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©Prof.AndyField,2016 www.discoveringstatistics.com Page1
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
Some background ANOVAcanbeextendedtoincludeoneormorecontinuousvariablesthatpredicttheoutcome(ordependentvariable).Continuousvariablessuchasthese,thatarenotpartofthemainexperimentalmanipulationbuthaveaninfluenceonthedependentvariable,areknownascovariatesandtheycanbeincludedinanANOVAanalysis.Forexample,intheViagraexamplefromField(2013),wemightexpecttheretobeotherthingsthatinfluenceaperson’slibidootherthanViagra.Somepossibleinfluencesonlibidomightbethelibidooftheparticipant’ssexualpartner(afterall‘ittakestwoto tango’), other medication that suppresses libido (such as antidepressants), and fatigue. If these variables aremeasured,thenitispossibletocontrolfortheinfluencetheyhaveonthedependentvariablebyincludingtheminthemodel.What,ineffect,happensisthatwecarryoutahierarchicalregressioninwhichourdependentvariableistheoutcome,andthecovariateisenteredinthefirstblock.Inasecondblock,ourexperimentalmanipulationsareentered(intheformofwhatarecalledDummyvariables).So,weendupseeingwhateffectanindependentvariablehasaftertheeffectofthecovariate.Field(2013)explainsthesimilaritybetweenANOVAandregressionandthisisusefulreadingtounderstandhowANCOVAworks.
ThepurposeofincludingcovariatesinANOVAistwo-fold:
1. To reducewithin-grouperror variance: InANOVAweassess theeffectof anexperimentby comparing theamountofvariabilityinthedatathattheexperimentcanexplain,againstthevariabilitythatitcannotexplain.Ifwecanexplainsomeofthis‘unexplained’variance(SSR) intermsofcovariates,thenwereducetheerrorvariance,allowingustomoreaccuratelyassesstheeffectoftheexperimentalmanipulation(SSM).
2. EliminationofConfounds:Inanyexperiment,theremaybeunmeasuredvariablesthatconfoundtheresults(i.e.avariablethatvariessystematicallywiththeexperimentalmanipulation).Ifanyvariablesareknowntoinfluencethedependentvariablebeingmeasured,thenANCOVAisideallysuitedtoremovethebiasofthesevariables.Onceapossibleconfoundingvariablehasbeenidentified,itcanbemeasuredandenteredintotheanalysisasacovariate.
The Example ImaginethattheresearcherwhoconductedtheViagrastudy inField(2013)suddenlyrealizedthatthe libidooftheparticipants’sexualpartnerswouldeffectthatparticipant’sownlibido(especiallybecausethemeasureoflibidowasbehavioural).Therefore,theresearcherrepeatedthestudyonadifferentsetofparticipants,buttookameasureofthepartner’slibido.Thepartner’slibidowasmeasuredintermsofhowoftentheytriedtoinitiatesexualcontact.
Assumptions in ANCOVA ANCOVAhasthesameassumptionsasanylinearmodel(seeyourhandoutonbias)exceptthattherearetwoimportantadditionalconsiderations:(1)independenceofthecovariateandtreatmenteffect,and(2)homogeneityofregressionslopes.Thefirstonebasicallymeansthatthecovariateshouldnotbedifferentacrossthegroupsintheanalysis(inotherwords,ifyoudidanANOVAort-testusingthegroupsastheindependentvariableandthecovariateastheoutcome,thisanalysisshouldbenon-significant).ThisassumptionisquiteinvolvedsoallI’llsayisreadmybookchapterformoreinformation,orreadMillerandChapman(2001).
WhenanANCOVAisconductedwelookattheoverallrelationshipbetweentheoutcome(dependentvariable)andthecovariate:wefitaregressionlinetotheentiredataset,ignoringtowhichgroupapersonbelongs.Infittingthisoverallmodelwe,therefore,assumethatthisoverallrelationshipistrueforallgroupsofparticipants.Forexample,ifthere’sapositive relationship between the covariate and the outcome in one group, we assume that there is a positiverelationshipinalloftheothergroupstoo.If,however,therelationshipbetweentheoutcome(dependentvariable)andcovariatediffers across thegroups then theoverall regressionmodel is inaccurate (it doesnot representall of thegroups).Thisassumptionisveryimportantandiscalledtheassumptionofhomogeneityofregressionslopes.Thebestwaytothinkofthisassumptionistoimagineplottingascatterplotforeachexperimentalconditionwiththecovariate
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ononeaxis and theoutcomeon theother. If you then calculated, anddrew, the regression line for eachof thesescatterplotsyoushouldfindthattheregressionlineslookmoreorlessthesame(i.e.thevaluesofbineachgroupshouldbeequal).
Figure 1 shows scatterplots that display the relationship betweenpartner’s libido (the covariate) and theoutcome(participant’s libido) for each of the three experimental conditions (different colours and symbols). Each symbolrepresentsthedatafromaparticularparticipant,andthetypeofsymboltellsusthegroup(circles=placebo,triangles= lowdose, squares=highdose). The lines are the regression slopes for theparticular group, they summarise therelationshipbetweenlibidoandpartner’slibidoshownbythedots(blue=placebogroup,green=low-dosegroup,red=high-dosegroup).Itshouldbeclearthatthereisapositiverelationship(theregressionlineslopesupwardsfromlefttoright)betweenpartner’slibidoandparticipant’slibidoinboththeplaceboandlow-doseconditions.Infact,theslopesofthelinesforthesetwogroups(blueandgreen)areverysimilar,showingthattherelationshipbetweenlibidoandpartner’slibidoisverysimilarinthesetwogroups.Thissituationisanexampleofhomogeneityofregressionslopes(theregressionslopesinthetwogroupsaresimilar).However,inthehigh-doseconditionthereappearstobenorelationshipatallbetweenparticipant’slibidoandthatoftheirpartner(thesquaresarefairlyrandomlyscatteredandtheregressionlineisveryflatandshowsaslightlynegativerelationship).Theslopeofthislineisverydifferenttotheothertwo,andthisdifferencegivesuscausetodoubtwhetherthereishomogeneityofregressionslopes(becausetherelationshipbetweenparticipant’slibidoandthatoftheirpartnerisdifferentinthehigh-dosegrouptotheothertwogroups).We’llhavealookhowtotestthisassumptionlater.
Figure1:ScatterplotofLibidoagainstPartner’slibidoforeachoftheexperimentalconditions
ANCOVA on SPSS Entering Data ThedataforthisexampleareinTable1,whichshowstheparticipant’slibidoandtheirpartner’slibido.Themeanlibido(andSDinbrackets)oftheparticipants’libidoscoresareinTable2.Inessence,thedatashouldbelaidoutintheDataEditorastheyareTable1.Withoutthecovariate,thedesignissimplyaone-wayindependentdesign,sowewouldenterthesedatausinga coding variable for the independent variable, and scoreson thedependent variablewill go in adifferentcolumn.Allthatchangesisthatwehaveanextracolumnforthecovariatescores.
® CovariatesareenteredintotheSPSSdataeditorinanewcolumn(eachcovariateshouldhaveitsowncolumn).
® CovariatescanbeaddedtoanyofthedifferentANOVAswehavecoveredonthiscourse!
o Whenacovariateisaddedtheanalysisiscalledanalysisofcovariance(so,forexample,youcouldhaveatwo-wayrepeatedmeasuresAnalysisofCovariance,orathreewaymixedANCOVA).
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Table1:DatafromViagraCov.sav
Dose Participant’sLibido
Partner’sLibido
Placebo 3 42 15 52 12 22 27 72 44 5
LowDose 7 55 33 14 24 27 65 44 2
HighDose 9 12 36 53 44 34 34 26 04 16 32 08 15 0
So,createacodingvariablecalleddoseandusetheLabelsoptiontodefinevaluelabels(e.g.1=placebo,2=lowdose,3=highdose).Therewerenineparticipantsintheplacebocondition,soyouneedtoenter9valuesof1intothiscolumn(sothatthefirst9rowscontainthevalue1),followedbyeightvaluesof2torepresentthepeopleinthelowdosegroup,andfollowedbythirteenvaluesof3torepresentthepeopleinthehighdosegroup.Atthispoint,youshouldhaveonecolumn with 30 rows of data entered. Next, create a second variable called libido and enter the 30 scores thatcorrespondtotheparticipant’slibido.Finally,createathirdvariablecalledpartner,usetheLabelsoptiontogivethisvariableamoredescriptivetitleof‘partner’slibido’.Then,enterthe30scoresthatcorrespondtothepartner’slibido.
Table2:Means(andstandarddeviations)fromViagraCovariate.sav
Dose Participant’sLibido
Partner’sLibido
Placebo 3.22(1.79) 3.44(2.07)LowDose 4.88(1.46) 3.12(1.73)HighDose 4.85(2.12) 2.00(1.63)
Main Analysis MostoftheGeneralLinearModel(GLM)proceduresinSPSScontainthefacilitytoincludeoneormorecovariates.Fordesignsthatdon’tinvolverepeatedmeasuresitiseasiesttoconductANCOVAviatheGLMUnivariateprocedure.To
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access themaindialogboxselect (seeFigure2).Themaindialogbox issimilartothatforone-wayANOVA,exceptthatthereisaspacetospecifycovariates.SelectLibidoanddragthisvariabletotheboxlabelledDependentVariableorclickon .SelectDoseanddragittotheboxlabelledFixedFactor(s)andthenselectPartner_LibidoanddragittotheboxlabelledCovariate(s).
Figure2:MaindialogboxforGLMunivariate
Contrasts and Other Options Thereare variousdialogboxes that canbeaccessed from themaindialogbox. The first thing tonotice is that if acovariateisselected,theposthoctestsaredisabled(youcannotaccessthisdialogbox).Posthoctestsarenotdesignedforsituationsinwhichacovariateisspecified,however,somecomparisonscanstillbedoneusingcontrasts.
Figure3:OptionsforstandardcontrastsinGLMunivariate
Clickon toaccessthecontrastsdialogbox.ThisdialogboxisdifferenttotheonewemetforANOVAinthatyoucannotentercodestospecifyparticularcontrasts.Instead,youcanspecifyoneofseveralstandardcontrasts.Thesestandardcontrastswerelistedinmybook.Inthisexample,therewasaplacebocontrolcondition(codedasthefirstgroup),soasensiblesetofcontrastswouldbesimplecontrastscomparingeachexperimentalgroupwiththecontrol.Toselectatypeofcontrastclickon toaccessadrop-downlistofpossiblecontrasts.Selectatypeofcontrast(inthiscaseSimple)fromthislistandthelistwillautomaticallydisappear.Forsimplecontrastsyouhavetheoptionofspecifyingareferencecategory(whichisthecategoryagainstwhichallothergroupsarecompared).Bydefaultthereferencecategoryisthelastcategory:becauseinthiscasethecontrolgroupwasthefirstcategory(assumingthatyoucodedplaceboas1)weneedtochangethisoptionbyselecting .Whenyouhaveselectedanewcontrast
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option,youmustclickon toregisterthischange.ThefinaldialogboxshouldlooklikeFigure3.Clickon toreturntothemaindialogbox.
Figure4:OptionsdialogboxforGLMunivariate
Anotherwaytogetposthoctestsisbyclickingon toaccesstheoptionsdialogbox(seeFigure4).Tospecifyposthoctests,selecttheindependentvariable(inthiscaseDose)fromtheboxlabelledEstimatedMarginalMeans:Factor(s)andFactorInteractionsanddragittotheboxlabelledDisplayMeansfororclickon .Onceavariablehasbeen transferred, the box labelled Compare main effects becomes active and you should select this option (
).Ifthisoptionisselected,theboxlabelledConfidenceintervaladjustmentbecomesactiveandyoucanclickon toseeachoiceofthreeadjustmentlevels.Thedefaultistohavenoadjustmentandsimply performa Tukey LSDpost hoc test (this option is not recommended); the second is to ask for a Bonferronicorrection (recommended); the final option is to have a Sidak correction. The Sidak correction is similar to theBonferronicorrectionbutislessconservativeandsoshouldbeselectedifyouareconcernedaboutthelossofpowerassociatedwithBonferronicorrectedvalues.ForthisexampleusetheSidakcorrection(wewill use Bonferroni later in the book). As well as producing post hoc tests for theDosevariable,placingdoseintheDisplayMeansforboxwillcreateatableofestimatedmarginalmeansforthisvariable.Thesemeansprovideanestimateoftheadjustedgroupmeans(i.e.themeansadjustedfortheeffectofthecovariate).Whenyouhaveselectedtheoptionsrequired,clickon toreturntothemaindialogbox.
Aswithone-wayANOVA,themaindialogboxhasa button.Selectingthisoptionwillbootstrapconfidenceintervalsaroundtheestimatedmarginalmeans,parameterestimatesandposthoctests,butnotthemainFtest.ThiscanbeusefulsoselecttheoptionsinFigure5.Clickon inthemaindialogboxtoruntheanalysis.
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Figure5:Bootstrapdialogbox
Output from ANCOVA Main Analysis Output1shows(forillustrativepurposes)theANOVAtableforthesedatawhenthecovariateisnotincluded.Itisclearfromthesignificancevaluethattherearenodifferencesinlibidobetweenthethreegroups,thereforeViagraseemstohavenosignificanteffectonlibido.
Output1
Output2showstheresultsofLevene’stestwhenpartner’slibidoisincludedinthemodelasacovariate.Levene’stestissignificant,indicatingthatthegroupvariancesarenotequal(hencetheassumptionofhomogeneityofvarianceislikleybeenviolated).However,Levene’stestisnotnecessarilythebestwaytojudgewhethervariancesareunequalenoughtocauseproblems(seeyourhandoutfromweek2orField,2013chapter5).Wesawinweek2thatagooddoublecheckistolookatthevarianceratio1.Thevarianceratioforthesedatais4.49/2.13=2.11.Thisvalueisgreaterthan2indicatingthatourvariancesareprobablyheterogeneous!Wesawlasttermthatwecouldtrytotransformourdatatocorrectthisproblem(haveagoifyou’refeelingkeen),butforthetimebeingdon’tworrytoomuchaboutthedifferencesinvariances.
1Reminder1:thevarianceratioisthelargestvariancedividedbythesmallestandshouldbelessthanabout2.YoucangetthesevariancesbysquaringtheSDsinTable1.
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Output2
Output3showstheANOVAtablewiththecovariateincluded.Comparethistothesummarytablewhenthecovariatewasnotincluded.TheformatoftheANOVAtableislargelythesameaswithoutthecovariate,exceptthatthereisanadditionalrowofinformationaboutthecovariate(partner).Lookingfirstatthesignificancevalues,itisclearthatthecovariatesignificantlypredictsthedependentvariable,becausethesignificancevalueislessthan.05.Therefore,theperson’slibidoisinfluencedbytheirpartner’slibido.What’smoreinterestingisthatwhentheeffectofpartner’slibidoisremoved,theeffectofViagrabecomessignificant(pis.027whichislessthan.05).Theamountofvariationaccountedforbythemodel(SSM)hasincreasedto31.92units(correctedmodel)ofwhichViagraaccountsfor25.19units.Mostimportant,thelargeamountofvariationinlibidothatisaccountedforbythecovariatehasmeantthattheunexplainedvariance(SSR)hasbeenreducedto79.05units.NoticethatSSThasnotchanged;allthathaschangedishowthattotalvariationisexplained.
This example illustrates how ANCOVA can help us to exert stricter experimental control by taking account ofconfoundingvariablestogiveusa‘purer’measureofeffectoftheexperimentalmanipulation.Withouttakingaccountofthelibidooftheparticipants’partnerswewouldhaveconcludedthatViagrahadnoeffectonlibido,yetclearlyitdoes.Lookingbackat thegroupmeans fromTable1:e1 it seemsprettyclear that thesignificantANOVAreflectsadifferencebetweentheplacebogroupandthetwoexperimentalgroups(becausethelowandhighdosegrouphaveverysimilarmeanswhereastheplacebogrouphavealowermean).However,weneedtocheckthecontraststoverifythisconclusion.
Output3
WecanreportthemaineffectofDoseinAPAformatas:
ü Therewas a significant effect ofViagraon levels of libido after controlling for theeffect ofpartner’slibido,F(2,26)=4.14,p=.027.
Contrasts Output4showstheresultofthecontrastanalysisspecifiedinFigure3andcompareslevel2(lowdose)againstlevel1(placebo)asafirstcomparison,andlevel3(highdose)againstlevel1(placebo)asasecondcomparison.Thesecontrastsareconsistentwithwhatwasspecified:allgroupsarecomparedtothefirstgroup.Thegroupdifferencesaredisplayed:adifferencevalue,standarderror,significancevalueand95%confidenceinterval.Theseresultsshowthatboththelow-dosegroup(contrast1,p=.045)andhigh-dosegroup(contrast2,p=.010)hadsignificantlydifferentlibidosthantheplacebogroup.
These contrasts tell us that therewere groupdifferences, but to interpret themweneed to know themeans.WeproducedthemeansinTable2sosurelywecanjustlookatthesevalues?Actuallywecan’tbecausethesegroupmeanshavenotbeenadjustedfortheeffectofthecovariate.TheseoriginalmeanstellusnothingaboutthegroupdifferencesreflectedbythesignificantANCOVA.Output5givestheadjustedvaluesofthegroupmeansanditisthesevaluesthat
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should be used for interpretation (this is themain reason for selecting theDisplayMeans foroption). From theseadjustedmeansyoucanseethatlibidoincreasedacrossthethreedoses.
Output4
Output5
WecanreportthesecontrastsinAPAformatas:
ü Plannedcontrastsrevealedthathavingahigh,p=.010,95%CI[0.58,3.88],andlow,p=.045,95%CI[0.04,3.53],doseofViagrasignificantlyincreasedlibidocomparedtohavingaplacebo.
Post Hoc Tests Output6showstheresultsoftheSidakcorrectedposthoccomparisonsthatwererequestedaspartoftheoptionsdialogbox.Thebottomtableshowsthebootstrappedsignificanceandconfidenceintervalsforthesetestsandbecausethesewillberobustwe’llinterpretthistable(again,remember,yourvalueswilldifferbecauseofhowbootstrappingworks).Thereisasignificantdifferencebetweentheplacebogroupandboththelow(p=.003)andhigh(p=.021)dosegroups.Thehighandlow-dosegroupsdidnotsignificantlydiffer(p=.56).Itisinterestingthatthesignificantdifferencebetweenthelow-doseandplacebogroupswhenbootstrapped(p=.003)isnotpresentforthenormalposthoctests(p=.130).Thiscouldreflectpropertiesofthedatathathavebiasedthenon-robustversionoftheposthoctest.
Interpreting the Covariate Onewaytodiscovertheeffectofthecovariateissimplytodrawascatterplotofthecovariateagainsttheoutcome.Theresultingscatterplotforthesedatashowsthattheeffectofcovariateisthataspartner’slibidoincreases,sodoestheparticipant’slibido(asshownbytheslopeoftheregressionline).
WecanreporttheeffectofthecovariateinAPAformatas:
ü Thecovariate,partner’s libido,wassignificantly relatedtotheparticipant’s libido,F(1,26)=4.96,p=.035.
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Output6
Figure6:Scatterplotofparticipants’libidoscoresagainstthoseoftheirpartner
Testing the Assumption of Homogeneity of Regression Slopes
To test the assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes we need to rerun the ANCOVA but this time use acustomizedmodel.Accessthemaindialogboxasbeforeandplacethevariablesinthesameboxesasbefore(sothefinishedboxshouldlooklikeFigure2).Tocustomizethemodelweneedtoaccessthemodeldialogboxbyclickingon
.Tocustomizeyourmodel,select toactivatethedialogbox(Figure7).Thevariablesspecifiedinthemaindialogboxarelistedontheleft-handside.Totesttheassumptionofhomogeneityofregressionslopes,weneed
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tospecifyamodelthatincludestheinteractionbetweenthecovariateandindependentvariable.Hence,tobeginwithyoushouldselectDoseandPartner_Libido(youcanselectbothofthematthesametimebyholdingdownCtrl).Then,clickonthedrop-downmenuandchangeitto .Havingselectedthis,clickon tomovethemaineffectsofDoseandPartner_LibidototheboxlabelledModel.Nextweneedtospecifytheinteractionterm.Todothis,selectDoseandPartner_Libidosimultaneously(byholdingdowntheCtrlkeywhileyouclickonthetwovariables),thenselect
inthedrop-downlistandclickon .ThisactionmovestheinteractionofDoseandPartner_LibidototheboxlabelledModel.ThefinisheddialogboxshouldlooklikeFigure7.Havingspecifiedourtwomaineffectsandtheinteractionterm,clickon toreturntothemaindialogboxandthenclickon toruntheanalysis.
Figure7:GLMunivariatemodeldialogbox
SPSSOutput6showsthemainsummarytablefortheANCOVAusingonlytheinteractionterm.Lookatthesignificancevalueofthecovariatebydependentvariableinteraction(dose*partner),ifthiseffectissignificantthentheassumptionofhomogeneityofregressionslopeshasbeenbroken.Theeffecthereissignificant(p=.028);thereforetheassumptionisnottenable.AlthoughthisfindingisnotsurprisinggiventhepatternofrelationshipsshowninFigure1itdoesraiseconcernaboutthemainanalysis.Thisexampleillustrateswhyitisimportanttotestassumptionsandnottojustblindlyaccepttheresultsofananalysis.
Output7
Guided Example AfewyearsbackIwasstalked.You’dthinktheycouldhavefoundsomeoneabitmoreinterestingtostalk,butapparentlytimeswerehard.Itcouldhavebeenalotworsethanitwas,butitwasn’tparticularlypleasant.Iimaginedaworldin
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which a psychologist tried two different therapies on different groups of stalkers (25 stalkers in each group—thisvariableiscalledGroup).Tothefirstgroupofstalkershegavewhathetermedcruel-to-be-kindtherapy(everytimethestalkers followedhimaround,or senthima letter, thepsychologist attacked themwitha cattleprod). The secondtherapywaspsychodyshamictherapy,inwhichstalkerswerehypnotisedandregressedintotheirchildhoodtodiscusstheirpenis(orlackofpenis),theirfather’spenis,theirdog’spenis,theseventhpenisofaseventhpenisandanyotherpenisthatsprangtomind.Thepsychologistmeasuredthenumberofhoursintheweekthatthestalkerspentstalkingtheirpreybothbefore(stalk1)andafter(stalk2)treatment.Analysetheeffectoftherapyonstalkingbehaviouraftertherapy,covaryingfortheamountofstalkingbehaviourbeforetherapy.
CrueltobeKindTherapy PsychodyshamicTherapy
InitialStalking StalkingAfterTherapy InitialStalking StalkingAfterTherapy
47 11 52 47
50 18 53 47
51 34 54 50
52 40 57 55
53 50 58 56
57 54 60 56
57 55 61 61
60 58 61 61
63 59 62 61
66 60 65 61
68 61 66 62
72 61 66 62
72 62 66 62
73 63 71 64
75 64 71 64
77 65 72 64
79 65 75 70
85 78 77 74
62 55 80 78
71 63 87 78
53 52 75 62
64 80 57 71
79 35 59 55
75 70 46 46
60 61 89 79
® EnterthedataintoSPSS.(Hint:Thedatashouldnotbeenteredastheyareinthetableabove).
® Savethedataontoadiskinafilecalledstalker.sav.
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® Conducttheappropriateanalysistoseewhetherthetwotherapieshadasignificanteffectonstalkingbehaviourwhencontrolling for theperson’sgeneral tendency tostalk.
Whatis/aretheindependentvariable(s)andhowmanylevelsdotheyhave?
YourAnswer:
Whatisthedependentvariable?
YourAnswer:
Whatisthecovariate?
YourAnswer:
Whatanalysishaveyouperformed?
YourAnswer:
Hastheassumptionofhomogeneityofvariancebeenmet?(QuoterelevantstatisticsinAPAformat).
YourAnswer:
Reporttheeffectof‘therapy’inAPAformat.Isthiseffectsignificantandhowwouldyouinterpretit?
YourAnswer:
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Reporttheeffectof‘initialstalking’inAPAformat.Isthiseffectsignificantandhowwouldyouinterpretit?
YourAnswer:
Someanswerstothisquestioncanbefoundonthecompanionwebsiteofmybook.
Unguided Example Amarketingmanagerwasinterestedinthetherapeuticbenefitofcertainsoftdrinksforcuringhangovers.Hetook15peopleoutonthetownonenightandgotthemdrunk.Thenextmorningastheyawoke,dehydratedandfeelingasthoughthey’dlickedacamel’ssandyfeetcleanwiththeirtongue,hegavefiveofthemwatertodrink,fiveofthemLucozade(averyniceglucose-basedUKdrink)andtheremainingfivea leadingbrandofcola (thisvariable iscalleddrink).Hemeasuredhowwelltheyfelt(onascalefrom0=Ifeellikedeathto10=Ifeelreallyfullofbeansandhealthy)twohourslater(thisvariableiscalledwell).Hemeasuredhowdrunkthepersongotthenightbeforeonascaleof0=assoberasanunto10=flappingaboutlikeahaddockoutofwateronthefloorinapuddleoftheirownvomit.
Water Lucozade Cola
Well Drunk Well Drunk Well Drunk
5 5 5 6 5 2
5 3 4 6 6 3
6 2 6 4 6 2
6 1 8 2 6 3
3 7 6 3 6 2
® EnterthedataintoSPSS.(Hint:Thedatashouldnotbeenteredastheyareinthetableabove).
® SavethedataontoadiskinafilecalledHangoverCure.sav.
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® Conducttheappropriateanalysistoseewhetherthedrinksdiffer intheirabilitytocontrolhangoverswhencontrollingforhowmuchwasdrunkthenightbefore.
Someanswerstothisquestioncanbefoundonthecompanionwebsiteofmybook.
Multiple Choice Questions
Complete themultiple choice questions forChapter 12 on the companionwebsite to Field(2013):https://studysites.uk.sagepub.com/field4e/study/mcqs.htm.Ifyougetanywrong,re-readthishandout(orField,2013,Chapter12)anddothemagainuntilyougetthemallcorrect.
References Field,A.P.(2013).DiscoveringstatisticsusingIBMSPSSStatistics:Andsexanddrugsandrock'n'roll(4thed.).London:
Sage.
Miller,G.A.,&Chapman,J.P.(2001).Misunderstandinganalysisofcovariance.JournalofAbnormalPsychology,110(1),40-48.doi:Doi10.1037//0021-843x.110.1.40
Terms of Use Thishandoutcontainsmaterialfrom:
Field,A.P.(2013).DiscoveringstatisticsusingSPSS:andsexanddrugsandrock‘n’roll(4thEdition).London:Sage.
ThismaterialiscopyrightAndyField(2000-2016).
This document is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 InternationalLicense,basicallyyoucanuseitforteachingandnon-profitactivitiesbutnotmeddlewithitwithoutpermissionfromtheauthor.