ContentsAcknowledgements xiIntroduction xiiiAbout the Companion Website xixPART I: PLANT GENOMES AND GENESChapter 1 Plant genetic material 31.1 DNA is the genetic material of all living organisms, including plants 31.2 The plant cell contains three independent genomes 81.3 A gene is a complete set of instructions for building an RNA molecule 101.4 Genes include coding sequences and regulatory sequences 111.5 Nuclear genome size in plants is variable but the numbers of protein-coding,non-transposable element genes are roughly the same 121.6 Genomic DNA is packaged in chromosomes 151.7 Summary 151.8 Problems 15References 16Chapter 2 The shifting genomic landscape 172.1 The genomes of individual plants can differ in many ways 172.2 Differences in sequences between plants provide clues about gene function 202.3 SNPs and length mutations in simple sequence repeats are useful tools for genomemapping and marker assisted selection 222.4 Genome size and chromosome number are variable 282.5 Segments of DNA are often duplicated and can recombine 302.6 Some genes are copied nearby in the genome 312.7 Whole genome duplications are common in plants 342.8 Whol

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struction of the pituitary or adrenal gland by autoimmune disorders, infection, infarction, or by iatrogenic events such as surgery or hormonal suppression. Hormone excess is usually the result of neoplasia, leading to increased production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary or neuroendocrine cells (ectopic ACTH), or increased production of glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids by adrenal nodules. Adrenal nodules are increasingly identified incidentally during abdominal imaging performed for other reasons.ADRENAL ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT

However, the uncertainty principle tells us that we cannot know all the parameters of the particle simultaneously. In the language of these operators, that means that we can never choose one single wavefunction that will be unchanged after operation of, for example, both the position and momentum operators. Instead, if we find a wavefunction that is unchanged after operating on it with, say, a ^ as shown earlier, then when we operate on that same wavefunction with another operator we may instead get a result,ß ^ ?=b?',

Other operators give the position, linear momentum, and angular momentum of a st

ate, and we can derive what these operators look like based on the nature and number of the particles in the system. We will see a couple of examples of that in the rest of this section. How the operators extract these parameters from the wavefunction depends on the operator, but as an example let�s take a sine wave with frequency ? :?( x )=sin?( 2p?x ).

Lene Vestergaard Hau is the Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics and of Applied Physics at Harvard University. Her group has been working on the interaction of light with cold matter. The constant c=2.998· 10 8 m s ?-1 that we use throughout this book is the speed of light in a vacuum, but light travels slower than this when it passes through matter. The Hau group has studied ways of slowing laser light as it propagates through a very cold gas known as a Bose�Einstein Condensate, or BEC (See the companion volume of this text, Physical Chemistry: Statistical Mechanics, Thermodynamics, and Kinetics, Chapter 4). In a sample of atomic sodium gas cooled to roughly 10 ?-6 ?K , Hau and her coworkers slowed the photons to a speed of only 17?m? s ?-1 . This braking of the light can be switched on and off by a second laser called the pump. With the pump laser off, a burst of light from the first laser (the probe) travels through the gas near its vacuum speed. Turning on the pump laser mixes together two quantum states of the sodium atoms in a cleverly planned interaction that prevents the light from the probe laser from being absorbed but forces it to interact so strongly with the sample that the light slows down to a ten-millionth of its typical speed. The effect is used to study the nature of the BEC as well as the light that it affects so dramatically.Context

Quantum mechanics often involves solving a lot of integrals, and it�s a big help if we can set up a problem so that we know in advance that a whole class of integrals over complicated functions evaluate to zero. We usually select the basis functions that we will use to write wavefunctions so that they are mutually orthogonal. By clever planning along these lines, the daunting mathematics of quantum mechanics became sufficiently tractable during the 1980s that we could start reliably predicting geometries of molecules based on only the fundamental physics. Computational quantum mechanics is now a major tool in the development of new drugs and new materials First, let us consider the classical solution to our problem. In the region 0<x<a , the potential energy is zero, so the kinetic energy is equal to the total energy: E=m v 2 /2 , where v is the speed of the particle. Higher energies correspond to higher speeds. The particle cannot be found outside the walls, in the regions x=0 or x>a , because any place where the potential energy becomes greater than the total energy, the particle must turn around. Because the system has energy E=K+U and the kinetic energy K=m v 2 /2 is always positive, a classical system can never have an energy less than the potential energy at any given pointWe have taken the trouble here to define ? dB as h/| p x | , to ensure that it is a positive number. This choice of phase defines the relationship between the momentum operator and the Cartesian axes for everything that follows.(We neglect the trivial case n=0 , for which ?=0 .) We have our first genuinely quantum-mechanical energy expression. Like the energies of Bohr�s one-electron atom, only discrete values of the energy are possible.

Furthermore, unlike the free particle, no state exists for which E=0 . Even the lowest energy quantum state, the ground state, has some kinetic energy. The difference between the energy of the ground state and the minimum value of the potential energy is called the zero-point energy,E zero-point = E gnd - U min ,(2.32)

and it is present in any quantum-mechanical system for which the potential energy limits the particle�s domain.3 For the particle in a box, the zero-point energy

is E 1 = p 2 ? 2 /( 2m a 2 ) .

3 The particle�s de Broglie wavelength requires this, because if the particle could have zero kinetic energy, then ? dB would become infinite. The only way for the particle to be at rest is for it to occupy all space. We will see, however, in Section 9.1 that, in the right coordinate system, this does not require the particle itself to be infinitely large.The free particle has the continuous energies of a classical system because the flat potential energy function means that the domain of the particle is infinite, larger than any de Broglie wavelength. To introduce the energetics of a quantum-mechanical system, we need a potential energy function that puts up walls, limiting the particle�s domain and thus allowing ? dB to become comparable to the domain. Our next consideration, therefore, is the solution to a Schrödinger equation with a more interesting potential function.Tot era el dios local de Hermopolis del Delta (Bajo Egitpo XV Nomno) donde se le honraba bajo una de las formas antes dichasla de ibis, que siurvio para escribir su nombre: DhwfDe alli paso a Hemenopiolis Magna en el XV Nomo de Alto Egipto la actual -.---donde su culto se desarrollo y persistio hasta bien ebtrada la wra romana. Aqui adquirio el carcter de dios primordial del que surge la Ogdoada. sobre la colina primige ia de Hermenopolis. Y desde Hemnopilis paso a intregrarse aistema de vida mas diversose le identoifica con la luna y como tal es el señor del tiempocalculador del tiepo de la vioda, corazon y pensamiento de Ra.

The GRE is comprised of three sections:¦ Analytical Writing: Within the Analytical Writing section, you�ll be asked to complete two writingtasks: an �Analyze an Issue� task and an �Analyze an Argument� task.¦ Verbal Reasoning: The Verbal Reasoning section includes critical-reading questions, text completions,and sentence equivalences.¦ Quantitative Reasoning: The Quantitative Reasoning questions may appear as multiple-choice,quantitative-comparison, or numeric-entry questions.In the answer keys for the Diagnostic Test and Full-Length Practice Test, you�ll find spaces to enteryour responses to some of the Quantitative Reasoning questions. On the computer-based test, you�llsimply type your answer into a box on-screen. On the paper-based test, you�ll be asked to enter your

The current computer-based test is an adaptive test�one that allows the computer to tailor the test to theability of the individual test-taker. The test allots a set time for each section and bases your score on thenumber of questions you answer in that time period and on their level of difficulty. You�re presented firstwith medium-difficulty questions, which are scored as you answer them. Based on your responses, thecomputer assigns you questions of higher, lower, or equal difficulty. Your score is based on the number ofquestions you answer correctly, as well as on the difficulty of the question, with the more difficult questionsearning more points. As a result, the number of questions you answer may be different from the numberanswered by another test-taker.

Hermeticism lays great emphasis on the sun, which is regarded as a kind of relay station for God�s creative and sustaining power and described in turn as the �visible god� and a �second god�.33 But although it isn�t so surprising to find the sun given such prominence in the Hermetica, some passages about its importance are intriguingly specific. Treatise XVI, in which Asclepius expounds various points of teaching to King Ammon, contains two particularly tantalizing statements: �For the sun is situated at the centre of the cosmos, wearing it like a crown�34; and �Around the sun are the eight spheres that depend from it: the sphere of the fixed stars, the six of the planets, and the one that surrounds the earth.�35

These �spheres� correspond to the modern concept of orbits, as it was thought that the celestial bodies were fixed to transparent spheres. Under the old Ptolemaic system the spheres surround (�depend from�) the Earth, with the sun occupying its own sphere. But this is not what is described in Treatise XVI, with the spheres surrounding the sun, which is situated at the centre. And the Earth has its own sphere which, like the other planets, �depends from� the sun in a way that only makes sense in Copernican terms.

Perhaps most interesting of all is the fact the heliocentric aspects are only mentioned in passing, when some other principle is being elucidated. It appears that the writers of at least these particular Hermetic treatises took the Earth�s journey around the sun for granted. Clearly, by referring to Hermes Trismegistus in his own exposition of the heliocentric system � besides quoting from Ficino on the sun as the embodiment of God � Copernicus shows that he was at least familiar with the prototype for his own ideas. As Frances Yates concluded:

One can say, either that the intense emphasis on the sun in this new worldview was the emotional driving force which induced Copernicus to undertake his mathematical calculations on the hypothesis that the sun is indeed at the centre of the planetary system; or that he wished to make his discovery acceptable by presenting it within the framework of this new attitude. Perhaps both explanations would be true, or some of each.

At any rate, Copernicus� discovery came out with the blessing of Hermes Trismegistus upon its head, with a quotation from that famous work in which Hermes describes the sun-worship of the Egyptians in