Analysing Identity: Cross-Cultural, Analysing Identity: Cross-Cultural, Societal and Clinical ContextsSocietal and Clinical Contexts

Peter Weinreich, Peter Weinreich, University of UlsterUniversity of Ulster (UUJ)(UUJ)

The developmental primacy of The developmental primacy of primordialist over situationalist thinking primordialist over situationalist thinking

about ethnic/national identityabout ethnic/national identityRationale and Theory:Rationale and Theory:

Many researchers have commented on the tenacity of Many researchers have commented on the tenacity of peoples’ sense of nationality or ethnicity, which, when peoples’ sense of nationality or ethnicity, which, when felt to be challenged, is often accompanied by violent felt to be challenged, is often accompanied by violent emotions that can have deadly consequences. emotions that can have deadly consequences.

Much research demonstrates that ethnicity and ethnic Much research demonstrates that ethnicity and ethnic identity are not fixed, but can be redefined over time and identity are not fixed, but can be redefined over time and can be newly constructed.can be newly constructed.

However, some writers have been perplexed by the However, some writers have been perplexed by the persistence of ethnicity in the absence of obvious gain, persistence of ethnicity in the absence of obvious gain, and by the affect that is associated with it. and by the affect that is associated with it.

Rationale and TheoryRationale and TheoryTwo stances on ethnicity and ethnic identity have been Two stances on ethnicity and ethnic identity have been

clearly delineated (Glazer & Moynihan, 1975):clearly delineated (Glazer & Moynihan, 1975):

One emphasises the issue of ethnic persistence - a One emphasises the issue of ethnic persistence - a seemingly unchanging aspect of ethnicity, which persists seemingly unchanging aspect of ethnicity, which persists down the generations – the concept of down the generations – the concept of primordialismprimordialism (Shils, 1957; Geertz, 1963; Greely, 1974; Isaacs, 1975; (Shils, 1957; Geertz, 1963; Greely, 1974; Isaacs, 1975; Connor, 1978; Smith, 1981).Connor, 1978; Smith, 1981).

The other highlights the situational features of ethnic The other highlights the situational features of ethnic revivalism - when a dormant forgotten ethnicity is revivalism - when a dormant forgotten ethnicity is apparently manipulated for instrumental gain – the apparently manipulated for instrumental gain – the concept of concept of situationalism situationalism (Hechter, 1974; Mitchell, 1974; (Hechter, 1974; Mitchell, 1974; Nagata, 1974; Epstein, 1978; Halsey, 1978; Okamura, Nagata, 1974; Epstein, 1978; Halsey, 1978; Okamura, 1981).1981).

Rationale and TheoryRationale and Theory

A blind alley:A blind alley:

The fault in conceptualising ‘primordialism’ The fault in conceptualising ‘primordialism’ is that its essentialist connotations have is that its essentialist connotations have led investigators to latch onto the notion of led investigators to latch onto the notion of an innate propensity, that is, it is itself an innate propensity, that is, it is itself viewed as the explanatory principle for the viewed as the explanatory principle for the pervasive and long-lasting nature of ethnic pervasive and long-lasting nature of ethnic identity. identity.

Rationale and TheoryRationale and TheoryWhat requires explaining (the refocused What requires explaining (the refocused

problematic):problematic):

The human propensity to think about The human propensity to think about ethnicity or nationality in primordialist ethnicity or nationality in primordialist terms, when historical evidence provides terms, when historical evidence provides many counter examples of fluidity and many counter examples of fluidity and change;change;

The relationship between primordialism The relationship between primordialism and situationalism.and situationalism.

Rationale and TheoryRationale and Theory

The propensity towards primordialist The propensity towards primordialist thinking is here explained as being the thinking is here explained as being the outcome of the socio-developmental outcome of the socio-developmental psychology of the child’s early psychology of the child’s early identifications with kith and kin. identifications with kith and kin.

Young children’s early identifications with Young children’s early identifications with others close to them, such as parents and others close to them, such as parents and kin, are assumed to be emotionally intense kin, are assumed to be emotionally intense and unquestioned. and unquestioned.

Rationale and TheoryRationale and Theory

The child initially develops cognitions about the The child initially develops cognitions about the individual’s ties with social and material individual’s ties with social and material surroundings as being of the essence of human surroundings as being of the essence of human existence imbued with strong affect. existence imbued with strong affect.

Such ties are experienced as being Such ties are experienced as being representative of those between kin and representative of those between kin and community within the locality - community within the locality - the soilthe soil - and - and having continuity in time down the generations, having continuity in time down the generations, that is, they are interpreted as being ‘primordial’.that is, they are interpreted as being ‘primordial’.

Rationale and TheoryRationale and Theory

If, then, ‘nationality’ is understood as If, then, ‘nationality’ is understood as referring to the larger community in referring to the larger community in respect of such ties, then it too is respect of such ties, then it too is experienced as being primordial.experienced as being primordial.

However, on reflection and questioning of However, on reflection and questioning of what is initially regarded as being the what is initially regarded as being the natural order of things, some people will natural order of things, some people will develop more of a situationalist develop more of a situationalist perspective. perspective.

Rationale and TheoryRationale and Theory

Those people who begin to adopt a more situationalist perspective develop an understanding of the historical complexities of nationality through their reappraisal of their initially held primordialist perspective.

Nevertheless, given the developmental primacy of primordialist thinking - being only modulated by subsequent questionings - people will rarely hold to either wholly consistent situationalist beliefs or thoroughgoing primordialist ones. ones.

The developmental primacy of The developmental primacy of primordialist over situationalist thinking primordialist over situationalist thinking

about ethnic/national identityabout ethnic/national identity

Definitions of primordialism and Definitions of primordialism and situationalismsituationalism

Theoretical postulatesTheoretical postulates

MethodMethod

Evidence Evidence

DefinitionsDefinitions

PrimordialismPrimordialism is defined as a sentiment, or is defined as a sentiment, or affect laden set of beliefs and discourses, affect laden set of beliefs and discourses, about a perceived essential continuity from about a perceived essential continuity from group ancestry to progeny (perceived kith and group ancestry to progeny (perceived kith and kin), located symbolically in a specific kin), located symbolically in a specific territory or place (which may or may not be territory or place (which may or may not be the current place of the people concerned)the current place of the people concerned) (Weinreich, Bacova & Rougier, 1997; (Weinreich, Bacova & Rougier, 1997; Weinreich, 1998).Weinreich, 1998).

DefinitionsDefinitions

Situationalism is defined Situationalism is defined as as a set of beliefs or a set of beliefs or discourses about the instrumental and socially discourses about the instrumental and socially constructed nature of the group, in which constructed nature of the group, in which interpretations and reinterpretations of history interpretations and reinterpretations of history provide rationales justifying the legitimacy of provide rationales justifying the legitimacy of a peoplehooda peoplehood (Weinreich, Bacova & Rougier, (Weinreich, Bacova & Rougier, 1997; Weinreich, 1998).1997; Weinreich, 1998).

9 theoretical postulates9 theoretical postulates

Postulate 1: Primordialists’ and Postulate 1: Primordialists’ and situationalists’ political identifications. situationalists’ political identifications.

In circumstances where issues of In circumstances where issues of nationality are highly salient, situationalists nationality are highly salient, situationalists compared with primordialists will identify to compared with primordialists will identify to a lesser extent with political groupings a lesser extent with political groupings espousing intransigent conceptions of espousing intransigent conceptions of nationhood - the more intransigent the nationhood - the more intransigent the conception, the greater the differenceconception, the greater the difference. .

9 theoretical postulates9 theoretical postulates

Postulate 2: Diversified socio-cultural ethos, Postulate 2: Diversified socio-cultural ethos, individual cosmopolitanism and individual cosmopolitanism and situationalismsituationalism

Broadly speaking,Broadly speaking, those historical, cultural those historical, cultural and personal circumstances that stimulate and personal circumstances that stimulate people to think of the complexities of people to think of the complexities of nationhood - acknowledging fluidity and nationhood - acknowledging fluidity and diversity - will generate a greater diversity - will generate a greater propensity towards situationalismpropensity towards situationalism. .

9 theoretical postulates9 theoretical postulates

Postulate 5Postulate 5: : Situationalists’ enhanced Situationalists’ enhanced developmental change in identitydevelopmental change in identity

Given their developing questioning stance Given their developing questioning stance on ‘nationality’, situationalists compared on ‘nationality’, situationalists compared with primordialists will show greater with primordialists will show greater perceived change in the ethnic or national perceived change in the ethnic or national aspect of their identities over time and aspect of their identities over time and greater modulation in their empathetic greater modulation in their empathetic identifications with others who represent identifications with others who represent primordialist of situationalist perspectives primordialist of situationalist perspectives on ‘nationality’.on ‘nationality’.

9 theoretical postulates9 theoretical postulates

Postulate 9: Developmental primacy of and Postulate 9: Developmental primacy of and situationalists’ residual resonance with situationalists’ residual resonance with primordialist sentimentsprimordialist sentiments

Given the developmental primacy of Given the developmental primacy of primordialist thinking, situationalists will primordialist thinking, situationalists will continue to residually express and continue to residually express and respond to primordialist sentiments respond to primordialist sentiments ..

MethodMethod

Comparative cross-cultural study in Comparative cross-cultural study in Northern Ireland (students) and Slovakia Northern Ireland (students) and Slovakia (academics)(academics)

Ethnic/national groups: ‘Catholic-Irish’, Ethnic/national groups: ‘Catholic-Irish’, ‘Protestant-British’, Slovaks‘Protestant-British’, Slovaks

Customised ‘identity instruments’Customised ‘identity instruments’

Analyses facilitated by the IDEX softwareAnalyses facilitated by the IDEX software

Subgroups: primordial v situational criteriaSubgroups: primordial v situational criteria

ParticipantsParticipants

107 students of Psychology at UUJ (mean 107 students of Psychology at UUJ (mean age 23 years, range 18 to 43). age 23 years, range 18 to 43).

64 faculty at the Slovak Academy of 64 faculty at the Slovak Academy of Sciences (mean age 37 years, range 24 to Sciences (mean age 37 years, range 24 to 64)64)

Customised ‘identity instruments’Customised ‘identity instruments’

22 Entities, e.g., 22 Entities, e.g., ‘‘me as I am now’ me as I am now’ ‘‘me when I was about fifteen’ me when I was about fifteen’ parentsparents, , national groupsnational groups and and political partiespolitical parties

18 Constructs, e.g.,18 Constructs, e.g.,… … are/is able to adapt to being of any nationality are/is able to adapt to being of any nationality (S)(S) … … consider/s nationality is given forever consider/s nationality is given forever (P)(P); ; … … think/s that national identity can be a matter of choice think/s that national identity can be a matter of choice (S)(S) …… know/s that national identity resides in the very know/s that national identity resides in the very soil and essence of the landsoil and essence of the land (P) (P);;

Evidence:Evidence:

1.1. Meaningful and practically useful definitions of Meaningful and practically useful definitions of primordialismprimordialism and and situationalismsituationalism::Differentiation of identification with ‘nationalist’ political Differentiation of identification with ‘nationalist’ political parties (Postulate 1).parties (Postulate 1).

2. Primacy of 2. Primacy of primordialismprimordialism; developmental progression in ; developmental progression in some people of some people of situationalismsituationalism::‘‘15-year-old self’ to ‘adult self’ (Postulate 5);15-year-old self’ to ‘adult self’ (Postulate 5);In situationalists the obtrusion of inter-generational In situationalists the obtrusion of inter-generational discourses about ‘ancestors’ and ‘descendents’ (Postulate 9)discourses about ‘ancestors’ and ‘descendents’ (Postulate 9)

3. Cultural, socio-historical and biographical contexts3. Cultural, socio-historical and biographical contextsCultural ethos of ‘Ireland’ compared with ‘Britain’;Cultural ethos of ‘Ireland’ compared with ‘Britain’;Frequencies of primordialists and situationalists (Postlt. 2)Frequencies of primordialists and situationalists (Postlt. 2)

Meaningful and practically useful definitions Meaningful and practically useful definitions of of primordialismprimordialism and and situationalismsituationalism

EvidenceEvidence

Differentiation of identification with Differentiation of identification with ‘nationalist’ political parties.‘nationalist’ political parties.

Catholic Irish students’ identifications with, and evaluation of, the four political parties

Ideal-identfnIdeal-identfn Contra-identfnContra-identfn Evaluation ofEvaluation of

PRIM SITPRIM SIT PRIMPRIM SITSIT PRIMPRIM SITSIT

Sinn FeinSinn Fein 0.580.58 0.330.33 ******** 0.370.37 0.62****0.62**** 0.260.26 -0.40****-0.40****

SDLPSDLP 0.610.61 0.510.51 0.230.23 0.38**0.38** 0.310.31 0.07* 0.07*

DUPDUP 0.380.38 0.26**0.26** 0.530.53 0.67***0.67*** -0.13-0.13 -0.48****-0.48****

OUPOUP 0.350.35 0.270.27 0.490.49 0.65***0.65*** -0.14-0.14 -0.38**-0.38**

**** p < 0.0001 *** p < 0.001 ** p < 0.01 * p <= 0.05

Protestant British students’ identifications with, and evaluation of, the four political parties

Ideal-identfnIdeal-identfn Contra-identfnContra-identfn Evaluation ofEvaluation of

PRIM SITPRIM SIT PRIMPRIM SITSIT PRIMPRIM SITSIT

Sinn FeinSinn Fein 0.370.37 0.22**0.22** 0.590.59 0.690.69 -0.18 -0.55***-0.18 -0.55***

SDLPSDLP 0.480.48 0.31*0.31* 0.290.29 0.49**0.49** 0.19 -0.17**0.19 -0.17**

DUPDUP 0.460.46 0.29*0.29* 0.340.34 0.59**0.59** 0.20 -0.32****0.20 -0.32****

OUPOUP 0.420.42 0.29*0.29* 0.350.35 0.56*0.56* 0.14 -0.23**0.14 -0.23**

**** p < 0.0001 *** p < 0.001 ** p < 0.01 * p <= 0.05

Primacy of Primacy of primordialismprimordialism; developmental ; developmental progression in some people of progression in some people of situationalismsituationalism::

EvidenceEvidence

‘‘15-year-old self’ to ‘adult self’15-year-old self’ to ‘adult self’

CATHOLIC IRISH STUDENTS (ULSTER)

Primordialists Situationalists

Past Current % diff Past Current % diff

Self-evaluation* 0.428 0.640 +14.8 0.359 0.608 +18.3

Identity diffusn 0.334 0.334 0.0 0.392 0.334 -17.4

*% difference for self-evaluation takes into account the scale range for evaluation, being –1.00 to +1.00

Primordialists Situationalists

Past Current % diff Past Current % diff

Self-evaluation* 0.321 0.516 +14.8 0.375 0.645 +19.6

Identity diffusn 0.360 0.360 0.0 0.374 0.328 -12.3

PROTESTANT BRITISH STUDENTS (ULSTER)

SLOVAK ACADEMICS

Primordialists Situationalists

Past Current % diff Past Current % diff

Self-evaluation* 0.594 0.788 +12.2 0.288 0.735 +34.7

Identity diffusn 0.291 0.261 -10.0 0.406 0.310 -31.0

Primacy of Primacy of primordialismprimordialism; developmental ; developmental progression in some people of progression in some people of situationalismsituationalism::

EvidenceEvidence

In situationalists the obtrusion of inter-In situationalists the obtrusion of inter-generational discourses about ‘ancestors’ generational discourses about ‘ancestors’ and ‘descendents’and ‘descendents’

Catholic Irish Primordialists’ Evaluative Dimensions of Identity

FAVOURED POLE

SP NConstructs used with Primordialist consensus

2 feel/s one's most important loyalty is to one's ancestral kin group 50 238 consider/s nationality is given forever 64 2611 know/s that their descendants will continue the national group 50 2814 think/s that national identity resides in the very soil and essence of the land 50 22

Constructs used with Situationalist consensus

9 think/s that most nations descend from mixed ancestries and races 14 1712 accept/s people of different origins in their territory 45 2518 think/s that national determination has potentially dangerous consequences 31 18

Catholic Irish Situationalists’ Evaluative Dimensions of Identity

FAVOURED POLE SP N

Constructs used with Situationalist consensus

12 accept/s people of different origins in their territory 62 2114 think/s that national identity can be a matter of choice 52 1818 think/s that national determination has potentially dangerous consequences 53 17

Constructs used with Primordialist consensus

2 feel/s one's most important loyalty is to one's ancestral kin group 64 176 believe/s national ties override divisions of wealth and social position 9 1315 do/es not doubt the genuineness of people's national feelings -2 1217 believe/s that nations develop from common ancestral experiences 17 12

Cultural, socio-historical and biographical Cultural, socio-historical and biographical contextscontexts

EvidenceEvidence

Cultural ethos of ‘Ireland’ compared with Cultural ethos of ‘Ireland’ compared with ‘Britain’‘Britain’

Students’ identifications with, and evaluation of, the national groups

Catholic Irish students

  Ideal-identfn Contra-identfn Evaluation of

PRIM SIT PRIM SIT PRIM SIT

Irish People 0.79 0.56**** 0.18 0.40**** 0.60 0.14****

British people 0.49 0.39* 0.44 0.49

0.05 -0.07

Protestant British students

Irish People 0.58 0.44* 0.37 0.46 0.18 -0.04*

British people 0.60 0.46 0.31 0.42 0.24 0.03

Cultural, socio-historical and biographical Cultural, socio-historical and biographical contextscontexts

EvidenceEvidence

Frequencies of primordialists and Frequencies of primordialists and situationalists.situationalists.

Ulster students

Primordial Situational Unclass

Catholic Irish

29 (54.7%) 21 (39.6%) 3 (5.7%) 53 (100%)

Protestant British

12 (36.4%) 21 (63.6%) 0 33 (100%)

Mixed allegiances

5 (23.8%) 16 (76.2%) 0 21 (100%)

46 (43.0%) 58 (54.2%) 3 (2.8%) 107(100%)

ConclusionsConclusions

The analytic power of the concepts of The analytic power of the concepts of ‘primordialism’ and ‘situationalism’ is clearly ‘primordialism’ and ‘situationalism’ is clearly established.established.

The evidence supports the explanation of highly The evidence supports the explanation of highly emotional grounding of primordial sentiments about emotional grounding of primordial sentiments about ethnicity/nationality in the developmental processes ethnicity/nationality in the developmental processes of early identification with kith and kin, a community of early identification with kith and kin, a community perceived to stretch over generations – i.e., the perceived to stretch over generations – i.e., the primacy of primordial thinking about ethnicity/ primacy of primordial thinking about ethnicity/ nationality.nationality.

ConclusionsConclusions

Some individuals will develop in time situationalist Some individuals will develop in time situationalist orientations to ethnicity/ nationality as a result of orientations to ethnicity/ nationality as a result of ‘cosmopolitan’ experiences arising from mixed ‘cosmopolitan’ experiences arising from mixed allegiances, a cultural ethos of enquiry into diversity, allegiances, a cultural ethos of enquiry into diversity, and a personal curiosity about the origins of people and a personal curiosity about the origins of people and nations. Obtrusion of primordial sentiments and nations. Obtrusion of primordial sentiments remains evident even in ideologically committed remains evident even in ideologically committed situationalistssituationalistsFor further details, see Peter Weinreich, Viera Bacova For further details, see Peter Weinreich, Viera Bacova and Nathalie Rougier, Chapter 3 in and Nathalie Rougier, Chapter 3 in “Analysing “Analysing Identity: Cross-Cultural, Societal and Clinical Identity: Cross-Cultural, Societal and Clinical Contexts”Contexts”