Ancient Synagogues of the Golan

Ancient Synagogues of the GolanAuthor(s): Zvi Uri MacozSource: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 116-128Published by: The American Schools of Oriental ResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210031 .

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Synagogues

by Zvi Uri Macoz Of the Golan

uring the past eleven years I have made an ex- tensive study of ancient synagogues in the Golan,

surveying and recording with photographs, ground plans, and architectural drawings all remains known to date' as well as conducting excavations at four sites (Kanaf, CEn Nashut, Dabiya, and Qasrin-see MaCoz and Killebrew 1988). The following is a summary of what has been learned in this study.

At present we know of twenty- five sites at which ancient synagogues or fragments of ancient synagogues have been found. All of these are in the central Golan, in a small area no more than 25 kilometers in

length (from Nahal Gilbon in the north to Nahal Samak in the south) and approximately 10 kilometers wide (from the Jordan River east- wards). At seventeen sites the structure itself was found-in some cases with several courses of stone walls still standing and in others with only a foundation discernible. The rest yielded only scattered architectural fragments. At all sites, fragments such as ashlar stones, columns, and molded and decorated stones were found widely dispersed in secondary use in recently built houses.

Architecturally, the Golan synagogues were influenced by, but distinct from, those in neighboring

Galilee (to the west). Many of the elements of the Galilean synagogues were adapted: the spacious hall with benches along the walls, the stone columns and beams that support a roof constructed of wooden truss- beams and covered with clay tiles, and the sculptured limestone moldings. These elements, however, were executed with basalt stone, which is an abundant raw material in the Golan. In addition the syngogues were influenced by the Hauran (the neighboring territory to the east). The Hauran contributed the finer details of construction technique, a tradition of handling basalt stones, sculptured architectural decoration, and, last but not least, some of the ar-

116 Biblical Archaeologist, June 1988



Ancient Synagogues: A Selected Architectural Glossary Arch and Entry

Cornice oThe Order

Extrados ~ / Frieze

Archivolt Extrados Keystone Cornice

Entablature Intrados- Voussoir Frieze

RlenLArchitrave Relieving

,IntradosCapital

Springer Springing point

Cornice

Frieze(X

Lintel

Column Shaft

Jamb

Base Plinth

Threshold

Capitals Ionic Corinthian Abacus Abacus flower Diagonal Ionic

Abacus Aau bcsfoe

SVolute

Abacus

-Helix Side view

Secunda folia

baluster , Echinus - Cauliculus Echinus Volute

Pulvinus Volute

.

Prima folia

Ionic -

Abacus

Doric View from

--- Volute

Z III.

Abacus

-- -Pulvinus Y.i Echinus

baluster '

F SiAnnulet

Front viewSievw

Biblical Archaeologist, June 1988 117



Entablatures Frieze Cornice

,... 2"-~_

_

Crnyma: -.

Front view 7

/Cyma " Corona,-

:Bed-molding Coffers Front view Section

Section

os Console

Architrave View from below

Taenia:

---- \X ///

--Fascia'" /

.... ... ... ...

......

... Decorative Terms //

X

Acanthus

Front view Stylized reproduction of the spiny leaves of the acanthus plant on Corinthian capitals, friezes,

Section cornices, and so on.

Pedestal and Base 1

Pedestal and Attic base Aedicula (-ae)

I Small shrine composed of columns supporting a pediment, sometimes with a conch.

Ionic base

Drum Shaft

- - Torus

.. /

StAnnulet

_ . .- Scotia

ii. .. !.:i::i!i~ii~!

/ ; Plinth -

;;: .. J~i~i~ii /'Bead-and-reel

Torus ' One of the ornaments employed for astragal

i Scotia Attic molding. ,. :. .,. base -T rus / The illustrations and definitions used in this

sidebar are from the Architectural Glossary of ancient Jewish synagogues by Ruth Jacoby and ( _____

_[(__

/ < Rina Talgam, with drawings by Tania Slutsky-

' ";

Gorenstein. The glossary is part of the Jerusalem

Index of Jewish Art and was published in May of Conch

----Dado Pedestal this year by the Centre for Jewish Art of the Shell pattern; often used as a top in a niche.

Hebrew University of Jerusalem. It can be ordered

\ / by writing to the U.S. distributor, Ita Aber, at 162 West 83rd Street, New York, NY 10024. Cost of the publication is $10.00, which includes the

/ cost of shipping.




Dentils Decorative motif of "toothing"; commonly used at base of the cornice mold.

1LJLJLJELEJ Egg-and-dart Ornament employed for ovolo molding; also known as egg-and-tongue.

(O)[OXO OTO) Guilloche Continuous plaited pattern of two loosely twisted fillets, enclosing circular centers.

Herculean knot A wreath knot.

Meander A winding, geometric pattern; also running fret.

Double Meander TWo intertwined, winding geometric patterns.

Peopled scrolls Scrolls containing figural motifs; also termed inhabited scrolls.

Rosette A geometric floral ornament stylized from a composite flower viewed from above; includes at least four leaves and sometimes petals.

Victory Roman goddess or personification of victory, commonly with wings; also known by her Greek name Nike.

tistic motifs that have a long history in Syria. Thus, the "Golan type" synagogue is a special blend of architectural styles taken from nearby

areas. These synagogues shared several architectural features. First, all were located at a favorable spot in their town or village. Because of the ty- pography and the prevailing weather conditions in the Golan, this was not always the geometrical center of the settlement or the summit of a hill. Instead they were often at the edge of a village, near a spring, on a slope overlooking open landscape and protected from winter winds, which could have easily blown the clay roof tiles off the buildings.

Second, the masonry tech- niques are consistent. Nearly all had exterior-wall faces of smoothly dressed and meticulously joined ashlar stones that were cut into very accurate rectangles. Walls that were hidden in adjacent structures and interior-wall faces were made of roughly cut stones, plastered over and whitewashed. Rarely do we find that the use of ashlar stones was limited to the facade (the front of the building) while the other walls were of inferior quality. The structural walls were also usually very thick (0.7 to 1.0 meter) and built without mortar.

Third, the facades were always oriented towards the qodesh, the place of the Shekhina (the presence of God). In the Golan, however, there were two conflicting traditions about its location: One, which was the prevailing tradition in nearby Galilee, was that it was south, towards Jerusalem; Golan synagogues oriented to the south included those at CEn Nashut, Dabiya, cAssalieh, Beit Lavi, and Umm el-Kanatir. The other was that it was west; these included synagogues at Kanaf, Deir Aziz, Zumimra, ed-Dikke, Batra, Zavitan, and Salabe3 There are chronological and stylistic differences among the buildings of each group, so chronology and regionalism cannot explain the different traditions. Apparently religious controversies

about the location of the Shekhina, also echoed in talmudic sources, were operating here.

Fourth, the facade, always on one of the short sides of the rectangular building, usually had a single portal with a molded and adorned frame.s (This contrasts with the three entrances usually found in Galilean synagogues.) Sometimes, as at Umm el-Kanatir, there was a portico in front of the entrance. There was always a town square in front of the building, and it was sometimes paved (as at ed-Dikke, Zumimra, and Qasrin).

Fifth, the interior featured a hall divided by two rows of columns into a central nave with an aisle on each side. On occasion there was a door- way in one of the long walls of the rectangular building for access to a street or court (as at Qasrin, Kanaf, and Umm el-Kanatir) or to an annex room (as at CEn Nashut, Dabiya, and Qasrin). There were stepped benches along all the walls, sometimes molded with a recess for the legs.

Sixth, all had roofs made of clay tiles covering a wooden truss-beam support-a method, by the way, that has been found only in public buildings.

Seventh, the floors were usually made of hard white plaster. Some- times a stone pavement is found; traces of a mosaic floor have been found only in the later synagogue at Qasrin.

Within the "Golan type" synagogue, as defined by these common architectural features, two major groups can be discerned, each of which can be further subdivided into family styles. The first group consists of synagogues erected in the fifth century c.E., and the second of synagogues built in the beginning of the sixth century C.E. In the remainder of this article I shall present and comment on two repre- sentative synagogues from each

group? These examples will be presented in chronological order, from earliest to latest.




Synagogues of the Fifth Century The Golan synagogues built in the fifth century C.E. are characterized by rich architectural decorations that ornamented the facades and interiors and by the abundance of animal sculptures. ed-Dikke. The synagogue at ed- Dikke (3 kilometers north of where the Jordan River empties into the Sea of Galilee) was among the first discovered in the Golan by Gottlieb Schumacher (1889: 120-23), and in 1905 it was partially unearthed by Heinrich Kohl and Carl Watzinger (1916: 112-14). The ground plan indicates a rectangular structure 10.4 by 13.8 meters, with its facade and a narrow platform that fronted it on the short side to the west. The

Above: Ground plan of the synagogue at ed-Dikke. Measuring 10.4 by 13.8 meters, with its facade (and the narrow platform that fronted it) facing west, the building featured two rows of columns that divided the interior into a central hall (nave) and two aisles; a pair of benches ran along the walls. The presence of three entrances in the facade, common in ancient Gali- lean synagogues, was unusual in the Golan, where a single entrance was the rule. Drawing is by L. Ritmeyer using preliminary data from Kohl and Watzinger (1916). Below: The most notable feature of the synagogue at ed-Dikke was its elaborately decorated facade. This reconstruction by Kohl and Watzinger, although differing somewhat in detail from that of the author, does suggest something of this, including the decoration associated with the three entrances and the windows, and the flat pilasters with diagonal Ionic capitals on either end of the facade.

prayer hall was divided into a nave and two aisles by two rows of columns, three to a row, plus two engaged pillars on the west wall. The two sets of columns and capitals found at the site indicate that there were two stories, with a Corinthian order of columns set on top of a Doric order. The hall was paved with stone slabs, and a pair of benches ran along the walls.

The most notable feature of the building was its elaborately decorated facade (our reconstruction is somewhat different in detail from that of Kohl and Watzinger). It con- tained three entrances, with the central one higher and wider than the ones on the sides. The main portal- a three-sided frame composed of lintel and jambs-had a continuous molding with a profile consisting of several narrow concave and convex

bands.6 Surmounting the lintel there was a convex frieze sculptured with leaves arranged in circles with rosettes at their centers. Above this frieze there was a protruding cornice (geison) molded with narrow bands and adorned with various patterns such as sprigs, astragal, egg-and-dart, and a cymation carrying a relief of populated meander. A relieving arch with a molding of a cornice was superimposed over the lintel.

Each of the two smaller entrances had a molded frame with a profile of narrow concave and convex bands crowned by a frieze, over which was a flat relief of a vine scroll7

On each end of the facade there was a flat pilaster crowned by a diagonal Ionic capital8 These pilasters supported a protruding cornice that spanned the entire width of the building and which also marked the top of the lower story.

The facade wall of the second level was fenestrated by two or three tall, narrow windows, the frames of which were also molded and sculptured. (The fragments of three such windows were found?) The jambs were made of two pairs of col- umnettes that supported a "Syrian




gable"- a triangular pediment with an arch in the base; a shell-like grooved conch was sometimes placed within the arch. Similar to that on the doors, the molding of the gable consisted of narrow bands adorned with guilloche, astragal, egg-and- dart, acanthus leaves, ivy scroll, and meanders. In addition to these, there were reliefs of rosettes and miniature reliefs of lions and eagles inside the triangular pediment and above its raking cornices.

The upper story of the facade was crowned by another cornice, above which was the main pediment. It spanned the entire width of the building and concealed the sides of the sloping roof.

This synagogue was excavated at the beginning of this century, when the method of dating by stratigraphy and ceramics had not yet been devel- oped. Thus, we do not have an archae- ological date for the building in the true sense. A stylistic analysis of its art, however, suggests a date in the first half of the fifth century C.E. (For instance, the lintel with winged victories and the floral convex friezes and other decorative features popular in the Late Roman period can be contrasted with other elements characteristic of a later period such as geometric patterns and the miniature sculptures of animals.) Its artistic style may reflect the so-called Theodosian renaissance, a reemergence of classical trends in the last quarter of the fourth century C.E. If this is so, the synagogue at ed-Dikke is the earliest synagogue thus far known in the Golan.

The rich architectural decorations on the facade of this synagogue are typical of the first group of Golan synagogues: molded lintels with artistic reliefs, lavish geisons consisting of narrow bands sculptured with various formal Greco- Roman moldings interspersed with scrolling vine and ivy, windows in the shape of "Syrian gables" and conches, concave friezes with floral rinceaux (scroll decorations) and

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Above: Visible among the remains of the synagogue at cEn Nashut, here viewed from the east, are pieces of columns, column bases, and the stepped benches that ran along each of its walls. The site, which is located on the bank of Nahal Meshushim about 2 kilometers north of the modern village of Katzrin, was excavated in 1981. Unless otherwise stated, all photographs in this article are by the author and used cour- tesy of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums. Right: Measuring 11.3 by 12.5 meters, the synagogue at cEn Nashut had a single entrance that was shifted somewhat off-center to accommodate construction of the Torah shrine inside the base of the southern wall. Note the small annex room, on the eastern wall, which could also be accessed from the front of the building. Alongside the northern outside wall was a stairway that led to the upstairs gallery Drawing by Zvi MaCoz and L. Ritmeyer.

rosettes, pilasters with capitals in the diagonal Ionic order, and more. This style parallels that found in the Hauran and, especially, in Batanaea- for instance, at the "palace" in Shak- ka, the tomb at Rimet el-Lohf (from the second half of the third century C.E.), the "palace" at Inlhil, the spacious villas at Nawa (from the fourth century), and a few fourth- and fifth- century churches in the Hauran and Bostra.

Interjected into the more common Greco-Roman moldings are the animal sculptures, which

were apparently a local fashion since no exact parallels have been found. It is a fashion where the animals in some cases are sculpted as three- dimensional engaged statues, in other cases in high relief on door lintels, and, in perhaps the most typical cases, as miniature reliefs attached to secondary architectural pieces. Another example of this new fashion is found at the somewhat later synagogue at CEn Nashut.10 CEn Nashut. The site of CEn Nashut is on the bank of Nahal Meshushim, some 2 kilometers north of the




modem town of Katzrin. The synagogue was rectangular in plan (11.3 by 12.5 meters) with the facade on the short side on the south. The single entrance was shifted somewhat from center towards the west in order to accommodate the construction of the Torah shrine inside at the base of the southern wall. The lintel for this entrance carried a relief of a wreath and other floral de- signs; above this was a convex frieze decorated with sprigs. Other fragments of the facade that have been found include cornices, arch stones, and various ornamented pieces.

The interior of the synagogue was divided into a nave and two flanking aisles by two rows of columns with three columns to a row. There

Below: In the early groupof Golan synagogues, which consists of buildings dating to the fifth century c.E., only CEn Nashut featured lewish symbols, such as the seven-branched menorah shown here on one of the pedestals that supported the columns of the first story. Below right: Reconstruction of the interior of the synagogue at cEn Nashut. Note the Torah shrine, the benches running along the walls. and the two rows of three columns. The columns of the lower story stood on pedestals and were crowned by diagonal Ionic capitals, while those of the second story had capitals of the Corinthian order. The gabled roof was supported by wooden beams and covered with clay tiles. Drawing by Zvi Macoz, B. Wool, and LI. Ritmeyer.

Historical Background W e hear for the first time about Jewish settlements in northern Trans-

jordan in the days of Judas Maccabeus, around 164 B.C.. He and his brother Jonathan set out to rescue the Jewish population in the Bashan (Batanaea) from attacks by gentiles following the Hasmonean revolt. After winning some campaigns, they escorted the Jewish refugees back to the shelter of Jerusalem 1 Maccabees 5:9-29).

The major phase of Jewish settlement in the Golan and Bashan, however, appears to have started only after the conquest of these areas by Alexander Jannaeus, around 81 B.C.E. (book 13, chapter 15, paragraph 3 1393-94] of Jewish Antiquities by Josephus; see Marcus 1966: 424-25). Jannaeus turned Gamla, a fortress that was probably built by the Greek tyrant Demetrius near the end of the second century B.c.E., into the capital of Jewish Golan. Facing the Nabataeans and the Syrians, Gamla served as a defensive fortress on the border of his kingdom, and also as a center of administration and culture. This is why it is mentioned in the Mishnah (chapter 9, mishnah 6, of tractate Arachin; see Blackman 1964) as one of the "walled" cities of Eretz Israel- in a list of cities allegedly from the time of Joshua but probably reflecting the Hasmonean period.

Around the turn of the eras, in the days of Herod the Great and his descendants (Philip, Agrippa I, and Agrippa II), Jewish settlement gained momentum and reached its highest level of material and cultural achieve- ment. This is evident in the finds from the excavations at Gamla, especially its synagogue, which is the earliest structure of its kind found to date in Israel (see Gutman 1981; Macoz 1981a, 1981b).

The active part taken by the Golan Jewry during the First Revolt against the Romans, its cruel suppression by the Roman army, and the destruction of the major city of Gamla in the autumn of 67 c.E. seems to have brought about the desertion of most Jewish villages in central and southern Golan and the severe depopulation of those villages that remained (book 4, chapter 1 [1-81J of the The Jewish War by Josephus, see Thackeray 1968: 3-271. The disastrous outcome of the war is echoed in a redemptive midrash from the days following the revolt: "Rabbi Eleazer the Great says: . . . on the heels of the Messiah. . .

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Galilee will be destroyed, the Golan desolate, and the frontier people will wander from town to town and will be shown no mercy" (chapter 9, mishnah 15, of tractate Sotah; see Blackman 1963). The results of the surveys and excavations conducted in the central Golan in recent years confirm the evidence of the literary sources that the Golan steps down from the stage of Jewish history in the Mishnaic period (the second and third centuries C.E.).

The revival of Jewish village life in the Golan came, so it seems at this stage in research, as a result of the political stabilization and the economic recovery of Eretz Israel during the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, at the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth century C.E. The resettlement of Jewish villages in the central Golan is evident in the coins and pottery retrieved in the excavations at several synagogue sites. It is likely that several generations elapsed before the lavish synagogues were erected -probably the fruit of decades of producing and marketing olive oil.

The first synagogues, according to current evidence, were built in the late fourth and early fifth centuries c.E. A century later, at the beginning of the sixth century, several synagogues were reconstructed on a larger scale and more were built. The Golan appears, after several centuries absence, in a written document: an administrative list of the Byzantine Empire (Giorgius Cyprios, Descriptio Orbis Romanii, 1041). The heading "KLIMA GAULANES" indicates a rural area without a central city.

Cumulative data of excavations and surveys indicate that most sites in the Golan, including the Jewish settlements, were abandoned at the end of the sixth and the beginning of the seventh century as a result of military invasions and the collapse of law and order and the economy brought on by the weaken- ing of the Byzantine regime. Some habitations continued through the end of the Umayyad period (about the mid-eighth century). These were mostly in the southern Golan, a fertile agricultural area, but some were also in the central region, including the Jewish village of Qasrin. At Qasrin, evidence suggests the village was destroyed in the earthquake of 746 C.E. (see Macoz and Kilrebrew 1988). Subsequently, a much reduced occupation occurred for a short time in the Abassid period (approximately 750-878). The Jewish communities in the town of Fiq in the southern Golan, and likewise in the town of Nawa in Batanaea, continued at least until the Middle Ages.

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An abunmance of animal sculptures was a distinctive feature of the early group of Golan synagogues. Most of the animal motifs that were used-images of eagles, lions, and bulls- were common in the ancient Near East. In contrast, the snake

motif, represented here on a stone beam that spanrwed the space between t1wvo columns at cEn Nashut, was largely confined to the art of the Golan.. Thel inscription below the snakes says Abun bar Yoseh."

were two stories. The columns of the lower story stood on pedestals, some richly decorated, and were crowned by capitals of the diagonal Ionic order; on top of these, the columns of the second story had capitals of the Corinthian order. The in- tercolumniation (the space between the shafts of two adjacent columns)

was spanned by 2.5-meter-long stone beams. One of these, found broken into two parts, carried a relief decoration and inscription mentioning the donor "Abun bar Yoseh." A pair of benches ran along the walls on four sides, broken only by the entrances and the base of the Torah shrine. There was a secondary door that led

to a small annex room on the east, which could also be accessed from the front of the building.

This synagogue featured numer- ous animal sculptures, including two engaged statues of eagles, perhaps ornaments from the pediment outside, and three sculptures of lions and a lioness, the placement of which is uncertain. In addition, there was a unique orthostat of a lion that had on its side a relief of Daniel in the lion's den flanked by a lion, a pair of eagles, and a lioness suckling her cub. This stone, which was not found on site but at nearby CEn Samsam, was probably part of a socle at the bottom of the base of the Torah shrine. Several more small reliefs of lions, eagles, and birds were found on windows, capitals, and undefined fragments. One stone, perhaps also from the decoration of the Torah shrine, has a flat relief of a bird pecking at grapes. On a diagonal Ionic capital, decorated by symbols on all four sides, another pair of eagles is found. And on one of the stone beams that spanned the space between two columns there is a relief of two snakes. In this synagogue we know of more than sixteen animal reliefs or sculptures. It is likely there were others, destroyed or removed by robbers.

At CEn Nashut we have the only example in the first group of Jewish symbols, notably the seven-branched menorah. Here, and at several sites from the second group (Ghadriyya, Dabiya, and Ahmadiyye), we find a distinct composition of the popular emblem-a pair of menorahs, one always with a base, the other without. No doubt this double symbol had a certain, as yet unknown, spiritual meaning.

Perhaps the most typical, and most moving, artistic creation from this synagogue is a diagonal Ionic capital, which we call the menorah capital. The four protruding volutes (scrolls) of the capital are decorated with floral motifs, including perhaps olive leaves and a pomegranate. Be-




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This relief of Daniel in the lion's den was probably part of the socle at the bottom of the base of the Torah shrine at CEn Nashut. It was found in secondary use at nearby cEn Samsam.

tween the volutes are various decorations: on one side, a nine-branched menorah flanked by a pair of shofroth (ram's horn trumpets); on the second side, the central "egg" characteristic of capitals of the Ionic order flanked by a seven-branched menorah and an altar and perhaps a flower; on the third side, an "egg" flanked by an amphora and a flower; and on the fourth side, a pair of eagles. This combination of classical moldings and Jewish symbols, which is common in art of the Golan, is beautifully executed here.

The date of this synagogue has been established stratigraphically. Based on several coin deposits, some stray coins found buried beneath the floor, and ceramics, we have determined that it was built in the second quarter of the fifth century C.E. Remains of some walls beneath the floor suggest there might have been an earlier synagogue at the site and that it was completely dismantled. The date of that synagogue cannot be earlier than the fourth century C.E. Comments. In looking at the Golan synagogues of the first group, I would emphasize three points about their architecture: the use of capitals, artistic motifs, and Jewish symbols.

Inside, we can see capitals of two scales (one for the upper story and another for the lower) and three orders (Corinthian, Ionic, and Doric). At ed-Dikke the lower story had Doric capitals and the upper story Corinthian, whereas at cEn Nashut the capitals of the lower story were diagonal Ionic and those of the upper story were Corinthian.

The Corinthian capitals were sculpted in a way characteristic of the Byzantine period, with the deep- ly cut and shaded hollows between the leaves emphasized. These form intricate patterns of lozenges and triangles that create a very effective play of light and shade. The leaves themselves are of a far more inferior quality.

In the Hauran, and likewise in the Golan, one of the signs of the Byzantine period is the reemergence of Ionic capitals, which were almost completely absent in the architecture of the second and third centuries C.E. In the first group, Ionic capitals were found at er-Rafid, Beit Lavi, and Khawkha. They became almost dominant in the second group.

Similarly, the use of Doric capitals became widespread in the Golan and the Hauran at the start of the Byzantine period; such capitals are found in many synagogues built between the fifth and sixth centuries C.E.

The motifs used in the art of the Golan synagogues have many sources. For instance, with respect to the depiction of animals, a distinctive feature in the first group, the images of eagles, lions, and bulls are well-known in the ancient Near East, where they are often seen es- corting or even representing the main figures in the pantheon of Canaanite gods. In addition, during the Early Roman period they were frequently employed in the art of Syria. In the Late Roman period, however, their distribution in Syria diminished drastically, and likewise

This diagonal Ionic capital from cEn Nashut combines classical moldings and Jewish symbols, an approach that is common in the art of the Golan. It features four protruding volutes, or scrolls, each decorated with floral motifs. Between the volutes are various decorations, including the central "egg" characteristic of the Ionic order flanked on one side by a seven-branched menorah and on the other by an altar and perhaps a flower, and a nine-branched menorah flanked by a pair of shofroth (ram's horn trumpets). Photograph by Zev Radovan.

in Galilean synagogues they were used in this period in only a few cases. For reasons unknown to us, at the same time there was a marked increase in the use of these symbolic motifs in Golan synagogues. Perhaps this was a local Byzantine renaissance of an earlier tradition.

In contrast, there is the snake motif-where in some cases the snakes form ribbons joined into a Herculean knot, and in others they are held in the beaks of birds of prey. This motif is largely confined to the art of the Golan.

Rare anywhere is the peacock image found at Qasrin (see Macoz and Killebrew 1988).

A motif that is very abundant in the repertoire of the Golan synagogue is the double interwoven meander, which often includes symbols in the hollow rectangles that break the pattern. This motif is characteristically found in the art of the Hauran from the first century B.C.E. It was also very popular in Batanaea in the fourth century C.E.




Unlike the others, this motif also appears in the second group of Golan synagogues.

Finally, it should be stressed that at ed-Dikke and at several other sites belonging to the same stylistic subgroup (for instance, er-Rafid, el- Huseiniyye, and Khawkha) no spe- cific Jewish symbols, such as a menorah, were ever found. This is one reason why we date this subgroup as the earliest in the sequence. From the fifth century onward, start- ing at CEn Nashut, we find more and more Jewish symbols in the art of Golan synagogues.

Synagogues of the Sixth Century We have seen that the Golan synagogues of the late fourth and early fifth centuries can be characterized by an almost "baroque" richness of architectural decoration of facades and interiors, including an abundant use of animal sculptures. This tendency virtually disappears in the synagogues of the sixth century. Umm El-Kanatir. The southernmost ancient synagogue in the Golan, Umm el-Kanatir is located on a natural terrace overlooking Nahal Samak. (The name derives from two arches -kanatir in Arabic-that were built in antiquity to protect access to a spring.) The site was discovered by Oliphant (1885) and Schumacher (1889: 260-65), and was partly uncovered by Kohl and Watzinger 1916: 125-34). Our recent investigation of the synagogue has shown that though the field plan of the synagogue made by the latter two is reasonably accurate, their restored plan is entirely wrong.

The building was rectangular (18.8 by 13.3 meters), with the facade on the short side on the south. The single entrance, which had a molded but otherwise undecorated frame, was offset toward the east in order to make room for the Torah shrine on the inside southern wall; the remains of the shrine are probably still covered with debris. Above the gate there was a relieving arch with a re-

The synagogue at Umm el-Kanatir is a member of the second group of Golan synagogues, a group consisting of buildings constructed in the beginning of the sixth century C.E. Measuring 18.8 by 13.3 meters, it had a single main entrance that was offset from the center in order to accommodate a Torah shrine inside. In front of the entrance was a small paved portico that was covered by a gabled roof supported by columns. The interior of the synagogue may have been divided, as shown here, into a nave and three aisles by three rows of columns. (It's possible there were only two rows; the evidence is unclear.) Although not indicated here, there were also benches along the walls.

lief consisting of successive narrow bands, each making use of a single pattern-circles, triangles, and undefined geometric motifs. In front of the gate was a small paved portico that was covered by a gabled roof supported by columns. The columns stood on attic bases and were crowned by "basket capitals" covered by a low relief of a net. (This is the only appearance of such capitals, very popular in Constantinople in the sixth century C.E., in synagogue art.) Fragments of arched and gabled windows were found in the ruins; of a much less decorated style than those at ed-Dikke, these also seem to have belonged to one of the two stories of the facade. Simple cornices marked the change from first to sec-

ond story, and the whole structure was covered by a pedimented roof. The apex of the pediment was probably decorated by an engaged statue of an eagle found in the destruction debris in front of the building.

The interior was divided into a nave and aisles by two, or perhaps three (the evidence is not clear), rows of columns. These were crowned by very unusual capitals, each somewhat different from the rest, of various geometric forms.11 There were benches along the walls-not discerned by Kohl and Watzinger because their work at the site was limited.

Worthy of mention are some decorated stones that belonged to the synagogue. The exact placement of these is not certain, however. Two capitals for window jambs are decorated with a molding of successive bands of motifs including a double meander and acanthus leaves. Two engaged statues, one depicting the front half of a lion and the other depicting a lioness, were also found. Unfortunately broken, these lion statues may have been part of the Torah shrine.12 Another stone that probably belonged to the Torah shrine is a fragment that has two small columns molded at its bottom; these carry a joint Ionic capital. The side of the capital has a relief of an eagle with outstretched wings. Yet another stone, elongated, has a low relief of a vine scroll and a bird pecking at the grapes.

On stylistic grounds only, in the absence of an archaeologically determined date, we date this synagogue, tentatively, to the late fifth or early sixth century. The general impres- sion of its art is that it continues the artistic tradition of the Golan synagogues, but one can note a tendency towards simplification, as well as the appearance of many new features such as the unusual capitals. Kanaf. Located on a high ridge north- east of the Sea of Galilee, Kanaf was discovered by Oliphant (1886) and Schumacher and surveyed by Sukenik




(1935: 87-91). I conducted excavations at the site in 1979-1981.

Only part of the exterior walls of the synagogue survived the construction of a vaulted granary at the end of the nineteenth century. The plan of the synagogue was an irregular rectangle (16 by 13.25 meters) with the facade on the short side on the west. The lintel and jamb stones of the beautifully decorated main portal were found lying in front of the west wall, probably dislodged by an earthquake. The frame of the portal was decorated with molded bands of reliefs, including a vine scroll emerging from an amphora, astragal, egg-and-dart, acanthus leaves, and guilloche. The lintel stone carries an Aramaic inscription naming the donor: "Yoseh bar Halfo bar Honio." On each side of the entrance there was a medallion done in sunken relief. The one on the left shows a star encircled by entwined polygons; the one on the right shows a conch surrounded by a populated meander band. Because such medallions are typical of churches of Syria, the origin of the artisans working at Kanaf is obvious.

The only other fragments of the facade that were found are part of a small circular window (a feature very popular in the houses of the Hauran and Bashan during the Byzan- tine period) and broken pieces of a cyma-shaped cornice decorated with a shallow relief of double meanders.

The remains of a side entrance still stand in the north wall. A lintel found in secondary use in a recent building, and carrying a bas-relief of a vine scroll with four birds pecking at the grapes, may belong to this door.

The interior of the synagogue was completely destroyed by the new construction. Probes below the recent floor revealed the remains of column footings, eight in all, in two rows. The shafts of the columns and the Doric capitals of both lower and upper stories were found in secondary use nearby. The windows were set along the walls of the galleries

(the second-story floors above the aisles along each long side of the main hall). Between the windows there were semicolumns attached to the outside wall, each with a diagonal Ionic half-capital; one of these had a small three-branched menorah engraved on it.

The date of the synagogue has been determined by the coins found in its foundation fill. The latest are coins of Emperor Anastasius I, which were issued from 498 until 518 C.E. Thus, a date at the beginning of the sixth century is indicated. Comments. Many new synagogues were built in the Golan during the sixth century C.E. Some replaced structures ruined or out of use (for instance, Qasrin and possibly Yahu- diyya), while others were original structures reflecting economic pros- perity (for instance, Kanaf). These synagogues can be put into several families according to their architectural style and decoration. In the "Qasrin family" and the "Kanaf family" the resemblance among in- dividual members is close.'3 On the other hand, the structures at et- Taiyibe and Umm el-Kanatir are dif- ficult to assign to subgroups.

All the synagogues of the sixth century show a comparative simplicity and a marked decline in the amount of architectural decoration. Gone are the pedestals, the friezes

Reconstruction of the main portal of the synagogue at Kanaf Note the multiple bands of molded relief displaying a wide variety of decorative styles, including vine and scroll, egg- and-dart, acanthus leaves, and guilloche. The two medallions flanking the portal are carved in sunken relief The Aramaic inscription above the lintel names the donor: "Yoseh bar Halfo bar Honio." Drawing by B. Wool.

with rinceaux, the rich geisons, the molded windows, and most of the animal sculptures. All we have of the last are eagles, lions, and a few birds, posed on the apex of pedi- ments (as at Kasabiyye) or in relief on lintels (Dabbura), or crowning the Torah shrine (Umm el-Kanatir). The ornaments in this group were

The plan of the synagogue at Kanaf was an irregular rectangle measuring 16 by 13.25 meters. Although the interior had been completely destroyed, probes beneath the recent floor revealed the remains of column footings, making it possible to reconstruct the two rows of four columns each shown here.

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Above: This reconstruction of the synagogue at Kanaf reveals the simplicity and sparse architectural decoration characteristic of Golan synagogues of the second group (built in the early sixth century C.E.).

Note that the decoration was limited to the main portal and that Doric capitals were the rule. Right: This fragment of a semicolumn is one of several that were attached to the exterior side walls at Kanaf, placed between the windows on the upper story Each of the columns had a diagonal Ionic capital. This one has a small three-branched menorah engraved between two of the order's characteristic egg shapes.

confined to the main entrance and to lintels and capitals, and the repertoire of moldings and motifs is rela- tively poor. Some buildings carried no decoration (for instance, Salabe, el-Khasha, and Zavitan) or only a very simple one. This artistic trend is similar to what was happening in architectural decoration at the same time in the Hauran. The ornamentation of churches in the fifth and sixth centuries was concise, and the few motifs were simply executed.

Jewish symbols, however, appear to have been more abundant in the sixth century. Added to the emblem of the menorah was the symbol of

the Torah shrine: It was usually a concise symbol-two columns supporting an arch, sometimes with a menorah on either side (for instance, CAssalieh). From Ghadriyya we have a lintel with a relief of an aedicula circled with a geometric design.'4

Conclusion The finds from the synagogues of the Golan are of exceptional quantity and artistic richness. We therefore have before us a situation in which diversified artistic currents, colored with spiritual and religious notions, occurred within a very limited region. This will make it possible for a

stylistic analysis to be carried out that has, in addition to its value to art history, important implications for the study of the history and culture of the Jews in the Holy Land. These observations will be especially worth- while in the absence of literary sources. Thus, we might ask such questions as: Does the art and architectural style of the synagogues reflect the origin of the Jewish communities that came to settle in the Golan in the fourth century C.E.? Does their style show a continuous source of influence? What sort of cultural and spiritual background is indicated by the choice of symbols? Do the differences among various buildings suggest ties with neighboring communities? Do the synagogues reveal a chronological change or only a social and economic dif- ference? These and other questions await further work, both new research and continued assessments of presently known material.

One thing, however, is clear already from the wealth of materials we now have at hand. The geographi- cal position of the Golan, between the Galilee and the Hauran, gave the artisans of the region the oppor- tunity to draw on influences and traditions of decoration from both areas, and in doing this they left us a distinct creation. The synagogues of the Golan thus speak to us as noth- ing else from their time can.

Notes 'In addition to identifying new sites,

the survey recorded all previously known ones. The synagogues of the Golan were discovered for the first time in the 1880s by Laurence Oliphant and Gottlieb Schumacher, both of whom recognized their similarity to the Gali- lean synagogues, already well known, recorded by the Survey of Western Palestine. These pioneers were followed in 1905 by Heinrich Kohl and Carl Watzinger, who, within the framework of their research on Galilee, unearthed synagogues at ed- Dikke and Umm el-Kanatir in the Golan. In 1932 a team from the Hebrew Univer- sity, on a horseback excursion to the




Golan led by Eleazar L. Sukenik and carried out after the completion of the excavation of the Hammath Gader synagogue, documented and photographed several synagogues. Until that time, the remains of synagogues were known at only six sites: er-Rafid, ed-Dikke, el-Huseiniyye, Kanaf, Umm el-Kanatir, and Ahmadiyye. Synagogue research practically died out during the French mandate and the Syrian state -the last visit to the synagogue at Kanaf was made in 1942 by M. Neistat. It was, however, vigorously re- vived following the Six-day War by sur- veyors of the Golan Heights such as C. Epstein, Shemaryahu Gutman, Danny Urman, Shmuel Bar-Lev, and M. Ben-Ari. Dozens of sites were discovered that featured decorated stones, many with Jewish symbols, that may have belonged to ruined synagogues. My survey was begun in 1977. The fieldwork for this intensive, problem-oriented study was essentially completed in 1981, and since that time finds havt been processed and limited excavations conducted to clarify definite points, chief among which is the question of chronology. A field survey alone cannot supply the data for a chronology of these synagogues.

2In fact, the "Golan type" synagogue is not confined to the Golan but can also be found in the basalt-covered areas west of it, such as the Chorazin-Rosh Pina plateau and Ramat Issachar.

In Galilee, synagogues at Yafia and Sumaka were also oriented towards the west.

41n many synagogue ground plans, recorded by excavation or survey, it was found that the main portal of the facade was, surprisingly, not located in the center of the wall on the axis of symmetry. This was the case both in structures oriented to the south (CEn Nashut, Umm el-Kanatir, and Beit Lavi) and to the west (Zumimra, Zavitan, and perhaps Batra). The excavation at cEn Nashut provided us with an explanation. The shifting of the portal to a position off-center was meant to make room for a Torah shrine, which would then be on the inside of the qodesh wall and of

equal status to the portal. Thus, in a manner unique to the Golan, was the problem solved of locating both the portal and the Torah shrine on the same wall. In Galilee this problem was sometimes resolved by building two shrines

flanking the central portal.

5Each of these examples, typical of a family, has been excavated; the other members of the family are known only from the survey.

6Similar profiles were found at el- Huseiniyye and er-Rafid, which belong to the same stylistic family.

7The most important lintel found at the site, one that is covered with a relief of a wreath held by two winged victories, does not fit into the main portal sequence of formal entablature. It may have belonged to a side door.

8Similar capitals were found at Zumimra and Chorazin.

9Because similar fragments of such windows have been found at other sites (three at er-Rafid and two at Ghadriyya), we cannot assume, as some scholars have, that the fragments served as parts of the Torah shrine.

'oSchumacher called this site Deir Rahib.

"ISimilar rude and nonclassical capitals are found in some churches of the fifth and sixth centuries C.E. in Syria, notably those at Qanawat and Bostra.

12Lions ornamenting the shrine are known from the mosaic floor of the synagogue at Beth Alfa and the rock carv- ings in the cemetery at Beth Shecarim and elsewhere.

13To the "Qasrin family" belong four buildings in the same vicinity: Yahudiy- ya, Qusbiya, cAssalieh, and, of course, Qasrin. According to the excavations at Qasrin, there is no doubt that this group dates to the beginning of the sixth century C.E. The architectural fragments of these four sites are identical in their molding, and this is an unusual phe- nomenon. Identical moldings appear on bases, capitals, and frames around the main entrance. The ornamentation is limited to only these items, and symbols appear only over the portal (see the de- tailed description of Qasrin in MaCoz and Killebrew 1988). They reveal an entirely new architectural concept in the Golan synagogues.

14This pattern has an exact parallel in the lintel of the church at Mallah in the Hauran; there it encircles a cross.

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Ancient Synagogues of the Golan