Analysis as the Method of Logical Discovery. Some Remarks on Frege and Husserl

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L E 1 L A H A A P A R A N T A

A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L

D I S C O V E R Y : S O M E R E M A R K S O N F R E G E

A N D H U S S E R L

I . I N T I ~, () D L J ( T 1 O N

The r e a r e no t t oo m a ny ph i losophe r s who ha ve t r i e d to g ive a na tu r a l

e xp la na t ion f o r the m i r a c le s o f n ine te e n th c e n tu r y log ic . We know tha t

a radica l ly new Iogic came in to be ing in those days . But l i t t le , i f

a ny th ing , ha s be e n sa id a bou t the inc e n t ive s o f the se innova t ions .

Ha ns S luga a nd Got t f r i e d Ga br i e l ha ve s t r e s se d a nd wor ke d on the

his tor ica l pe rspec t ive of tha t remarkable pe r iod , and I have t r ied to

give an answ er to the ques t ion , a s ra r as Frege s logic i s con cern ed,

but mu ch can s ti ll be don e . ~

I f we wish to so lve th is in te rpre ta t iona l puzz le , i t i s use ful and qui te

ins t r uc t ive to t r y to f ind ou t how the p ione e r s o f m o de r n log ic a nd the

ph i losophe r s o f log ic in the n ine te e n th c e n tu r y d id wha t the y d id . Th a t

is , we taus t Iook for the methods which guided the i r logica l s tudies .

Th i s in t e r p r e t a t iona l t a sk a m oun t s to g iv ing a m e thodo log ic a l r e c on-

s t r uc t ion o f the wor k o f n ine te e n th c e n tu r y log ic i a ns . Th i s pa pe r i s a n

a t t e m pt to f ind ou t the m e thods wh ic h F r e ge a nd Husse r l f o l lowe d in

their logical s tudies.

2 . i ] u s ~ , E l ~ , l , S t ) U E S T I t ) N

Ed m u nd Husse r i s t hou gh t l e nds i ts e lf e a s ily to the f r a m e wo r k o f the

ph i losoph ic a i t r a d i t ion in t r oduc e d by I m m a nue l Ka n t . H i s m a in wor ks

in the f ie ld of logic bear Kant ian labe ls in the i r ve ry t i t le s . His t r i logy

of logic cons is ts of the book ent i t led

Logische Untersuchungen

I - I I

(190 0-19 01) , the f ir s t vol um e of whic h he ca l ls Prolegomena zur reinen

Logik Formale und Transzendentale Logik (1929) , and Er fahrung und

Urteil

( 1939), wh ic h wa s pos thum o us ly c om ple te d a nd pub l i she d by

Ludw ig La nd gr e be . Th e na tu r e o f Husse r l s t h oug h t i s p r e pa r a to r y .

Or ig ina l ly , h is phi losophy was mainly nega t ive in the sense of be ing

e x t r e m e ly c r i t i c a l o f c e r t a in psyc ho log i s t i c a nd na tu r a l i s t i c t e nde nc ie s

in ph i losophy , e spe c ia l ly in ph i losophy o f log ic a nd m a the m a t i c s , t o

which he had ea r l ie r adhered h imse l f . Af te r the c r i t ica l pe r iod , Husser l

Synthese 77 (1988) 73-97.

© 1988 by Kluwer Academic Publishers.



74 L E I I . A H A A f A R A N T A

\ \

\ ,

started with serious preparat ions for a posi t ive approach, but he d ' id~

not have t ime for real iz ing his project in a l l i ts deta i ls . To repeat

Maurice Natanson ' s metaphor , Husser l i s a man who saw the promised

land, but was not able to come to i t and cul t ivate i t f-

Even i f Husser l a t tached his phi losophy to Kant ian themes , he was

convinced that he had to ra ise heavy cri t ic ism against Kant 's ideas. He

blämes Kant for having fa iled to achieve a pu re theory of know-

ledge, which would be free from al l natural is t ic e lements, such as

psychologica l and anthropologica l assumpt ions . No more i s he

sa t i s f ied wi th neo-Kant ians ' deve lopments , which he ca l l s t ranscen-

denta l psychology. 3

Husser l ' s correc t ion to Kant ' s t ranscendenta l phi losophy cons is t s of

two basic remarks. First , there is Kant 's a l leged psychologism. Psy-

chologism was a popula r doc t r ine among logic ians and mathemat i -

c ians in the n ine teenth century . Psychologis t ic logic ians , such as Jakob

Fries (1773-1843) , Fr iedr ich Beneke (1798-1854) , John Stuar t Mi l l

(1806-1873) , Chr i s toph S igw a r t (1830-1904) , Wi lhe lm Wundt (1832-

1920) , Be nno Erdma nn (1851-1922) , a nd The odor L ipps (1851-

1914), assumed that logical laws are psychological laws of human

thoüght -and hence na tura l l aws . In the psychologis t ic v iew, logica l

concepts , such as the concepts of plural i ty, re la t ion and possibi l i ty,

became unders tood in te rms of the psychologica l or ig ins of those

con cepts . 4 In his early w ri t ings, Hus serl spo ke in favo ur of psy-

chologism, for example , in h i s book Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891),

which Got t lob Frege , the devoted ant ipsychologis t , heavi ly a t tacked

in 1894. 5 In the ve ry end of the n ine teenth century , Husser l g ave up

the psychologis t ic doc t r ine and turned to ant ipsychologism, which h is

Logische Untersuchungen preaches for .

The main s ta r t ing-points for Husser l were Bernard Bolzano, Her-

mann Lotze , and Franz Brentano, to whom Husser l pays homage in h is

Logische Untersuchungen. 6

Bolzano (1937) had in t roduced

Sätze an

sich and Vorstellungen an sich, which he regarded as ne i ther exis t ing

in space and t ime nor d epending on our menta l ac ts . 7 Hen ce , Bolzano

dist inguished the proposi t ion i tse lf from our thinking of i t and ac-

knowledged a spec i f ic rea lm of idea l objec ts , for which he d id not

admi t proper exis tence , though. Lotze , for h i s pa r t , cons idered be ing

and va l id i ty to be two senses of ac tua l i ty Wirklichkeit) and dist in-

guished be tween the be ing of concre te th ings and the va l id i ty of ab-

s t rac t objec ts . For h im, va l id i ty was a way of be ing indepen dent of



ANALYSI S AS Tt tE MF~ FHOD OF I . ( ) ( ] i ( AL DISCOV ERY

7

s u b j e c t i v e m e n t a l a c t s. ~ B r e n t a n o , f o r h i s p a r t , d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e -

t w e e n m e n t a l a c t s a n d t h e i r o b j e c t s , w h i c h h a v e i n t e n t i o n a l i n e x i s -

t e n c e in t h o s e a c t s b u t w h i c h n e e d n o t h a v e a n y r e a l e x i s t e n c e . 9

H u s s e r l a d h e r e s h i m s e lf to t h e s e i d ea s b y m a k i n g a d i s ti n c t io n

b e t w e e n t h e r e a l a n d t h e i d e a l . H e s t a t e s :

There is an essential, quite unbridgeable difference betweén sciences of the ideal and

sciences of the real. The former area p r i o r i the latter empirical. The fo rmer set forth

ideal general laws grounded with intuitive eertainty in certain general coneepts; the

latter establish real general laws, relating to a sphere of fact, with probabilities into

which we have insightfl °

H u s s e r l o b s e r v e s t h a t o n c e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l r e a l m a n d

t h e r e a l r e a l m i s a c k n o w l e d g e d , ° w e q u i t e n a t u r a l l y c o m e t o s e e o n e

c r u c i a l p r o b l e m . T h i s p r o b l e m c o n s t i t u te s t h e o t h e r h a l f o f H u s s e r l 's

c r it ic i sm a g a i n s t K a n t . H u s s e r l m a i n t a in s t h a t s i n ce K a n t d i d n o t m a k e

t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l a n d t h e r e a l , h e f a i l e d t o a s k o r t e

i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n . S i n c e K a n t d i d n o t a s s u m e a n y w o r l d o f i d ea l

o b j e c t s o f t h o u g h t , h e c o u l d n o t a sk : H o w c a n w e h a v e a n a c c e s s t o

t h e s e o b j e c t s ? '1 1

I n t h e

F o r m a l e u n d T r a n s z e n d e n t a l e L o g i k

H u s s e r l i s e x p l i c i t i n

s tr es si ng t h e im p o r t a n c e o f K a n t ' s t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e H u m e a n

p r o b l e m , w h i c h i n c l u d e h is d o c t r i n e o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s y n t h es is a n d o f

t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a b i l i t i e s i n g e n e r a l . H u s s e r l p r a i s e s K a n t ' s q u e s t i o n s

c o n c e r n i n g o u r k n o w l e d g e a n d i ts p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , b u t h e b l a m e s

K a n t f o r n o t a s k in g t r a n s c e n d e n t a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t f o r m a l l o g i c J 2

K a n t t o o k A r i s t o t e l i a n l o g i c t o b e a c o m p l e t e s y s t e m , w h i c h n e e d s n o

m a j o r c o r r e c t i o n s . A l l w e c a n d o f o r w h a t h e c a ll s g e n e r a l l o g ic is t o

m a k e i t m o r e e l e g a n t ; t h e p r o p e r t a s k o f th is l o g ic , w h i c h i s t o e x p o s e

a n d p r o v e t h e f o r m a l r u le s o f a ll t h o u g h t , h a d a l r e a d y b e e n a c -

c o m p l i s h e d , i n K a n t ' s v i e w . 1 3 H e n c e , K a n t a s k e d h o w p u r e m a t h e m a -

t ic s is p o s si b l e , h o w p u r e , n a t u r a l s c i e n c e i s p o s s i b l e , a n d h o w

m e t a p h y s i c s a s n a t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n a n d a s s c i e n c e is p o s s ib l e , 14 b u t h e

d i d n o t a s k h o w l o g i c a s s c i e n c e i s p o s s i b l e . H u s s e r l b e l i e v e s t h a t i f

K a n t h a d d i s ti n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e i d ea l a n d t h e r e a l r e a l m , i t w o u l d

h a v e o c c u r r e d t o h i m t o a s k s u c h a n e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n .

H e n c e , H u s s e r l c o n c l u d e s th a t b o th H u m e a n d K a n t r e a li z e d t h e

t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p r o b l e m o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e w o r l d , t h a t i s , t h e

r e al r e a lm , b u t t h e y f a il e d t o s e e th e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o b l e m c o n c e r n -

i ng t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e i d e a l o b j e c t s s u c h a s t h e j u d g e m e n t s a n d



7 6

L E I I . A H A A P A R A N T A

t h e c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h b e l o n g t o t h e s p h e r e o f r e a s o n a n d w h i c h l o g i c i s

i n t e r e s t e d i n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , K a n t d i d n o t m a k e h i s a n a l y t i c a p r i o r i a

p r o b l e m . 15

H u s s e r l ' s q u e s t i o n i n h i s l o g i c a l w o r k c a n t h u s b e f o r m u l a t e d i n

t h r e e w a y s :

(1 ) H o w c a n w e h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r e a l m o f i d ea l o b j e c t s ?

(2 ) H o w c a n w e r e l y o n w h a t I o g ic c l a i m s ?

( 3) H o w c a n w e j u s t i f y t h e a n a l y t i c a p r i o ri t r u t h s ?

T h e s e f o r m u l a t i o n s h a v e s i m p l e c o n n e c t i o n s . F o r w h a t g i v es u s k n o w -

l e d g e o f t h e r e a l m o f id e a l o b j e c t s , p r i m a r i l y o f t h o u g h t s , t h a t i s, o f t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f t h o u g h t s a n d o f t h e i n f e r e n t i a l l i n k s b e t w e e n t h o u g h t s , i s

p r e c i s e l y t h e s c i e n c e o f l o g i c , a n d H u s s e r l t h u s a s k s h o w w e c a n r e l y

o n t h a t s c i e n c e t M o r e o v e r , s i n c e l o g i ca l l aw s a r e e s s e n t i a l ly a n a l y t i c a

p r i o r i , H u s s e r a s k s h o w w e c a n r e l y o n t h e a n a l y t i c a p r i o r i c l a i m s

w h i c h l o g i c o f f e r s t o u s .

3 . T H E P H I L O S O P H I ( A L S O U R C E O F T H E Q U E S T I O N

H u s s e r l a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n w h i c h K a n t d i d n o t a s k , a n d t r i e d t o d o

w h a t K a n t d i d n o t d o , n a m e l y t o l a y t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s

o f l o g i c . B u t w h a t w a s a c t u a l l y th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s o u r c e o f t h e q u e s -

t i o n c o n c e r n i n g h o w l o g i c a s s c i e n c e i s p o s s i b l e ?

I f w e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f l o g i c c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d a s a

K u h n i a n s c i e n c e , h e n c e , t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s a ri se i n l o g ic

w h e n t h e r e e e i v e d f r a m e w o r k i s t h r e a t e n e d , w e q u i të n a t u r a l l y s e e th e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s a r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d i n l o g i c . A r i s t o t e l i a n

l o g i c w a s l o s i n g g r o u n d i n t h o s e d a y s , a n d n e w f o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t s

a r o s e . W h a t t h i s p e r i o d n o e d e d , t h e n , w a s e i th e r a j u s t if i e a t io n f o r t h e

o l d l o g i c o r a j u s t i f i c ä t io n f o r th o s e n e w s u g g e s t i o n s . I t t h u s n e e d e d

s o m e o n e w h o w o u l d a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o ss i bi li ty o f

l o g i c a s s c i e n c e . H e n c e , H u s s e r l ' s q u e s t i o n w a s n e c e s s i t a t e d b y t h e

n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s o f l o g i c i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H u s s e r l h i m s e l f

r e m a r k s :

•.. how could such a logic [scientific logic] become possible while the themes belonging

to it ori ginally rem aine d conf used ? ~6

F r o m G a l i l e i a n d D e s c a r t e s t o K a n t , p h i l o s o p h e r s h a d s o u g h t f o r a

f ir m f o u n d a t i o n f o r m o d e r n n a t u r al s c i e n ce , f o r m a t h e m a t i c s a n d e v e n



A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E F H O D O F I . O G I ( A L D I S C O V E R Y

f o r m e t a p h y s i c s . L o g i c , h o w e v e r , r e m a i n e d u n t o u c h e d e v e n b y t h o s e

w h o w i s h e d t o c h a n g e t h e o l d b e l i e f s l i k e G e o r g e B o o l e ( 1 8 5 4 ) , w h o

a r g u e d t h a t i t m a y , p e r h a p s , b e p e r m i t t e d t o t h e m i n d to a t ta i n a

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a w s t o w h i c h i t is it s el f s u b j e c t w i t h o u t i ts b e i n g a l so

g i v e n t o i t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r g r o u n d a n d o r i g i n . ~7

T h e f o u n d a t i o n a l c ri si s w a s n o t t h e m o s t p e r s p i c u o u s r e a s o n f o r t h e

q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e p o s s i b i li t y o f I o g ic as s c i e n c e . T h e q u e s t i o n

a r o s e a s a n a t u r a l c o n s e ' q u e n c e o f t h e v a r i o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h i n

l o g i c a n d p h i l o s o p h y o f l o g i c in th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A s w e s a w i n

H u s s e r F s c a s e , i t a r o s e f r o m a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n w h i c h p o s t u l a t e d

a s p e c i f i c r e a l m o f a b s t r a c t o b j e c t s l i k e t h o u g h t s w h i c h l o g i c s p e a k s

a b o u t . I f t h i s k i n d o f r e a l m i s a s s u m e d a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d , i t i s q u i t e

n a t u r a l t o a s k h o w w e c a n h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f t h i s r e a l m , t h a t i s , h o w

w e c a n r e l y o n l o g i c w h i c h is s u p p o s e d t o s p e a k a b o u t t h is re a l m .

B u t w h y d o e s a n y o n e w a n t t o a s su m e s u c h a n o b j e c t i v e r e a l m ? T h e

o b j e c t i v i t y o f t h e f i e ld o f i n t e r e s t o f lo g i c w a s p r o b a b l y n e c e s s i t a t e d b y

a p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r a n t h r o p o i o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f K a n t ' s t r a n s c e n -

d e n t a l i s m , a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y s u c h l o g i c i a n s a s F r i e s a n d E r d m a n n , f o r

e x a m p l e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e m p i r i c i s t t r a d i t i o n , p s y c h o l o g i s m i n l o g i c

h a d a n a t u r a l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h I 4 a n t 's t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m , f o r t h e t r a n s-

c e n d e n t a l s t r u c t u r e o f h u m a n t h o u g h t w a s e a s i l y c o n s t r u e d a s a

p s y c h o l o g i c a t s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h i s t y p i c a l o f th e h u m a n r a c e . I f o n e

w a n t e d t o s a v e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g i c f r o m t h i s k i n d o f r e a d i n g , o n e h a d

b e t t e r r e g a r d t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s t r u c t u r e a s th e s t r u c t u r e o f s o m e

o b j e c t i v e r e a l m .

4 . T H E M A T E R I A L I T Y O F L O G I C

I f t h e c o n t e n t o f l 'o g ic is p u s h e d i n t o a s p e c if i c r e a l m o u t s i d e t h e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l s p h e r e , l o g ic b e c o m e s m o r e m a t e r i a l t h a n i t w a s i n

K a n t ' s v i e w . K a n t ' s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g ic w a s , o f co u r s e , m a t e r ia l , b u t

i t w a s m a t e r i a l b a s i c a l l y . i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s h o w e d u s t h e orm o f o u r

p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d . A s K a n t s a y s, hi s g e n e r a l l o g i c d ea l s o n l y w i t h t h e

f o r t s o f t h o u g h t a n d e l im i n a te s a ll c o n t e n t o f k n o w l e d g e , w h e r e a s h is

t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g i c e x c l u d e s o n l y t h e m o d e s o f k n o w l e d g e w h i c h

h a v e e m p i r i c a l c o n t e n t b u t p r e s e r v e s t h e c o n t e n t o f k n o w l e d g e b y

b e i n g i n t e r e s t e d i n th e r e l a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d o b j e c t s , j8 B u t w h a t

t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g ic r e p r e s e n t s i s t h e f o r m a l a p r io r i m a c h i n e r y w h i c h



7 8 L E II~ A I tA AP AR AN TA

is a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a n d a n i n e s c a p a b l e c o n c e p t u a l e l e m e n t o f o u r

e x p e r i e n c e .

W h e n a sp e c if ic lo g i ca l s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e w a s a c k n o w l e d g e d , t h e

f o r m o f h u m a n t h o u g h t - a n d , h e n c e , t h e fo r m o f o u r w o r l d - w a s

o b j e c t i f i e d a s t h e f o r m s o f a b s t r a c t o b j e c t s c a l l e d t h o u g h t s . S u c h

p h i l o s o p h e r s a s B o l z a n o , L o t z e , a n d F r e g e t h u s a s s u m e d t h a t p h e n -

o m e n a l o b j e c t s d o n o t s u f f i c e t o g i v e u s l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s a s s u c h .

W h a t w e n e e d in a d d i t io n t o t h o s e o b j e c t s i s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

l o g ic a l r e a lm , w h i c h i s d i f f e r e n t f ro m t h e r e a l m o f o b j e c t s w h i c h h a v e

e f f e c t s o n o u r s e n s e s a n d a l so d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e a l m o f p s y -

c h o l o g i c a l e v e n t s .

I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e , h o w e v e r , K a n t h a d t h e s a m e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

p r o b l e m a s H u s s e r l , f o r his t ra n s c e n d e n t a l d e d u c t i o n c a n b e r e a d a s

b e i n g m o t i v a t e d b y a s e a r c h f o r a f ir m f o u n d a t i o n f o r o u r l o g i c a l

c o n c e p t s . F o r K a n t , t h o s e c o n c e p t s a r e ju s ti fi ed w h e n t h e y a re f o u n d

b y m e a n s o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a n al ys is s ta r ti n g f r o m j u d g e m e n t s . K a n t

b e l i e v e s t h a t a j u d g e m e n t h a s p r io r i t y o v e r i ts c o n s t i t u t i v e c o n c e p t s

a n d t h a t th e o n l y u se w h i c h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n m a k e o f c o n c e p t s is

t o j u d g e b y m e a n s o f t h e m . 19 K a n t t h i n k s t h a t in o r d e r - t o r e a c h t h e

p u r e c a t e g o r i e s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w e m u s t s ta r t w i th j u d g e m e n t s ,

w h i c h s h o w t h e m t o us .

E v e n if F r e g e p o s t u l a t e s t h e r e a l m o f a b s t r a c t o b j e c t s , h e a s s u m e s

t h a t t h e r e is a sa f e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s o l u t io n t o t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

p r o b l e m o f h o w w e c a n r e l y o n t h e s c i e n c e w h i c h t e ll s u s s o m e t h i n g

a b o u t t hi s r e a lm , t h a t i s, h o w w e c a n r e l y o n l o g ic . F r e g e s s o l u t io n

w a s th e s a m e a s K a n t s . H e n c e , e v e n if t h e r ea l m o f th o u g h t s b e c o m e s

a s t r a n g e r e a l m f o r u s in F r e g e s v i e w , t h e m e t h o d o f fi n d in g t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f t h o u g h t s r e m a i n s t h e s a m e a s th e m e t h o d o f f in d i n g th e i r

s t r u c t u r e , if t h a t s t r u c t u r e w e r e m e r e l y i n si d e o u r h e a d s a n d in o b j e c t s

o f e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s m e t h o d , w h i c h F r e g e r e l ie s o n , is p r e c i s e l y t h e

m e t h o d o f a n a l y s i s . F r e g e t e i l s u s t h a t , i n o r d e r t o f i n d t h e c o r r e c t

l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s , h e s t a rt s f r o m j u d g e m e n t s . 2°

I n a d d i t i o n t o p s y c h o l o g i s m , F r e g e a l s o w i s h e d t o s a f e g u a r d h i m s e l f

f r o m t h e v i e w w h i c h w a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y s u c h l o g i c ia n s a s B o o l e a n d

S c h r ö d e r w h o s t a r t e d t o m a k e n e w d e v e l o p m e n t s in fo r m a l lo g ic a n d

p a i d l it tl e, i f a n y , a t t e n t i o n t o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g ic : F r e g e r e l i e d o n t h e

i d ea t h a t l o g ic o u g h t t o le a r n s o m e t h i n g f r o m m a t h e m a t i c s , b u t h e w a s

n o t o n e o f t h o se l o g ic i an s w h o t h o u g h t t h a t b y c o p y i n g m a t h e m a t i c s

l o g ic c o u l d t a k e a fi rm a n d f r u it fu l c o u r s e . F r e g e s m o d e l w a s a r i th -



A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y

9

m e t i c o n l y to t h e e x t e n t t h a t h e w i s h e d t o u s e e x a c t sy m b o l i s m . H e , o f

c o u r s e , w i s h e d t o s e r v e m a t h e m a t i c s b y m e a n s o f h is s y m b o l i s m , b u t

a n e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i n h is l o g ic w a s t o w r i te d o w n t h e p h i l o s o -

p h y w h i c h t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s a n d l o g ic i st s p r e a c h e d f o r.

I n t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y l o g i c , l o g i c w a s b a s i c a l l y

u n d e r s t o o d m a t e r i a l l y , a n d f o r m a l l o g i c w a s a k i n d o f p a r a s i t e .

T h e m a t e r i a l i t y o f l og i c m e a n t v a r i o u s t h in g s . (1 ) L o g i c w a s m a t e r i a l

i n th e s e n s e t h a t i t w a s a s s u m e d t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e o b j e c t s o f t h e

w o r l d . K a n t s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g i c w a s m a t e r i a l i n t h is s e n s e i n a

p e c u l i a r w a y , a s w e n o t i c e d a b o v e . H e g e l i a n l o g i c w a s n a t u r a l l y

m a t e r i a l , s i n c e i t s o u g h t t o m i r r o r t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f

r e a l i t y . ( 2 ) L o g i c w a s m a t e r i a l i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ,

t h a t i s, b e i n g a p i c t u r e o f t h e a p r io r i c o n d i t i o n s o f h u m a n t h o u g h t . ( 3 )

L o g i c w a s m a t e r i a l i n th e s e n s e t h a t it w a s a s s u m e d t o s p e a k a b o u t t h e

o b j e c t s o f t h e a b s t r a c t r e a l m , t h a t i s , t o c o n v e y t h o u g h t s , w h i c h w e r e

c o n s i d e r e d o b j e c t i v e . ( 4 ) L o g i c w a s m a t e r i a l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t w a s

a s s u m e d t o m i r r o r t h e s t r u e t u r e o f th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a l m . B o t h

p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d n o n - p s y c h o l o g i s t s k e p t l o g i c c lo s e t o e p i s t e m o l o g y .

T h i s i s th e p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h t h e y d i t t e r e d f r o m m o s t o f t h o s e w h o

s u g g e s t e d n e w f o r m a l d e v e l o p m e n t s f o r l o g i c .

A c c o r d i n g l y , l o g i c i s t s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a l m o f a p p l i c -

a b i li ty o f lo g i c i n o r d e r t o s a f e g u a r d l o g i c f r o m p s y c h o l o g i s m , w h i c h

e v e n a r o se f r o m K a n t s t r an s c e n d e n ta l is m . T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t

K a n t w e n t i n t o th e t r a p o f p s y c h o l o g i s m b u t - a s I a r g u e d a b o v e - t h a t

K a n t s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m c o u l d e a s i ly b e i n t e r p r e t e d p s y c h o l o g i s t i c -

a ll y . N e o - K a n t i a n s a n d l o gi ¢ is t s d i d n o t w a n t t o m a k e l o g i e m e ta p h y ~

s ic a l in H e g e l s s e n se . T h e r e f o r e , t h e o n l y a l te r n a t i v e t h a t w a s t h e n

l e f t f o r t h e m w a s t o s t r es s t h e r o l e o f th e r e a l m o f t h o u g h t s . B u t

b e c a u s e o f th i s o b j e c t iv i t y o f t h o u g h t s t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w w e c a n r e l y

o n l o g i c b e c a m e p r e s s in g . N o m o r e c o u l d w e s a y li k e p s y c h o l o g i s t s o r

e v e n l i k e K a n t t h a t w e h a v e d i r e c t a c c e s s t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h o u g h t .

5 T R A N S C E N D E N T A L L O G I C A N D T H E I D E A O F C A L C U L U S

T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m a t e r i a l a n d f o r m a l l o g ic c a m e u p i n a n e w

f o r m w i t h in n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o rm a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . I n t h e l at e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e w e r e t w o w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t l o g i c , i n

F r e g e s v i e w . S o m e l o g i¢ ia n s~ 13 o ol e, f o r e x a m p l e , f ~ c u s s e d o n



80

L E I L H P R N T

developing a Leibnizian

ca lcu lus ra t iocina tor

that is, on presenting a

formal calculus, which only gives the rules of logical inference. 21 On

the otber hand, Frege thought that while Boole restricted his project

to developing a calculus, Peano s logic was a Leibnizian l i n g u a

c h a r a c t e r i c a

a proper material language.22Frege argued that bis

Beg r i f f s sch r i f t was b o t h a language a n d a calculus. 23 He thought that

his conceptual notation was both an attempt to present the rules of

logical inference and an attempt to give a conceptual representation

of the universe. In this way, be believed to have caught the sensible

core of Leibniz s idea of a universal language. 24 For Leibniz s ideal

language was meant to be a mirror of the world so that its symbols and

the relations of those symbols would correspond to the elements of the

universe and the relations of those elements. Moreover, Leibniz

assumed that this very correspondence would be the basis of reliable

logical reasoningY

The idea of a Leibnizian universal language is put forward by Frege

in the Preface of the

Beg r i f f s sch r i f t

which also contains a reference

to Trendel enburg s exposition of that idea. 26 In bis article Über

Leibnizens Entwurf einer allgemeinen Charakteristik Trendelenburg

suggests that philosopbers ought to construct a Leibnizian universal

language on the basis of Kan t s epistemological ideas. Trendelenburg

praises Kan t s distinction between the conceptual and the empirical

component of thought and takes his study of the conceptual com-

ponent to be a continua tion of Leibniz s project. He also mentions

Ludwig Benedic t Trede, who in an essay Vorschiäge zu einer noth-

wendigen Sprachlehre (1811) had tried to construct a Leibnizian

universal language by keeping in mind what Kant does in bis trans-

cendental logic. According to Trendelenburg, Kant improved Leib-

niz s idea by emphasizing the codification of formal concepts in the

universal language and by leaving the empirical concepts aside. Trede

regards this kind of limitation of the Leibnizian project as necessary,

because, as human beings, we are not able to have knowledge of all

the empirical properties of objects and hence not able to designate all

empirical concepts in an ideal notational system. Frege followed Kan t

and Trede in that he paid more attention to formal concepts and less

attention to empirical concepts.

Even if Frege seems to ~rely-on Leibniz s th0ught, be differs from

hirn in on e important respect. Frege states that the term Beg r i f f s sch r i f t

which he was most likely to adopt from Trendelenburg - is mislead-



A N A L Y S 1 S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 81

ing, since he does not start from concepts but from judgements. He

also remarks that in this respect his conceptual notation deviates from

similar creations of Leibniz and his followers.27 However, his concep-

tual notation does not deviate from what Kant suggested. As we saw

above, Kan t s thesis is that a judgement has priority over its con-

stitutive concepts. Hence, Kant thinks that if we want to reach the

pure categories of understanding, we taust start with judgements,

which show them to us. What Kant himself does in his ritique o f Pure

Rea so n is first to present the table of judgements and then to proceed

to the table of categories. 28 Kant starts with complete judgements and

comes up with the components of judgements, which are sensations,

forms of intuition, and the c0ncepts of pure understanding, that is,

logical concepts. Frege follows Kant s recommendation and example.

He writes:

In fact it is orte of the most impor tant differences betwee n my way of thinking

{Auffassungsweise} and the Boolea n way - and indeed I can add the Ari stoteli an way -

that I do not proceed from co ncepts b ut from judg ements. 29

Frege starts his analysis with judgements and comes up with his basic

logical concepts, such as the concepts of object, function, con-

ditionality, negation, generality, and identity, which constitute his new

language. If we assume th at Frege s logic - and primarily his first-

order logic, which he considers his basic innovation ,3° - is meant to be

a mirror of the forms of thought and of the world into which we have,

as Kant would say, ernbedded those forms, we can ascribe to it an

important epistemological role. Fregean first-order language is based

on the idea that objects are considered in the framework of judge-

ments and judgements are constituted by empirical concepts, which

are signified by Greek letters, and by logical functions like con-

ditionality, negation, generality, and identity. The only way in which

we can use these concepts is to form thoughts and judge by means of

them. 31

6

n o w T O D I ~ C O V E R T H E T R U E L O G I C

We saw above that the starting poin t of Frege s analysis is a com-

plete judgement. By analyzing judgements, Frege arrives at his basic

concepts which he presents by means of his symbols. These primitive



8 2

L E I L H P R N T

l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s d e t e r m i n e t h e t r u t h - v a l u e o f t h e w h o l e t h o u g h t i n

w h i c h t h e i r s e n s e s a r e c o m p o n e n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , ' - ~ ' s t a n d s f o r t h e

T r u e if t h e a r g u m e n t ' ~ ' s t a n d s f o r t h e T r u e , o t h e r w i s e it s t a nd s f o r

the False, and ,__.._~_a~ ( a ) , s ta n d s f o r t h e T r u e if f o r e v e r y a r g u m e n t

t h e v a l u e o f t h e f u n c t i o n ' @( ~ ) ' s t an d s f o r t h e T r u e , o t h e r w i s e i t s t an d s

f o r t h e F a l s e . 32 H e n c e , F r e g e a s s u m e s t h a t w e k n o w t h e c o n d i t io n s

u n d e r w h i c h a t h o u g h t i s t r u e i f a n d o n l y i f w e k n o w w h a t t h e

p r i m i t iv e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e n t e n c e m e a n , a n d th a t

w e r e a c h t h e s e m e a n i n g s , a n d h e n c e t h e t r u t h -c o n d i t i o n s , b y a n a ly z in g

t h e t h o u g h t w h i c h i s a c k n o w l e d g e d , t h a t i s, w h i c h is j u d g e d . I n

F r e g e ' s v i e w , t h e s o - c a l l e d t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n a l s e m a n t i c s i s a s i m p l e

c o n s e q u e n c e o f his m e t h o d o f a n al ys is . F r e g e t a k e s a j u d g e m e n t t o b e

a c o m p l e t e c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h w e m u s t a n a l y z e i n o r d e r t o f i n d o u t

u n d e r w h a t co n d i t i o n s i t i s r e a l i z ed , t h a t i s , u n d e r w h a t co n d i t i o n s t h e

t h o u g h t w h i c h i s a c k n o w l e d g e d i s t r u e . B u t F r e g e d o e s n o t t e i l u s h o w

h e h a s f o u n d h i s b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s , t h a t is, th e c o n s t i t u t iv e c o n c e p t s o f

j u d g e m e n t s , s t e p b y s t e p ; h e. o n l y p r e s e n t s t h o s e c o n c e p t s t o u s

i n

j u d g e m e n t s . I f h e h a d r e v e a l e d t h e s t e p s o f h is a n a ly s is , h e w o u l d h a v e

g i v e n u s a n a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g h o w h e a c t u a l l y

d i s c o v e r e d b is c o n c e p t u a l n o t a t io n . I h a v e t r ie d t o s h o w e l s e w h e r e

t h a t F r e g e f o l l o w e d l_ ~ib niz 's , K a n t ' s a n d T r e n d e l e n b u r g ' s r e c o m -

m e n d a t i o n s w h e n h e c o n s t r u c t e d b i s

Beg r i f f s s c h r i [ t

t h a t F r e g e ' s

m e t h o d o f d i s c o v e r y w a s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a n a ly s is a n d th a t w h a t h e

d i s c o v e r e d w a s a k i n d o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l o g ic . 33

I n t h e ' P r e f a c e ' o f t h e

Beg r i f f s s c h r i ß t

F r e g e m a k e s a d i s t i n c t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e w a y o f c o m i n g t o t h in k o f a p r o p o s i t i o n a n d t h e w a y o f

j u s ti fy i n g a p r o p o s i t io n . H e t a k e s t h e f o r m e r w a y t o d e p e n d o n e a c h

p e r s o n ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t s a n d t h e l a t te r w a y to b e d e t e r m i n e d b y th e

p r o p o s i t i o n i t s e l f , i n d ep en d en t l y o f o h r p r i v a t e mi n d s . S i n ce l o g i ca l

l a w s a r e p r o p o s i t i o n s , F r e g e t h u s c o m e s t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e

d i s c o v e r y o f a lo g i ca l l aw an d t h e j u s t if i c a t io n o f t h a t l aw . Th e

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o u r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t e p s t o l o g i c a l l a w s a n d t h e

o b j e c t i v e p r o o f s o f t h o s e l a w s a m o u n t s t o t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

l o g ic a n d t h e m e t h o d o f d i s c o v e r y a n d t h e l og i c a n d t h e m e t h o d o f

j u s ti f ic a t io n in t h e s c i e n c e o f l o g i c . F r e g e r e g a r d s t h e p r o b l e m o f

d i s c o v e r y a s a p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m b u t t a k e s t h e l o g i c o f

j u s ti fi c a ti o n t o b e a p r o p e r i n t e re s t o f l o g ic i ts e lf . T h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n

f r o m B o o l e s h o w s t h a t B o o l e i s r e a d y t o d e f e n d a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r

p o s i t i o n . F o r h i r n , i t i s n o t t h e t a s k o f l o g i c t o f i n d o u t h o w w e h av e



N L Y S I S S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C L D I S C O V E R Y 83

arrived at the logic we have; instead, what a logician must do is to

proceed from the evident logical laws to more complex logical laws

and thus to justify the laws which are not evident to us.

Even if Frege excludes the problem of discovering logical laws from

the field of logic, he takes notice of the method of discovering the only

true logic in the sense of a logical l anguage In Kant's terms, Frege

thus seems to be interested in the method of discovery of material, or

transcendental, logic but throws the method of discovery of general

logic into psychology. According to Frege, a logician must leave the

grammatical concepts aside and try to get an insight into the correct

logical concepts. His conceptual notation is precisely meant to be a

language which is constituted by these concepts. For Frege, the task of

finding the correct logical concepts which constitutes the logical

language is a proper task of a logician, not of a psychologist. Hence,

Frege states that his method of discovering the true logic is the

analysis of judgements. Frege thus believes that there is a true logic of

discovery by means of which we can find the formula language of

pure thought .

7

T H E I D E O F P H E N O M E N O L O G Y

By the beginning of the twentieth century, Husserl has outlined his

studies in the epistemological foundations of formal logic. After that,

he sets out to work on the phenomenological method.34 Phenomen-

ology is usually characterized as a field of philosophical studies which

is interested in the essential structures of experience. Phenomenology

is also a specific method, a method of bracke ting , which implies an

effort to exclude all historical and existenfial presuppositions and to

contemplate the pure consciousness itself. The phenomenological

method is transcendental in the sense that, when we use it, we attend

to our experiencing of an object, not to the object itself. We must not

say anything about what may or may not be outside the immanent

realm. Instead, we study the role of consciousness in the construction

of the world. In this sense, phenomenology is transcendental philoso-

phy. For Husserl, transcendental phenomenology is the pure and

radical form o[ transcendental philosophy.35

In the last decades, philosophers have compared Husserl's phenom-

enology with Frege 's semantic ideas. 36 Since Frege and Husserl had

largely a common historical background formed by Leibniz, Kant,



84

L E I L A H A A P A R A N T A

Bolzano, Lotze, and Brentano, it is no surprise that their common

background is also reflected in similar ways in some of their views. For

example, they both think that we cannot step beyond our cognitive

capacities in order to consider objects as detached from our concep-

tual systems, Frege assumes that between a name and an object there

is always a Sinn a conceptual component, t hrough which the object is

presented. 37 Husserl has his noemata, through which we perceive

objects, in his view. 38 Frege criticizes the correspondence theory of

truth, because it seems to presuppose a step beyond the limits of

language, that is, a possibility of comparing a sentence and reality,

which he takes to be absurd. 39 Husserl, for his part, claims that a

transcendence which would dispense with a connecti0n with my

sphere of actual percept ion on principle would be nonsense. 4°

Instead of detecting these parallelisms, I shall try to show that

phenomenology was required by Husserl s studies in the epistemolo-

gical foundations of formal logic. Therefore, in order to throw light on

Frege s and Husserl s philosophical doctrines concerning Sinn ,and

Bedeutung and noema and object, respectively, we taust first find out

their views of logic, which lie behind these specific philosophical

doctrines. Hence, as far as Husserl is concerned, our task will be to

follow his steps from the manifest of the foundational studies in logic

to the practice of phenomenology.4~

8 . H O W T O J U S T I F Y T H E O L D L O G I C

In his three logical works Husserl first outlines and then starts to

realize his programme, by means of which logie is meant to take the

firm course of seience. Husserl assumes that the principles of logic

need the uncovering of the genesis of judgements.42 This means that

Husserl sets out to discover the sources out of which logical concepts

and the ideal laws of logic arise° The starting point of his studies is a

judgement.43 He states:

Judgements as the finished products of a constitution or genesis can and must be

asked abo ut their genesis. 44

Husserl s first step is thus the step from complete judgements back to

the concepts which constitute these judgements. Like Frege, he relies

on Kant s recommendat ion when choosing the starting point of his

analysis. He also stresses, by referring to Bolzano and others, that the



A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 8 5

judgements must be considered to be ideal objects. Moreover, he

writes:

I f e x p e r i e n c e i t s el f i s a c c o u n t e d a s j u d g e m e n t i n t h e b r o a d e s t s e n s e t h e n t h e t h e o r y o f

e x p e r i e n c e i s t o b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s it se lf th e f ir st a n d m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l j u d g e m e n t

t h e o r y . 4 5

This passage expresses even greater dependence on Kant's thought.

For Kant describes objects of experience in such a way that he takes

them to be constructed out of intuitions which are interpreted through

the categories of understanding.46 Besides being compounded out of

intuitions and concepts, objects of experience taust present themselves

to us as judgements, since in Kant's view we cannot make use of

concepts in any other way than by judging by means of them.

Husserl's first step from judgements to the concepts which constitute

them is thus typically Kantian.

Husserl's second step is the step from logical concepts to the origins

of those concepts. He teils us that he seeks to show that the origin of

such ideas as negation, relation, and possibility, for example, is in

' predicative experience .47

Two things may w«rry us here. First, Husserl wishes to reach the

origins of the logical vocabulary, which sounds psychologism.

Secondly, he seems to connect the foundational stüdies of logic with

the account of experience, which also sounds psychologism. He goes

as far as arguing the following:

L o g i c n e e d s a t h e o r y o f e x p e r i e n c e - i n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o g i v e s c ie n t i fi c i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t t h e l e g i t i m a t i n g b a s e s a n d t h e l e g i t i m a t e l i m i ts o f i ts A p r i o ri a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y

a b o u t i t s o w n l e g i t i m a t e s e n s e : 48

I shall discuss the first question here and return to the second question

later in this essay.

Hence, isn't Husserl's motto back to origins psychologism, after

all? Hussefl himself warns us of confusing the psychological presup-

positions of the knowledge of a logical law with the logical presup-

positions of that law. He makes much of the distinction between

psychological dependence, and hence psychological origin, and logical

demonstration and justification.49 In the contexts in which he stresses

this distinction, he seems to mean the distinction between the way of

coming to think of a logical law, that is, the discovery of a logical law,



8 6 L E I L H P R N T

a n d t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h a t l a w . A s w e s a w a b o v e , F r e g e h a d a l r e a d y

c o n d e m n e d t h e s t u d y o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r i g i n s o f l o g i c a l l a w s a s a

b r a n c h o f lo g i c a l s tu d i e s b e f o r e H u s s e r l, a n d h e h a d d o n e t hi s in t h e

s a m e w a y a s H u s s e r l .

B u t H u s s e r l i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e o r i g i n s . H o w e v e r , h e d e n i e s t h a t h e

m ean s p s y ch o l o g i ca l s t u d i e s b y b is st u d i e s o f o r ig i n s . H i s s t a rt i n g p o i n t

i s e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h h e c o n s t r u e s a s j u d g e m e n t s , a n d h e i s i n t e r e s t e d

i n t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l , n o t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r h i s t o r i c a l , o r i g i n o f

t h o s e j u d g e m e n t s . 5° H e o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s o f

l o g i c a r e , o f co u r s e , f ami l i a r t o u s an d t h ey a r e a t o u r f r ee d i s p o s a l .

B u t h e is n o t i n t e r e s te d i n h o w m a n k i n d h a s p r o d u c e d t h e m p s y -

c h o l o g i c a l l y o r h o w w e a g a i n a n d a g a i n p r o d u c e t h e m i n o u r m i n d s. »1

W h a t d o e s h e m e a n b y h is p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n a ly s is o f lo g i c a l l a w s

a n d c o n c e p t s , t h e n , if n o t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s is ?

H u s s e r l i s ex p l i c i t i n h i s ch o i ce o f a me t h o d . H e t e l l s u s t h a t b i s

m e t h o d i s t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l o r tr a n s c e n d e n t a l a n a ly s is , w h i c h

d i f f e r s f r o m p s y ch o l o g i ca l an a l y s i s . H e a l s o ex t en d s t h e u s e o f h i s

m e t h o d b e h i n d t h e l o g ic a l c o n c e p t s b y t a k in g b i s s e c o n d s t e p f r o m t h e

b a s i c lo g i c a l v o c a b u l a r y t o t h e o r ig i n o f th a t v o c a b u l a r y . H e r e g a r d s

h i s an a l y t i ca l me t h o d a s a me t h o d o f d i r e¢ t i n tu i t io n , an i n s i g h t in t o

t h e e s s e n c e of s u c h c o n c e p t s a s c o n c e p t , p r o p o s i t i o n ' , e t c . 52

H u s s e r l s t a r t s w i t h j u d g e m e n t s , f i x e s t h e p r i m i t i v e l o g i c a l v o c a b u l a r y

o f t h o s e j u d g em en t s , an d f in a l ly t r ie s t o g e t an i n s i g h t in t o t h e

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l o r i g in o f th i s v o c a b u l a r y . I r is p r o j e c t is p a r a ll e l t o ,

e v e n i f m o r e e x t e n s i v e a n d m o r e e x p l ic i t th a n t h a t o f F r e g e ' s . I t is

m o r e e x t e n s i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t H u s s e r l w i s h e s t o s t e p b e h i n d t h e

l o g i c a l v o c a b u l a r y , a n d i t i s m o r e e x p l i c i t b e c a u s e H u s s e r l f o r m u l a t e s

the s t eps o f b i s ana lys i s .

H o w e v e r , H u s s e r l ' s lo g i c a l v o c a b u l a r y d i ff e rs f r o m t h a t o f F r e g e ' s ,

s i n c e h is p r ir n a ry a i m is t o s t u d y t h e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s o f

t r a d it io n a l l o g ic . H e d o e s n o t t r y t o f in d a n y n e w l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s b u t

h e m a i n l y s e e k s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h h a d b e e n k n o w n t o

p h i l o s o p h e r s f r o m t h e d a y s o f A r i s to f l e . T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e t h e

c o n c e p t s o f s u b s t a n c e , a c c i d e n c e , r e la t io n , n e g a t i o n , t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f

m o d a l i t y , e t c . H u s s e r l d o e s n o t s e e k t o c r e a t e a n y n e w l o g i c , b u t h e

ma i n l y t r i e s t o l ay t h e ep i s t emo l o g i ca l f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e o l d l o g i c .

B u t h e r e g a r d s t hi s ta s k a s im p o r t a n t i n o r d e r t h a t t h e l o g ic w h i c h is to

c o m e c o u l d s t e p a l o n g t h e p a t h o f s c i e n c e .



A N A L Y S I S AS T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 8

9. F IND1NG THE ORIGINS

Husserl s book Erfahrung und Urte i l , which was published post-

humously, was meant to take the step from the logical concepts to

their phenomenological origins along the lines that were drawn in the

Logische Untersuchungen and in the Formale und Transzendentale

Logik . This analysis finally comes up with the concept of life-world

Lebenswelt), which was central in Husserl s later philosophy.

Husserl first reduces all judgements to ultimate judgements, which

are judgements about absolute objects. In this way, he also reaches the

absolute properties and relations. The absolute objects which Husserl

calls judgement-substrates are his basic individuals. The ultimate

judgements are predicative, they are judgements about these ultimate

individuals. They are thus constituted by the distinction between

objects and predications like Frege s simple judgements. In his For-

ma le und Transzendentale Log ik Husserl writes:

The lowest level reached by tracing back t he clue of sense-genesis brings us as we

already know to judgemen ts about individuals.53

In Erfahrung und Urteil we can read the following:

Original substrates are ... indiv idu als individual objects and every thinkable judge-

ment ultimately refers to individual objects no matter how mediated in a variety of

ways.54

This is one of the senses in which Husserl takes logic to be material.

Logic speaks about something; it relates to the sphere of individuals.»

This is what Husserl means by bis claim that logic presupposes

experience. Husserl s basic substrates are phenomenal, and judge-

ments are, in the last analysis, judgements about these phenomenal

objects.

In the

Formale und Transzendentale Logik

Husserl suggests that the

judgement-substrates do not contain any judgement-syntaxes.56 But if

the basic individuals, which logic concerns, have no internal structure

which we could analyze further, then the rest of the components of

judgements serve to give the form for those individuals. Hence, all

analysis should stop at the judgement-substrates.

But Husserl does not stop at the structure of a predicative judge-

ment. In the Erfahrung und Urte i l his further task is specified as

follows:



8 8


Out task is thus a clarification of the essence of the predicative judgeme nt by means of

exploration of its origin. 57

T o g o b e h i n d t h e p r e d i c a ti v e j u d g e m e n t i s t o c o n s t ru c t a t h e o r y o f

p r e p r e d i c a t iv e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f j u d g e -

m e n t is p re c i s e l y m e a n t t o a n a l y z e th is e x p e r i e n c e i n w h i c h t h e

u l t i ma t e s u b s t r a t e s a r e g i v en a s s e l f - ev i d en t . 58

T h e f in a l o b j ec t o f H u s s e r l ' s an a l y s is is t h u s t h e ac t o f p r ep r ed i -

c a t i v e j u d g e m e n t , i n w h i c h h u m a n l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y a p p e a r s i n i t s

e l e m e n t a r y f o r m . I n H u s s e r l ' s v i e w , th is a c t o f p r e p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g e -

m e n t is o b j e c t i f y i n g t u r n i n g - t o w a r d , a n a c t w h i c h p i c k s u p a n

o b j ec t i n p e r ce p t i o n a s it s o b j e c t . 59 H u s s e r l t h i n k s t h a t ev e r y ac t o f

p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g e m e n t is b a s e d o n t h is p r e p r e d i c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e . 6° I n

t h is w a y , H u s s e r l a n a l y z es c a t e g o r i c a l j u d g e m e n t s . 61 T h e f o r m o f

c a t e g o r i c a l j u d g e m e n t s w i ll th u s b e e x p l a i n e d b y th e d i s t in c t io n b e -

t w e e n t h e o b j e c t , w h i c h i n p r e p r e d i c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e i s a n o b j e c t o f

p e r c e p t i o n , a n d t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th is o b j e c t i n t hi s p r e p r e d i c a t i v e

p e r c e p t i v e e x p e r i e n c e . H u s s e r l s t a t e s :

It would be the task of further investigation to carry out a similar genetic derivation for

the othe r forms of judge ment as weil. The theme of our investigation accordingly is the

categorical judgement which is based on perception.62

H e a l s o p o i n t s o u t :

•.. the structures of perception are taken into consideration only to the extent that it is

necessary to understand how on the basis of sensuous percept ive experience logical

operations with their logical formations are established; how on the basis of percep -

tion categorical objects circumstantial and general objectivities are produc ed through

logical spontaneity:63

T h e s t u d y o f p r e p r e d i c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e is w h a t H u s s e r l m e a n s b y h is

g e n e a l o g y

o f l o g i c 64

H e w i s h e s t o s h o w t h a t t h e o r i g i n s o f s u c h

co n c ep t s a s u n i t y , p l u r a li t y , n eg a t i o n , r e l a t i o n an d p o s s i b i li t y l ie in

p r e p r e d i c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n h i s v i e w , a l l c o m p l e x

j u d g e m e n t s c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k t o u l t i m a t e j u d g e m e n t s , w h i c h a r e

a b o u t b a s i c i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e u l t i m a t e j u d g e m e n t s a r e b a s e d o n p r e -

p r e d i c a t iv e j u d g e m e n t s , w h i c h a r e a c ts o f p e r c e p t io n . H e n c e , in o r d e r

t o r e a c h t h e o r i g in s o f lo g i c a l c o n c e p t s , H u s s e r l ta u s t a n a l y z e t h e v e r y

a c t s o f p e r c e p t i o n .

O n e e x a m p l e o f H u s s e r l ' s p r o c e d u r e i s i n o r d e r . L e t u s c o n s i d e r t h e

c a t e g o r y o f n e g a t i o n . H u s s e r l a n a l y z e s i t a s a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f e o n -



A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 9

s c io u s n e s s , w h i c h a r i s es w h e n w e p a r ti a l ly c a n c e l s o m e t h i n g t h a t w e

h a v e a s s u m e d . I f w e s e e a r e d b a ll a n d i f i t t h e n t u r n s o u t t h a t t h e

o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b a l l i s g r e e n , w e c a n c e l t h e p r e p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g e m e n t

t h a t t h e b a l l i s r e d , a s f a r a s t h e o t h e r s i d e i s c o n c e r n e d . T h e p a r t i a l

c a n c e U a t i o n , T h i s is n o t r e d , is t h e o r ig i n o f t h e lo g i c a l c o n c e p t o f

n e g a t i o n . T h i s m e a n s t h a t H u s s e r l c o n s i d e r s t h e l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y o f

n e g a t i o n t o b e d e e p l y r o o t e d in o u r b a s i c p e r c e p t u a l a c t iv i ti e s . 65

H u s s e r l ' s a n a l y s is h a s a n u m b e r o f i m p l i c a t i o n s . F i r st , h e c o m e s t o

a r g u e t h a t t h e w o r l d o f b a s ic i n d iv i d u a ls i s n o t a c o l l e c t i o n o f i n -

d i v i d u a l o b j e c t s i n th e s e n s e o f i n d e p e n d e n t a t o m s . H u s s e r l c o m e s t o

t h i n k t h a t t h e w o rl cl w h i c h i s p r e g i v e n t o u s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s u b j e c t

t o l o g i c al o p e r a t i o n s . H e w r i te s :

T h e w o r ld i s n e v e r g i v e n t o u s a s o th e r t h a n t h e w o r l d in w h i c h w e o r o t h e r s w h o s e

s t o r e o f e x p e r i e n c e w e t a k e o v e r by c o m m u n i c a t i o n e d u c a t i o n a n d tr a d i ti o n h a v e

a l r e a d y b e e n l o g ic a l ly a c t i v e i n j u d g e m e n t a n d c o g n i t i o n . 66

H e n c e , i n H u s s e r l ' s v i e w , t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f a j u d g e m e n t i s t h e

w o r l d i n t o t a l i t y , n o t a n y s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d t h i s w o r l d i s a l r e a d y

f o r m e d b y o u r c a t e g o r i e s . 67 I t is f o r m e d a c c o r d i n g t o l o g i c a l c a t e -

g o r i e s a n d t y p i f ie d a c c o r d i n g t o d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a , k i n ds , e t c . T h e m o s t

g e n e r a l f o r m i n th e w o r l d is o b j e c t in g e n e r a l . 68 T h i s w o r l d a t w h i c h

h e a r r i v e s i n h i s l a t e r p h i l o s o p h y , w h e n h e p e r f o r m s h i s f o u n d a t i o n a l

s t u d i e s , H u s s e r l c a l l s a l i f e - w o r l d . O u r l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s a r e e m b e d d e d

i n o u t l i f e - w o r l d , a n d H u s s e r l s e e k s t o l o c a t e t h e m i n t h i s w o r l d b y

m e a n s o f h is p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l s tu d ie s .

W h a t n o w b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m f o r H u s s e r l , w h o s e e k s f o r t h e f i r s t

b a s i s o f l o g i c , i s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e l i f e - w o r l d . H u s s e r l a s s u m e s

t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l w h i c h i s g i v e n i n e x p e r i e n c e h a s a n i n t e r n a l

h o r i z o n , a n i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e , a n d a n i n f in i te e x t e r n a l h o r i z o n , w h i c h

m e a n s i ts r e l a t i o n s t o c o - g i v e n o b j e c t s . 69 I n h i s v i e w , t h e w o r l d is a

p o s s i b i l i t y f o r u s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t i s n o t w h o l l y a c t u a l a t a l l t i m e s

b u t w e c a n c h o o s e a n d th u s a c tu a l i ze s o m e i n t e r p r e ta t i o n o f t h e b i g

w o r l d o f a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s b y d e t e r m i n i n g i t i n s o m e w a y . T W e c a n

c h o o s e a w o r l d , w h i c h i s a m o n g t h e p o s s i b l e w o r l d s , i n t h e a c t o f

p e r c e p t i o n a n d t h e r e b y w e c o m e t o a c tu a l iz e o n e w o r l d .

B u t w h a t i s t h e f in a l b a s is o f l o g i c a l l a w s a n d c o n c e p t s t h a t H u s s e r l

f i n d s i n t h e l i f e - w o r l d ? H u s s e r l i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f a n y

p o s s ib l e w o r l d , t h e e s s e n ti a l f o r m o f a w o r l d i n g e n e r a l , n o t o f o u r

a c t u a l w o r l d . 7a T h i s m e a n s t h a t i n h is g e n e a l o g y o f l o g i c h e is in t h e



90

L E I L H P R N T

last analysis interested in our ways of forming worlds, that is, in the

recipes that we follow in constructing a world. These recipes provide

the only way of constructing a world which is possible for conscious-

ness. In contemporary logical terminology, this amounts to the claim

that the meanings of our logical words remain unchanged from orte

possible world to another.

This is Husserl s route back to Kant s transcendental logic. Like

Frege, Husserl comes to work on the analytic side of Kant s transcen-

dentalism, since he begins with the result of Kant s transcendental

synthesis, which is a complete judgement, and then moves backwards

to the conditions under which the judgement is realized. Husserl first

seems to assume that the ultimate substrates are the basis of analysis.

In his latest philosophy, he steps behind the simple substrates, and

claims that the logical forms are already in the world whieh we have

and we cannot analyze them away from out individuals.72 According

to bis view, logical forms are not something to be added to perceptual

individuals but rather they express the structure which a world taust

exemplify in order to be a possible world for us. 73

We also noted above that, according to Husserl, our knowledge of

logical laws presupposes experience of individuals. This view can be

given a natural Kantian reading. As we saw, Husserl agrees with Kant

that understanding can use concepts only in judgements. It is most

likely that, at least to some extent, he also agrees with Kant that

concepts without intuitions are empty.TM In Husserl s view, logical

concepts would be empty without perceptual individuals, which is to

say that out knowledge of logical laws also presupposes our exper-

ience of individuals.

Consequently, Husserl wants to correct Kant s transcendental

philosophy by means of his phenomenological method, by which he

seeks an epistemological understanding of formal logic. But what

Husserl arrives at is the analytic part of transcendental logic, which is

tentatively developed in Kant s

Kri t ik der re inen Vernu n f t

Husserl

tries to show how we reach out basic categories, which we use in our

judgements and also in the judgements of formal logic. Therefore, bis

inquiry represents both transcendental logic and the study of the

epistemologieal foundations of what Kant calls general logic.

To conclude, Kant puts forward his table of categories of under-

standing, but he does not teil us how he has actually arrived at those

categories. Kant merely gives a few hints at his steps from bis table of



A N A L Y S l S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 9

j u d g e m e n t s t o h is t a b le o f c a t e g o r i e s . N o r d o e s h e t e ll u s h o w h e h a s

d i s c o v e r e d h i s b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,

w h i c h h e c a l ls i n t u i ti o n s , a n d c o n c e p t s . 75 F r e g e , f o r h i s p a r t , p r o m i s e s

t o a n a l y z e j u d g e m e n t s . B u t e v e n i f h e g i v e s u s his b as i c c o n c e p t s , h e

d o e s n o t r e v e a l t h e p h a s e s o f h is a n al y s is . H e o n l y h i n t s a t t h e d i r e c t

r e f l e c t i o n o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f t h o u g h t . H u s s e r l t a k e s i t t o b e h is t a s k

t o sh o w t h e r o u t e f r o m j u d g e m e n t s a n d f r o m t h e o b j e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e

t o t h e l o g i c a l f o r m s . I n h i s l a t e r p h i l o s o p h y , h e c o m e s t o s t u d y

p r e p r e d i c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , i n w h i c h h e b e l i e v e s t o f i n d t h e o r i g i n o f

l o g i c .

1 0 . H U S S E R L S A N S W E R

H o w is l o g ic a s s c i e n c e p o s si b le , a c c o r d i n g t o H u s s e r l ? H u s s e r l a r g u e s

t h a t i f w e a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i d e a l w o r l d - i f w e d o n o t f a il t o n o t i c e i t a s

K a n t d o e s - t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g l o g ic ar is e s. H e

s t a t e s :

• . . t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p r o b l e m t h a t O b j e c t i v e l o g i c . . , t a u s t r a is e c o n c e r n i n g i ts f ie ld o f

i d e a l o b j e c t i v i t i e s t a k e s a p o s i t io n p a r a l le l t o t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e s c i e n c e

o f r e a l i t i e s . 7 6

B u t t h e v e r y sa m e a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t w h i c h r a is es th e p r o b l e m a ls o

s e e m s t o p r o v i d e u s w i t h a n a n s w e r . I f w e p o s t u l a t e t h i s w o r l d a s o u r

t h o u g h t - o b j e c t , w e a ls o h a v e d i r e c t a c c e s s t o i t . J u st a s K a n t s

c a t e g o r i e s a r e v a l i d f o r t h e w o r l d b e c a u s e w e h a v e p u t t h e m i n t h e

w o r l d , si m il ar ly , w e h a v e k n o w l e d g e o f th e o b j e c t s o f t h o u g h t , s i n c e

w e h a v e m a d e t h e m o u r s e l v e s . H u s s e r l w r i t e s :

I s n o t e a c h a n d e v e r y O b j e c t i v i t y w i t h a ll th e s e n s e i n w h i c h i t i s a c c e p t e d b y u s , a n

O b j e c t i v i t y t h a t i s w i n n i n g o r h a s w o n , a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n o u r s e lv e s - a s a n O b j e c t i v i ty

h a v i n g t h e s e n s e t h a t w e o u r s e l v e s a c q u i r e d f o r i t? 77

T h e r e is m o r e t o H u s s e r l s a n s w e r, h o w e v e r . W h a t H u s s e r l w a n t s t o

s a y is t h a t b y c o n t e m p l a t i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n g e n e r a l , w e r e c e i v e t h e

e s s e n t i a l i n t u i t i o n t h a t i t h a s , b y d e f i n i t io n , a c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e , p a r t i -

c u l a r l y a n a c t - o b j e c t s t r u c t u r e , a s B r e n t a n o h a s a r g u e d . T h i s st r u c -

t u r e m a n i f e s ts i ts e lf i n th e f a c t t h a t a j u d g e m e n t c a n b e l o g i c a ll y

s p l it u p i n t o a s u b s t r a t e o f w h i c h i t is a j u d g e m e n t a n d t h a t w h i c h is

j u d g e d in t h a t ju d g e m e n t . M o r e o v e r , w e c a n a ls o o b j e c f i f y t h e



9 2


c o n c e p t s b y m e a n s o f w h i c h w e j u d g e . T h i s o b j e c t i f y in g a c t iv i ty

b e l o n g s t o t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h e s t r u c tu r e o f j u d g e -

m e n t , w h i c h l o g i c is i n t e r e s t e d i n , t h u s m i r r o r s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f p u r e

c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d i t h a s i ts o r ig i n i n t h is t r a n s c e n d e n t a l s t r u c t u r e .

H u s s e r l c l a im s t h a t w e h a v e s e t t h e s e l o g i c a l s tr u c t u r e s i n t o t h e w o r l d ;

w e c o n s t r u c t w o r l d s a c c o r d i n g t o th e r e c i p e o f t h e s e s t r u c tu r e s . I n t h e

w o r l d t h e y o c c u r a s s t r u c t u r e s o f e x p e r i e n c e . T M o r e o v e r , H u s s e r l

t h in k s t h a t w e c o u l d n o t h a v e b e c o m e c o n s c i o u s o f lo g ic i f w e h a d n o t

o b j e c t i f i e d i t , t h a t i s , p u t i t i n t o e x p e r i e n c e . T h e l o g i c a l f o r m s a r e

e m p t y u n l e s s w e e m b e d t h e m i n t o t h e w o r l d o f o b j e c t s . I n t h i s s e n s e ,

H u s s e r l b a s es l o g i c o n e x p e r i e n c e . W h a t t h is a m o a n t s t o is t h e c l a im

t h a t f o r m a l l o g i c i s b a s e d o n m a t e r i a l l o g i c , w h i c t l o f f e r s a g e n e r a l

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l t h e o r y f o r f o r m a l l o g ic . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m e a n i n g s

t h a t w e r e g i v e n f o r m a t e r i a l l o g ic e a r l i e r in t h is p a p e r , i t n o w t u r n s o u t

t o h a v e a n e w r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o f o r m a l l o g i c . B u t s i n c e H u s s e r l ' s

f o u n d a t i o n a l s t u d i e s p r o v e t o b e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l

l o g ic , w e a r e w a r r a n t e d t o a rg u e t h a t e r e n K a n t ' s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l lo g i c

w o u l d h a v e p r o v i d e d a n a n s w e r t o H u s s e r l ' s q u e s t io n i f K a f f t h a d

n o t i c e d t h e q u e s t i o n .

H u s s e r l c o n t i n u e s w i th o n e f u r t h e r q u e s t io n . H e a sk s : H o w is a

t h e o r y o f l o g i c al r e a s o n p o s s i b l e ? H e a n s w e r s :

S u c h a t h e o r y i s r a d ic a l ly p o s s i b le a s t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f l o g ic a l r e a s o n w i t h in t h e

f r a m e w o r k o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y a s a w h o l e . 79

F o r H u s s e rl , t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y is t h e fin al c o u r t . T h e r e -

f o r e , a l l q u e s t i o n i n g s t o p s h e r e .

11 C O N C L U D I N G R E M A R K S

H u s s e r l ' s w o r k w a s a p p a r e n t l y p u r p o r t e d t o e s t a b l i s h A r i s t o t e l i a n

l o g i c . H o w e v e r , t h e a n a l y s i s a b o v e s e e m s t o p o i n t t o a n e w d i r e c t i o n .

I t s e e m s a s if f r o m t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f l o g i c w h i c h H u s s e r l p r e s e n t s f o r

t r a d i ti o n a l l o g i c a c o m p l e t e l y n e w l o g i c e m e r g e d w h i c h i s c l o s e t o o u r

F r e g e a n l o g i c . M o r e o v e r , b e s i d e s h in t i n g a t a n a n a l y si s o f s e n t e n c e s

w h i c h r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f F r e g e ' s , H u s s e r l c o m e s e v e n c l o s e r t o o u r

c o n t e m p o r a r y l o g ic t h a n F r e g e d o e s . A f t e r a ll , h e c o m e s t o r e ly o n t h e

i d e a o f a lt e r n a ti v e m o d e l s w h i c h w a s m a i n t a i n e d b y B o o l e a n d b i s

f o l lo w e r s . 8° H u s s e r l 's K a n t i a n s t a n d p o i n t m a k e s h ir n l im i t o u r c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n t o t h o s e p o s s i b le w o r l d s w h i c h a r e p o s s i b l e f o r o u r c o n -



A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y

9

s c i o u s n es s an d r e s t r i c t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r l o g i ca l co n cep t s t o t h o s e

v e r y w o r l d s .

B u t u n l ik e F r e g e H u s s e r l d o e s n o t i n t e n d to c o n s t r u c t a n e w

o r g a n o n b u t h e s e e k s f o r t h e e p i s te m o l o g i c a l ju s t if ic a t io n o f th e o l d

o r g a n o n t h a t is A r i s t o t e l i an l o g ic . H u s s e r l r ev ea l s h i s s t ep s f r o m

c o m p l e x j u d g e m e n t s t o u l ti m a t e j u d g e m e n t s a n d f in a ll y t o t h e o r ig i n s

o f l o g i ca l co n c ep t s l ik e p l u r a li ty n eg a t i o n an d r e l a ti o n w h i ch co n -

s t i t u t e j u d g emen t ~ . H u s s e r l f i n d s t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e s e co n cep t s b y

a n a ly z in g a c t s o f p e r c e p t i o n w h i c h h e c a ll s p r e p r e d i c a t i v e j u d g e -

men t s . H e t h i n k s t h a t w e can g i v e an ep i s t emo l o g i ca l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r

t h e c o n c e p t s u s e d b y f o r m a l l o g i c p r e c is e l y b y c a r r y in g o u t t h is k i n d o f

t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a n a l ys is h e n c e t h a t a s r e g a r d s o u r l o g ic a l c o n c e p t s

t h e m e t h o d o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n i s t h e s a m e a s t h e m e t h o d o f d i s c o v e r y .

H u s s e r l a s k ed h o w l o g i c a s s c i en ce i s p o s s i b l e . B u t w h a t d o es t h i s

q u e s t i o n a c t u a U y a m o u n t t o i n t e r m s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y l o g i c ? I t m e a n s

t h a t H u s s e r l ch a l l en g ed t h e v i ew t h a t t h e an a l y t ic a p ri o r i i s u n p r o b -

l ema t i c . Th a t i s h e s o u g h t a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r l o g i ca l co n cep t s an d a l s o

f o r s u ch l aw s o f l o g i c a s th e l aw o f id en t i t y t h e l aw o f co n t r ad i c -

t i o n an d t h e l aw o f t h e ex c l u d ed mi d d l e . I t i s t r u e t h a t H u s s e r l c ame t o

e s t a b l i s h t h e l a w s w h i c h w e r e u s e d b y t h e l o g i c i a n s o f h i s d a y b y

r e f e rr i n g t o t h e e s s e n c e o f th e a c t iv i t y o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . N o n e

t h e le s s h is o r i g in a l q u e s t i o n co n ce r n i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f c l a s s ica l

l o g i c w a s o f i m p o r t a n c e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y

l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .

N O T E S

1 S e e Ha ns D. S l uga : 1980 ,

Gottlob Frege,

R o u t l e d g e a n d K e g a n P a u l , L o n d o n , B o s t o n

a nd H e n l e y ; a nd s e e a l so S l uga : 1984 , F re g e : t he e a r l y ye a r s , i n R . R or t y , J . B .

Schneewind, and Q. Skinner (eds . ) : 1984,

Philosophy in History: Essays on the Historio-

graphy of Philosophy, C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i ty P r es s , C a m b r i d g e , p p . 3 2 9 - 5 6 ; a n d 1 9 8 7,

F r e g e A g a i n s t t h e B o o l e a n s , Notre Dame Joumal of Formal Logic 2 8 , 8 0 - 9 8 . F o r

Ga b r i e l s v i e ws , s e e h i s 1984 , Bedeutung, V a l u e a n d T r u t h - V a l u e , The Philosophical

Quarterly 34 , 372 -76 ; a nd h i s 1986 , F re g e a ls Ne u ka n t i a ne r , Kant-Smdien 77,

8 4 - 1 0 1 . M y p h i l o s o p h ic a l r e co n s t r u c ti o n o f F r e g e s c o n c e p tu a l n o t a t i o n c a n b e f o u n d i n

m y ( 1 9 8 5) b o o k Frege s Doctrine of Being, Acta Philosophica Fennica 39.

2 M a ur i c e Na t a nson : 1973 ,

Ed m un d Husserl: Philosopher of Infinite Tasks,

N o r t h w e s t -

e rn U n i ve r s i t y P res s , Eva ns t on , p . 9 .

3 E d m u n d H u s s e d : 1 9 1 3 , Logische Untersuchungen I , V e r l a g v o n M a x N i e m e y e r ,

Ha l l e , pp . 92 -97 . C f . Ma rv i n F a rbe r : 1966 ,

The A im s o f Phenomenology, The M otives ,

Methods, and Im pact of Husserl s Thought,

H a r p e r a n d R o w , N e w Y o r k , p . 7.



9


4 Ja ko b F r i e s : 1819 ,

System der Logik ,

Mohr und W i n t e r , He i de l be rg ; a nd 1827 ,

Grundriss der Logik, C hr i s t i a n F r i e d r i c h W i n t e r , He i de l be rg ; F r i e d r i c h B e ne ke : 1820 ,

Erfahrungsseelenlehre als Grundlage alles Wissens, Erns t S i e g f r i e d Mi t t l e r , B e r l i n ; a nd

1842, System der Logik a ls Kunst lehre des Denkens 1- I[ , F e r d i n a n d D ü m m l e r , B e r l i n ;

John S t ua r t Mi l l : 1906 , A System of Logic: Ratiocinative and lnductive , L o n g m a n s

G r e e n , N e w Y o r k a n d B o m b a y ; C h r i s to p h S i g w a r t : 1 8 7 3, Logik , Erster Band, V e r l a g

d e r H . L a u p p s c h e n B u c h h a n d l u n g , T ü b i n g e n ; W i l h el m W u n d t : 1 88 0, Logik, Erster

Band: Erkenntnislehre, V e r t a g v o n F e r d i n a n d E n k e , S t u t t g ar t ; B e n n o E r d m a n n : 1 92 3,

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W a l t e r de Gruy t e r , B e r l i n und Le i pz i g ; The odor L i pps : 1983 ,

Grundzüge der

Logik , V e r l a g v o n L e o p o l d V o s s , H a m b u r g u n d L e i p zi g . S e e H u s s e rl s d i s cu s s io n o n

psyc ho l og i s t s i n Logische Untersuchungen I , pp . 78 -84 a nd pp . 125 -54 . C f . a l so

T h e o d o r Z i e h e n : 1 9 2 0 , Lehrbuch der Logik, A . M a r c u s a n d E . W e b e r s V e r l a g , B o n n ,

pp . 154 -64 .

5 S e e Edm und Husse r l : 1970 , Philosophie der Arithmetik, in Husserl iana, Band XII ,

Ma r t i nus N i j ho f f , Th e Ha g ue , B os t on , Londo n , pp . 1 -283 , a nd Go t t l ob F re ge : 1967 ,

R e z e ns i on von E . Husse r l , P h i l o soph i e de r A r i t hme t i k , E r s t e r B a nd , Le i pz i g , 1891 , in

G o t t l o b F r e g e , Kleine Schrif ten, hrsg . von I . Ange l e l l i , W i s se nsc ha f t l i c he B uc h-

ge se l l s c ha f t , H i l de she i m: Ge org Ol ms , Da rms t a d t , pp . 179 -92 .

6 Logische Untersuchun gen I , pp . 219 -27 , and 1913, Logische Untersuchungen I I ,

V e r l a g v o n M a x N i e m e y e r , H a l l e , p p . 3 6 4 - 7 0 .

7 B e rna rd B o l z a no : 1929 , Wissenschaftslehre, Erster Band, hrsg . von W . S c hu l t z ,

Ve r l a g von F e l i x Me i ne r , Le i pz i g , S e c t i on 19 .

8 H e r m a n n L o t z e : 1 8 7 4 ,

System der Philosophie, Erster Teil: Drei Bücher der Logik,

Ve r l a g von G. Hi rz e l , Le i pz i g , p . 507 .

9 F ra nz B re n t a no : 1924 , Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt I , hrsg . von O. Kra us ,

Ve r l a g v on F e l i x M e i ne r , Le i pz i g , pp . 124 -25 . B re n t a no w a s Husse r l s t e a c he r i n

Vi e nn a . S e e Husse r l s b i og ra p hy i n E . P . W e l c h : 1941 , The Phi losophy of Edmund

Husserl: T he Origin and Development of His Phenomenology,

C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y

P re s s , Ne w York , pp . x i i i -xx i v .

~o Logische Untersuchungen

I , p. 178; 1970,

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nunft , V e r l a g v o n M a x N i e m e y e r , H a l l e , p . 2 3 4 .

12 Formale und Transzendentale Logik, pp . 228 -30 .

t 3 Imma nue l Ka n t , Kritik der reinen Vernunft , in 1904, K an t s gesammelte Schriften,

Band I I I ,

G. R e i me r , B e r l i n ; 1929 ,

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t r a n s l a t i o n b y N . K e m p

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t 4 B 20 -22 .

15 Formale und Transzendentale Logik,

p p . 2 2 9 - 3 0 .

~6 Ibid . , p. 158; 1969 , Formal and Transcendental Logic, t r a ns l a t i on by D. C a i rn s ,

Ma r t i nus Ni j ho f f , Th e Ha gue , p . 178.

17 Ge o rge B oo l e : 1916 , A n Investigation o f the La w s of Thought, on which are found ed

the m athem atical theories of logic and probabili ties, in George Boo le s CoUected Logical

Works , v o l . I I , T h e O p e n C o u r t P u b l is h in g C o m p a n y , C h i c a g o a n d L o n d o n , p . 1 2.

18 A 55 / B 79 -80 .

19 A 68/B 93.



A N A L Y S 1 S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 9

zo G o t t l o b F r e g e : 1 9 6 4 ,

Begrif fsschrif t und andere Au ätze,

h r s g . v o n I . A n g e l e l l i ,

G e o r g O l m s , H i l d e s h e i m , p . 1 0 1 , a n d 1 9 6 9 , Nachgelassene Schriften, h r s g . v o n H .

H e r m e s , F . K a m b a r t e l , u n d F . K a u l b a c h , F e l ix M e i n e r V e r l a g , H a m b u r g , p . 2 7 3 .

21 ' B o o l e s r e c h n e n d e L o g i k u n d d i e B e g r i f f s s c h r if t ', i n F r e g e , Nachgelassene Schriften,

p p . 9 - 5 2 .

z2 ' Ü b e r d i e B e g r i f f s s c h ri f t d e s H e r r n P e a n o u n d m e i n e e i g e n e ' , i n F r e g e , Kleine

Schriften., p . 2 2 7 .

23 S e e ' U b e r d e n Z w e c k d e r B e g r i f f s s c h r i f t' , i n F r e g e , Begrif fsschrif t und andere Auf-

sätze , p . 9 8 , ' Ü b e r d i e B e g r i t t s s c h ri f t d e s H e r r n P e a n o u n d m e i n e e i g e n e ' , i n F r e g e ,

Kleine Schrif ten, p . 2 2 7 , a n d ' A n m e r k u n g e n F r e g e ' s z u : P h i l i p E . B . J o u r d a i n , T h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h e o r ie s o f m a t h e m a t i c a l l og i c a n d t h e p r i n ci p l es o f m a t h e m a t i c s ' , i n

F r e g e , Kleine Schriften, p . 3 4 1 .

2 4 F r e g e ,

Begriffsschrift,

' V o r w o r t ' , p . x i i .

25 Se e G . W . L e i b n i z : 1 9 6 1 , Die philosophischen Schrif ten von Gott[ried Wilhelm

Leibniz, Siebenter Band, h r s g . v o n G . I . G e r h a r d t , G e o r g O l m s , H i l d e s h e i m , p . 1 8 4 a n d

p . 1 9 2 , a n d G . W . L e i b n i z : 1 9 6 1 , Opuscules et fragments inédits de Leib niz, e d i t e d b y L .

C o u t u r a t , G e o r g O l m s , H i l d e s h e i m , p p . 2 9 , 1 5 2 , 2 8 3 .

z 6 S e e A d o l f T r e n d e l e n b u r g : 1 8 6 7 , Historische Beiträge zur Philosophie, Dritter Band:

Vermischte Abhand lungen, V e r l a g v o n G . B e t h g e , B e r l i n . U n l i k e F r e g e , H u s s e r l d o e s

n o t t h i n k h i g h l y o f T r e n d e l e n b u r g ' s e x p o s i t i o n , b u t t a k e s i t t o b e a s u p e rf i c ia l r e p o r t o n

w h a t L e i b n i z h a d p l a n n e d . S e e b i s Logische Untersuchungen I , p . 2 2 1 . Se e a l s o m y

a r t i c l e ' F r e g e a n d H i s G e r m a n C o n t e m p o r a r i e s o n A l e t h i c M o d a l i t i e s ' , i n S . K n u u t t i l a

(ed . ) : 1988 , Modern Modalities: Studies o f the History of Modal Theories [rom Medieval

No mina lism to Logical Positivism,

D . R e i d e l , D o r d r e c h t , p p . 2 3 9 - 7 4 .

2 7 S e e T r e n d e l e n b u r g , Historische Beiträge zur Philosophie, Drit ter Band, p . 4 , a n d

F r e g e , Nachgelassene Schriften, p . 2 7 3 .

2 8 F o r K a n t ' s r o u t e [ r o m j u d g e m e n t s t o c a t e g o r i e s , s e e S t e p h a n K ö r n e r : 1 9 8 2 , Kant ,

Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r es s , N e w H a v e n a n d L o n d o n .

29 F r e g e : 1 9 7 2 , ' Ü b e r d e n Z w e c k d e r B e g r i f f s s c h r if t ', i n F r e g e , Begriffsschrift und

andere Au ä t ze , p . 1 0 1 ; T . W . B y n u m ( t ra n . a n d e d . ) Conceptual Notation and Related

Articles, C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , O x f o r d , p . 9 4. I h a v e u s e d t h e t r a n s l a t io n m y w a y o f

t h i n k i n g i n s t ea d o f m y m o d e o f i n t e r p r e t at i o n , w h i ch is u s e d b y B y n u m .

3 0 F r e g e s t a r e s h i m s e l f t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o b j e c t s a n d f u n c t i o n s i s p r i m a r y a n d

t h a t t h i s d i s t in c t i o n y i el d s t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n f i r s t- o r d e r a n d s e c o n d - o r d e r f u n c -

t i o n s . Se e h i s 1 8 9 3 , Grundgesetze der Arithm etik begriffsschrift lich abgeleitet, I . Ba nd,

V e r l a g v o n H . P o h l e , J e n a , p . X .

3 1 C f . K a n t ' s p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d i n K ö r n e r , . Kant , p . 55 .

3 2 F r e g e , Grundgesetze der Arithmetik I , S e c t i o n s 3 1 - 3 2 .

3 3 Se e m y Frege' s D octrine o f Being.

s 4 H u s s e d p r e s e n t s h i s m e t h o d m a i n l y i n h is 1 9 2 8 , Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie

und phänomenologischen Philosophie I , V e r l a g v o n M a x N i e m e y e r , H a l le . ( F i r st p u b -

l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 3 . )

36 See Da gf i nn FOI le sda l: 1958 , Husserl und Frege, A s e h e h o u g , O s l o . C f . a r t i e l e s i n H .

L . D r e y f u s ( e d . ) i n c o l l . w i t h H . H a l l : 1 9 8 2 , Husserl: Intentionality and Cognitive

Science, M I T P r e s s , C a m b r i d g e , a n d D . W . S m i t h a n d R . M c l n t y r e : 1 9 8 2 , Husserl and

Intentionality: A Study of M ind, M eaning, and Language, R e i d e l , D o r d r e c h t , e s p e c i a l l y

C h a p t e r s I V - V I I . S e e a ls o J . N . M o h a n t y : 1 9 8 2 , Husserl and Frege, I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y

Press Bloomington.



9 L E I L A H A A P A R A N T A

3 7 Se e , e . g . , F r e g e ,

Begriffsschrift,

S e c t i o n 8 , ' Ü b e r S i n n u n d B e d e u t u n g ' , i n

Kle ine

Schriften, p p . 1 4 3 - 4 4 , a n d Nachgelassene Schriften, p . 135 .

38 See Husse r l ,

ldeen I ,

S e c t i o n s 8 8 - 9 4 .

3 9 F r e g e , ' D e r G e d a n k e ' , i n Kle ine Schriften, p . 3 4 3 .

4o Husse r l ,

Ideen I ,

S e c t i o n 4 5 .

41 F o r H u s s e r l ' s l o g i c al i n t e r é s ts , s e e M a r v i n F a r b e r : 1 9 4 3 , The Founda t ions o f

Phenom enology: Ed mu nd Husser l and the Ques t for a Rigorous Science o f Philosophy,

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r es s , C a m b r i d g e , a n d F a r b e r , The Aims of Phenomenology. F a r b e r

r e m a r k s : T h e p r o b l e m o f t h e ' f o u n d i n g o f l o g i c ' w a s o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t o H u s s e r l,

a n d p r o v i d e d t h e i n i ti al m o t i v a t i o n f or t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a u n i v e r s a l p h e n o m e n o l o g i -

c a l m e t h o d .

(The Aims of Phenomenology,

p . 2 6 ) . C f . Fa r b e r ,

The Foundations o f

Phenomeno logy ,

p . 5 0 3 .

42 Formale und Transzendentale Logik ,

p . 190 .

43 N o t e t h a t H u s s e r l d o e s n o t m a k e a n y d is t i n ct i o n b e tw e e n t h o u g h t s a n d j u d g e m e n t s a s

F r e g e d o e s .

44 Formale und Transzendentale Logik , p . 1 8 4 ; p . 2 0 8 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a ti o n ) .

4 5 I b i d . , p . 1 8 8 ( t h e G e r m a n t e x t ) , p p . 2 1 1 - 1 2 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) .

4 6 A 8 9 / B 1 2 2 , A 9 3 / B 1 2 6 , A 1 0 6 , Prolegomena, in K an t s gesammelte Schri ften, B an d

I V ,

G . R e i m e r , B e r l i n , 1 9 0 3 , p p . 2 5 3 - 2 8 3 ; t r a n s l a t i o n b y P . G . L u c a s , O x f o r d ,

M a n c h e s t e r U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 , S e c t i o n 2 0 .

47 Formale und Transzendentale Logik , p p . 1 8 3 - 8 6 .

4 8 I b i d . , p . 1 8 8 ; p . 2 1 1 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) .

49 Logische Untersuchungen

I , p . 7 5 .

50 Ib id . , p . 244 .

.~ i Formale und Transzendentale Logik , p . 160 .

52 Logische Untersuchungen I, p p . 2 4 4 - 4 5 .

53 For male und Tr ans z enden ta le Lo g ik , p . 1 8 5 ; p p . 2 0 8 - 9 ( t h e E n g l i s h tr a n s l a t i o n ) .

54 E d m u n d H u s s e r l: 1 9 6 4 , Erfa hru ng und U rteil: Untersuchungen zur Genealogie der

Log ik ,

r e d . u n d h r s g . v o n L . L a n d g r e b e , C l a a s s e n V e r l a g , H a m b u r g , p . 2 0 ; 1 9 7 3 ,

Experience and Judgement: Investigations in a Genealogy of Logic , t r a n s l a t i o n b y J . S .

C h u r c h i l l a n d K . A m e r i k s , N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y P re s s, E v a n s t o n , p . 2 6 .

55 Formale und Transzendentale Logik , p . 182 .

5 6 I b i d ù p p . 1 8 0 - 8 1 .

57 Erfahrung und Urteil , p . 1 ; p . 1 1 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) .

58 Erfahrung und Urteil , p. 21.

5 9 I b i d . , p p . 6 2 - 6 4 .

60 Ib id . , p . 68 .

61 Ib id . , p . 70 .

6 2 I b i d . , p . 7 0 ; p . 6 7 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) .


64 Ib id . , p . 37 .

6 » I b i d . , p p . 9 4 - 9 8 .


6 7 I b i d . , p p . 2 4 - 2 5 .

6 8 I b i d . , p p . 3 5 - 3 6 .

6 9 I b i d . , p p . 2 7 - 3 1 .

7 0 I b i d . , p p . 3 3 - 3 5 .



A N A L Y S I S A S T H E M E T H O D O F L O G I C A L D I S C O V E R Y 9

71 Ibid. , p. 50.

72 I b i d ., p p . 7 5 , 7 9 . F o r t h e p h e n o m e n o l o g y o f W i t t g e n s t e i n s Tractatus, se e M e r r i l l B .

H i n t i k k a a n d J a a k k o H i n t i k k a : 1 9 8 6, Investigating Wittgenstein, B a s i l B la c kw e l l ,

O x f o r d , p p . 6 0 - 6 1 .

73 C f . J a a k k o H i n t i k k a : 1 9 7 5 , T h e I n t e n t i o n s o f I n t e n t i o n a l i t y , i n The Intentions of

Intentionality and Other New Models for Modalities, D . R e i d e l , D o r d r e c h t , p p . 1 9 2 - 2 2 2

( a t p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 ) . S e e a l s o S m i t h s a n d M c l n t y r e s d i s c u s s io n o n H u s s e r l s c o n c e p t o f

h o r i z o n a n d p o s s i b l e w o r ld s i n t h e i r Husserl and Intentionality, C h a p s. V - V f .

7 .4 A 51/B 75 , A 68/B 93 .

7 » S e e I r n m a n u e l K a n t : 1 9 2 3 , Logik, in Ka nt s gesammelte Schri ften, Ban d I X, W a l t e r

d e G r u y t e r , B e r l i n u n d L e i p z i g , p p . 1 - 1 5 0 , a t p . 9 1. S e e a ls o h is Criaque o[Pure Reas on,

A 3 2 0 / B 3 7 6 - 7 7 .

76

Forrnale und Transzenden tale Lo gik,

p . 2 3 3 ; p . 2 6 4 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t io n ) .

77Ibid.

78 Erfahrung und Urteil, p p . 3 6 - 3 7 .

79 Forrnale und Transzenden tale Logik, p . 2 3 6 ; p p . 2 6 7 - 6 8 ( t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a ti o n ) .

80 P r o f e s s o r I l k k a N i i n i l u o t o c a l l e d m y a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s .

D e p a r t m e n t o f P h i l o so p h y

U n i v e r s i t y o f H e l s i n k i

U n i o n i n k a t u 4 0 B

S F - 0 0 1 7 0 H e l s i n k i

F i n l a n d

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