Ancient Rome 1

Ancient RomeAncient Rome was a civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community, founded on the Italian Peninsulaas early as the 10th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea, and centered at the city of Rome, it becameone of the largest empires in the ancient world.[1]

In its centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to an increasinglyautocratic empire. It came to dominate South-Western Europe, South-Eastern Europe/Balkans and the Mediterraneanregion through conquest and assimilation.Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire, includingItaly, Hispania, Gaul, Britannia and Africa broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. Thisdisintegration is the landmark historians use to divide the Ancient period from the medieval era and the "Dark Ages".The Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, after Diocletian divided the Empire in 286, andcomprising Greece, the Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, survived this crisis. Despite the later loss of Syria andEgypt to the Arab-Islamic Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire continued for another millennium, until its remainswere finally annexed by the emerging Turkish Ottoman Empire. This eastern, Christian, medieval stage of theempire is usually called the Byzantine Empire by historians, though the Byzantines would have maintained that theirnation was a continuation of the ancient Roman tradition.Roman civilization is often grouped into "classical antiquity" with ancient Greece, a civilization that, along with theEtruscan civilization and the many other civilizations they conquered and assimilated, inspired much of the cultureof ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of government, law, war, art, literature,architecture, technology, religion, and language in the Western world, and its history continues to have a majorinfluence on the world today.

History

Founding myth

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by

a she-wolf.

According to the founding myth of Rome, the city was founded onApril 21, 753 BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus whodescended from the Trojan prince Aeneas[2] and were grandsons of theLatin King, Numitor of Alba Longa. King Numitor was deposed fromhis throne by his cruel brother Amulius while Numitor's daughter,Rhea Silvia, gave birth to the twins.[3] [4] As Rhea Silvia was raped andimpregnated by Mars, the twins were considered half-divine.

The new king feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne,so they were to be drowned.[4] A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife insome accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were oldenough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.[5] [6]

The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in aquarrel over which one of them would reign as the King of Rome, though some sources state the quarrel was aboutwho was going to give their name to the city.[7] Romulus became the source of the city's name.[8] In order to attractpeople to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Romewhich became rich in manpower but was bereft of women. Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes andattempted to secure marriage rights but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the

Ancient Rome 2

Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins andthe Sabines.[9]

Another legend recorded by Greek historian Dionysius says that Prince Aenas led a group of Trojans on a seavoyage. After a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, themen wanted to take to the sea again, but the women who were traveling with them didn't want to leave. One woman,named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the menwere angry with Roma, but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlementafter the woman who torched their ships.[10]

KingdomThe city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade.[11]

According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the 8th century BC,though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the Latin tribe of Italy, on the top of the PalatineHill.[12] [13]

The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in theregion by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost powerin the area by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented theirgovernment by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.[14]

Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of powerfor the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. Numa Pompilius was the second king of Rome,succeeding Romulus. He began Rome's great building projects with his royal palace the Regia and the complex ofthe Vestal virgins.

RepublicAccording to tradition and later writers such as Livy, the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, when thelast of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed, and a system based on annually electedmagistrates and various representative assemblies was established.[15] A constitution set a series of checks andbalances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercisedexecutive authority as imperium, or military command.[16] The consuls had to work with the senate, which wasinitially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power.[17]

Other magistracies in the Republic include praetors, aediles, and quaestors.[18] The magistracies were originallyrestricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebeians.[19] Republican voting assembliesincluded the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men tothe most important offices, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.[20]

The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans.[21] The last threatto Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in281 BC, but this effort failed as well.[22] [23] The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies instrategic areas, establishing stable control over the region.[24] In the second half of the 3rd century BC, Rome clashedwith Carthage in the first of three Punic Wars. These wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests, of Sicily andHispania, and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power.[25] [26] After defeating the Macedonian and SeleucidEmpires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.[27] [28]

Ancient Rome 3

Gaius Marius, a Roman general andpolitician who dramatically reformed

the Roman military

Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces'expense, but soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away fromhome longer and could not keep up their land, and the increased reliance onforeign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paidwork.[29] [30]

Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provinces, and tax farmingcreated new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class ofmerchants, the equestrians.[31] The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senatefrom engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join theSenate, they were severely restricted in political power.[11] [32] The Senatesquabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocking important land reforms and refusingto give the equestrian class a larger say in the government.

Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidatedthe electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2ndcentury BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that wouldredistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed, but the Senate passedsome of their reforms in trying to placate the growing unrest of the plebeian and equestrian classes.

The denial of Roman citizenship to allied Italian cities led to the Social War of 91–88 BC.[33] The military reformsof Gaius Marius resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerfulgeneral could hold the city and Senate ransom.[34] This led to civil war between Marius and his protegé Sulla, andculminated in Sulla's dictatorship of 81–79 BC.[35]

In the mid-1st century BC, three men, Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, formed a secret pact—the FirstTriumvirate—to control the Republic. After Caesar's conquest of Gaul, a stand-off between Caesar and the Senateled to civil war, with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made dictator forlife.[36]

In 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated by senators who opposed Caesar's assumption of absolute power and wanted torestore constitutional government, but in the aftermath a Second Triumvirate, consisting of Caesar's designated heir,Octavian, and his former supporters, Mark Antony and Lepidus, took power.[37] [38] However, this alliance soondescended into a struggle for dominance. Lepidus was stripped of the territories he controlled and given a purelyceremonial position by Octavian, and when Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt at the Battle ofActium in 31 BC, he became the undisputed ruler of Rome.[39]

EmpireWith his enemies defeated, Octavian took the name Augustus and assumed almost absolute power, retaining only apretense of the Republican form of government.[40] His designated successor, Tiberius, took power without seriousopposition, establishing the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which lasted until the death of Nero in 68.[41] The territorialexpansion of what was now the Roman Empire continued, and the state remained secure,[42] despite a series ofemperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt (for example, Caligula is argued by some to have been insane andNero had a reputation for cruelty and being more interested in his private concerns than the affairs of the state[43] ).Their rule was followed by the Flavian dynasty.[44] During the reign of the "Five Good Emperors" (96–180), theEmpire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural zenith.[45] The state was secure from both internal and externalthreats, and the Empire prospered during the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace").[46] [47] With the conquest of Daciaduring the reign of Trajan, the Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned2.5 million square miles (6.5 million km²).[48] The Antonine Plague that swept through the Empire in 165–180 ADkilled an estimated five million people.[49]

Ancient Rome 4

The Roman Empire at its greatest extent under Trajan in AD 117.

The period between 193 and 235 wasdominated by the Severan dynasty, and sawseveral incompetent rulers, such asElagabalus.[50] This and the increasinginfluence of the army on imperial successionled to a long period of imperial collapse andexternal invasions known as the Crisis of theThird Century.[51] [52] The crisis was endedby the more competent rule of Diocletian,who in 293 divided the Empire into aneastern and western half ruled by a tetrarchyof two co-emperors and their two juniorcolleagues.[53]

The various co-rulers of the Empirecompeted and fought for supremacy for more than half a century. On May 11, 330, Emperor Constantine I firmlyestablished Byzantium as the capital of the Roman Empire and renamed it Constantinople.[54] The Empire waspermanently divided into the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) and the Western RomanEmpire in 395.[55]

The Western Empire was constantly harassed by barbarian invasions, and the gradual decline of the western Empirecontinued over the centuries.[56] In the 4th century, the westward migration of the Huns caused the Visigoths to seekrefuge within the borders of the Roman Empire.[57] In 410, the Visigoths, under the leadership of Alaric I, sackedRome.[58]

The Vandals invaded Roman provinces in Gaul, Hispania, and northern Africa, and in 455 sacked Rome.[59] OnSeptember 4, 476, the Germanic chief Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor in the west, Romulus Augustus, toabdicate.[60] Having lasted for about 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the West came to an end.[61]

The Eastern Empire suffered a similar fate, though not as drastic. Justinian managed to briefly reconquer NorthernAfrica and Italy, but Byzantine possessions in the West were reduced to southern Italy and Sicily within a few yearsafter Justinian's death.[62] In the east, partially resulting from the destructive Plague of Justinian, the Byzantines werethreatened by the rise of Islam, whose followers rapidly conquered the territories of Syria, Armenia and Egypt duringthe Byzantine-Arab Wars, and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople.[63] [64] In the following century, theArabs also captured southern Italy and Sicily.[65]

The Byzantines, however, managed to stop further Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century and,beginning in the 9th century, reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.[11] [66] In 1000 AD, the Eastern Empire was atits height: Basileios II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade flourished.[67] However, soon after theexpansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. This finally led the empire into a dramaticdecline. Several centuries of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexius IComnenus to send a call for help to the West in 1095.[63]

The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in theFourth Crusade. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 fragmented what little remained of the empire intosuccessor states, the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea.[68] After the recapture of Constantinople by imperial forces,the empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the Aegean coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end whenMehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453.[69]

Ancient Rome 5

SocietyThe imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center of its time, with a population of about one million people(about the size of London in the early 19th century, when London was the largest city in the world), with somehigh-end estimates of 14 million and low-end estimates of 450,000.[70] [71] [72] The public spaces in Rome resoundedwith such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariottraffic during the day. Historical estimates show that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction ofancient Rome (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy)[73] lived in innumerable urban centers,with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization bypre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had a forum and temples and similar style buildings, on a smallerscale, to those found in Rome.

Class structure

Area under Roman control

Roman society is largely viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) atthe bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens(cives) at the top. Free citizens were also divided by class. Thebroadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who couldtrace their ancestry to one of the 100 Patriarchs at the founding of thecity, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important inthe later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy andentered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times.Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as hisancestor was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the first of his family tohold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novushomo ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry,however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religiousoffices remained restricted to patricians.

A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes wasdetermined periodically by the Censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, whodominated politics and command of the army. Next came the equestrians (equites, sometimes translated "knights"),originally those who could afford a warhorse, who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes,originally based on what military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citizens whohad no property at all, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and areoften described as being just above freed slaves in wealth and prestige.Voting power in the Republic was dependent on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of thericher classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the proletarii being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting wasdone in class order and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were oftenunable even to cast their votes.Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thusnot allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the same time the limited rights of women gradually were expanded(due to emancipation) and women reached freedom from paterfamilias, gained property rights and even had morejuristidctial rights than their husbands, but still they had no voting rights and were absent from politics.[74]

Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Right, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio

Ancient Rome 6

("without vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenshipafter the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire byCaracalla in 212.

Family

A group portrait depicted on glass, dating fromc.250 A.D., showing a mother, son and daughter.

It was once considered to be a depiction of thefamily of Valentinian III.

The basic units of Roman society were households and families.[75]

Households included the head (usually the father) of the household,pater familias (father of the family), his wife, children, and otherrelatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of thehousehold.[75] The head of the household had great power (patriapotestas, "father's power") over those living with him: He could forcemarriage (usually for money) and divorce, sell his children intoslavery, claim his dependents' property as his own, and even had theright to punish or kill family members (though this last right apparentlyceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC).[76]

Patria potestas even extended over adult sons with their ownhouseholds: A man was not considered a paterfamilias, nor could he

truly hold property, while his own father lived.[76] [77] During the early period of Rome's history, a daughter, whenshe married, fell under the control (manus) of the paterfamilias of her husband's household, although by the lateRepublic this fell out of fashion, as a woman could choose to continue recognizing her father's family as her truefamily.[78] However, as Romans reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had belonged to herhusband's family.[79]

Little affection was shown for the children of Rome. Unwanted children might be sold as slaves; the mother or anelderly relative brought up both boys and girls; children might wait on tables for the family, but were forbidden toparticipate in the conversation. A Greek nurse usually taught the children Latin and Greek; the father, the boys howto swim and ride, although he sometimes hired a slave to teach them instead. At seven a boy began his education.Having no school building, classes were held on a rooftop (if dark, the boy had to carry a lantern to school).Wax-covered boards were used because paper, papyrus, and parchment were too expensive—or he could just writein the sand. A loaf of bread to be eaten was also carried. Of course, rich boys had their materials carried by aslave.[80]

Groups of related households formed a family (gens). Families were based on blood ties or adoption, but were alsopolitical and economic alliances. Especially during the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or GentesMaiores, came to dominate political life.Ancient Roman marriage was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association,especially in the upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when they reached an agebetween twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls marriedvery young, there is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early twenties.

EducationIn the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of Greek origin.[81] [82] [83] The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agriculture, warfare, Roman traditions, and public affairs.[11] Young boys learned much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.[11] The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system was still in use among some noble families into the

Ancient Rome 7

imperial era).[11]

Educational practices were modified after the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and theresulting Greek influence, although it should be noted that Roman educational practices were still much differentthan Greek ones.[11] [84] If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a privateschool outside the home called a ludus, where a teacher (called a litterator or a magister ludi, and often of Greekorigin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.[11] [83] [85]

Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a grammaticus) taught themabout Greek and Roman literature.[11] [11] At the age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school (where theteacher, almost always Greek, was called a rhetor).[11] [11] Education at this level prepared students for legal careers,and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome.[11] Pupils went to school every day, except religiousfestivals and market days. There were also summer holidays.

GovernmentInitially, Rome was ruled by kings, who were elected from each of Rome's major tribes in turn.[86] The exact natureof the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chiefexecutive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king's authority (Imperium) was likelyabsolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were threeadministrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata, whichcould endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comitia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestlycollege that could assemble the people to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast andholiday schedule for the next month.

Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: Cicero attacks Catilina, from a19th century fresco.

The class struggles of the Roman Republicresulted in an unusual mixture of democracyand oligarchy. The word republic comesfrom the Latin res publica, which literallytranslates to "public business". Roman lawstraditionally could only be passed by a voteof the Popular assembly (Comitia Tributa).Likewise, candidates for public positionshad to run for election by the people.However, the Roman Senate represented anoligarchic institution, which acted as anadvisory body.

In the Republic, the Senate held greatauthority (auctoritas), but no real legislativepower; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, itwas difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen fromamong the most accomplished patricians by Censors (Censura), who could also remove a Senator from his office ifhe was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato the Elder, embracing one'swife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator Sulla, Quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate,though most of his reforms did not survive.

The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming. Government positions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were funded from the office-holder's private finances. To prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several

Ancient Rome 8

times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion ofRome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire.In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The Roman Emperor wasportrayed as only a princeps, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authoritypreviously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the emperors became increasingly autocratic, andthe Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracyfrom the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate.The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally plannedbudget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire.

LawThe roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may be traced to the law of the twelve tables(from 449 BC) to the codification of Emperor Justinian I (around 530 AD). Roman law as preserved in Justinian'scodes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental WesternEurope. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17thcentury.The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes,consisted of Ius Civile, Ius Gentium, and Ius Naturale. The Ius Civile ("Citizen law") was the body of common lawsthat applied to Roman citizens.[87] The Praetores Urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the people who hadjurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Ius Gentium ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws thatapplied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.[75] The Praetores Peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus)were the people who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Ius Naturale encompassed naturallaw, the body of laws that were considered common to all being.

Economy

Night view of the Trajan's Market, built by Apollodorus of Damascus

Ancient Rome commanded a vast areaof land, with tremendous natural andhuman resources. As such, Rome'seconomy remained focused on farmingand trade. Agricultural free tradechanged the Italian landscape, and bythe 1st century BC, vast grape andolive estates had supplanted theyeoman farmers, who were unable tomatch the imported grain price. The

annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil andwine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced, but farm productivity was low, around 1 tonper hectare.

Industrial and manufacturing activities were smaller. The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying ofstones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, productionwas on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at mostdozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers.The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of

Ancient Rome 9

the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when theconquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership.Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinagesystem, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some haveeven been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarkedlumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, butweighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal.After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic.Horses were too expensive, and other pack animals too slow. Mass trade on the Roman roads connected militaryposts, not markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of commoditiesbetween Roman regions until the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a tradingvessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of theMediterranean.[48] Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips wasmuch larger.Some economists like Peter Temin consider the Roman Empire a market economy, similar in its degree ofcapitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.[88]

Military

This article is part of the series on:Military of ancient Rome (portal)

753 BC – AD 476

Structural history

Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)

Roman navy (fleets, admirals)

Campaign history

Lists of wars and battles

Decorations and punishments

Technological history

Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)

Political history

Strategy and tactics

Infantry tactics

Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian's Wall)

Ancient Rome 10

Modern replica of lorica segmentatatype armor, used in conjunction with

the popular chainmail after the 1stcentury AD

The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporarycity-states influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen militia that practiced hoplitetactics. It was small (the population of free men of military age was then about9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the comitia centuriata, thebody of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and twoproviding light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and itsstance during this period was essentially defensive.[89]

By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor ofa more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or sometimes 60) mencalled maniples could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirtymaniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a legion,totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 men.[90]

The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which wasequipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines ofmanipular heavy infantry (hastati, principes and triarii), a force of light infantry(velites), and the cavalry (equites). With the new organization came a neworientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward

adjoining city-states.[90]

At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred lightinfantry, and several hundred cavalrymen, for a total of 4,000 to 5,000 men.[91] Legions were often significantlyunderstrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties,disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because they wererecently recruited, while Caesar's legions were often well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul.This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.[92]

Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (anadsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,[93] and who supplied his own equipment and, in thecase of equites, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) mightparticipate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serveexcept in rare emergencies.[94]

After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the propertyqualifications for service were gradually reduced. Beginning with Gaius Marius in 107 BC, citizens without propertyand some urban-dwelling citizens (proletarii) were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionariescontinued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years ifemergencies required it although Brunt argues that six or seven years was more typical.[95]

Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid stipendium (amounts are disputed but Caesar famously"doubled" payments to his troops to 225 denarii a year), could anticipate booty and donatives (distributions ofplunder by commanders) from successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, often were grantedallotments of land upon retirement.[96] Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the auxilia) were oftenrecruited in the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens inTransalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.[97] By the time of Caesar Augustus, the ideal of thecitizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Legionaries were paid 900sesterces a year and could expect a payment of 12,000 sesterces on retirement.[98]

At the end of the Civil War, Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.[99] During the Principate, the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The auxilia remained independent cohorts, and legionary

Ancient Rome 11

troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit, the cohortesequitatae, combining cavalry and legionaries in a single formation could be stationed at garrisons or outposts, couldfight on their own as balanced small forces or could combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force.This increase in organizational flexibility helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.[100]

The Emperor Gallienus (253–268 AD) began a reorganization that created the last military structure of the lateEmpire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (theComitatenses or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve.The border troops (limitanei) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The basic unit of thefield army was the "regiment", legiones or auxilia for infantry and vexellationes for cavalry. Evidence suggests thatnominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records showlower actual troop levels (800 and 400).[101]

Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes. In addition to Roman troops,the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as foederati. By 400 AD,foederati regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by theEmpire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. In addition to the foederati, the Empirealso used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies.Under the command of the senior Roman general present, they were led at lower levels by their own officers.[101]

Drawing of a Roman ballista

Military leadership evolved greatly over the course of the history ofRome. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies were led by the kingsof Rome. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forceswere under the command of one of the two elected consuls for theyear. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorialelite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known asthe cursus honorum, would have served first as quaestor (often postedas deputies to field commanders), then as praetor.[102]

Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might beappointed by the Senate as a propraetor or proconsul (depending onthe highest office held before) to govern a foreign province. Morejunior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) wereselected by their commanders from their own clientelae or thoserecommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.[102]

Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitarycommand, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a legatus(legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate commanded the legion(legatus legionis) and also served as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legionwas commanded by a legate and the legates were commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higherrank).[103]

During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with Diocletian), the Augustan model wasabandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group ofprovinces was given to generals (duces) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Romanelite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency,these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them.Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attackand takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.[104]

Ancient Rome 12

Less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officialsknown as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was givenup in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The First Punic War required that Rome build large fleets, and it did solargely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the RomanRepublic. The quinquireme was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay ofRoman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels.[105]

As compared with a trireme, the quinquireme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen(an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt andperfect boarding tactics using a troop of about 40 marines in lieu of the ram. Ships were commanded by a navarch, arank equal to a centurion, who were usually not citizens. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated bynon-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.[105]

Information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised several fleetsincluding warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys withthree to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouthof the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (classes) werepart of the limitanei (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and theDanube. That prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated asauxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengthsduring this period are not well known, although fleets were commanded by prefects.[106]

CultureLife in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number ofmonumental structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. It had fountains with freshdrinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts, theatres, gymnasiums, bath complexes complete withlibraries and shops, marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome,residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas.In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palacederives. The low Plebian and middle Equestrian classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, or Insulae,which were almost like modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class landlords for the rental incomescollected, were often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided by a free supply of grain, andentertained by gladatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the upper class Patricians, whoseassistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.

CuisineThe poor ate vegetables, fish, salt, and olive oil. Little meat was eaten. Some who had to eat meat complained of it asa hardship. Usually, no breakfast was eaten and, for lunch, leftovers were used. For the rich, dinner was servedbefore four in the afternoon and lasted from three to four hours. Hands were washed between courses. One emperorserved twenty-two courses at his dinner parties. If guests were invited to dinner, slaves were sent to bring them ontime, as the water clocks did not always agree. Women, having sent their gowns in advance, were already dressed inthe home of the hostess. When guests asked for their slippers, they were ready to leave.

Ancient Rome 13

LanguageThe native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language the grammar of which relies little on word order,conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems.[107] Its alphabet was based on the Etruscanalphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet.[108] Although surviving Latin literature consists almostentirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC,the spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin ingrammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.[109]

While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken bythe well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of theRoman Empire, which later became the Byzantine Empire, Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the deathof Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government.[110] The expansion of the RomanEmpire spread Latin throughout Europe, and Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations, graduallyshifting into many distinct Romance languages.

ReligionArchaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complexinterrelations between gods and humans.[111] Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but werevaguely defined sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its owngenius, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organized under a strict system of priestlyoffices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy,and its chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the state religion. Flamens took care of the cults ofvarious gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religiousresponsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman empire, emperors were held to be gods, and the formalizedimperial cult became increasingly prominent.As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods.[112]

Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and Neptune withPoseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the empire, theRomans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples andpriests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.[113]

Beginning with Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD, Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, andat some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor Diocletian, the persecution ofChristians reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state underDiocletian's successor, Constantine I, with the signing of the Edict of Milan in 313, and quickly became dominant.All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.[114]

Ancient Rome 14

Art, music and literature

Woman playing a kithara.

Roman painting styles show Greek influences, and surviving examplesare primarily frescoes used to adorn the walls and ceilings of countryvillas, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings onwood, ivory, and other materials.[115] [116] Several examples of Romanpainting have been found at Pompeii, and from these art historiansdivide the history of Roman painting into four periods. The first styleof Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to theearly- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations ofmarble and masonry, though sometimes including depictions ofmythological characters.[115] [116]

The second style of Roman painting began during the early 1st centuryBC, and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensionalarchitectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred duringthe reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the realism of the second style in favor of simpleornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with amonochrome background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology,while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.[115] [116]

Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture ofrealism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent,created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Romanvictories.Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are ofhistorical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to producepoetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.[117] Inthe Roman military, musical instruments such as the tuba (a long trumpet) or the cornu (similar to a French horn)were used to give various commands, while the bucina (possibly a trumpet or horn) and the lituus (probably anelongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.[118] Music was used in the amphitheatersbetween fights and in the odea, and in these settings is known to have featured the cornu and the hydraulis (a type ofwater organ).[119]

Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with tibiae (double pipes) at sacrifices, cymbals andTambourines at orgiastic cults, and rattles and hymns across the spectrum.[120] Some music historians believe thatmusic was used at almost all public ceremonies.[121] Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made asignificant contribution to the theory or practice of music.[117]

The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest that the Romans had asex-saturated culture.[122]

Scholarly studiesInterest in studying ancient Rome arose during the Age of Enlightenment in France. Charles Montesquieu wrote a work Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans. The first major work was The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, which encompassed the period from the end of 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid high tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a founder of the examination of ancient Roman history and wrote The Roman History, tracing the period until the First Punic war. Niebuhr tried to determine the way the Roman

Ancient Rome 15

tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical ethos preserved mainly in the noblefamilies.During the Napoleonic period a work titled The History of Romans by Victor Duruy appeared. It highlighted theCaesarean period popular at the time. History of Rome, Roman constitutional law and Corpus InscriptionumLatinarum, all by Theodor Mommsen, became very important milestones. Later the work Greatness and Decline ofRome by Guglielmo Ferrero was published. The Russian work Очерки по истории римского землевладения,преимущественно в эпоху Империи (The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire)by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the greatest landowners duringthe end of the Republic.

Games and activitiesThe youth of Rome had several forms of play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing.[123] Inthe countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.[124] The Romans also had several formsof ball playing, including one resembling handball.[123] Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popularpastimes.[123] Women did not take part in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunityfor entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.[125] Plebeians sometimes enjoyedsimilar parties through clubs or associations, although recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns.[125]

Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as leapfrog.[124] [125]

A popular form of entertainment was gladiatorial combats. Gladiators fought either to the death, or to "first blood"with a variety of weapons in different scenarios. These fights achieved their height of popularity under the emperorClaudius, who placed the outcome of the combat firmly in the hands of the emperor with a hand gesture. Contrary topopular representations in film, several experts believe the gesture for death was not "thumbs down". Although noone is certain about what the gestures were, some experts conclude that the emperor signaled "death" by holding araised fist to the winning combatant and then extending his thumb upwards, while "mercy" was indicated by a raisedfist with no extended thumb.[126] Animal shows were also popular with the Romans, where foreign animals wereeither displayed for the public or combined with gladiatorial combat. A prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, wasthrown into the arena and an animal was released.The Circus Maximus, another popular site in Rome, was primarily used for horse and chariot racing, and when theCircus was flooded, there could be sea battles. It was also used for many other events.[127] The Circus could hold upto 385,000 people;[128] people all over Rome would visit it. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and one withseven dolphins, lay in the middle of the track of Circus Maximus, and when the racers made a lap, one of each wouldbe removed. This was done to keep the spectators and the racers informed of the race statistics.Other than for sports, the Circus Maximus was also an area of marketing and gambling. Higher authorities, such asthe emperor, also attended games in the Circus Maximus, as it was considered rude to avoid attendance. The higherauthorities, knights, and many other people who were involved with the race, sat in reserved seats located aboveeveryone else. It was also considered inappropriate for emperors to favour a team. The Circus Maximus was createdin 600 BC and hosted the last horse-racing game in 549 AD, after a custom enduring over a millennium.

Ancient Rome 16

Technology

Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in c. 19 BC. It is aWorld Heritage Site.

Ancient Rome boasted impressive technological feats,using many advancements that were lost in the MiddleAges and not rivaled again until the 19th and 20thcenturies. Many practical Roman innovations wereadopted from earlier Greek designs. Advancementswere often divided and based on craft. Groups ofartisans jealously guarded new technologies as tradesecrets.

Roman civil engineering and military engineeringconstituted a large part of Rome's technologicalsuperiority and legacy, and contributed to theconstruction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts,baths, theaters and arenas. Many monuments, such asthe Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, stillremain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.

The Romans were renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classicalarchitecture". Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, Rome borrowed heavily from Greecein adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, compositeand Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architecturalinnovations until the end of the Republic.

The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome tothe southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.

In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use concrete,widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd centuryBC. It was a powerful cement derived from pozzolana,and soon supplanted marble as the chief Romanbuilding material and allowed many daringarchitectural schemata.[129] Also in the 1st century BC,Vitruvius wrote De architectura, possibly the firstcomplete treatise on architecture in history. In late 1stcentury BC, Rome also began to use glassblowing soonafter its invention in Syria about 50 BC. Mosaics tookthe Empire by storm after samples were retrievedduring Lucius Cornelius Sulla's campaigns in Greece.

Concrete made possible the paved, durable Romanroads, many of which were still in use a thousand yearsafter the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramaticallyincreased Rome's power and influence. It was originally constructed to allow Roman legions to be rapidly deployed.But these highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—theorigin of the saying "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained way stations that providedrefreshments to travelers at regular intervals along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established asystem of horse relays for couriers that allowed a dispatch to travel up to 800 kilometers (500 mi) in 24 hours.

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to aid in their agriculture. The city of Rome was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).[130] Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Sometimes, where valleys deeper than 50 metres (165 ft) had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to convey

Ancient Rome 17

water across a valley.waterhistory

The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths,called thermae, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have flushtoilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshesand carry waste into the Tiber river.Some historians have speculated that lead pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread leadpoisoning, which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall ofRome. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not beshut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a few taps were in use.[131]

Historians• Josephus• Livy• Julius Caesar• Suetonius• Tacitus• Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) - Decline and Fall of Eastern Roman Empire• Michael Grant Greece and Rome[132]

• Peter Green (1924- )- Ancient Greece[133]

• Barbara Levick (1932- ) Roman emperors [134]

• Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831) - Rome• Michael Rostovtzeff (1870–1952) [135]

• Howard Hayes Scullard (1903–1983) - Rome [136]

• Ronald Syme (1903–1989) Rome[137]

Notes[1] Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995).[2] Adkins, 1998. page 3.[3] The Founding of Rome (http:/ / www. roman-empire. net/ founding/ found-index. html). Retrieved 2007-3-8.[4] Livy, 1998. page 8.[5] Durant, 1944. Pages 12-14.[6] Livy, 1998. pages 9-10.[7] Roggen, Hesse, Haastrup, Omnibus I, H. Aschehoug & Co 1996[8] Livy, 1998. pages 10-11.[9] Myths and Legends- Rome, the Wolf, and Mars (http:/ / ancienthistory. about. com/ cs/ grecoromanmyth1/ a/ mythslegends_3. htm).

Retrieved 2007-3-8.[10] Mellor, Ronald and McGee Marni, The Ancient Roman World p. 15|Citation date March 15, 2009[11] a[12] Matyszak, 2003. page 19.[13] Duiker, 2001. page 129.[14] Ancient Rome and the Roman Empire by Michael Kerrigan. Dorling Kindersley, London: 2001. ISBN 0-7894-8153-7. page 12.[15] Matyszak, 2003. pages 43-44.[16] Adkins, 1998. pages 41-42.[17] Rome: The Roman Republic (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ ROME/ REPUBLIC. HTM) by Richard Hooker. Washington State University.

Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-3-24.[18] Magistratus (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ secondary/ SMIGRA*/ Magistratus. html) by George Long, M.A.

Appearing on pages 723-724 of A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities by William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D. Published by John Murray,London, 1875. Website written 2006-12-8. Retrieved 2007-3-24.

[19] Livy II[20] Adkins, 1998. page 39.[21] Haywood, 1971. pages 350-358.

Ancient Rome 18

[22] Pyrrhus of Epirus (2) (http:/ / www. livius. org/ ps-pz/ pyrrhus/ pyrrhus02. html) and Pyrrhus of Epirus (3) (http:/ / www. livius. org/ ps-pz/pyrrhus/ pyrrhus03. html) by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 2007-3-21.

[23] Haywood, 1971. pages 357-358.[24] Haywood, 1971. page 351.[25] Haywood, 1971. pages 376-393.[26] Rome: The Punic Wars (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ ROME/ PUNICWAR. HTM) by Richard Hooker. Washington State University.

Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-3-22.[27] Bagnall 1990[28] Rome: The Conquest of the Hellenistic Empires (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ ROME/ CONQHELL. HTM) by Richard Hooker.

Washington State University. Written 1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-3-22.[29] Duiker, 2001. pages 136-137.[30] Fall of the Roman Republic, 133-27 BC (http:/ / web. ics. purdue. edu/ ~rauhn/ fall_of_republic. htm). Purdue University. Retrieved

2007-3-24.[31] Eques (Knight) (http:/ / www. livius. org/ ei-er/ eques/ eques. html) by Jona Lendering. Livius.org. Retrieved 2007-3-24.[32] Adkins, 1998. page 38.[33] Durant, 1944. pages 120-122.[34] Long-lasting Effects of Removal of Land Requirement (http:/ / faculty. vassar. edu/ jolott/ old_courses/ republic1998/ marius/ effects. htm).

Retrieved 2007-3-23.[35] Scullard 1982, chapters I-IV[36] Scullard 1982, chapters VI-VII[37] Julius Caesar (100BCE - 44BC) (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ caesar_julius. shtml). (http:/ / bbc. co. uk/ ). Retrieved

2007-3-21.[38] Augustus (31 BC - 14 CE) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ auggie. htm) by Garrett G. Fagan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written

2004-7-5. Retrieved 2007-3-21.[39] Scullard 1982, chapter VIII[40] Augustus (63 BC. - AD14) (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ historic_figures/ augustus. shtml) from bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-3-12.[41] Duiker, 2001. page 140.[42] The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC -68 AD) (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ jucl/ hd_jucl. htm). by the Department of Greek and

Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Written October, 2000. Retrieved 2007-3-18.[43] Nero (54-68 AD) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ nero. htm) by Herbert W. Benario. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 2006-11-10.

Retrieved 2007-3-18.[44] Suetonius[45] Five Good Emperors (http:/ / www. unrv. com/ early-empire/ five-good-emperors. php) from UNRV History. Retrieved 2007-3-12.[46] O'Connell, 1989. page 81.[47] Lecture 12: Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana (http:/ / www. historyguide. org/ ancient/ lecture12b. html) by Steven Kreis. The History

Guide. Written 2006-2-28. Retrieved 2007-3-21.[48] Scarre 1995[49] Past pandemics that ravaged Europe (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ health/ 4381924. stm) by Verity Murphy. BBC News. November 7,

2005.[50] Haywood, 1971. pages 589-592.[51] Crisis of the Third Century (235-285) (http:/ / history. boisestate. edu/ westciv/ empire/ 15. shtml) History of Western Civilization, by E.L.

Skip Knox, Boise State University. Retrieved 2007-3-20.[52] Haywood, 1971. pages 592-596.[53] Diocletian ( 284-305 AD) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ dioclet. htm) by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written

1997-3-17. Retrieved 2007-3-20.[54] Constantine I (306 - 337 AD) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ conniei. htm) by Hans A. Pohlsander. De Imperatoribus Romanis.

Written 2004-1-8. Retrieved 2007-3-20.[55] Honorius (395-423 AD) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ honorius. htm) by Ralph W. Mathisen. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written

1999-6-2. Retrieved 2007-3-21.[56] Duiker, 2001. page 155.[57] The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe (http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ applied_history/ tutor/ firsteuro/ invas. html) The University of

Calgary. Written August 1996. Retrieved 2007-3-22.[58] Lapham, Lewis (1997). The End of the World. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-25264-1. pages 47-50.[59] Duiker, 2001. page 157.[60] Romulus Augustulus (475-476 AD)--Two Views (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ auggiero. htm) by Ralph W. Mathisen and Geoffrey

S. Nathan. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written 1997-8-26. Retrieved 2007-3-22.[61] Durant, 1944. page 670.[62] Duiker, 2001. page 347.

Ancient Rome 19

[63] The Byzantine Empire (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ MA/ BYZ. HTM) by Richard Hooker. Washington State University. Written1999-6-6. Retrieved 2007-4-8.

[64] Bray, R.S. (2004). Armies of Pestilence (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=djPWGnvBm08C& pg=PA26& dq=plague+ of+ justinian+decline& sig=ACfU3U3Y9OfbqWzKvC17ZwtT5opXY8RjeQ#PPP5,M1). Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. p. 26. ISBN 9780227172407. .

[65] Kreutz, Barbara M. (1996). Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=qamIQbPLMqgC). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812215878. .

[66] Duiker, 2001. page 349.[67] Basil II (CE 976-1025) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ basilii. htm) by Catherine Holmes. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written

2003-4-1. Retrieved 2007-3-22.[68] Gibbon, Edward. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Chapter 61 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080307071332/ http:/

/ olldownload. libertyfund. org/ Texts/ Gibbon0105/ DeclineAndFall/ Vol11/ PDFs/ 0214-11_Pt02_Chap61. pdf). Retrieved 2007-4-11.[69] Mehmet II (http:/ / www. theottomans. org/ english/ family/ mehmet2. asp) by Korkut Ozgen. Theottomans.org. Retrieved 2007-4-3.[70] Duiker, 2001. page 149.[71] Abstrat of The population of ancient Rome. (http:/ / www. highbeam. com/ doc/ 1G1-20586744. html) by Glenn R. Storey. HighBeam

Research. Written 1997-12-1. Retrieved 2007-4-22.[72] The Population of Rome (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ Texts/ secondary/ journals/ CP/ 29/ 2/ Population_of_Rome*.

html#note6) by Whitney J. Oates. Originally published in Classical Philology. Vol. 29, No. 2 (April 1934), pp101-116. Retrieved 2007-4-22.[73] N.Morley, Metropolis and Hinterland (Cambridge, 1996) 174-83[74] Frank Frost Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient Rome, BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, pp.41[75] Duiker, 2001. page 146.[76] Casson, 1998. pages 10-11.[77] Family Values in Ancient Rome (http:/ / fathom. lib. uchicago. edu/ 1/ 777777121908/ ) by Richard Saller. The University of Chicago

Library Digital Collections: Fathom Archive. Written 2001. Visited 2007-4-14.[78] Adkins, 1998. page 339.[79] Adkins, 1998. page 340.[80] LifepacHistory&Geography, Grade6 Unit 3, page 28.z[81] Lecture 13: A Brief Social History of the Roman Empire (http:/ / www. historyguide. org/ ancient/ lecture13b. html) by Steven Kreis.

Written 2006-10-11. Retrieved 2007-4-2.[82] Adkins, 1998. page 211.[83] Werner, 1978. page 31.[84] Duiker, 2001. page 143.[85] Roman Education (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071225125840/ http:/ / www. txclassics. org/ exceteducation. htm). Latin ExCET

Preparation. Texas Classical Association. Written by Ginny Lindzey, September 1998. Retrieved 2007-3-27.[86] Matyszak, 2003. pages 16-42.[87] Adkins, 1998. page 46.[88] Temin, Peter. "A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire." (http:/ / eh. net/ abstracts/ archive/ 0370. php)[89] John Keegan, A History of Warfare, Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1993) [ISBN 0-394-58801-0], p.263; David Potter, "The Roman Army and

Navy," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004)[ISBN 0-521-00390-3], pp. 67-69. For a discussion of hoplite tactics and their sociocultural setting, see Victor Davis Hanson, The WesternWay of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece, Alfred A. Knopf (New York 1989) [ISBN 0-394-57188-6].

[90] Keegan, p. 264; Potter, pp. 69-70.[91] Keegan, p.264; Adrian Goldsworthy, The Roman Army at War 100 BC — CE200, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996) [ISBN

0-19-815057-1], p. 33; Jo-Ann Shelton, ed., As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History, Oxford University Press (New York1998)[ISBN 0-19-508974-X], pp. 245-249.

[92] Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, pp. 22-24, 37-38; Adrian Goldsworthy, Caesar: Life of a Colossus, Yale University Press (New Haven2006) [ISBN 0-300-12048-6, ISBN 978-0-300-12048-6], pp. 384, 410-411, 425-427. Another important factor discussed by Goldsworthy wasabsence of legionaries on detached duty.

[93] Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought every year except for five. Stephen P. Oakley, "The Early Republic," in Harriet I.Flower, editor, The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) [ISBN0-521-00390-3], p. 27.

[94] P. A. Brunt, "Army and Land in the Roman Republic," in The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays, Oxford University Press(Oxford 1988) [ISBN 0-19-814849-6], p.253; William V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC, Oxford UniversityPress (Oxford 1979) [ISBN 0-19-814866-6], p. 44.

[95] Keegan, pp. 273-274; Brunt, pp. 253-259; Harris, pp. 44-50.[96] Keegan, p. 264; Brunt, pp. 259-265; Potter, pp. 80-83.[97] Goldsworthy, Caesar, pp. 391.[98] Karl Christ, The Romans, University of California Press (Berkeley, 1984)[ISBN 0-520-04566-1], pp. 74-76 .[99] Christopher S. Mackay, Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge, U.K. 2004), pp. 249-250.

Mackay points out that the number of legions (not necessarily the number of legionaries) grew to 30 by 125 AD and 33 during the Severan

Ancient Rome 20

period (200–235 AD).[100] Goldsworthy, ‘’The Roman Army’’, p.36-37.[101] Hugh Elton, Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350-425, Oxford University Press (Oxford 1996)[ISBN 0-19-815241-8] pp. 89-96.[102] T. Correy Brennan, "Power and Process Under the Republican 'Constitution'," in Harriet I. Flower, editor, The Cambridge Companion to

the Roman Republic, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge U.K. 2004) [ISBN 0-521-00390-3], Chapter 2; Potter, pp. 66-88; Goldsworthy,The Roman Army, pp. 121-125. Julius Caesar's most talented, effective and reliable subordinate in Gaul, Titus Labienus, was recommended tohim by Pompey. Goldsworthy, The Roman Army, p. 124.

[103] Mackay, pp. 245-252.[104] MacKay, pp. 295-296 and Chapters 23-24.[105] This paragraph is based upon Potter, pp. 76-78.[106] This discussion is based upon Elton, pp. 97-99 and 100-101.[107] Latin Online: Series Introduction (http:/ / www. utexas. edu/ cola/ centers/ lrc/ eieol/ latol-0-X. html) by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan

Slocum. Linguistics Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. Written 2007-2-15. Retrieved 2007-4-1.[108] The Latin Alphabet (http:/ / www. du. edu/ ~etuttle/ classics/ latalph. htm) by J. B. Calvert. University of Denver. Written 1999-8-8.

Retrieved 2007-4-1.[109] Classical Latin Supplement (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070810033726/ http:/ / classics. lss. wisc. edu/ courses/

Classical_Latin_Supplement. pdf). page 2. Retrieved 2007-4-2.[110] Adkins, 1998. page 203.[111] Matyszak, 2003. page 24.[112] Willis, 2000. page 168.[113] Willis, 2000. page 166.[114] Theodosius I (379-395 AD) (http:/ / www. roman-emperors. org/ theo1. htm) by David Woods. De Imperatoribus Romanis. Written

1999-2-2. Retrieved 2007-4-4.[115] Adkins, 1998. pages 350-352.[116] Roman Painting (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ hd/ ropt/ hd_ropt. htm) from Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and

Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Written 2004-10. Retrieved 2007-4-22.[117] Chronology: Ancient and Medieval: Ancient Rome (http:/ / www. iclassics. com/ periodArticle?contentId=3003). iClassics. Excerpt from A

History of Western Music, Fifth Edition by Donald Jay Grout and Claude V. Palisca. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.: 1960. Retrieved2007-4-22.

[118] Adkins, 1998. page 89.[119] Adkins, 1998. page 349-350.[120] Adkins, 1998. page 300.[121] Chronology: Ancient and Medieval: Ancient Rome (http:/ / www. iclassics. com/ periodArticle?contentId=3003). iClassics. Excerpt from

A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition by Donald Jay Grout and Claude V. Palisca. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.: 1960.[122] Grant, 2005. pages 130-134.[123] Casson, 1998. pages 98-108.[124] Daily Life: Entertainment (http:/ / library. thinkquest. org/ 26602/ entertainment. htm#leisure). SPQR Online. Written 1998. Retrieved

2007-4-22.[125] Adkins, 1998. page 350.[126] The Gladiator and the Thumb (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ ~grout/ encyclopaedia_romana/ gladiators/ polliceverso. html).

Encyclopedia Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2007-4-24.[127] Circus Maximus (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ ~grout/ encyclopaedia_romana/ circusmaximus/ circusmaximus. html). Encyclopedia

Romana. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2007-4-19.[128] Athena Review I,4: Romans on the Rhône: Arles (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071211235746/ http:/ / www. athenapub. com/ rhone1.

htm)[129] Article on history of Roman concrete (http:/ / digitalcommons. unl. edu/ classicsfacpub/ 1/ )[130] Frontinus[131] Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply by A.T. Hodge (1992)[132] see excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ World-Rome-Michael-Grant/ dp/ 0452008492/ ref=sr_1_12?ie=UTF8& s=books&

qid=1198149612& sr=1-12)[133] See (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Ancient-Greece-Illustrated-National-Histories/ dp/ 0500271615/ ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8& s=books&

qid=1198206137& sr=1-2)[134] See (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Claudius-Barbara-Levick/ dp/ 0300058314/ ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8& s=books& qid=1198206232& sr=1-6)[135] See (http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~Kekrops/ Hellenistic_Files/ Rostovtzeff. html)[136] see online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=88132230)[137] see (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Roman-Revolution-Ronald-Syme/ dp/ 0192803204/ ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8& s=books&

qid=1198206384& sr=1-1)

Ancient Rome 21

References• Adkins, Lesley; Roy Adkins (1998). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-512332-8.• Casson, Lionel (1998). Everyday Life in Ancient Rome. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

ISBN 0-8018-5992-1.• Dio, Cassius. "Dio's Rome, Volume V., Books 61-76 (CE 54-211)" (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 10890/

10890-h/ 10890-h. htm). Retrieved 2006-12-17.• Duiker, William; Jackson Spielvogel (2001). World History (Third edition ed.). Wadsworth.

ISBN 0-534-57168-9.• Durant, Will (1944). The Story of Civilization, Volume III: Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster, Inc..• Elton, Hugh (1996). Warfare in Roman Europe AD350-425. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-815241-8.• Flower (editor), Harriet I. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic. Cambridge, U.K.:

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-00390-3.• Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire• Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2008). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press• Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (1996). The Roman Army at War 100BC-AD200. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-815057-1.• Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2003). The Complete Roman Army. London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd..

ISBN 0-500-05124-0.• Grant, Michael (2005). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. London: Phoenix Press.

ISBN 1-89880-045-6.• Haywood, Richard (1971). The Ancient World. David McKay Company, Inc..• Keegan, John (1993). A History of Warfare. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-58801-0.• Livy. The Rise of Rome, Books 1-5, translated from Latin by T.J. Luce, 1998. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford:

Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282296-9.• Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 0-521-80918-5.• Matyszak, Philip (2003). Chronicle of the Roman Republic. London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd..

ISBN 0-500-05121-6.• O'Connell, Robert (1989). Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. ISBN 0-19-505359-1.• Scarre, Chris (September 1995). The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome. Penguin Books.

ISBN 0-14-051329-9.• Scullard, H. H. (1982). From the Gracchi to Nero. (5th edition). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02527-3.• Werner, Paul (1978). Life in Rome in Ancient Times. translated by David Macrae. Geneva: Editions Minerva S.A..• Willis, Roy (2000). World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide. Collingwood, Victoria: Ken Fin Books.

ISBN 1-86458-089-5.

Ancient Rome 22

Further reading• Cowell, Frank Richard. Life in Ancient Rome. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1961 (paperback, ISBN

0-399-50328-5).• Gabucci, Ada. Rome (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 2). Berkekely: University of California Press, 2007

(paperback, ISBN 0-520-25265-9).• Scheidel, Walter, Ian Morris, and Richard P. Saller, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman

World (2008) 958pp• Wyke, Maria. Projecting the Past: Ancient Rome, Cinema, and History. New York; London: Routledge, 1997

(hardcover, ISBN 0-415-90613-X, paperback, ISBN 0-415-91614-8).

External links• Ancient Rome (http:/ / sd71. bc. ca/ sd71/ school/ courtmid/ Library/ subject_resources/ socials/ ancient_rome.

htm) resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.• History of Ancient Rome (http:/ / ocw. nd. edu/ classics/ history-of-ancient-rome) OpenCourseWare from the

University of Notre Dame providing free resources including lectures, discussion questions, assignments andexams.

• Gallery of the Ancient Art: Ancient Rome (http:/ / ancientrome. ru/ art/ artworken/ result. htm?st=Rome&ds=-800& de=500)

• Lacus Curtius (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ Thayer/ E/ Roman/ home. html)• Livius.Org (http:/ / www. livius. org/ rome. html)• Nova Roma - Educational Organization (http:/ / novaroma. org/ nr/ Main_Page) about "All Things Roman"• The Private Life of the Romans by [[Harold Whetstone Johnston (http:/ / www. forumromanum. org/ life/

johnston_intro. html)]]• United Nations of Roma Victrix (UNRV) History (http:/ / www. unrv. com/ )• Water and Wastewater Systems in Imperial Rome (http:/ / www. waterhistory. org/ histories/ rome/ )

Article Sources and Contributors 23

Article Sources and ContributorsAncient Rome  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=399672882  Contributors: (jarbarf), 10"10, 101090ABC, 24630, 2nnoyconfuse, 2ulus, 7mike5000, A Nobody, A Train, A.Parrot, AGK, Adam Bishop, Adam1213, Adambro, Adashiel, Adrian fine, AeternaReginula, Agne27, Ahoerstemeier, Ahrarara, Aikduck, AikiHawkeye, Aim Here, Aj00200, Ajaxkroon,Akhilleus, Aksi great, Akubra, Alain08, Aldaron, Ale jrb, Aleksd, AlexDBerger, Alexcanton, Alexei9736, Alexf, Alexlykke, Ali, AlienZen, Alison, AliveFreeHappy, AlphaPyro, Alphachimp,Alsandair, Alsandro, Amadscientist, Amatulic, Amcalabrese, Amoffit, Anaxial, Andrejj, Andy120290, Andyjsmith, AngelicCowDemon, Angusmclellan, Aniras, Annabel, Anomaly1,Anonymous U..., Anonymous editor, Ansbachdragoner, Antandrus, Anthon.Eff, Apatterno, Aqwis, Aranherunar, Arch dude, ArglebargleIV, Ariaconditzione, Ariasne, Ark25, ArnhemKnights44,Arnon Chaffin, Artaxiad, As I drink nectar from thy fair bosom..., Aseld, Ashenai, Askari Mark, Asterion, Atlant, AtomicDragon, Atomikmamba, Aude, Auximines, AveOK, Avicennasis, AyrtonProst, AzaToth, BD2412, Badbilltucker, Barbatus, Basawala, Bass fishing physicist, Batmanand, Bballbrad22, Becaboca, Begoon, Bellhalla, Belovedfreak, Belshazar, Beltz, Bento00, Bhadani,Bibliobaggins, Bill Thayer, Billare, Billypayne, Bitbut, Black Regent, Blackcat1313, Blackjack48, Blueorchard, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bodnotbod, Bogey97, Boivie, Bonehead12, BookGuru,Boothy443, Bormalagurski, Bornhj, Bovlb, Bradeos Graphon, Brandmeister, Brando130, Brendanconway, BridgeBurner, BrokenSegue, Broletto, BryanG, Bucephalus, Bucketsofg,Bunchofgrapes, Burzum, Butseriouslyfolks, CIreland, CJLL Wright, Calabraxthis, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, Canderson7, Cantiorix, Carbidfischer, Cashmag3000,Catalographer, CathySc, Causa sui, Cefaro, Centrx, ChadyWady, Chaojoker, CharlotteWebb, Che829, Chenhsi, Chill doubt, Chino, Chr15m, Chris the speller, Chris5369, Chrisd87, Chrisfow,Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, ChristopherWillis, Chromancer, ChunkyKong12345, Classical Esther, Clicketyclack, Cmdrjameson, Codeine, Coin945, Colonel Rozzo, ComicKid, Corpx, Crana,CrazyInSane, Crazytales, Crystallina, Cuchullain, CunningLinguist, Curps, Cwenger, D. Webb, D6, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DCI2026, Dan D. Ric, Daniel Lawrence, Daniel563, Danime, Danshil,Danski14, Darkfrog24, Darrendeng, Darryl.matheson, Darwinek, Davep1987, Davidjk, Dbacks, Dcandeto, Dcljr, DeLarge, DeadEyeArrow, Delirium, Delldot, Denisa, DennyColt, Der4,DerHexer, Dhartung, Dina, DionysosProteus, Discospinster, Distal24, DivinePaladin, Dna-webmaster, Doctornuts, Dogears, Donama, Donarreiskoffer, DontPanic6x9, Doorexplosion4,Download, Dr mindbender, Dr.K., Dragonmaster001, Drappel, Dratgonss, Drc2m, Dsarker, Ducklord1, Duderob, DuncanHill, Durin, Dwolsten, Dzubint, EALacey, EMan32x, ERcheck, ESkog,Eayzgaj, Eb155, Edwy, El Greco, EliasCZ, Elie plus, Elistir, Elmo iscariot, Elsanaturk, Emilio floris, Emoman90, Encyclopediaman.12.34, Enzo Aquarius, Epollard, Erika Yurken, Espoo,EuroHistoryTeacher, EvanParnish, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evilgrug, Exert, FD2, FF2010, Fallingstar, Falphin, Fat kidddd, Felto, Fereegon, Ferkelparade, Fetofs, Feydey, Figma, Filbertn,FilipeS, Filos96, Firsfron, Flauto Dolce, Foant, Fornadan, Fram, Franck Ver Stut, Freakofnurture, FreeFragSGS, FreplySpang, Freshacconci, Fru1tbat, Fulup, Funnybunny, Furrykef, FuturePerfect at Sunrise, Fuzzibloke, G.W., GWhitewood, Gagan11, Gaius Cornelius, Galanskov, Galoubet, Galwhaa, Garion96, Garzo, GeorgeStepanek, Gershwinrb, Geschichte, Gigogag, Gillean666,Gilliam, Gimboid13, Giovanni Milani, Giraffedata, Gmelfi, Gogo Dodo, GoldRenet, Gonda Attila, GordonUS, GraemeL, Grantbonn, GreatWhiteNortherner, Grenavitar, Greystanes, Gtrmp,Guldenat, Gun Powder Ma, Gurch, Guzmanic, Gwernol, Hacbarton, Hadrians, Haham hanuka, HalfShadow, Hammer Raccoon, HansHermans, Harac, Harej, Harishanan, Harksaw, Harryboyles,Hathaldir, Havok, Hayden120, Hdt83, Heimstern, Hellotarget, Heron, Hersce, Hersfold, Hfs991hfs, Hibernian, Hillock65, Hillshum, Hinest, Hintss, HistoryStudent113, Histprof, Hmains,Hmyers, Hockeyboy86, Honza Záruba, Hooded sonny, Hoof Hearted, Hooverbag, Horuchimaro, Hotcakes111, Hpfan1, Hu, Hu12, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, IFeito, Ian Pitchford, Ianblair23,Iblardi, Icebear1, Igiffin, Ihateyougoaway66, Ikanreed, Imasleepviking, In Defense of the Artist, Insineratehymn, Inter, Intranetusa, Invisifan, Ipsofactoid, Iridescent, Irpen, Itsmine, Itunes95,IvanLanin, Ixfd64, J04n, J0m1eisler, JBK405, JCO312, JDG, JForget, JHunterJ, JV Smithy, Jacksonli0210, Jagged 85, JamesAKeene, Jasontwo, JayJasper, Jcro76, Jeff Carr, Jguk, Jiddisch, Jjasi,Jjoutcast, Jjoutcast333, Jm9584, Jmlk17, Jo jo5, JoanneB, JoeBlogsDord, JoeSmack, Joelr31, Joffeloff, Johann Wolfgang, John D. Croft, John Reaves, Johnleemk, Johnphilpot, Jon Cates, JonHarald Søby, JonWayne, Jonnywoodward, Jordanlw, Joseph kominki, Jossi, Junyor, Jupiterjones, JustAGal, Jvhertum, K, K95, KKdakid, Kablammo, Kafziel, Kaisershatner, KaptKos,Kashyap.amar, Katalaveno, Keitei, Kelly Katula, Kelly Martin, Ken Gallager, Kentem, Kesac, Khastriya, Khoikhoi, Kimcj, King Bee, KittenKrazy, KnowledgeOfSelf, KokomoNYC, Kordas,Kotra, Kozuch, Krazixangel, Krich, Kukini, Kungfuadam, Kungming2, Kuru, Kylu, Kyoko, Kyorosuke, LOLIMUNDERYOURBED, La faker 81, Lacrimosus, Lagalag, Larsinio, Laurinavicius,Lectonar, Leeheonjin, Leifysbad, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Lemons..., LeoO3, Lesgles, LesleyW, Lexarne, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Lightspeedchick, Lkinkade, Localzuk, Lord Coal, LordHilly,Lparker, Lsdazrael, Luk, Luna Santin, Lykantrop, M-le-mot-dit, MK8, MONGO, Maartsen, MacGyverMagic, Mackeriv, Mailer diablo, Majorly, Malerin, Malo, Manco Capac, Mandolinface,Marcdragicevic, Marek69, Mariule, Markisgreen, Markles, MartinDK, Martyn-Webster, Master Jay, Matt.breeden, Mattbarton.exe, MatthewDBA, Mattis, Matton, Matwat22, MaxSem,Mcorazao, Mechajedi, Med, Megan1967, Merbabu, Merkinmuffly, Methcub, Mets501, MetsFan76, Michaelsanders, Mihoshi, Mike Rosoft, MikeVitale, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mimiak, Mindmatrix,Minna Sora no Shita, Mirv, MishaPan, Missamo80, Mlouns, Mmhrycak, Modulatum, Moe Epsilon, Monkeyman, MonoAV, Monshuai, Moondyne, Morenooso, Moreofmatthew03, Mortendreier,Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mr.Z-man, MrOllie, Mrzaius, Mschel, Muchness, Muhandes, Murcialago, Muriel Gottrop, Mushroom, Mwwallace, Myanw, Nakon, Nanjil Naadan,Nathraq, NatusRoma, NawlinWiki, Neddyseagoon, Nehrams2020, Nehwyn, Neji99, Neos Dionysos, Neutrality, Nev1, NewEnglandYankee, Nibuod, Nicknack009, Nicky 5544, Nightlark,Nikolaj Christensen, Nilfanion, Ninaaa, Ninjers, Nirvana2013, Nitya Dharma, Nivix, Nk, Nmajdan, Nnp, No Guru, Nofrak, Nogood, North.east, Nowa, Noémi, Nrotta, Ntsimp, Nyttend, Ocaasi,Oddboy10, Offa of Angel, Ohnoitsjamie, Olivierchaussavoine, Ollivier, Olorin28, Omicronpersei8, One-dimensional Tangent, Onorem, Orijok, Ork head, Overand, Ovrd, OwenX, Oyo321,Ozgod, P3Pp3r, PGWG, PSUMark2006, PaladinWriter, Panairjdde, Patrick, Patstuart, Paul August, Pauldanon, Pax:Vobiscum, Pe1094, Pedro, Peemil, Pekinensis, Pepper, Peruvianllama,Peterpil19, Petri Krohn, PetriFB, Pgan002, Ph133710101, Phil Boswell, Philippe, Philopedia, Phoenix-wiki, Phoenix2, Picaroon, Pikey-mikey, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Piotrus, PizzaBox, Plinkle,Pnd, PocklingtonDan, Poggio bracciolini, Polyhister, Pookster11, Poor Yorick, Porqin, Proxxt, Proyster, PseudoSudo, Puma5d04, Pursey, Quadell, Quadpus, Quangbao, Quinsareth, Quoth theRaven, Qwe, Qwert12321, Qwertyasfgh, Qxz, R'n'B, RJHall, RafaelG, Rakkar, RandalSchwartz, Rastor, Rbifan, Rbyteisbst, Red Director, Red1, Retired username, Rettetast, RevRagnarok,Revolución, RexNL, ReyBrujo, Rfritch, Rhialto, RhoOphuichi, Rhobite, Rhrad, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Harvey, Rick Norwood, Riddle, Ringgold, Ripogenus77, Risker, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi,Rl, Rlfb, Rmky87, Robdurbar, Robeerto3, Rocastelo, Roke, RollingStone122, RomanHistorian, Ronbo76, Root2, Rorschach, Rory096, RoyBoy, Rreagan007, Rsm99833, Rudjek,Rumpelstiltskin223, Rune.welsh, Rwflammang, RxS, Ryan Prior, RyanGerbil10, Ryanmcdaniel, Ryt, Ryz05, SMC, SSSN, SV Resolution, Sadads, SallyForth123, Sam Korn, Sam2246, Sam42,Samir, Sardanaphalus, Sarge0900, Savard-library-wiki, Savidan, Sayden, Schmiteye, SchuminWeb, Schzmo, Sciamanna, Scientus, Sciurinæ, Scohoust, Seashunt, Sebasbronzini, Seicer, Selket,Semmler, Serte, Sesesq, Sexemixedguy, Shadowcelibi, Shanel, Shanes, Shell07, Shimgray, Shinryuu, Sietse Snel, Signalhead, Silence, Silverhorse, Simmaren, Singerboi22, Siroxo, Sjakkalle,Skazer, SkerHawx, Skyler13, Skyzdaguy, Slrubenstein, Slysplace, Smokizzy, Snailwalker, SoLando, Softballbabe12, Someguy1221, Soojmagooj, SouthernComfort, Sparda19, Special-T,Spencerlupo, Spliph, SpuriousQ, Srfprice, Ssseeebbb, Stealthxx2, Steel, Stephen, Stephen G. Brown, Stephenb, Stereotek, Sterio, SteveNash11, StoneProphet, Stormie, Stuartyeates, Sumo777,Sunray, Svick, Swarm, T, TBadger, TaerkastUA, Tamzid, TangentCube, Tangotango, Tarikur, Tarret, Tasc, Tataryn77, Tawker, Taylor2psycho, Technitan, Tellyaddict, Tempshill, Tgrugot,Tgwitty, ThaddeusB, That Guy, From That Show!, The Font, The Ogre, The Thing That Should Not Be, The odd ones, TheArchivist, TheOtherJesse, Theccy, Thomaschina03, Thunderboltz, Tiderolls, Tifego, TigerShark, Timeshifter, Titoxd, Tkdcoyle, Tkenna, Tlesher, Tobby72, Tochett, Tokle, Tom harrison, Tommstein, Tone, TopAce, Tpbradbury, Trebor, Treisijs, Trevor MacInnis,Trotski251, Tubezone, Tyrol5, U6rd, Umedard, UncleBubba, Urg writer, Urmydreamiscream, Uusijani, V79benno, Veinor, Velho, Velvetron, Vic9128, Vicky98, Viktor-viking, Vildricianus,Vincent Gray, Vle, VolatileChemical, Vsmith, WODUP, WRK, Wavelength, Wayward, Welkinridge, Werdan7, Wetman, Whatthree16, Whispering, Whitesburg Middle School, Wiki alf,Wikidea, Wikieditor06, Wikimachine, Wikipediarules2221, WildElf, Wildcat dunny, William Allen Simpson, Wimt, Wknight94, WookieInHeat, Wragge, Writer873, Xaosflux, Xaxafrad, Xevi,Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Ybbor, Yggdrasilsroot, Yo 911, Yuhinfu, Yummifruitbat, Zahid Abdassabur, ZeWrestler, Zedla, Ziggurat, Zmmz, Zocky, Zondor, Zscout370, 1905anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:She-wolf suckles Romulus and Remus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:She-wolf_suckles_Romulus_and_Remus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Benutzer:Wolpertinger on WP deFile:Marius Carthage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marius_Carthage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Vanderlyn (1775–1852), artist. StephenAlonzo Schoff (1818–1904), engraver.File:Roman Empire Map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_Empire_Map.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:JniemenmaaFile:Roman Empire map-2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_Empire_map-2.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Roke,User:SwarmFile:ValentinianIIIfamily.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ValentinianIIIfamily.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Michaelsanders, PichoteFile:Maccari-Cicero.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maccari-Cicero.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bibi Saint-Pol, Bjankuloski06en, CommonsDelinker,DaniusArcenus, DieBuche, Donarreiskoffer, Ecummenic, Gryffindor, Henrykus, Jonathan Groß, Jtneill, Mattes, Mechamind90, NuclearWarfare, Steerpike, 1 anonymous editsFile:Trajan's market.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trajan's_market.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Elias Z. ZiadehFile:Roman soldier in lorica segmentata 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_soldier_in_lorica_segmentata_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Flamarande, Idot, MatthiasKabel, 1 anonymous editsFile:2-talent caliber.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2-talent_caliber.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: VissarionFile:Boscoreale fresco woman kithara.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boscoreale_fresco_woman_kithara.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002,Bibi Saint-Pol, DenghiùComm, Fabos, G.dallorto, Mattes, Maximaximax, Ranveig, Saperaud, The Man in Question, Thorjoetunheim, Wst, 3 anonymous editsFile:Pont du gard.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pont_du_gard.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bernard bill5, ClemRutter, Cyr, 2anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 24

File:RomaViaAppiaAntica03.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RomaViaAppiaAntica03.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: G.dallorto,Kleuske, Lalupa, Longbow4u, Marcus Cyron

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/