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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
DISCOURSE AND TEXTS
STUDENT: ERBAN Edelina-Maria
COORDONATOR: conf. dr COPOSESCU Liliana
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DISCOURSE AND TEXTS
Abstract.This paper is meant as an attempt to show the
differences between discourse and texts
and also to exemplify the cohesive devices (verb form,
conjunctions and adverbials, parallelism,
referring expressions, substitution and ellipsis. In order to do
that, I have chosen an article
composed by me to explain how all these cohesive devices
appeared and their role.
1. Introduction
Remember that we defined texts earlier as being the verbal
record of a communicative event. A
number of authors have been concerned to provide a more formal
account of how speakers of
English come to identify a text as forming a text (for example,
Halliday & Hassan, 1976). They
are concerned with what binds a text together and force
co-interpretation, i.e. what makes them
to be interpreted in the same way by readers (hearers in the
case of spoken texts). Halliday and
Hassan consider that the primary determinant of whether a set of
sentences do or do not
constitute a text depends on cohesive relationships within and
between the sentences, which
create texture.
2. Cohesion
Cohesion refers to facts inside the language and it is achieved
through the formal linksthat give
a sense of unity beyond the sentence. According to Halliday and
Hassan (1976) a text is a text
rather than a mere sequence of sentences. This is due to the
linguistic features that cause
sentences to stick together; i.e. what makes sentences
constitute a text depends on cohesive
relationships within and between sentences which create
texture:A text has texture and this
is what distinguishes it from something that is not a text
[...]. The texture is provided by thecohesive relations (1976:2),
what makes any length of text meaningful and coherent has been
termed texture. Texture is the basis for unity and semantic
interdependence without text, and
text without texture would just be a group of isolated sentences
with no relation to one another.
Conjunction
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A conjunction represents semantic relation that expresses how a
clause or statement is related in
meaning to a previous clause or statement; it is signaled by a
specific connecting word or phrase.
Following is a variety of types of semantic relations with
examples of words that typically signal
each: additive, amplification, adversative, causal, temporal,
spatial, example.
e.g Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent
Protestant congregationsin Oklahoma. A comma is also used with
butwhen expressing a contrast: This is a useful
rule, but difficult to remember.
The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define
the relationship between a word
and what it points to in the real world, but in Halliday and
Hasans model it simply refers to
the relationship between two linguistic expressions.
In the textual sense, though, reference occurs when the
reader/listener has to retrieve the
identity of what is being talked about by referring to another
expression in the same context.
References to the shared world outside a text are called
exophoric references.
References to elements in the text are calledendophoric
references.Only the second ones are purely cohesive, although both
of them are important to create
texture.
There are times when the reference is not explicit in the text
itself, but it is obvious to those in
a particular situation. This is called exophoric reference.
For he's a jolly good fellow
And so say all of us.
As outsiders, we dont know who the heis, but, most likely, the
people involved in the
celebration are aware of the he that is being referred to, and
therefore, can find texture in the
sentences.Another type of reference relation that is not
strictly textual is co-reference.A chain of co-referential items
such as Mrs Thatcher the Prime Minister The Iron Lady
Maggie reveals that co-reference is not strictly a linguistic
feature but depends on real-world knowledge. You need some external
information to realize that the terms refer to the
same person.
Lexical
Textual cohesion between one word and another is created by
repetition of the word or use of a
synonym, a superordinate word, a more general word, or an
associated word.Same word: The darkness of night came swiftly. The
children were afraid of the darkness.
Synonym: Hansel and Gretel huddled together to wait for
daybreak. Oh, when would dawn
come?
Superordinate word:Mice and raccoons snuffled closer to
investigate the intruders. The
animals were curious.
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General word: Finally, the tired children snuggled down in the
leaves and pine needles of
the forest bed and went to sleep.
Associated word: As the dawnbroke,sunlight filled the
forest.
Demonstrative reference keeps track of information through
location using proximity
references like this, these, that, those, here, there, then, and
the.e.g I always drink a lot of beer when I am in England. There
are many lovely pubs there. This
is not acceptable.
Substitution
A word is substituted for the referent that is not identical in
meaning or carries some
differentiation, but performs the same structural function.
Nominal: The witch wanted a bigger pot. She ordered Gretel to go
and get one.
Clausal: Could Gretel save Hansel? She thought so.
Ellipsis A word, phrase, or clause is left unsaid, but is
understood.
Verbal: "Are you coming?" called the witch. "I am (coming),"
answered Gretel.
Nominal: Gretel looked for a sharp tool, but she knew she would
take whatever
(tool) she could find.
Clausal: I know I can kill the witch. I'm sure I can (kill the
witch).
Ellipsis (zero substitution)is the omission of elements normally
required by the grammarwhich the speaker/writer assumes are obvious
from the context and therefore need not be raised.
There are three types of ellipsis too: nominal, verbal, and
clausal.
(a) Do you want to hear another song? I know twelve more
[songs]
(b) Sue brought roses and Jackie [brought] lilies.
(c) I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 on the second
Comparisoncompared with in the same way similarly
in comparison with likewise
Examples:
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I used to work fifteen hours a day In comparison withthat, my
present job is more like holiday!The doctor advised him to give up
smoking. Similarly, he recommended him to eat much less
and take plenty of exercise.
Parallelism
Parallelism suggests a connection, simply because the form of
one sentence repeats the form
of another. It is often used in speeches, prayers, poetry and
advertisements because therhythmical repetition of the same
structure renders an emotional touch and may also function
as an aide-memoire.
e.g Le Generale de Gaulle est mort. La France est veuve.
e.g Teach us, Good Lord, to give and not to count the cost, to
fight and not to heed thewounds, to toil and not to seek for rest,
to labour and to ask for no reward, save that of
knowing that we do Thy will (St. Richards Prayer)
Conclusion
What I have tried to do in this paper was to identify and
analyze some of the ingredients which
are necessary in any discourse. We have seen that in order to be
able to compose a discourse , weneed to have cohesive devices.
Finally, since any text needs to be both coherent and cohesive,
I have shown how the various
type of devices employed by the writer contribute to the
cohesion of the paragraphs chosen byme.
References
Brown, Gillian & George Yule. 1989.Discourse
Analysis.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.http://percybal.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/cohesive-devices-list-of-items-for-writing-a-
composition.pdf
Discourse analysis course. Liliana Coposescu
http://percybal.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/cohesive-devices-list-of-items-for-writing-a-composition.pdfhttp://percybal.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/cohesive-devices-list-of-items-for-writing-a-composition.pdfhttp://percybal.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/cohesive-devices-list-of-items-for-writing-a-composition.pdfhttp://percybal.files.wordpress.com/2008/11/cohesive-devices-list-of-items-for-writing-a-composition.pdf
