial problems also increased the differences between the “comfortable” south

and poorer north

THE NEW POLITICS- Britain´s first woman prime Minister was Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher had been

elected in 1979- 1990 because she promised a new beggining for Britain Industrial production since 1979 had fallen by 10% and manufacturing production by 17%. Britain had become a net importer of manufactured goods.

- by 1987 telecommunications, gas, British Airways, British Aerospace, British Shipbiuldershad all been put into private ownership.

- Thatcher ctreated a more unequal society, a society of “ two nations” – one wealthy and the other poor.

- The division was also geographical.- the black community also felt separated from richer Britain. And unemplyment among

blacks by 1986 was twice as high as among the white population.

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