Upload
william-lewis
View
215
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
DESCRIPTION
What is Metacognition? Cognitions about cognitions Two main research areas: Online processes –Monitoring –Control Knowledge of prior metacognitions
Citation preview
An Overview of An Overview of Metacognition by Human Metacognition by Human
SystemsSystems
Jim Van OverscheldeJim Van OverscheldeUniversity of MarylandUniversity of Maryland
at College Parkat College Park
OutlineOutline
What is metacognition?What is metacognition?
Cognitive developments supporting Cognitive developments supporting metacognitionmetacognition
Study of metacognitionsStudy of metacognitions
Accuracy of metacognitionsAccuracy of metacognitions
What is Metacognition?What is Metacognition?
Cognitions about cognitionsCognitions about cognitions
Two main research areas:Two main research areas:Online processesOnline processes– MonitoringMonitoring– ControlControl
Knowledge of prior metacognitionsKnowledge of prior metacognitions
Object-level
Meta-level
Flow of Information
Adapted from Nelson, 1996
Hierarchical Structure
Control Monitoring
Meta-LevelMeta-LevelModels the object level(s)Models the object level(s)– Attended information (monitoring)Attended information (monitoring)– Interpretation of attended information – self relevanceInterpretation of attended information – self relevance– Goals or desiresGoals or desires– Prior experience and knowledge Prior experience and knowledge – Expectations or assumptionsExpectations or assumptions– Model of future needsModel of future needs
Decisions for what and how to control object Decisions for what and how to control object level is based on the modellevel is based on the model– Inventory of learning and/or behavioral strategies Inventory of learning and/or behavioral strategies – Expectations/knowledge about how strategies will Expectations/knowledge about how strategies will
affect object levelaffect object level
Control-LevelControl-Level
Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies– Learning (encoding, retrieval, maintenance)Learning (encoding, retrieval, maintenance)– Search (memory, environment)Search (memory, environment)– Termination of searchTermination of search– Algorithms & heuristics Algorithms & heuristics
Problem solvingProblem solvingDecision makingDecision makingJudgments (prediction, postdiction)Judgments (prediction, postdiction)
Behavioral strategiesBehavioral strategies
Cognitive Developments Cognitive Developments Supporting MetacognitionSupporting Metacognition
Attentional control Attentional control – LimitedLimited– SelectiveSelective– Leads to processing of selected informationLeads to processing of selected informationMemory (LTM and WM)Memory (LTM and WM)– Affected by cues and recency, is imperfect Affected by cues and recency, is imperfect – Organizational & distinctive processingOrganizational & distinctive processingGoal drivenGoal drivenDevelop and use strategiesDevelop and use strategiesConceptual selfConceptual self
Birth to 12 moBirth to 12 moNeonatesNeonates– Selectively attend to eyes and facesSelectively attend to eyes and faces– Basic, but functional memory systemBasic, but functional memory system
5 to 8 wks5 to 8 wks– Imitate some adult facial and head movements (basic control) Imitate some adult facial and head movements (basic control)
and retained for 24 hrsand retained for 24 hrs
1 to 6 mo1 to 6 mo– Memory for complex associations retained for 3-6 moMemory for complex associations retained for 3-6 mo– Perceive humans as different than “objects”Perceive humans as different than “objects”
Expect certain behaviors from eachExpect certain behaviors from each– Will follow adult gaze within field of vision (joint attention)Will follow adult gaze within field of vision (joint attention)
6 to 12 mo6 to 12 mo– Can follow adult gaze – accurately triangulateCan follow adult gaze – accurately triangulate– Realize people relate to objects psychologicallyRealize people relate to objects psychologically– Can do 24-hr deferred imitationCan do 24-hr deferred imitation
12 to 18 mo12 to 18 mo
Expect people to reach for objects to Expect people to reach for objects to which they show positive regardwhich they show positive regardSigns of rudimentary conceptual self (self Signs of rudimentary conceptual self (self as different)as different)– ““dog” to “Me see dog”dog” to “Me see dog”Will give a food to experimenter who Will give a food to experimenter who shows positive response, even when child shows positive response, even when child doesn’t like the food doesn’t like the food – At 14 mo, don’t show thisAt 14 mo, don’t show this
18 to 24 mo18 to 24 mo
Intact conceptual self, mirror self recognition, Intact conceptual self, mirror self recognition, beginning of autobiographical memoriesbeginning of autobiographical memories– Facilitates organizational and distinctive processing of Facilitates organizational and distinctive processing of
experiencesexperiences
Can take Can take non-non-egocentric visual perspectiveegocentric visual perspectiveCan pretend (e.g., banana as a phone)Can pretend (e.g., banana as a phone)– Greater conceptual understanding of objectsGreater conceptual understanding of objectsWill attempt to manipulate other’s emotions Will attempt to manipulate other’s emotions – Understand people have emotional statesUnderstand people have emotional states– Comfort and teaseComfort and tease
2 to 4 Years2 to 4 Years
2 to 3 yrs2 to 3 yrs– Understand that attention is selective, limited, varies Understand that attention is selective, limited, varies
in intensity, and must attend to process informationin intensity, and must attend to process information
3 to 4 yrs3 to 4 yrs– Can describe internal emotional statesCan describe internal emotional states
Use emotional language appropriately Use emotional language appropriately
– Understand behavior is often goal driven Understand behavior is often goal driven – Understand intention-mistake and plan-outcome Understand intention-mistake and plan-outcome
distinctionsdistinctions– Understand mental processes not directly related to Understand mental processes not directly related to
physical processesphysical processes
4 to 6 Years4 to 6 Years
Understand behavior is guided by desires Understand behavior is guided by desires and beliefsand beliefs– These can be different from their ownThese can be different from their own
Understand that others’ preexisting biases Understand that others’ preexisting biases and expectations influence interpretationsand expectations influence interpretationsAppearance vs. realityAppearance vs. reality– e.g., Sponge in shape of rocke.g., Sponge in shape of rock
6 to Adulthood6 to Adulthood
Learn many new strategies Learn many new strategies Predictive accuracy increasesPredictive accuracy increases– Learn which strategies to use in Learn which strategies to use in
particular situationsparticular situationsMetacognitive knowledge increasesMetacognitive knowledge increasesProcesses become more automaticProcesses become more automatic– Less amenable to controlLess amenable to control– Frees resources for monitoring other Frees resources for monitoring other
processesprocessesAuto-processes are monitored less often/wellAuto-processes are monitored less often/well
Studies of MetacognitionStudies of Metacognition
Meta-levelMeta-level– Information monitoredInformation monitored– Model createdModel created– Judgments Judgments
Control-levelControl-level– StrategiesStrategies
Acquisition Retention Retrieval
MONITORING
CONTROL
Ease-of-learning
Judgment-of-learning
Feeling-of-Knowing Confidence
Selection of Strategy
Allocation of time
Termination of study
Selection of Search strategy
Termination of search
In advance of learning
On-going learning
Maintenance of
Knowledge
Self-directedSearch
Output of Response
From Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994
PredictionsPredictions
MonitoringMonitoringJudgment of learning (JOL)Judgment of learning (JOL)Feeling of knowing (FOK)Feeling of knowing (FOK)
ControlControlSelection of strategySelection of strategyAllocation of study timeAllocation of study timeTermination of memory searchTermination of memory search
JOLsJOLs
Prediction about future test performancePrediction about future test performance– Compare objective performance with subject estimateCompare objective performance with subject estimate
Based on current state of “mind”Based on current state of “mind”– Assumptions about forgettingAssumptions about forgetting– Many other possible cuesMany other possible cues
Study JOL Test
t0 t2t1
Common FindingsCommon Findings
Relative accuracyRelative accuracyif tif t11 – t – t00 < 30 s < 30 s– JOL accuracy low, but above chanceJOL accuracy low, but above chance
If tIf t11 – t – t00 > 30 s > 30 s– JOL accuracy high and almost perfectJOL accuracy high and almost perfect
Value of tValue of t22 – t – t11
Explaining the DifferencesExplaining the Differences
Immediate JOLsImmediate JOLs– All items are recallableAll items are recallable– People are not good at predicting which items will fall People are not good at predicting which items will fall
below a recall “threshold”below a recall “threshold”
Delayed JOLsDelayed JOLs– Some items recallable, some notSome items recallable, some not– Non-recalled items won’t spontaneously recoverNon-recalled items won’t spontaneously recover– Recalled items are unlikely to be forgotten if tRecalled items are unlikely to be forgotten if t22 – t – t11 is is
short (< 10 min)short (< 10 min)
Feeling of KnowingFeeling of Knowing
FOKFOK– Performed on non-recalled itemsPerformed on non-recalled items– Correlates with recognition performanceCorrelates with recognition performance
FOKs generated rapidly FOKs generated rapidly – Exist prior to answer being recalledExist prior to answer being recalled
Tip-of-the-tongueTip-of-the-tongue– First letter, number of syllablesFirst letter, number of syllables
Termination of SearchTermination of Search
FOK correlates with memory search timeFOK correlates with memory search time– Stronger FOKs -> longer searchStronger FOKs -> longer search
Rapid termination if “unknown” answerRapid termination if “unknown” answer
If tired or unmotivated, will terminate If tired or unmotivated, will terminate search soonersearch sooner
Study StrategyStudy Strategy
Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative encodingRote rehearsal vs. elaborative encoding– Children don’t differentiate unless testedChildren don’t differentiate unless tested– Adults differentiate even without testingAdults differentiate even without testingAdults have more strategiesAdults have more strategies– Self-referentialSelf-referential– OrganizationOrganization– DistinctiveDistinctiveExperts have specialized strategiesExperts have specialized strategies– Recoding, knowledge structuresRecoding, knowledge structures
Allocation of Study TimeAllocation of Study Time
Younger children will terminate study before all Younger children will terminate study before all items learneditems learned– Depending on material, adults do tooDepending on material, adults do too
Adults given control over study timesAdults given control over study times– Will study harder items (low JOL) moreWill study harder items (low JOL) more
11 yr olds given control11 yr olds given control– Lowest readers - will study easier and harder stories Lowest readers - will study easier and harder stories
equallyequally– Highest readers – study harder stories moreHighest readers – study harder stories more
Making JudgmentsMaking Judgments
Cue based (Cue based (e.g., Koriat, 1997e.g., Koriat, 1997) ) – IntrinsicIntrinsic
Inherent to the item (knowledge about item)Inherent to the item (knowledge about item)– Frequency of experienceFrequency of experience– ImageabilityImageability
– ExtrinsicExtrinsicCondition of learning (# of presentations)Condition of learning (# of presentations)Encoding strategy usedEncoding strategy used
– MnemonicMnemonicInternal state informationInternal state information
– Perceptual and retrieval fluencyPerceptual and retrieval fluency
Knowledge of similar prior situationsKnowledge of similar prior situations
Metacognitive AccuracyMetacognitive Accuracy
Depends on:Depends on:Current stateCurrent state– Attended information affects model of object-Attended information affects model of object-
levellevel
Future state Future state – Model future needsModel future needs– State change between tState change between t22 and t and t11
Selection of strategySelection of strategy
Sources of InaccuracySources of Inaccuracy
Prior experience or lack there ofPrior experience or lack there ofAutomaticityAutomaticityInterpretationsInterpretationsDesire to protect cognitive self Desire to protect cognitive self GoalsGoalsExpectationsExpectationsRepresentativeness/stereotypicalRepresentativeness/stereotypicalRecencyRecencyAnchoringAnchoring
ExpertsExperts
Accurate at modeling current stateAccurate at modeling current state– Attending to appropriate informationAttending to appropriate information– Adding information from prior knowledgeAdding information from prior knowledge– Selection and use of strategiesSelection and use of strategies
Accurate predictions in well-defined Accurate predictions in well-defined domainsdomainsNot overly accurate at predicting future Not overly accurate at predicting future performance in ill-defined domainsperformance in ill-defined domains
SummarySummary
Accurate metacognitive performance Accurate metacognitive performance Monitoring and model current stateMonitoring and model current state– Attend to correct information given goalsAttend to correct information given goals– Minimize distortions from interpretationMinimize distortions from interpretation– Using existing knowledge to augment model when Using existing knowledge to augment model when
lacking needed informationlacking needed information– Prediction of future needsPrediction of future needsControlControl– Select and use strategies appropriatelySelect and use strategies appropriatelyKeep the monitoring-control cycle goingKeep the monitoring-control cycle going
General ReferencesGeneral ReferencesHowe, M. L. (2003). Memories from the cradle. Howe, M. L. (2003). Memories from the cradle. Current Directions in Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 12Psychological Science, 12, 62-65., 62-65.Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. Kuhn, D. (2000). Metacognitive development. Current Directions in Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 9Psychological Science, 9, 178-181., 178-181.Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new
area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, American Psychologist, 3434, 906-911., 906-911.
Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge about the mind. about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology, 50Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 21-45., 21-45.
Nelson, T. O. (1994). Metacognition. Nelson, T. O. (1994). Metacognition. Encyclopedia of Human Encyclopedia of Human BehaviorBehavior, vol. 3., 187-190., vol. 3., 187-190.
Nelson, T. O. (1996). Consciousness and Metacognition. Nelson, T. O. (1996). Consciousness and Metacognition. American American Psychologist, 51Psychologist, 51, 102-116., 102-116.
Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In Metacognition: Knowing about KnowingMetacognition: Knowing about Knowing (J. Metcalfe & A. P. (J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Shimamura, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.