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7/27/2019 An Investigation of the Effect of Store Design on Consumer Purchasing Behavior in Retail Stores
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An investigation of the effect of store design on consumer purchasing behavior in retail
stores
CONTENTS
Executive summary. 3
1. Introduction.. 42. Bibliography review. 6
2.1Defining the concepts 62.2The Mehrabian-Russell Model (M-R Model) 92.3 Indicative studies that are based on theoretical models 102.4The influence ofthe atmospherics of the shop. 152.5The influence of specific atmospheric elements of the shop.. 24
2.5.1 Music..252.5.2 Scents.292.5.3 Lighting.332.5.4 The architecture of the space..34
2.6The influence of colour.372.6.1 The influence of colour on the human body.412.6.2 The influence of colour on the human psychology..422.6.3 The influence of the colour of the packaging..442.6.4 The influence of colour in the shop.48
3. Research Methodology523.1The aim of the research.523.2Statement of research hypotheses.533.3Specimen collection..543.4Data collection553.5Designing the survey.55
4. Research results and analysis574.1The cosmetics market..574.2The influence of colour in the shop594.3The influence of the colour of the packaging.65
5. ConclusionsSuggestions.725.1Conclusions..725.2Practical implications of marketing.73
5.2.1 Implication for the retailer.735.2.2 Implications for the product manager.........75
5.3LimitationsSuggestions for future research76Bibliography.78
Attachments.90
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The present dissertation refers to the influence that the shop environment has on the
purchasing behavior of the consumer. The theoretical background on which this research is
based on consists of experiential research, laboratory experiments and field research, that
has been published in international scientific journals.
The purpose of this research focuses on the influence of colour on the emotional and
behavioural responses of the consumer within the store. Research was carried out in the
cosmetics domain, whereas the population specimen was limited to female consumers.
Surveys accompanied by visuals were used for the selection of data.
The results of the research lead us to the conclusion that different colours do have a
profound influence on the emotional state of the consumers in the shop and this, in turn,
influences the time that they spend in it, and their desire to approach and examine the
products and it also affects their intention to make purchases. Furthermore, this sameresearch proves that the colour of the packaging of the products influences their image as it
is perceived by the consumer.
The results of this research can be applied in both retail and wholesale marketing, since they
are a useful tool that assists the manager in building the image of the product or his shop
and thus allows him to achieve an increase in sales and acquire a larger portion of the
market.
1. INRODUCTIONContemporary retail shops have proven to be an ideal domain for the application of the
science of marketing, due to the immediacy to the final purchaser. Nowadays, retail shops
are playing a more and more important role in the purchasing behaviour of the consumer
not only in the distribution but in the general placement and promotion of the different
brand names. As a result, a large percentage of the sales of goods is due to marketing
policies that are implemented in the shops that have been designed by the manufacturers or
the retailers themselves.
Within the framework of retail marketing, a highly interesting domain is that ofatmospherics (the lighting, the colours, the architecture of the space, temperature,
backround music, scents) affect the purchasing behaviour in the shop. According to
research that has been published, these elements may have a positive or negative effect on
the attraction of customers and the realization of purchases from the specific shop. So it is
becoming more and more common to see managers resorting to atmospherics as a means
of increasing their customers.
This dissertation focuses on colours as a significant element of the atmosphere of cosmetics
shops and investigates its influence on consumer behaviour. The findings of this research
provide us with useful information regarding the colour preferences of consumers incosmetics shops, defining the emotions and responses that different colour product displays
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have on customers. The desire of the consumers to approach specific areas of a shop, the
time spent in these, and their purchasing intentions are some of the variables that are
examined in the framework of this research. An extension of this research regards the
colour of the packaging of the product and the way it influences the image as it is perceived
by the consumers.
The goal of this research is to reach conclusions which will compel industrial companies as
well as merchants to pay attention to the positioning of their products and their shops. The
retailer, on his part, by studying the characteristics of his target market and the type of
products, can create the appropriate atmosphere in his shop, projecting to his consumers a
specific retail image, while the manufacturer may choose to make his products available
through those retail shops, where the atmosphere and the clientele match the image of the
product.
Regarding the layout of this dissertation, it consists of five chapters. Initially, a
recapitulation of relative articles which have been published in scientific journals is
considered to be useful. Then, the methodology which was used for the creation and
carrying out the research follows. Furthermore, there is an analytical presentation of the
findings. Finally, there is a summary of the findings of the research and a statement of their
implications on marketing of manufacturing and retail companies.
2. BIBLIOGRAPHY REVIEWIn international bibliography we can encounter an abundance of research articles concerning
the effect of atmospherics on the purchasing behaviour of the consumer. A significant part
of this research deals with the general influence that the atmosphere has on customer
behaviour. In fact, some researchers have made an effort to examine to what extent the
environmental psychology model of Mehrabian - Russell (1974) can be implemented on the
microenvironment of a retail shop. On the other hand, other researchers focus on specific
aspects of the shop atmosphere, like colour, music, lighting and scents.
Following, there is an inclusive recapitulation of studies that have been published in
international scientific journals. First though the concepts used must be defined.
2.1DEFINING THE CONCEPTSThe concept of atmospherics was first mentioned by Kotler (1973), who defines the
atmosphere of the shop as the deliberate designing of the areas of the shop so as to create
certain influences on the buyers.
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Especially for the customer service, Biner (1992) suggests the use of the term service
scape, which is used to describe the style and the appearance of the area where the
interaction of the staff with the clients takes place.
The atmosphere is a property of the surrounding area and it is perceived from people
through the visual, aural, olfactory and tactile senses. So Kotler (1973-1974) created the
following dimensions of shop atmospherics:
Visual dimension: colour, lighting/brightness, size, shape Aural dimension: volume, tone Olfactory dimension: scent, freshness Tactile dimension: softness, smoothness, temperature
The atmosphere of a retail shop is part of the total product or service that the customer
purchases. More specifically, the suitable designing of the shop atmosphere is considered to
be a useful tool that can be used against the competition, especially when the competition isfierce and increasing, the differences in the marketing mix (line of offered products, price
and promotional actions) are marginal and the introduction of goods to the market are
targeted at different segments of the population, from different social classes and different
lifestyles.
The different elements which compose the shop atmosphere can influence the purchasing
behaviour of the consumer in different ways. Thus the atmosphere can sometimes operate
as a mean of attracting the customers attention and at other times it can be used to get
across messages concerning the image of the shop and it can also create certain emotionally
moving situations. In other words, the atmosphere plays the role of a special occasionalfactor (Belk, 1975), which contributes to the transformation of buying intention into
expressed purchasing behaviour.
The role of the shop atmosphere acquires great significance in the framework of marketing
services (Hoffman et al., 2002). The characteristics of servicescape influence the decision
making process of the buyers, such as repurchasing, consumption and assessment of the
services after the purchase. The atmospherics of a shop in customer services are an
indicator of the high quality of the offered services, minimizing the danger that is associated
with the specific market. Furthermore they facilitate the interaction and transactions
between the staff and the customers and they contribute to the provision of homogenizedservices, with the goal of customer satisfaction.
Generally, the term atmospherics refers to all the normal and non-normal characteristics of
the interior of a shop which can be altered by the retailer, with the ultimate goal to
manipulate the purchasing behaviour of the consumer in such a way, so as to accommodate
his best interest (Eroglu & Machleit, 1989). Some of those characteristics are the colour, the
music, the scents, the lighting, the staff, the architecture of the space and the interior
design.
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Chart 2.1-1
Total presentation of shop atmospheric elements
External Environment
External signsEntrances
Shop windows
Size of the building
Colour of the building
Neighbouring shops
Shop location
Architectural style
Characteristics of the
surrounding area
External walls
Interior Decorating
Displays (POP material)
Signs and symbols
Wall decoration
Works of Art
Source: Turley & Milliman (2000), p.194
2.2THE MEHRABIAN-RUSSELL MODEL (M-R Model)The Mehrabian Russel environmental psychology model (Figure 2.2-1) is based on the
Stimulus-Organism-Response paradigm which shows how an environmental stimulus can
cause the response of an organism.
According to M-R Model, the behaviour of a person in an environment can be expressed
either with approach or avoidance. The approach behaviour is expressed by the desire of a
person to approach, to prolong his stay, to wander, to explore, to interact or to return to this
particular place in the future. On the contrary, the avoidance behaviour is expressed with
reduced performance, feelings of stress and boredom, lack of friendliness and desire to
distance ones self from such an environment.
These behaviours are results of the emotional situations that a person experiences in a
particular environment. According to the M-R Model, all the emotional situations can be
expressed as a combination of two basic dimensions- pleasure and arousal- without the third
dimension, that of dominance being necessary as Russell and Pratt (1980) supported later
on.
Layout of Interior
Design and allocation of given
space
Positioning of products
Grouping of products
Additions and shelves
Installation of equipment
Positioning of cash registers
Waiting areas
Layout of departments
Circulation flow and queues
Furnishings
General Interior
Floors and carpetingColours
Lighting
Music
Scents
Walls and wall paper
Ceilings
Merchandise
Temperature
The human factor
Characteristics and appearance
of staff
Large crowds
Characteristics of customers
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Environmental
stimulus
The concept of pleasure refers to the degree that a person is possessed by positive emotions
in a given environment, such as happiness, contentment and satisfaction. The concept of
arousal is associated with the excitement, awareness and encouragement for action that is
provoked by the conditions around him. Satisfaction and arousal interact in such a way that
supports the approach behaviour in a pleasant environment and the avoidance behaviour
when the environment is unpleasant.
Each emotional state of the person is provoked by the different environmental stimuli that
he is exposed to in a particular environment. Due to the deluge of stimuli and the difficulty
in organizing them in an orderly way, Mahrabian and Russell used the term information
load. In order to describe the degree of being new, the term novelty was used and finally
the term complexity refers to how complicated the environment is. The concept of
novelty involves the unexpected, the new, the amazing, and the unfamiliar. On the other
hand, a complex environment is characterized by a large number of characteristics, as well
as a high degree of mobility and change.
The information load of an environment is positively associated with the degree of arousal
that it provokes. However the response of each person to the stimuli of the environment
depends on the unique way in which the particular person responds to the perception of
external stimuli. Thus, people who have the tendency to filter the stimuli that they receive
and to choose the most significant ones are not easily distracted by an original and/or
complex environment.
Figure 2.2-1
The original Mehrabian Russell Model
(S) (O) (R)
Source: Tai and Fung (1997), p. 315
2.3 INDICATIVE RESEARCH THAT IS BASED ON THEORETICAL MODELSDonovan & Rossiter (1982) wanted to prove that the theoretical M-R model can constitute a
useful tool for the study of consumer behaviour in the retail shop. The goal of their their
research was to define the degree at which the consumers responses in a shop can be
predicted from the emotions that are provoked in the particular environment.
Emotional states
Pleasure - arousal
Behaviour:
Approach or avoidance
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The selection of data was made using a survey: the participants were called upon to define
their emotional situation while they were in a central area of the shop and to express their
intentions regarding their behaviour in the shop.
The results of the survey confirmed that the various emotions that the consumers
experience in a shop can be narrowed down to two basic concepts of pleasure and
dissatisfaction and on arousal-containment. These emotional states affect the
intention for expression of behaviours approaching, or avoiding, which are
expressed in a shop with the time that the customer devotes to browsing in the
shop, the tendency to spend more money than he had originally planned to spend,
his willingness to talk to the staff, the pleasure that he derives from the realization
of his purchases and the possibility of visiting the premises again in the future.
In particular, the survey showed that a pleasant environment in a shop created in the
consumer the need to spend more money, whereas emotions of excitement and
awareness increase his desire to remain longer in the shop and to come in contact
with the sales staff. However, the challenge of emotional arousal has positive
effects only when the right conditions exist which create pleasant feelings in the
consumer.
Donovan, Rossiter, Marcoolyn and Nesdale (1994), extending the above study, attempted to
examine the formation of the customers emotional situation during their visit to the
shop and to record the influence on their actual purchasing behaviour. In fact, the
findings of the study supported the conclusions of Donovan & Rossiter (1982),
stressing that the emotions of the customers of a shop dont only effect their
intentions or attitudes but also their purchasing behaviour. Furthermore, they
reached the conclusion that the emotional factor affects the disposal of more time
and money for making purchases, independently of the cognitive factor (awareness
of quality, price, line of product). It was also proven that the degree of psychological
arousal is negatively associated with the mood that the atmosphere of the shop
creates, when the environment is already considered to be unpleasant (eg. hospital)
to the point where emotional intensity leads to avoidance behaviors.
This is the same conclusion that Wirtz, Mattila and Tan (2000) reached as they introduced a
new variable, the level-target of psychological arousal called target-arousal level,
to interpret the interrelationship between pleasure and emotional intensity to the
degree of satisfaction of a customer service shop. In their study they supported that
the desired intensity level that customers demand depends on the specific service
that is offered. Thus, the ideal environment for a romantic dinner is calm, whereas a
theme park must be exciting. Having customer satisfaction in mind, the researchers
proved that the magnifying influence of arousal on pleasure is in effect only in
environments which require high levels of psychological arousal.
Sherman, Mathur and Smith (1997), in another attempt to investigate the Mehrabian-Russell
Model, turned to consumers, the moment they were exiting the clothes shops,
asking them to assess the emotions that were caused by different variables of the
atmosphere of the shop and to record their true responses. The study proved that
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the human factor (number/ behaviour of staff members) and the designing of the
shop are associated with the customers mood, while the atmosphere is associated
with the degree of psychological arousal. More specifically, the creation of a good
mood has a positive effect on the image of the shop and on spending money, while
high emotional intensity has as a result to prolong the period of time spent in the
shop as well as making more and more expensive purchases.
Moreover, Baker, Grewal and Levy (1992) reached similar conclusions. They used the
experimental method (projection of video clips in the shop interior) to examine the
influence of two environmental factors: (a) atmosphere (lighting and music) and (b)
the human factor (number of staff/ friendliness) on ones mood, the psychological
arousal and the willingness to purchase part of the specimens that are on display.
Among the findings of their study, it is worth mentioning that the good mood of the
interviewees was a result of the interaction between the human factor and the
elements of the atmosphere. That means that a retailer can create the appropriate
conditions for a pleasant shopping experience, by emphasizing only one of the two
factors and maintaining the other at lower levels.
However, Babin and Darden (1995), pointed out that the retailer cannot expect the
atmosphere of his shop to have the same effect on the purchasing behaviour of all his
customers. In their study, they proved that the way that each consumer chooses to move
about within the shop, consumer self-regulation is the term they used, influences the way
he accepts the stimuli of the environment. For example, the shoppers that are influenced by
internal and external factors of the given situation -state oriented shoppers- rarely display a
structured behaviour in the shop and they are vulnerable to different stimuli (Kuhl, 1992).
High intensity stimulation has a greater influence on spending money in the above category
of shoppers as compared to action oriented shoppers who have thought about which
areas of the shop they need to visit and what they want to purchase in advance.
The findings of the Tai & Fung study (1997) are intriguing. They examined the application of
the Mehrabian Russell method in two CD shops in Hong Kong. One of the conclusions they
reached, among others, was that the model isnt that simple as it may seem, since the
relationship between the environmental stimuli and humans is two-way. That means that
the atmosphere of a shop, as the consumer perceives it, has a dynamic character, thus it not
only influences the behaviour of the shopper but is also influenced by the shopper. The
emotional state of the customer makes up the transitional stage in this interdependent
relationship.
Take for instance a shop which offers intense stimuli and as a result enforces the tendency
for exploration and wandering in it. As the shopper explores the shop and observes the
products, he feels greater pleasure, because he satisfies his curiosity. Simultaneously, this
pleasant mood positively influences his perception of the shop and the stimuli that he
receives in it and so the purchases are actually made.
Gilboa and Rafaelli (2003) examined the relationship between two environmental properties
-complexity and order- and emotions as well as the consumer behaviour of consumers in a
shop. Colour photos of different departments of two grocery shops were used to carry out
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this study, after first being assessed for the degree of their complexity. The findings of this
study showed a positive correlation between order/harmony and the tendency of
consumers for approach. From this, it can be inferred that the displeasure experienced by
consumers during their shopping in grocery stores or super-markets may be a result of the
complex layout of the space.
Huffman and Khan (1998) had warned retailers not to make their shops overly complicated,
supporting that the larger selection of products, which aims at creating a competitive
advantage, may create confusion and overload of information in consumers. So instead of
increasing their excitement for making purchases, it is possible to cause delay in selecting a
product or the departure of the consumer from the shop without making any purchases.
Finally, another study worth mentioning is that of Greenland and McGoldrick (1994) who
made an attempt to adjust the indirect effects model in the field of financial services, with
the goal to compare the influence of the interior design in contemporary and traditional
type branches of banks on the opinion and behaviour of the clients. The model they used
differs from the model that Donovan and Rossiter (1982) used because it outlines with
greater clarity the network of influences between the environment of the bank branches
and the desired results on the clients (creation of image for the branch, satisfaction for the
services provided and perceptiveness to the sales techniques). Finally, it is evident that the
modern design of the interior has a positive effect on the emotional state of the customers
and on the assessment of the branch and the offered services.
2.4THE INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERICS OF A SHOPA large number of researchers have been occupied with the influence of the atmospherics of
a shop on different variables that concern the customer and his purchasing behaviour.
With the aim to facilitate this research, Gardner and Siomkos (1986) dealt with the
development of specific methodical approaches for the effective investigation of the
influence of atmospherics on the cognitive and emotional state of the consumers. As it was
concluded, the simulation of the atmospherics of the shop with the descriptive method
influences the perception and the psychological mood of the consumers, which influences
their purchasing behaviour as well as the opinion they shape as far as the products are
concerned. Moreover, role play and realization of experiments with the participation of a
third person dont seem to act impartially on the measurement of the influence of the
environmental variables.
Darden and Babin (1994) focused on the influence that the interior environment of a shop
has on the emotional state of the customers. They emphasized the importance of the
emotional character apart from the functional for the complete depiction of the
personality of a shop. They also found a high degree of correlation between the
emotional influence and the perception of the customers concerning the natural or
functional characteristics of the shop.
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Just as Russell and Pratt(1980)proved that the type and degree of the emotional influence
that is exerted by the environment depends on the surrounding area, so Darden and Babin
reached the conclusion that every shop has a unique emotional value for the customer.
That means that shoppers are aware of the differences in the emotions that are provoked
when they are in different types of retail shops. It is also stressed that such differences can
be observed between different shops of the same type (e.g. Hondos Center and Sephora).
All in all, their study supports that consumers connect specific emotions with specific shops,
and that influences the opinion they form concerning the shop as well as their purchasing
behaviour. The emotional importance that a customer assigns to a shop combined with its
functional characteristics form the total shop image in the shoppers mind (Martineau,
1958). Especially when the offered product is in the form of services (health services,
educational services, transportation services), the customers have the tendency to base
their opinion of the shop and their expectations for the services provided on the
characteristics of the environment of the shop (Ward, Bitner & Barnes, 1992).
According to Langrehr (1991) the emotional response of a person to the environment of a
shop depends on his personality, the amount of stimuli that he is capable of handling, his
mood before he enters the shop as well as his mood while he is browsing about in it.
Similarly, Grossbart et al. (1990) proved that the environmental predisposition of each
person influences the way in which he responds to the atmospheric elements of the shop.
Machleit and Eroglu (2000) reached the conclusion that consumers experience different
emotions during their shopping when they are in different shops. They found that when
shoppers are in task-oriented environments which means they are in shops where they do
the necessary shopping for the week, the levels of excitement and pleasure are relatively
low. However they didnt clarify whether the negative emotions that are provoked by the
environment of a super-market or discount store are due to the buying conditions (time
pressure, buying routine procedure) or whether it is due to the characteristics of the
atmosphere (intense lighting, loud music, crowded corridors).
They also observed the correlation between the consumers expectations and their
emotional state when the atmosphere of the shop is different from the expectations that
the customers had before they entered it.
In another study regarding the factors that provoke negative emotions in the customers of ashop, Alain d Astous (2000) noticed that the degree of disturbance is associated with the
source that causes it as well as with the demographic characteristics of the consumers.
Specifically, the results of the study showed that among the stimuli that provoke
displeasure, those that refer to the atmosphere and the human factor plays a far more
important role than those that are associated with the designing and the layout of the shop.
It also seems that women seem to be bothered more by unpleasant events as compared to
men. As far as age is concerned, the study hasnt reached concrete conclusions: some
elements of the shop environment are more annoying for younger customers (e.g. lack of
cleanliness), while other factors bother customers of older age (e.g. loud music).
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Examining more factors that influence the formation of the emotional state of the shoppers
during their visit to a shop, it is worth making a reference to the study of Dawson, Bloch
Ridgway (1990). They proved that the purchasing motives that compelled the consumers to
visit the shop had an influence on the emotions that they developed in the shop as well as
their purchasing behaviour. So customers with strong buying motives reported high levels of
pleasure and excitement and tended to assess the environment more positively.
Consumers dont always visit a shop with the motive to buy or collect information about a
product or service, but also for emotional reasons or to enjoy the shopping procedure
(Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). In the last case, that of hedonistic consumption, it is possible
for the atmosphere of a shop to substitute the product. Then the retailer, by arousing the
visual, aural, tactile, olfactory, and even taste senses, can create the suitable conditions, so
as to encourage the realization of impulse buying.
Babin and Attaway (2000) stressed the importance that a retailer must place on the layout
of the interior of his shop, in order to create value for the consumer who visits the shop. By
creating the suitable atmosphere and layout, the retailer can encourage the hedonic
shopping value or the utilitarian shopping value which is the effective realization of
preplanned purchases, depending on the target market. In this way, it is possible to attract
customers, to build strong long-term bonds with them and to increase the sales.
The layout of a shop interior of a department store and its effect on the excitement of the
customers and their desire to remain in the shop was the focus of Wakefield and Bakers
study (1998). Their findings were in agreement with the conclusions of Bellenger et al.
(1977), highlighting the significance of the natural environment of a department store in the
creation of a first impression and thus of an initial level of excitement in the consumer.
The strategic element of a shop interior which creates excitement is the architectural design,
whereas all the atmospheric factors except for the lighting and the temperature are
positively associated with the provocation of excitement and desire to remain in the shop.
Excitement may be provoked by music or an interesting layout.
Stoltman, Gentry and Anglin (1991) found that excitement which stems from visual stimuli
compels consumers to visit the shop more often and to make purchases. In fact, Rook
(1987) reached the conclusion that consumers associate impulsive shopping with the
emotions of excitement and psychological arousal. He reached this conclusion by conducting
a survey.
So far, it has been proven that the environment provokes various emotions in people, but
the mood of the consumer at the time he is exposed to the atmospherics of a retail shop
must be taken into account. The mood he is in at the given time can affect the way in which
he perceives the various external stimuli but also the way he react to them.
Gardner (1985) presented in a relevant article, the effects of the shop and of the behaviour
of the shop assistants on the mood of the customers, which in turn, influences the
purchasing behaviour. However he supported that while the environment influences the
mood of the people, the peoples mood may influence the way they perceive theirenvironment.
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In a shop that sells services, the customers mood may have an effect on the way he assesses
the service process and the service product itself. It influences his memory of the whole
purchasing experience. It has been observed that customers who are in a good mood are
more eager to follow the recommendations of a salesman, to be more cooperative, more
agreeable and more satisfied from the services offered. In addition, clients who are in a
good mood have the tendency of positively assessing the level of customer service
acknowledging that their expectations were met. A possible explanation may be the fact
that a positive mood distracts a person from the detailed processing of the information that
he receives. In this way it is less likely that he will observe or criticize a possible negative
factor (Mackie & Worth, 1989).
It has been observed that a complicated environment disorients the customer and arouses
feelings of nervousness and annoyance. However, as Gardner pointed out later (1985), a
shop must be designed in such a way so as to change the customer mood the minute he
steps in and make it positive towards the retailer. Its all about the consumer experience.
Consumers tend to associate their visit to a shop with the feelings that they had at that
moment.
In general, buyers prefer to do their shopping in shops that make them feel pleasant and
they avoid shops that arouse negative feelings in them. Golden and Zimmer (1986) reached
the conclusion that people make their purchases in shops that they like and they like the
shops that they choose to make their purchases in.
In fact, Babin and Darden (1996), reached the conclusion that the creation of a negative
mood among the customers of a shop reduces the satisfaction gained by the offered services
whereas the creation of a positive mood increases the satisfaction gained by the offered
services. This occurs because negative emotions are far more powerful than positive ones.
However, it holds true, that the negative mood generates the tendency to avoid the specific
environment so customers want to leave as soon as possible and in some cases this leads
them to make hasty thoughtless purchases.
On the other hand, positive emotions are associated with customer satisfaction and increase
of the money spent on purchases in the shop. According to Gardner (1985), a positive mood
at the sales point will lead consumers to take action that will have a positive result even
though the same action does not always have the same result for different types of
purchases (trying on clothes). Sherman and Smith (1986) reached the remarkable
conclusion that the consumer mood can influence his purchasing behaviour even after he
has made his purchasing decision.
Concerning the products, Gardner (1985) mentions that the consumer mood influences the
assessment of the features of a product, the image of certain brands as he perceives them as
well as his preferences and his final purchasing decision. The assessment of a brand is
affected by the features of the environment where the consumer encounters the product
(Akhter, Reardon & Andrews, 1987). More specifically, when the consumer hasnt formed a
specific image for a brand (from advertising, promotional actions, comparative reports and
other resources) the image that he does form is greatly influenced by the atmospherics of a
shop as well as the shop employees.
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Another interesting experiment is that of Swinyard (1993), who with the help of different
senarios tried to manipulate the mood of a group of students, in order to study the effects
on their purchasing behaviour. He was led to the conclusion that the psychological mood of
the consumer influences the realization of a purchase when the latter has high involvement
in the purchasing process and his experience from the shop is a positive one. One
explanation that may be given is the following. The customers of a shop who have high
involvement in the purchase of a product or service has to process more information and
thus his psychological mood may influence his selection, deciphering and assessment of
different environmental stimuli.
So the environment of the shop plays a significant role in the quality of the purchasing
experience, because even if a customer enters a shop in a good mood, his exposure to
negative stimuli may alter his mood for the worse with all the ramifications concerning his
purchasing behaviour.
Numerous customers go shopping while being in a bad mood. According to Maxwell and
Kover (2003), this segment of the consumers is not in the mood for searching, making
decisions for the purchase of goods or having high involvement in the purchasing process.
What they are interested in doing is making purchases that will improve their mood and
they show special interest in new products and services. The ideal shop environment for
them has a simple interior layout, which ensures easy access to all the products, pleasant
atmosphere (music, scent and lighting) and it doesnt require interaction with the sales staff.
In a study carried out by Sharma and Stafford (2000), it has been proven that the
atmosphere of a shop is reflected in the image that the customer forms concerning the
salesmen and the degree to which he is persuaded by them. The credibility of the salesmen
is influenced by the prestige of the shop that is reflected in the environment of the shop.
Consequently customers are more easily persuaded to make purchases by salesmen who
work in luxurious shops as compared to those who work in discount shops.
It has also been observed in shops which have a luxurious or prestigious interior, a reduction
in the number of the salesmen didnt seem to affect the purchasing behaviour of the
customers. This testifies that the atmosphere of a shop plays the most significant role in the
persuasion of the prospective buyers. On the contrary, at discount shops, where the
atmosphere is of no value, the increase in the number of salesmen can bring about a
significant increase of sales as customers are primarily persuaded by the promotional
actions of the salesmen.
Smith and Burns (1996) noticed that the merchandising that is applied on the aisles of a
super-market has an influence on the perception of the consumers regarding these specific
products. In fact, the increase in the number of different codes (SKUs) of a category of
products and the simultaneous reduction in quantity of each give the impression of higher
prices. In the opposite case small variety of products but in large quantities the
consumer forms the image of a shop with the massed-out look, the kind that offers
products at low prices.
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Finally, Bawa et al. (1989) pointed out the role of the marketing within the shop
environment focusing on its ability to attract different customer types and influencing their
consumer behaviour. The results of their study proved that in shops with a wide variety of
products, consumers didnt display loyalty towards a name brand but were more likely to
desire to try out new products. In addition the existence of display cases, discount coupons
seemed to increase the consumers sensitivity towards prices and promotional activities thus
sabotaging their loyalty towards one brand.
2.5THE INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC ATMOSPHERIC ELEMENTS OF THE SHOPThe vast majority of researchers have focused on the influence of specific atmospheric
elements on the consumers purchasing behaviour such as scent, lighting, colour (there is a
section devoted to this element alone) and the architecture of the shop interior. These
elements stimulate the senses of a person and primarily the hearing, smell and vision.
All these studies have reached the same conclusions that the atmospheric elements have an
impact on the emotional and cognitive state of the consumer and as a result they influence
his behaviour in various ways. Thus, the correct manipulation and combination of the
atmospherics of a retail shop can direct the customers purchasing behaviour so as to meet
his sales target.
2.5.1. Music
Music is one of the factors which can differentiate the shop atmosphere. It is a particularly
attractive variable for the proprietor, it is cost efficient, it can easily be changed and it is
considered to have a profound effect on the customer behaviour. It is an undeniable fact
that music is a powerful stimulus which influences the mood of the individual and indirectly
the consumer purchasing behaviour (Bruner II, 1990).
For example in some restaurants, fast-paced music can be heard compelling customers do
all their activities faster thus reducing the time they spent seated at their table, especially
during the rush hour when the demand is high. On the contrary, during the early evening
hours, when business is slow, soft music is preferred as it relaxes the customers and directs
them to accompany their meal with a cocktail or a dessert.
The influence of the tempo of the music on the behaviour of the customers was studied by
Milliman (1986). He came to the conclusion that the use of slow-tempo music made the
atmosphere more relaxing, facilitating the behavioural approach directing customers to
extend the time they spend in the shop encouraging them to consume more drinks.
However there was no increase in the number of food orders that the customers ordered
while under the influence of the relaxing music. It is also worth mentioning that the number
of customers, who left from the restaurant because they didnt find a table immediately,
was not influenced by the tempo of the music that was playing. However, when they
substituted the relaxing music with extremely loud and repulsive music more customers left
from the shop.
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Contrary to Milliman (1986), Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) found that the tempo of the music
is not the only factor that affects the consumption of beverages and food, but the music
preferences of each individual also play a significant role. These two factors combined can
have an influence on consumer behaviour.
In a past study, Milliman (1982) noticed that the fluctuations of the tempo have an impact
on the speed at which the customers move in the supermarket as well as the value of the
purchases that are actually made. So, his suggestion is for retailers to choose the music
according to the targets they want to achieve, since the behaviour of the customers can be
directed subliminally.
However, Chebat and Vaillant (2001), in a relative article, supported that music influences
consumer behaviour through cognitive processes. More specifically, slow tempo of music
creates brain alpha waves which, in turn, stimulate the cognitive process. For this reason
soft music is considered to be the ideal stimulation level for the initiation of cognitive
activity. This happens because music has the property of attracting a persons attention.
However if the music is too fast of too loud then it may distract the customer from the
persuasive arguments of the salesman, while on the other hand slow music facilitates the
cognitive response during the sales process.
In research carried out by Dube and Morin (2001), using 110 mall shoppers as their subjects,
it was observed that the different degree of pleasure that was caused by the music
influences the image of the shop that the consumer shapes and subsequently it influences
the customers response to the sales staff. Music is often used to improve the mood of
consumers and to have a positive effect on their emotional state at the time of the
purchasing process (Herrington & Capella, 1994).
The effect of the type of music (classical-modern) on the consumer behaviour of the
customers of a Liquor Store was investigated by Areni and Kim (1993). Following
comparative analysis of the results of their experiment they concluded that classical music
affected customers to spend more money. In fact, the higher amount of money spent was
on a more expensive selection of wine and not on more bottles of wine.
This view is in agreement with the views of McInnis and Park (1991) that the music has to
match the environmental framework where it is encountered, in order to affect the
customers and bring about the desired result. There is an underlying symbolic meaning toeach purchasing experience. If the consumer connects the consumption of wine with luxury
and prestige, then classical music creates a certain atmosphere, getting the message across
to the customer that the product is of high quality and high price. In conclusion, Herrington
and Capella (1994) supported that the music has to match the type of shop and the offered
product or service, as well as the time of the day and the target market segment.
Another practice that is commonly used in retail shops is zoning, which means having
different types of music in different parts of the same shop. The goal is to target different
segments of the consumer population, based on age, sex and preferences. Yalch and
Spangenberg (1993) noticed that by playing the suitable type of music in each section of aDepartment Store it improved the atmosphere and it compelled people to make purchases
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and spend more money than they would. In addition, their analysis of the data showed that
there is a correlation between music and the age and preferences but there is no association
between music and sex.
In their previous experiment (1990), the same researchers confirmed that the perception of
the customers about the time spent in a shop differed according to whether the music was
in the foreground or background. When the music was not in agreement with the
customers preferences, the customers were more likely to claim that they had spent more
time in the shop than they actually had. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is the
fact that the shoppers are exposed to an unfamiliar environment (music which they dont
usually listen to) and thus they are more observant of what is going on around them and
they are capable of recalling more information from such an experience. As a result they are
under the impression that they have spent more time in the shop.
Hui, Dube and Chebat (1997) studied the effect of music on the responses of the customers
as they were queuing in a bank. What they noticed was that music had a positive effect on
the way customers perceived the offered services, without it having an effect on the
perceived time spent waiting for the service. On the contrary, the customers were under
the impression that they had spent more time in the bank when music was playing. As
Kellaris and Kent (1991) mentioned, the perceived time waiting increases when the music is
not to their liking. This event however doesnt have a negative effect on the approach to the
bank.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that music improves the emotional response to waiting in a
queue, only when it is in accordance with the customers tastes and preferences. This
happens because waiting creates negative feelings in general, so a strong stimulus such as
pleasant from the environment is needed, in order to limit the negative emotions. What is
remarkable is that classical music always enhances the image of a shop, even for customers
who may not like classical music.
2.5.2 Scent
Scent is an atmospheric element that has the capability of creating a more pleasant
environment for making purchases. Scent can be a competitive advantage for the retailer.
The recognition and the meaning of each scent is a complex procedure. In order to
understand this phenomenon, one must study psychology of memories and human
biological reactions. Among the five senses, the scent is considered to be more closely
associated with the emotional center of the human brain that is why the scent that is
dominant in the interior of a shop is considered to be one of the most powerful stimuli in
provoking emotional response in consumers (Wilkie, 1995).
The inundation of the interior of buildings with a perfume as a mean to influence human
behaviour is becoming more and more common. This can be illustrated by the fact that
Proctor and Gamble came out with devices that can be installed in the aisles of shops. In
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addition, some shipping companies allow scents to circulate through the vents in order to
keep the managerial staff in a state of awareness (Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2000).
An experiment was carried out by Nike concerning the purchase of athletic shoes. They
scented a changing room with a soft scent of flowers and another one with fresh air. In the
first case the likelihood of making a purchase was 84% more than in the second case. A
similar experiment was carried out concerning gambling machines in the Las Vegas Hilton
Hotel Casino. This study showed that a machine that had been scented with a special
perfume accepted 45% more money than another one that had been scented differently
(Siomkos, 2001).
Traditionally, some specialized shops, like bakeries, and shops that sell coffee, cigarettes or
nuts have relied on the scent of their products to attract customers (Bone & Ellen, 1994).
However, in the past few years many customer service shops as well as retail shops have
made sure to add a special scent to their interiors. The scent that is in the air, meaning the
scent that is not emitted from a particular object, is quite interesting because it can affect
the way the customer perceives the shop and its products, even those that dont have a
scent of their own.
In many articles it is supported that the scents influence the cognitive state more than the
emotional state of the consumer. Michon, Chebat and Turley (2005) found that the scent of
the air has an impact on the perception of the environment and not on his emotions. This is
in agreement with the findings of Bone and Ellen (1989) that had proven that the influence
of the scent on the customers mood is marginal. Chebat and Michon (2003) reached the
conclusion that scents are associated with experiences, thus their significance is in the
cognitive field rather than the emotional field.
More significantly, the latter observed that the scent of the shop contributes to the
formation of a positive image of the shop and indirectly to the formation of the image of the
products offered, which influence the expenditure on behalf of the customer. However, the
type of scent or its intensity doesnt seem to play an important role. The perception and
behaviour of the consumer is contingent upon the presence or absence of scent in the
atmosphere (Spangenberg, Crowly & Henderson, 1996). The existence of scent influences
the perception of time: the time that customers spend examining the products, queuing or
waiting to be served by the shop assistant seems to be less when the shop atmosphere is
scented.
Michon, Chebat and Turley (2005) also realized that the scent of a shop positively influences
consumers only when the shop is averagely crowded. This phenomenon may be due to the
fact that during rush hour, customers are exposed to far too many stimuli so as a result they
dont pay attention to the atmospherics factors. That is the reason that scents are more
noticeable by recreational shoppers, those who just want to browse. These shoppers have
more time available, they pay more attention to the environment and are more perceptible
to the environmental stimuli.
In addition, Mitchell, Kahn and Knasko (1995), carried out an experiment which concludedthat the influence of a pleasant scent in the air on the purchasing decisions of the consumer
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depends on the agreement of the scent with the category of products. In the case that the
scent matched the category of products, the consumers devoted more time to the
examination of the products, examining all their functions and inquiring for more
information and variety, and they took all the factors into account before making their final
decision.
However, while the inundation of the air with a scent can boost the sales of a certain
product it may have a negative effect on the sales of another product. Consequently, the
effective scenting of the atmosphere of a shop must support the sales of all the products
that are offered in it (Chebat & Michon, 2003).
Moreover, Fiore, Yah and Yoh (2000) came to the conclusion that by placing a product on
display and giving it the appropriate scent it brought about a significant increase in the level
of pleasure derived during the purchasing experience in the sample of female consumers. At
the same time there was an increased tendency to approach the product, to express their
intention to buy it, and the price they were willing to pay in order to obtain it was higher.
However, the most influential factor concerning their purchasing intention was the element
of cognitive pleasure, the association of past experiences with the specific product or even
the fantasy of using the product themselves. The appropriately scented environment had a
direct impact on cognitive pleasure.
According to Morrin and Ratneshwar (2000) the presence of a pleasant scent in the shop
atmosphere improves the assessment of the products, especially when it concerns brand
names that are unfamiliar to the consumers, and it reinforces the recollection of the product
in the future. The results of this study indicate the way the human memory becomes
familiar with the brand names is either through the meticulous examination and assessment
of the products or through their association with an atmospheric element (in this specific
case, the scent).
Furthermore, Spangenberg, Crowley and Henderson (1996) reached a similar conclusion,
reporting that the inundation of the atmosphere with a scent had the tendency of improving
the perceived image of the least appealing products whereas the influence concerning the
products that had been initially positively assessed was marginal.
The Gestalt theory concerning the consumers perception of the retail environment was
taken a step further with the research of Mattila and Wirtz (2001) who, supported that thecustomers observe the environment of shops that offer services holistically and their
responses depend on the total of the stimuli that they are exposed to in these shops. Thus,
pleasant atmospheric stimuli have positive influence on consumer behaviour, when their
stimulating properties are matching rather than having no connection with each other. For
example, in a customer service shop the music (fast or slow beat) has to match the scent
(stimulating or relaxing). Generally, when the stimuli of the environment interact and
supplement each other so as to create a coherent atmosphere, the customers express a
higher level of satisfaction, tend to approach the products and make impulsive purchases.
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2.5.3. Lighting
The lighting is another important element of the interior environment of a shop. Lighting
does not only play an aesthetic role , but a functional role as well because it facilitates the
display of the products, the reading of the tags, labels and signs and the circulation of the
customers.
There are different categories of lighting. The general lighting concerns the whole shop and
serves functional purposes. The local lighting is used in spots that require special treatment,
like display cases. Furthermore, a shop can have perimetric lighting on the walls, free-
standing light fixtures or decorative lighting units (Papavassileiou & Baltas , 2003).
In addition, Summers and Hebert (2001) installed additional lighting on products that were
on display in shops and they studied the reactions of this on the consumer behaviour, with
the assistance of a video camera. The results of this study showed that the level of lighting
influences the approach behaviour of the customers in such a way that under circumstancesof intense lighting the customers spend more time at the displays touching and holding the
products.
These findings matched the findings of an older study, carried out by Areni and Kim (1994),
who observed that bright lighting encourages the customers to examine and assess products
meticulously without having an effect on sales. It is worth mentioning that the lighting had
an effect on the products that were situated at eye level. This reveals that dim lighting
wasnt enough to carry out the functional activities, like detecting the price tags or
recognition of the product.
For this reason, lighting in the retail shop interior has to be relevant to the activities that are
carried out in it. The excessive, surplus light in all the areas of a shop does not only add to
the cost but also doesnt allow the creation of intense contrast for the promotion of the
products. Furthermore, it may cause damage to sensitive products, and it can tire out the
customers and have a negative effect on the customers behaviour (Economou,1997).
Especially in the interior of supermarkets, it has been observed that the appropriate lighting,
the kind that makes the customer feel comfortable in a pleasant atmosphere influences the
sales in a positive way (Self Service, 1997).
2.5.4. The architecture of the interior
The architecture of the shop has to do with the layout of the products and with the general
organization of the interior. The successful design of a shop depends on the existence of a
specific functional design template. It must take into account the easy access of the
products from the customer and the clear separation of the different departments. The
careful layout of a shop helps the customers with their orientation and also helps them find
what they are looking for. This gives them a sense of control (Bitner, 1992).
In continuation, Park, Iyer and Smith (1989) did research concerning the knowledge of shopdesign and combined it with the time that the customer has at his disposal to make his
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purchases thus influencing his shopping behaviour. They carried out an experiment in a
supermarket, and found that the two factors mentioned above influence the level of
spontaneous purchases, these including brand or product switches as well as changes in the
quantity they initially planned to buy.
More specifically, they noticed that the knowledge of the interior of a shop, independently
of the time that a customer has at his disposal for shopping, has a positive effect on brand or
product switching. In fact, 1/3 of the unplanned purchases were made because of the
reminders of new needs during their stay in the shop and the processing of this new
information. The customers awareness of the layout influences the recollection of
memories associated with the aisles such as the position of the customers favourite brands.
On the other hand, when the customer is not familiar with the layout of the shop he has
difficulty in locating the different products and so he wastes a valuable part of his available
shopping time. The pressure of time contributes to the failure to make the planned
purchases both in terms of products and quantities and it also reduces the percentage of the
unplanned purchases because the customer doesnt have the time to process any more
information in the shop.
A basic principle in the layout of shops is that the amount of money spent by the customer
increases the longer he stays in a shop and the longer the distance he walks in the shop
(Papavasileiou & Baltas, 2003). As a result many shop layouts have a goal to maximize the
time the customer spends in the shop and to increase the distance he covers so as to be
exposed to as many purchasing stimuli as possible.
The architecture of the interior must facilitate browsing making it a pleasant and enjoyableexperience even if the customer hasnt come to the shop with the intention of making a
purchase (Lombart, 2004). A pleasant walk within the shop can encourage spontaneous
purchases, it can create loyal customers and improve the reputation of the shop via word-of-
mouth. Furthermore, the presence of a lot of people in a store contributes in a positive way
to the atmosphere making it appear as a place full of action rather than deserted. The
presence of a lot of people can be an indication and verification of quality. In reality,
customers dont find an empty shop appealing thus a tolerable amount of customers is
welcome.
On the other hand, crowding creates the image of an inexpensive shop (Langrehr, 1991)and brings about negative consequences, like a decrease in the time spent in the shop, a
decrease in the spontaneous purchases, and finally a decrease in the planned purchases or a
postponement for another date and this can even lead to change of shop (Grossbart et al.,
1990).
In an empirical study, Eroglu and Machleit (1990) used colour transparencies and different
scenarios to investigate the retail crowding perception in retail shops and its effect on the
customers purchasing behaviour. They realized that the sense of crowding became more
intense as the retail density increased. When there was high retail density the perceived
crowding was higher for those customers who had come to the shop to make specificpurchases while having limited time at their disposal task oriented shoppers compared
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to those who had time to browse, non-task oriented shoppers. In the cases of crowding, the
pressure of time had a negative effect on the satisfaction of the customer from the shop
environment. When the shop was very crowded there was pressure of time which had a
negative effect on customer satisfaction.
Furthermore, Eroglu and Harrell (1986) had suggested that the expectations of consumers
regarding how crowded the shop is, have a reverse correlation with the perceived levels of
crowding and their satisfaction with the shop. If the consumer realizes that the shop is less
crowded than he had expected, then he wont be so dissatisfied with the conditions of the
environment. Also the shoppers who are pressured for time are more likely to be
dissatisfied from their purchasing experience in a crowded shop.
2.6THE INFLUENCE OF COLOURColour is a communicative element, it has its own language and it is an effective mean for
getting across messages and arousing emotions in humans.
The basic colours are red, blue and yellow. White and black are neutral colours, while the
rest, which are characterized as supplementary, are a combination of the basic colours, eg.
Red and yellow make orange, blue and yellow make green, red and blue make violet. Red,
yellow and orange are considered to be warm colours while blue and green are cool.
The symbolism of colours develops ideas and makes allusions within a given context. Take
yellow for instance; while it is considered a bright colour, it also has a negative aspect.
Studies have shown that yellow increases the nervousness and anxiety and makes babies cry
more. As yellow is the colour that the human eye sees faster, it is considered to be ideal for
drawing ones attention. However, a whole room that is painted yellow can provoke
negative emotional responses.
Red is considered to be the most stimulating colour. It increases the heartbeat and puts
people in a state of awareness. Green is right cross from red on the colour wheel and has a
calming effect on people. It is widely used in operation rooms in hospitals and in medical
equipment, to calm the patients, when they come round from anesthesia, and to reduce
their tendency for dizziness or vomit. Black is considered to be a strict but elegant colour,
especially when combined with white. Grey enhances the creativity of humans but it has
been observed that it is not preferred by people who live in areas with rainy climate. It also
symbolizes seriousness, success and power, properties which it ows to one of its two basic
elements, the black colour.
In the following chart there is a summary of the different meanings that are given to each
colour (Zotos, 2000):
Red
Cheerfulness, danger, vitality, power, provocativeness, bravery, excitement, heat, passion. It
is associated with anger, war, blood. It refers to and appeals to the memory of the
consumer.
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Light blue
Peacefulness, tranquility, devotion, security, tenderness, coolness, melancholy, formality. It
is associated with cold, ice, distance, infinity and peaceful reflections. It primarily appeals to
the sensibility of the consumer.
Yellow
Optimism, brightness, hatred, happiness, spring. It is associated with the sun light, with
shine and radiance. It is the colour which attracts the attention of the receiver more than
any other.
Orange
Fire, heat, action, harvest.
Green
Peacefulness, tranquility, humidity, spring, youth, relaxation, immaturity. It is associated
with hope, meditation and nature.
Black
Mystery, death, mourning, gravity, austerity. It is associated with hatred, used to express
power but also elegance.
White
In the western civilization it means purity, innocence, cleanliness, clarity, sterilization. It is
associated with void, infinity, the inexplicable, while it is used to express absolute silence. In
the Far East it is considered to be a colour of mourning.
However, in different cultures, the same colour is preferred for different purposes and
alludes to different symbolism. The symbolic meaning which is connected with each colour
is the result of a long term process which is interpreted by historic, religious, political,
traditional, racial, aesthetic and preventive factors (Panigyrakis, 1999). The fact that
different colours carry a total of symbolic meanings which differ means that with the use of
a colour, if used correctly in a specific environment, we can get across complex information
in an effective way (Judd & Wyszeski, 1975).
While black is a colour of mourning in European countries, white in China and Japan plays
that same role. Green, which symbolizes Islam, in Muslim countries, is an especially
acceptable colour, while in the Far East it is associated with tropical illnesses and bad luck.
Red is the most popular colour in the Chinese market, while yellow and green are preferred
in most African countries.
Such diversity has an immediate impact on the communicative policy of an export business,
and quite often there is an imperative need to alter the colour of the packaging of a product
or the advertising message of a product. Basically, the target is not to distort the positioningof a product and to maintain the effectiveness of the advertising campaign, avoiding the use
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of a colour which may have positive connotations in the cultural system of the export
company but may have negative connotations in the export market (Panigyrakis, 1999).
Usually, the selection of colours which are included in the flag of each country usually have
positive connotations for their residents, causing them to have a positive predisposition
towards the product that is promoted.
In a survey which was carried out concerning the preferences of consumers worldwide
(Heathe, 1997) they came to the conclusion that there are some colours which convey the
same meaning worldwide, but nonetheless there are differences between nationalities. For
example by choosing a colour that represents power, the white people preferred red, while
black Americans chose black and the Spaniards chose light blue. In addition, light pink
seemed to be associated with sensitivity for the white people whereas Africans chose white
for the same purpose. As far as formal attire is concerned, black and red are universally
acceptable colours. However black Americans prefer gold and silver, while the women from
Spain preferred orange, bright red and fuchsia.
The popularity of the colours develops throughout time under the influence of social,
economic, and political factors (Swain, 1996). As an example we can mention the
preference for khaki, grey and brown during the period of World War II and the replacement
of dark colours with pastel shades in the early 1950s. The evolution of the trends in colours
reflects the change in preferences, in the lifestyle and in the ideals and values of each
generation, but the prevalence of the cultural elements of each people remains.
In international bibliography, primarily in the field of physiology and psychology, we
encounter an abundance of studies focusing on the effect of colour on human behaviour. In
the marketing field, the studies concerning the effect of colour have concentrated on
advertisement and on the packaging of a product. The common element in all these studies
is the fact that colour can provoke certain autonomous biological reactions; it can have an
impact on the emotional state of an individual and draw his attention. The owners of
different shops have made good use of these studies, using colours that create the suitable
atmosphere in their shops for the realization of purchases.
2.6.1. The influence of colour on the human body.
The science of physiology has dealt with the biological reactions that are caused by different
colours. Gerard (1957) studied the psycho-physiological influences of colour on the humanbody by inundating red, white and blue bonds of light through a screen. Following
measurements, he concluded that the blood pressure increased under the influence of the
red light, while it was reduced by the presence of blue light. In the same way, the rhythm of
breathing was more intense while exposed to red light whereas it was less intense while
exposed to the blue light. Moreover, the red light made people blink with greater frequency
than the blue light.
In another experiment, Wilson (1966) measured the levels of stimulation or otherwise
known as psychophysics activation which corresponds to each colour. The results of his
measurements confirmed the initial hypothesis that red creates a greater stimulation thangreen. Clynes and Kohn (1968) found that the function of the brain is influenced by red
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more than by any other colour of the same intensity. In fact, Clynes (9177) supported that
the colour red brings about stimulation of the human brain, by its very own nature.
Another scientist named Goldstein (1939) investigated the changes in the body posture of
mentally retarded patients during their exposure to large sheets of paper in different
colours. After numerous experiments, he found that specific colour stimuli made patients
change the placement of their hands. By alternating the colours blue and red, he noticed
that blue compelled people to stand in such a way so as to reveal introversion and
reservation. On the other hand, the position of the hands at the sight of the colour red
expressed a more extroverted and emotional behaviour. Goldstein also noticed that red
distorted the perception of size, length, weight, and texture as compared to the colour
green.
In addition, Nakshian (1964) carried out similar experiments on healthy people. He
concluded that red causes hands to tremble more than green does, and we also have a
higher speed in movement.
All the above studies lead us to the conclusion that warm colours (like red and yellow)
cause a natural stimulation while cool colours (like blue or green) have a more calming
effect.
2.6.2. The influence of colour on a persons psychology.
Numerous studies have proven the correlation between colours and human psychology. It
has been proven that different colours provoke specific emotional reactions in human
beings.
Furthermore, Gerard (1957) tried to explain the way in which colours are related to
emotions, resorting to commonly acceptable samples of normal responses. He further
supported that red and the feeling of anger stimulate the energetic capability of a person
and compel him to become active. That is why red and the feeling of anger are interrelated.
A further possible explanation refers to the phenomenon of synesthesia, which is the feeling
that is created in some body organ from stimulation which has an influence on another body
organ. In this way dark colours may be associated with weight, whereas red is connected to
heat. On the other hand there are those who believe that the association between colours
and emotions are simply based on the preferences of each individual. In other words, when
a colour and an emotion are at the same level of ranking on the scale of the individuals
preferences, then it is only natural for them to be interrelated. For example the colour red
may be associated with happiness, because they are both valued and preferred by people
(Terwogt & Hoeksma, 1995).
In a study that was carried out by the students at the University of Georgia (Kaya & Epps,
2004) emphasis was placed on the symbolic property of colours. Each individual associates
different colours with objects, people, places and situations. So the association of a
particular emotion with a colour depends on the personal preferences and the past
experiences he has had with that particular colour. For example a young woman answered
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encourage criminality and suicide, while they obstruct optimism, inspiration and finally
success.
2.6.3. The influence of colour on the packaging of a product
The packaging is a powerful tool in the hands of the marketer, as it contributes to thecreation of a special identity and image for each product, whilst it strengthens the bond
between the consumer and a specific brand, especially for categories of consumer products
of low involvement (Underwood, 2003). Generally, the packaging is characterized as an
indispensable part of the communicative strategy of the product in the market segment that
it is targeted and it may make a determining contribution to the creation of a unique sales
suggestion.
In fact, retailers often use the packaging of their products as part of their interior or exterior
decoration, aspiring to the presentation of a specific shop image. They also use the
packaging of the products to encourage buyers to browse in the shop, in an effort toincrease impulse buying or purchases made near the cash register, like chewing gum,
chocolates and razor blades, during the customers stay (Panigyrakis, 1999).
The colour of the packaging of the product is one of the most important aesthetic
characteristics, as it communicates with the spiritual world of the consumer and it becomes
a direct stimulus for the purchase of the product. The correct selection of the colour can be
a determining factor in the impression it makes on the memory of the consumer, in his
desire to approach, touch or try out the product and in the final acceptance stage where he
goes ahead with the purchase. More specifically, it is argued that when a consumer sees a
product for the first time in an in-store display, about 60% of the first impression comesfrom its colour (Heath, 1997).
Quite often, the colour of the packaging has as its goal to get across specific properties of
the product, like cleanliness, luxury, power or natural origin. At other times, it targets the
recollection of situations, experiences and the arousal of similar emotions, e.g. a chocolate
in a red wrapper alludes to love, being in love thus creating positive emotions.
As for yellow, it is the most noticeable of all the colours and it gives the consumers the
impression that the product they are purchasing is a bargain (American Nurseryman, 1996).
On the contrary, black represents elegance and eccentricity and it is used to add high
prestige and class to the products. On the other hand, green is associated with nature and
usually conveys the message that the product contains natural ingredients. White means
freshness and purity as blue does too but it also implies honesty, self-confidence and
knowledge. Finally, red conveys power and vitality, making the stimulation of the consumer
more intense.
In a study (Sead & Gill, 2000) concerning the colour preferences of consumers cross-
culturally it was found that blue is the most popular colour while yellow is the least popular.
This unanimous preference for blue is likely related to the colour of the sky and sea two
dominant elements in the life of all peoples. Despite all the above, preferences for colours
change according to the given situations. These in turn are connected with specific
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traditions of each culture. This is illustrated in the preference for red on Valentines Day or
the preference for green on St. Patricks Day.
Even though fashion does not change that often for the packaging of products as it does for
clothes, there are always some colours that are considered to be modern and others that
are outdated. In that way, white, even though it is a symbol of purity, it loses in the
popularity contest. This is partly due to the fact that the companies dont want their
products to be confused for Generics, which in most cases are available in simple white
packaging (Malliaris, 2001).
In an article (Marketing Management, 2003) it is mentioned that for the consumers, who
arent loyal to a specific brand the change of the colour on the packaging may draw the ir
attention and enhance their respect for this brand. Especially for small and steady
categories of products, such as flour, the new packaging is likely to lead to the purchase of a
product, when the message that it is conveying is in accordance with the initial positioning
of the brand. However in intensely competitive categories of products, such as cereals, what
is of utmost importance is the creation of a unique and impressive packaging. On the other
hand, for the loyal consumers of a brand name alteration of the colour on the packaging can
be confusing and it may reduce the recognition of the brand.
There are some striking examples from the American experience (Malliaris, 2001). We can
easily conclude that the commercial success or failure of a product may well depend on the
colour of its packaging. When the designers changed the colour of the Barrelhead beer can,
from blue to beige, the consumers believed that it had become more tasty and refreshing.
In reality, its taste had not changed at all. In the same way consumers believe that the
darker the orange colour is on the can or bottle of orange juice the sweeter its taste will be.
Even though it is difficult to make a correlation between the colour and the sales of a
product, the designers of Canada Dry claim that since they changed the colour of their
product Ginger Ale (no sugar added) from red to green and white, sales went up by 25%.
The reason being that the red colour that was on the can gave the impression that it was just
another Cola product. Ritz Crackers of Nabisco, upon celebrating their 50 years, slightly
changed their packaging. The new packet was redder and decorated with a golden ribbon,
as the target was for the Ritz Crackers to appear richer and become more attractive to young
consumers who possess a high income.
Another company, Microsoft, following the suggestions of their designers changed the
colour of its packaging from green to dark red and blue. This happened not only because
green doesnt draw the attention of the consumer but also because it is associated with
frozen vegetables or chewing gum and less with high technology products.
When the detergent Tide was created, in the mid-50s it was not per chance that they put a
white product in a bright orange box. This contrast between product and packaging had as
its goal to convey a message: this white detergent is associated with cleanliness, while the
orange packaging means strength and effectiveness.
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Another study which refers to colour is that of Milotic (2003) who mentions in his article that
when a colour is combined with the suitable scent which contributes to its recognition, as it
gives an indication of what the soap will smell like. There is the case of Colgate Palmolive
which launched a new line of soaps, changing their ingredients but maintaining their colour.
So, for instance a white soap had the scent of chamomile, while a peach coloured soap had
the scent of almond. This disagreement between the colour and the scent had as result a
dramatic reduction in the share of the market of the specific brand.
2.6.4. The influence of colour within the shop
Colour is one of the atmospheric elements which are widely used to create a pleasant
environment and to influence customer behaviour. With the use of the appropriate colours
retailers dont only aim to draw the attention of the customers but also to attract customers
into the shop enhancing their shopping mood.
The influence and the effectiveness of certain colours may differ among different shops,individuals and circumstances. Research concerning the influence of colours on the
perception of a place showed that cool colours make a room seem larger and increase the
sense of spaciousness. On the contrary, the existence of warm colours on the walls of a
room, make it look smaller, while offering intense visual stimuli and high stimulation.
The big super-market chain stores pay attention to the correct selection of colours so as for
the customer to feel comfortable and calm (Siomkos, 2002). The warm feeling must be won
from the moment the customer enters the shop. In general pastel, clean colours, that are
considered to be relaxing by the customer. In special sections, it is common practice to use
specific colours, like blue in the fishmongers section, white in the frozen foods section,yellow or ochre in the bakery and green in the produce section.
In the U.S.A. there is a chain of shops that make pastries called Mrs Fielos. They owe much
of their success to the unusual red colour that they used for decorating their packaging. This
was quite risky, as brown is the colour that has been traditionally associated with chocolates
and pastries. Finally, due to the fact that most purchases of pastries are made
spontaneously by young women, they were attracted by the elegant and original decoration.
In addition, American psychologists found that pink, orange and in general the warm pastel
colours increase ones appetite.
One of the