ANALISIS KETAHANAN EKOSISTEM

ANALISIS

KETAHANAN EKOSISTEM

Mk. Analisis Ekosistem

Diabstraksikan: smno.psdl.pdkl.ppsub.2012/13

BIODIVERSITY&

SUSTAINABILITY

1. The term “biodiversity” is a contraction of the phrase “biological diversity”.

2. Biodiversity means the richness and variety of life - of genes, species and ecosystems.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity• Biodiversity maintains the health of the earth

and its people.• It provides us with food and medicine and

contributes to our economy.• It tells us a lot about the health of the

biosphere.• The greater the variety of species, the

healthier the biosphere.

The more links in a food web, the more stable it is.

Sustainability

1. The ability to maintain ecological processes over long periods of time.

2. Sustainability of an ecosystem is the ability of that ecosystem to maintain its structure and function over time in the face of external stress.

1. Is strongly linked to ecosystem health.2. The more sustainable an ecosystem is, the

healthier it is because it is able to “deal” with external stress better (i.e. limiting factors).

Sustainability

Biodiversity & Sustainability

1. The biodiversity of an ecosystem contributes to the sustainability of that ecosystem.

2. Higher/more biodiversity = more sustainable3. Lower/less biodiversity = less sustainable4. High biodiversity in an ecosystem means that

there is a great variety of genes and species in that ecosystem.

1. A great variety of genes and species means that the ecosystem is better able to carry out natural processes in the face of external stress.

2. Thus, the ecosystem is more sustainable.

Biodiversity & Sustainability

1. The more sustainable an ecosystem is, the better it is for the environment and for people.

2. People use ecosystems as sources of food, medicine and economy.

3. Thus, it is in everyone’s best interest to increase the sustainability of ecosystems.

4. How can we do this?

Biodiversity and Sustainability

Contohnya:

Whitefish Northern pike Walleye

• The greater the variety of genes and species of fish, plants and animals in the Lake Winnipeg ecosystem, the more biodiversity.

• Higher biodiversity will increase the ecosystem’s sustainability

• Why is this important?

What is ecosystem stability?

• The vast majority of natural ecosystems experience regular environmental change, or disturbances.

• Most ecologists describe ecosystem stability as the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its structure and function over long periods of time and despite disturbances.

• Ecosystem structure includes physical and geological structures of the landscape, the number and diversity of species present, the population sizes of those species, and the ways in which these populations interact.

• Ecosystem function refers to processes such as water and nutrient cycling and biomass productivity that the ecosystem provides.

. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt

• There are two main components to ecosystem stability: resistance and resilience.

• An ecosystem displays resistance if keeps its structure and continues normal functions even when environmental conditions change.

• An ecosystem displays resilience if, following a disturbance, it eventually regains its normal structure and function.

Resistance and Resilience


• Ecosystems that show a high degree of stability may have different combinations of resistance and resilience.

• Research has shown that species diversity is often the key to both ecosystem resistance and resilience.

• An ecosystem rich in biodiversity will likely be more stable than one whose biodiversity is low.

1. Infer If an ecosystem has low biodiversity, is it more or less stable than an

ecosystem of high biodiversity? . Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt

How does environmental change affect ecosystem stability?

• Communities respond to environmental change in ways that reflect the responses of the species and populations in the community.

• Species respond to environmental change in ways that enable them to maintain homeostasis.

• Populations respond in ways that reflect the success or failure of members of the population to survive and reproduce.


• Changing environmental conditions can cause the decline of local biodiversity. If this happens, an ecosystem’s resistance and/or resilience may decline. The end result is that the ecosystem loses stability.

• Ecosystems that are less stable may not be able to respond to a normal environmental disturbance, which may damage ecosystem structure, ecosystem function, or both.


How does natural environmental change affect ecosystem stability?

1. Fires, heavy storms, and natural climate change can cause major changes in local populations of plants and animals.

2. A decline in natural biodiversity can make an ecosystem less stable.

2. Apply Concepts What is one example of a local natural environmental change? How did it impact ecosystem stability?


How does environmental change caused by human actions affect ecosystem stability?

1. Humans affect ecosystem stability in many ways, including habitat loss, introduction of nonnative species, release of pollution into food webs, and contribution to climate change.

2. Ecosystems are frequently destroyed for agricultural activity and urban development. Clearing patches of habitat can split ecosystems into pieces, a process called habitat fragmentation.


• Remaining pieces of habitat become habitat “islands” surrounded by a different habitat. The smaller a habitat island is, the fewer species can live there, and the smaller their populations can be.

• A keystone species is one that has a strong and/or wide-reaching impact on a community’s stability. If a keystone species declines in number, the ecosystem becomes much less stable.

3. Predict Sea otters, a keystone species, eat sea urchins, which in turn eat kelp. In the 1990s, sea otter populations off the coast of Alaska declined

because orcas ate large numbers of otters. What effect did this have on the sea otters’ ecosystem?


• Humans sometimes introduce organisms into a new habitat, whereit can become invasive and threaten biodiversity and ecosystem structure.

• An invasive species is a nonnative species that spreads widely in a community. Nonnative species become invasive if their new surroundings lack natural population checks such as predators or competitors.

• Invasive species usually cause local native biodiversity to decline and therefore affect ecosystem stability.

4. Contrast What is the difference between nonnative species and invasive species?


• Many pollutants, including pesticides and acid rain, impact plant and animal populations. These changes, in turn, threaten biodiversity.

• Organisms are adapted to their environments and have specific tolerance ranges to conditions such as temperature. If conditions change beyond an organism’s tolerance, the organism must move to another location or face extinction.

• Increases in Earth’s average temperatures could affect ecosystem structures and functions.

• Scientists are not yet sure how predicted changes in global climate within the next several decades will affect ecosystem stability worldwide.


Biodiversitas & Stabilitas Ekosistem

Biodiversitas & Stabilitas Ekosistem1. Which organism will have the lowest

energy? Explain how you know.2. Which organism will have the highest

biomass? Explain how you know.3. If the blue bird consumes 100 J of energy,

how much energy will the eagle be able to get from eating the blue bird?

4. CHALLENGE! If the grass provided 367 J of energy, how much energy will the blue bird get? What about the eagle that eats the bird?

Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...

Low or High Biodiversity?Sumber: smno.agroforestry.hutanjati.saradan.2012

Benefits of Biodiversity

• Key Point #1: There are three main benefits to biodiversity–Many people find nature beautiful–Provides medicines–Preserves ecosystem stability


Ecosystem stability… What?

• Stable = things stay the same

• Key Point #2: High biodiversity = stable ecosystem, low biodiversity = unstable ecosystem– If an ecosystem is unstable, one small change could

cause many species to die– If an ecosystem is stable, it does not change easily


Ms. S, show me another way to write that!

• Key Point #2: High biodiversity = stable ecosystem, low biodiversity = unstable ecosystem– CHANGE!

• Lots of species die Unstable• Most species don’t change Stable


This food web has low biodiversity

Rabbits eat grass. Foxes eat rabbits

Grass

Rabbit

Foxes


A disturbance hits…A drought happens and kills all the grass.

Grass

Rabbit

Foxes


Jaring-jaring Makanan dengan Biodiversitas Rendah

• What happens to the foxes?

Grass

Rabbit

Foxes

How many species do we have left?

0!BIG change?


Jaring-jaring Makanan dengan Biodiversitas Rendah

Let’s add a few more species to our original ecosystem

Grass

Rabbit

Foxes

Chickens

Lettuce


Jaring-jaring Makanan dengan Biodiversitas Tinggi

Jaring-jaring Makanan dnegan Biodiversitas tinggi

A disturbance hits…A drought happens and kills all the grass.

Grass

Rabbit

Foxes

Chickens

Lettuce


• What happens to the foxes?

Population size decreases… a little

BIG change?

Grass

Rabbit

Foxes

Chickens

Lettuce


Jaring-jaring Makanan dnegan Biodiversitas tinggi

MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENTAn international scientific assessment of the consequences of ecosystem changes for human well-being:–Modeled on the IPCC–Providing information requested by:

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)• Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)• Ramsar Convention on Wetlands• Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)• other partners including the private sector and civil society

–With the goals of:• stimulating and guiding action to conserve ecosystems and enhance their

contribution to human well-being • building capacity to undertake integrated ecosystem assessments and to

act on their information. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and

social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University

TANTANGAN MANUSIA• Considerable progress has been made in fighting

poverty – life expectancy increasing– infant mortality decreasing– agricultural production increasing, etc.

• Major problems remain– 1.2 billion people live on less than $1 per day– 1 billion people do not have access to clean water– More than 2 billion people have no access to sanitation– 1.3 billion are breathing air below the standards considered

acceptable by WHO– 700 million people suffer from indoor air pollution due to

biomass burning

Source: Serageldin, 2002, Science 296:54. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University

Why a Multi-Scale Assessment?Expect that findings at any scale of a multi-scale assessment will be improved by information and perspectives from other scales

Rationale– Characteristic scale of

processes– Greater resolution at

smaller scales– Independent validation of

conclusions– Response options

matched to the scale where decision-making takes place

Regional

UsersRegional Development Banks, etc.

NationalGovernment

Local Community

Global Assessment

National

Local

. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University

Ecosystem Services: The benefits people obtain from ecosystems

RegulatingBenefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem

processes

• climate regulation• disease regulation

• flood regulation• detoxification

ProvisioningGoods produced or provided by

ecosystems

• food • fresh water• fuel wood

• fiber• biochemicals

• genetic resources

CulturalNon-material benefits obtained

from ecosystems• spiritual

• recreational • aesthetic

• inspirational• educational • communal• symbolic

SupportingServices necessary for production of other ecosystem services.

• Soil formation• Nutrient cycling

• Primary production



ECOSYSTEM CHANGES AFFECT HUMAN WELL-BEING

Security is affected both by changes in provisioning services, which affect supplies of food and other goods and the likelihood of conflict over declining resources, and by changes in regulating services, which could influence the

frequency and magnitude of floods, droughts or other catastrophes. It can also be affected by changes in cultural services as, for example, when their loss

contributes to the weakening of social relations in a community.These changes in turn affect material well-being, health, freedom and choice

and good social relations.Human well-being can be enhanced through sustainable human interactions

with ecosystems supported by necessary instruments, institutions, organizations, and technology. Creation of these through participation and

transparency may contribute to freedoms and choice as well as to increased economic, social, and ecological security. By ecological security, we mean the

minimum level of ecological stock needed to ensure a sustainable flow of ecosystem services.


Isu-isu yg berhubungan dg Ketahanan

Examples: • Desertification in China (sand

storms)• Eutrofication in western coastal

ecosystems• Long-term droughts and rainfall

variability in the Sahel• Crop failures in rural Africa

Food and water insecurity is a second primary area of concern in changes in ecosystems services.

Multiple domains of vulnerability exist in food security regimes and

livelihood systems.

Production, economic exchanges, and nutrition are key elements as

well as more structural issues associated with the political

economy.


Framework Examines Multiple Drivers as they Influence Ecosystems and Human Well-being

Driver

Response

HumanImpact

Ecosystems

Health Economics Social

ClimateChange

Land CoverChange

BiodiversityLoss

NutrientLoading Etc.

Millennium AssessmentIPCC

Climate Change

Energy Sector Biodiversity Food

Supply Water

Health Economics Social


Framework allows examination of trade-offs among servicesSource: Ayensu et al. 1999. Science 286:685-686.

Freshwater supply and demand

Food supply and demand

Forest product supply and demand

Biodiversityloss

Climatechange

Water availability

Water use and nutrient loss

Erosion andwater flow

Loss

and f

ragm

entat

ion

of ha

bitat

Redu

ced r

esilie

nce t

o cha

nge

Habi

tat lo

ss

Habitat loss

Loss of crop genetic diversity

Habitat change

Change in transpiration & albedo

N, C

H 4, N 20

em

ission

s

Hydr

ologic

CO 2 a

nd

tem

pera

ture

chan

ges

Precipitation & temperature

Land transformation



KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL

KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL



KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL


KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL


KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL


KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL

PRELIMINARY FINDINGS

At a global level there have been substantial improvements in human wellbeing since the 1950s.

World population has almost tripled, but the ability to support that population expanded even more. Life expectancy increased and

infant mortality rates declined almost everywhere.



More important, however, has been the enormous expansion in human capital.

Literacy rates are a proxy for the number of people with at least primary education. Literacy has increased everywhere.

Secondary and tertiary education rates have also expanded greatly.



The growth in human well-being over the last several decades has come in large part because of increases in provisioning services from several major

ecosystems.

Over the last few decades, these changes have been the largest in cultivated systems, with the biggest changes in this time period coming from increased intensification rather than from large-scale conversion of land to agriculture,

and coastal and marine systems, from harvesting fish resources and the addition of nutrients in coastal regions as pollutants.


Preliminary findings

Nutrient cycling is one of the services that has been profoundly affected by human activities over long periods of time, with a significant acceleration in

the last few decades.

Most of the impact on nutrient cycling has come from the large-scale agricultural changes and its inputs over the last decades. Therefore, most of

the tradeoff of increased production against other non-provisioning services, such as nutrient cycling, can be tracked by focusing on areas where

agriculture has changed substantially.

In the same vein, biodiversity is critical to the performance of all the buffering mechanisms that ensure an efficient use and cycling of nutrients.


Temuan-temuan Pendahuluan

Ecosystem changes due to trade-offs for enhancing provisioning services have played an important role in the emergence or resurgence of infectious diseases.

Ecological processes have included: niche invasion, biodiversity loss or animal species extinction, habitat degradation, loss of predator species, or alteration or

replacement of animal host population densities.



It is well established that losses in biodiversity are occurring globally at all levels, from ecosystems through species,

populations and genes.

The current rate of species extinction is higher than at any time in the last 65 million years, and there is an increasing

trend for conversion of naturally occurring, species-rich ecosystems into more intensively managed habitats, with

reduced biodiversity. The extent of loss of genetic diversity is less well understood, although recorded losses in agricultural

genetic diversity are widespread.


. Sumber: smno.hutanjati.carbuan.2012

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ANALISIS KETAHANAN EKOSISTEM