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Analysing and Analysing and teaching meaningteaching meaning

Prof. ADamaProf. ADamaJanuary 2007January 2007

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Lesson 2 - part 1Lesson 2 - part 1Collocation - word meaning and Collocation - word meaning and

verbal contextverbal context

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Why do you say Why do you say deep waterdeep water and not and not profound waterprofound water??

““A word is known by the company it keeps” A word is known by the company it keeps” (JR Firth)(JR Firth)

- tremble with fear- tremble with fear tremble with excitement* tremble with excitement* - quiver with excitement- quiver with excitement quiver with fear quiver with fear**

There is no definable reason why we choose to sayThere is no definable reason why we choose to say““tremble with fear” but not “quiver with fear”. It istremble with fear” but not “quiver with fear”. It issimply a question of COLLOCATION.simply a question of COLLOCATION.

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What is collocation?What is collocation? COLLOCATION refers to a relationship between COLLOCATION refers to a relationship between

words that frequently occur togetherwords that frequently occur together

The words together can mean more than the sum of The words together can mean more than the sum of their parts (their parts (The Times of India, disk driveThe Times of India, disk drive)) - other examples: - other examples: hot dog, mother in lawhot dog, mother in law

Examples of collocationsExamples of collocations noun phrases like noun phrases like strong teastrong tea and and weapons of mass weapons of mass

destructiondestruction phrasal verbs like phrasal verbs like to make upto make up, and other phrases like , and other phrases like

the rich and powerfulthe rich and powerful.. Valid or invalid?Valid or invalid?

a stiff breezea stiff breeze but not but not a stiff winda stiff wind (while either (while either a strong a strong breeze breeze or or a strong wind a strong wind is okay). is okay).

broad daylightbroad daylight (but not (but not bright daylightbright daylight or or narrow narrow darknessdarkness).).

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Collocational meaning (1)Collocational meaning (1)

Collocational meaning refers to the Collocational meaning refers to the associations that a word acquires in its associations that a word acquires in its collocation:collocation:

e.g.e.g. girl boygirl boy boy manboy man woman carwoman car pretty flower handsome overcoatpretty flower handsome overcoat garden airlinegarden airline colour typewritercolour typewriter village vesselvillage vessel

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Collocational meaning (2)Collocational meaning (2)

A word can gain different collocational meaning in A word can gain different collocational meaning in different contexts:different contexts:

e.g.e.g.green on the jobgreen on the job white manwhite mangreen fruitgreen fruit white winewhite winegreen with envygreen with envy white noisewhite noisewhite coffeewhite coffee

These different meanings of These different meanings of ““greengreen”” and and ““whitewhite””arearepolysemouspolysemous but they are caused by the different but they are caused by the differentcollocation, collocation,

i.e. the change in verbal contexti.e. the change in verbal context

END HERE !!!END HERE !!!

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Criteria for collocationsCriteria for collocations Typical criteria for collocations: Typical criteria for collocations:

- non-compositionality- non-compositionality - non-substitutability- non-substitutability - non-modifiability.- non-modifiability.

Collocations Collocations usuallyusually cannot be translated into cannot be translated into other languages word by word.other languages word by word.

A phrase can be a collocation even if it is not A phrase can be a collocation even if it is not consecutive (as in the example consecutive (as in the example knockknock . . . . . . doordoor).).

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Non-compositionalityNon-compositionality

A phrase is A phrase is compositionacompositional if the meaning can l if the meaning can predicted from the meaning of the parts.predicted from the meaning of the parts. e.g. e.g. new companiesnew companies

A phrase is A phrase is non-compositionalnon-compositional if the meaning cannot if the meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of the partsbe predicted from the meaning of the parts e.g. hot doge.g. hot dog

Collocations are not necessarily fully compositional in Collocations are not necessarily fully compositional in that there is usually an element of meaning added to that there is usually an element of meaning added to the combination. e.g. the combination. e.g. strong teastrong tea..

Idioms are the most extreme examples of non-Idioms are the most extreme examples of non-compositionality. e.g. compositionality. e.g. to hear it through the grapevineto hear it through the grapevine..

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Non-substitutabilityNon-substitutability

We cannot substitute near-synonyms for the We cannot substitute near-synonyms for the components of a collocation. components of a collocation. e.g. We can’t say e.g. We can’t say yellow wine yellow wine instead of instead of white winewhite wine even even

though though yellow yellow is as good a description of the color of is as good a description of the color of white wine as white wine as white white is (it is kind of a yellowish white). is (it is kind of a yellowish white).

Many collocations cannot be freely modified with Many collocations cannot be freely modified with additional lexical material or through grammatical additional lexical material or through grammatical transformations (transformations (Non-modifiabilityNon-modifiability).). E.g. E.g. white winewhite wine, but not , but not whiter winewhiter wine mother in lawmother in law, but not , but not mother in lawsmother in laws

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Linguistic Subclasses of Linguistic Subclasses of CollocationsCollocations

Light verbs: Light verbs: - Verbs with little semantic content like - Verbs with little semantic content like makemake, , take take and and do.do. - e.g. - e.g. make lunchmake lunch, , take easy,take easy,

Verb particle constructions Verb particle constructions - e.g. - e.g. to go downto go down

Proper nounsProper nouns - e.g. - e.g. Bill ClintonBill Clinton

Terminological expressionsTerminological expressions refer to concepts and refer to concepts and objects in technical domains. objects in technical domains. - e.g. - e.g. Hydraulic oil filterHydraulic oil filter

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Collocations at a distanceCollocations at a distance

Many collocations occur at variable Many collocations occur at variable distances. For example distances. For example knockknock collocates with collocates with doordoor but at a distance but at a distance - she - she knockedknocked on his on his doordoor - they - they knockedknocked at the at the doordoor - - 100 women 100 women knockedknocked on Donaldson’s on Donaldson’s

doordoor - a man - a man knockedknocked on the metal front on the metal front doordoor

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Finding collocationsFinding collocations Software is able to scan texts for the most Software is able to scan texts for the most

frequently collocated words using the frequently collocated words using the criterion of criterion of frequencyfrequency, i.e. by counting the , i.e. by counting the words which most frequently appear words which most frequently appear togethertogether

This usually produces a lot of This usually produces a lot of function function wordswords which need to be filtered out which need to be filtered out

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An example of a frequency An example of a frequency countcount

This shows the most This shows the most frequent collocations frequent collocations of pairs of words of pairs of words (bigrams) in a corpus (bigrams) in a corpus of newspaper articles.of newspaper articles.

The are all function The are all function words (except words (except New New YorkYork))

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Frequency count after Frequency count after filteringfiltering

This chart shows theThis chart shows themost frequent collocationsmost frequent collocationsafter filtering out theafter filtering out thefunction words. Thefunction words. Thecapital letters refer to thecapital letters refer to thepart of speech part of speech (A = Adjective, N = Noun)(A = Adjective, N = Noun)

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Idioms - characteristics (1)Idioms - characteristics (1) Idioms are strictly non-compositionalIdioms are strictly non-compositionalAlthough the word that make up the idiom have theirAlthough the word that make up the idiom have theirown literal meanings, in the idiom they have lostown literal meanings, in the idiom they have losttheir individual identity. You canot predict thetheir individual identity. You canot predict themeaning of an diom from the sum of its parts:meaning of an diom from the sum of its parts:e.g. e.g. how do you do?how do you do?

I’m under the weatherI’m under the weatherto wear your heart on your sleeveto wear your heart on your sleevered herringred herring

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Idioms - characteristics (2)Idioms - characteristics (2) Structural stability (syntactic frozenness)Structural stability (syntactic frozenness)

1. Constituents cannot be replaced1. Constituents cannot be replacede.g. e.g. as good as gold / as good as play ?as good as gold / as good as play ?

2. Word order cannot be changed2. Word order cannot be changede.g. tit for tat / tat for tit?e.g. tit for tat / tat for tit?

3. Constituents cannot be deleted or added to3. Constituents cannot be deleted or added toe.g. out of the question / out of question ?e.g. out of the question / out of question ?

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Lesson 2 - part 2Lesson 2 - part 2

Teaching collocations and idiomsTeaching collocations and idioms

..“the pedagogic challenge is not to focus on ..“the pedagogic challenge is not to focus on the brand new, but instead to make the brand new, but instead to make accessible the relatively new“ (Skehan)accessible the relatively new“ (Skehan)

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In which areas of language In which areas of language learning is collocation useful?learning is collocation useful? Collocation occurs in speech and writingCollocation occurs in speech and writing Teaching grammar through lexis - all levelsTeaching grammar through lexis - all levels Writing - all levelsWriting - all levels Translation - intermediate/advanced levelTranslation - intermediate/advanced level

Collocation is perhaps more important atCollocation is perhaps more important atintermediate and advanced levels but is isintermediate and advanced levels but is isimportant to introducecollocation exercisesimportant to introducecollocation exerciseswith beginners as well.with beginners as well.

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How?How? Teaching individual collocations (activities Teaching individual collocations (activities

and exercises)and exercises) Making students aware of collocations Making students aware of collocations

(Noticing)(Noticing) Extending what students already know Extending what students already know

(delexicalised words)(delexicalised words) Storing collocations: organised lexical Storing collocations: organised lexical

notebooknotebook

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Which collocations?Which collocations?

Unique collocations Unique collocations (foot the bill, shrug your shoulders)(foot the bill, shrug your shoulders) Strong collocations Strong collocations (ulterior motives, rancid butter, (ulterior motives, rancid butter,

trenchant criticism, to be moved to tears)trenchant criticism, to be moved to tears) Medium collocations Medium collocations (to make a mistake, to be (to make a mistake, to be

recovering from a major operation)recovering from a major operation) Weak collocations Weak collocations (white wine, red hair, a black mood, a (white wine, red hair, a black mood, a

blue movie)blue movie)

It is more useful for learners if you teach It is more useful for learners if you teach the strong collocationsthe strong collocations

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1. Make students aware of 1. Make students aware of collocationcollocation

Teach students the word “collocation” and Teach students the word “collocation” and explain what it means. Collocation exists explain what it means. Collocation exists in the students’ native language so the in the students’ native language so the concept will be easily understood. Use an concept will be easily understood. Use an example in Italian to illustrate the pointexample in Italian to illustrate the point

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2. Raise awareness of mis-2. Raise awareness of mis-collocationcollocation

Collocation is mostly about pairings of Collocation is mostly about pairings of words so students will often use a mis-words so students will often use a mis-collocation, e.g. collocation, e.g. high househigh house

Record the written mis-collocations of your Record the written mis-collocations of your students and bring them to classstudents and bring them to class

Point out spoken mis-collocationsPoint out spoken mis-collocations

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3. Correct and collect3. Correct and collect If a learner makes a collocation mistake, If a learner makes a collocation mistake,

correct the mistake but give the student correct the mistake but give the student some extra collocations as well:some extra collocations as well:

e.g.e.g. SS: I have to make an exam: I have to make an examTT: what verb do we use with “exam”?: what verb do we use with “exam”?SS: “take”: “take”TT: that’s right; other verbs we could use : that’s right; other verbs we could use

are “to pass”, “to fail” or also “to retake”are “to pass”, “to fail” or also “to retake”

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4. Exploit what the learners 4. Exploit what the learners already knowalready know

Very often students know a lot of simple Very often students know a lot of simple words but are not aware of them. Use words but are not aware of them. Use these simple nouns and brainstorm these simple nouns and brainstorm adjectives and words that go with them. adjectives and words that go with them.

These collocations are often already These collocations are often already known to the students but they have not known to the students but they have not yet internalised themyet internalised them

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5. Get learners to extend what 5. Get learners to extend what they knowthey know

Even when students get something right Even when students get something right you can get students to extend their you can get students to extend their collocational knowledgecollocational knowledge

e.g.e.g. S:S: I was very disappointedI was very disappointedT:T: You could also say “bitterly” or You could also say “bitterly” or

“deeply” disappointed“deeply” disappointed

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6. Don’t explain - explore6. Don’t explain - explore Don’t spend too much time explaining Don’t spend too much time explaining

words. It’s better to give a few words. It’s better to give a few contextualised examples of a word:contextualised examples of a word:

e.g.e.g. T:T: yes, that’s a good pointyes, that’s a good pointS:S: what does what does point point mean?mean?T:T: well, we can use well, we can use pointpoint in different ways: in different ways: ““Why do you want me to do that? I can’t see the Why do you want me to do that? I can’t see the pointpoint”or “That’s a good ”or “That’s a good pointpoint. I hadn’t thought of . I hadn’t thought of that” or “I always make a that” or “I always make a pointpoint of saying thank you” of saying thank you”

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7. Point out the collocations7. Point out the collocations One reason why students don’t learn One reason why students don’t learn

collocations is because teachers are too collocations is because teachers are too lazy to point them out to them in the texts lazy to point them out to them in the texts they are using. Teachers often just ask: they are using. Teachers often just ask: “are there any words you don’t know?”“are there any words you don’t know?”

Even if certain words are not new to the Even if certain words are not new to the students, they are worth noticing and students, they are worth noticing and recording them together as collocations.recording them together as collocations.

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8. How to deal with a text8. How to deal with a text Let the students identify the collocations and Let the students identify the collocations and

add the useful ones they haven’t identified.add the useful ones they haven’t identified. Ask the students to underline useful ones and Ask the students to underline useful ones and

put them in their notebooksput them in their notebooks Prepare texts where part of the collocation is left Prepare texts where part of the collocation is left

out and let the students fill in the gaps with the out and let the students fill in the gaps with the help of a collocation dictionaryhelp of a collocation dictionary

Use different types of text so students buildUse different types of text so students buildup their mental lexicons in a balanced wayup their mental lexicons in a balanced way

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9. Specific collocation 9. Specific collocation exercise using synonymsexercise using synonyms

Synonyms: identify words appearing frequently Synonyms: identify words appearing frequently in similar contextsin similar contextsBlast victims were helped by the neighboursBlast victims were helped by the neighboursFlu victims were helped by the doctorsFlu victims were helped by the doctorsCrime victims were helped by the policeCrime victims were helped by the police

Collocations: identify synonyms that don’t Collocations: identify synonyms that don’t appear in similar contextsappear in similar contextsFlu victims, flu sufferersFlu victims, flu sufferers

Crime victims, crime sufferers??Crime victims, crime sufferers??

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8. Writing preparation8. Writing preparation Before writing a story or essay, brainstorm Before writing a story or essay, brainstorm

words connected with the topic. Collect words connected with the topic. Collect important words which are central for the important words which are central for the essay and add usful collocates to each essay and add usful collocates to each wordword

e.g. for a “school” topic you might give them e.g. for a “school” topic you might give them “education”,“education”, “qualification”“qualification” etc. etc.

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10. Record and recycle10. Record and recycle Encourage students to write down new Encourage students to write down new

collocations in special notebooks in a systematic collocations in special notebooks in a systematic order such as recording them in topic groups.order such as recording them in topic groups.

It is important to repeat the content of the It is important to repeat the content of the notebook in order to acquire it fully (recycling)notebook in order to acquire it fully (recycling)

Ways of recycling - create an incomplete list of Ways of recycling - create an incomplete list of collocations and get the students to fil in the collocations and get the students to fil in the gaps with the help of their notebooksgaps with the help of their notebooks

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Use special notebooks for Use special notebooks for collocationcollocation

Get students to prepare a special lexicon for Get students to prepare a special lexicon for collocations. It is helpful to organise it like this:collocations. It is helpful to organise it like this:

- do not record more - do not record more than five collocatesthan five collocates

- use only strong and - use only strong and frequent collocatesfrequent collocates

attractattractbe subject tobe subject to

criticismcriticism deservedeserve

react to react to criticismcriticism

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Collocational mapsCollocational mapsAnother possibility is to organize collocations with Another possibility is to organize collocations with

‘‘collocation maps like this one for “have”collocation maps like this one for “have”::

Other phrases things/peopleOther phrases things/people

Appearance/qualitiesAppearance/qualities

Eat/drink/smoke do HAVE possessEat/drink/smoke do HAVE possess

Feelings/ideasFeelings/ideas

Have+nounHave+noun (instead of verb)(instead of verb) Illness/injuries Illness/injuries

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Teaching idiomsTeaching idioms Since collocations and idioms have a lot in Since collocations and idioms have a lot in

common they should be taught in a similar common they should be taught in a similar wayway

e.g. identifying of idioms, guessing meaning e.g. identifying of idioms, guessing meaning from context, recording them in notebooksfrom context, recording them in notebooks

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DictionariesDictionaries The LTP Dictionary of Selected The LTP Dictionary of Selected

CollocationsCollocations Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Oxford Collocations Dictionary for

Students of EnglishStudents of English Cambridge International Dictionary of Cambridge International Dictionary of

IdiomsIdioms Collins COBUILD Dictionary of IdiomsCollins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms Oxford Dictionary of English IdiomsOxford Dictionary of English Idioms

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Concordancing softwareConcordancing software Tapor freeware (this will give you Tapor freeware (this will give you

concordances of any word in a text)concordances of any word in a text)

Wordsmith Tools (excellent but expensive)Wordsmith Tools (excellent but expensive)

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Pedagogical implicationsPedagogical implications The important role of collocation in language The important role of collocation in language

learning implies a different language model - learning implies a different language model - that lexis is more important than grammar when that lexis is more important than grammar when learning a second language.learning a second language.

This is called the “lexical approach”This is called the “lexical approach” Without necessarily adopting this lexical Without necessarily adopting this lexical

approach (COBUILD) you should always review approach (COBUILD) you should always review your own syllabus and strategies and make sure your own syllabus and strategies and make sure you are teaching enough lexis and collocationyou are teaching enough lexis and collocation