AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG TEACHER'S OCCUPATIONAL …ir.amu.ac.in/10671/1/T9063.pdf · occupational stress experienced by teachers as well as factors influencing

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG TEACHER'S OCCUPATIONAL STRESS,

JOB SATISFACTION, WORK VALUES AND PUPIL CONTROL IDEOLOGY

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SUBMITTED FOR THE.A 'ARO'OF`THE DEGI

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EDUCATION

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MARIYA AFTAB

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. TAHIRA KHATOON ►

(Associate Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH (U.P.) —INDIA 2013

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ABSTRACT

Introduction

Teaching is always considered as one of the most stressful professions. With

the educational reform, teachers' occupational stress has become more and more

salient during recent years. Teachers working within the secondary school system

confront multiple stressors on a daily basis that result in varying levels of

occupational stress. Factors such as poor student behavior, ranging from low levels of

student motivation to misbehavior, and poor relationships with administration and

colleagues can lead to - occupational stiess. In some cases, teachers contend with poor

working conditions that include.iack.of resources and poor physical features of school

buildings. In addition,.they.struggle with poor:prospects concerning pay, promotion,

and career development TwhlAh also contribute to their stress. Since, the teachers who

are burdened by stress will not be in a position to teach students in an optimal manner;

this makes them to have apathy toward their work thereby affecting the overall

performance of schools. High stress level of a teacher causes disappointment,

frustration, aggression, anxiety, avoidance of work, increased absenteeism, andl or

stress, thus, decreased teachers and student performance levels. In addition to this,

facets of teacher performance, such as creativity, classroom management, and

implementation of educational techniques, may suffer when teachers experience high

levels of stress. Thus, the consequences of occupational stress not only affect teachers

psychologically, physiologically, and socially, but are also detrimental to those they

interact with during their work day.

Occupational stress is unavoidable which adversely affects the members of

every institution, and it is greatly believed that the factors creating stress will probably

continue to increase among teachers' in real life. On this note, factors such as the

teaching context (teachers' background, gender, experience, teaching load, class

composition, school, teaching subject, workload), personal factors and satisfaction

have been found to all directly affect a teacher's stress level (Hodge, 1992; Smith &

Bourke, 1992). As occupational stress can make teachers dissatisfied, this can

weaken/ lower their work values too. Conversely, if an institution can provide

individuals with the basic elements they value, stress is reduced (Knoop, 1994b).

Teacher-student relationships are also seen as one of the factors that influence

teachers' stress, and the stresses developed by teachers are reflected in their behavior

towards students. Teacher stress also arises from being unable to discipline pupils in

the way they would prefer. It is therefore, important to examine the current levels of

occupational stress experienced by teachers as well as factors influencing these levels

to gain a better understanding of this phenomenon. Thus, investigating the

relationships among teacher's occupational stress, demographic factors, job

satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology attracts serious attention in the

present study.

Review of related literature Investigating the gender differences, various research findings have shown the

existence of significant relationships between occupational stress of male and female

teachers, where male teachers reported more psychological and physical stress than

the female teachers (Mondal, Shrestha, & Bhaila, 2011; Pei & Guoli, 2007). Contrary

to this, female teaehers also indicated a higher level of stress as compared to the male

teachers in several studies (Abdul Majid, 1998; Gandhi & Sharda, 2013; Jan, Malik &

Ahmad; 2013). To this non-parallel result was reported by Okeke & Dlamini (2013)

who observed no significant relationship between work-related stress and gender

among high school teachers. Relationship between teachers' occupational stress and

teaching experience was studied by Cooke et al. (1990); they reported that the first

• year of teaching was not at all easy. While, primary and junior high school teachers'

with long teaching experience have been reported to have high work stress (Wang,

2012). No significant differences among the stress level of primary (Siong & Yet,

2004; Mokdad, 2005) alongwith elementary (Roxas, 2009) school teachers and years

of teaching experience have also been evidenced.

Teachers' qualification as a source of stress was found to be significant on

Personal Stress by Ravichandran and Rajendran (2007). Singh (2012) also showed

undergraduate teachers to be less occupationally stress than the post graduate

secondary teachers. Nayak (2008) showed designation to be significantly and

negatively correlated with work role, personal development and total stressors among

the teachers. Further, researchers (Okeke & Dlamini, 2013; Siong & Yet, 2004) stated

no significant difference between the level of stress and academic qualification among

teachers. Owing to a limited research on teachers' occupational stress and salary, an

indirect relation has been shown by Sargent and Hannum (2003) who observed the

timely payment of salaries and school expenditures to be positively linked to teacher

satisfaction. Khurshid, Butt, and Malik (2011) revealed that the university teachers

with Iow income, experience more occupational role stress than teachers with higher

income level. Significant differences among teachers occupational stress and the

various subjects taught by them have also been noticed. Hodge, Jupp, and Taylor

(1994) showed that Music teachers were substantially more distressed and burnt out

than Mathematics teachers. On the other hand, Shukla (2008) reported no significant

difference in the relationship between perceived burnout and teaching effectiveness as

perceived by teachers on the basis of subjects taught (Language, Social Science,

Science).

A considerable level of impact of stress on job satisfaction and job

involvement among teachers has been reported (Muthuvelayutham &

Mohanasundaram, 2012). Researchers (Ayan & Kocacik, 2010) witnessed that

teachers job satisfaction showed significant differences in terms of characteristics of

liking competence, being ambitious in the social area and occupation, getting angry

easily, and hiding their feelings. Further, De Nobile and McCormick (2005)

investigated moderate to strong correlations existed between most of the job

satisfaction and occupational stress variables. Most interestingly, Chaudhry (2012)

demonstrated no relationship between the occupational stress and overall job

satisfaction in case of both male and female faculty members.

Allida (2005) explored significant relationships between work values and

occupational stress, and identified Religious, Occupational, and Intellectual

Achievement-oriented work values as the three very important primary work values.

Workload and Time Pressure, managing Students Behavior and Learning, and

Financial Security were found to be the three major stressors of the respondents

wherein they experienced moderate stress. Further, Singh (2005) showed stress is

negatively related to five work values namely- economic return, social service, power,

independence and adventure. She also concluded that stress is not related to

intellectual challenge, chances of progress, material handled, associates, surrounding

and variety work values.

Agoglia (1998) detected significant direct relationships between pupil control

ideology and occupational stress. Alternative path models suggested that teachers'

control beliefs (i.e., locus of control and pupil control ideology), independent of

occupational stress, significantly affected attitude formation. Helwig (1997) found

that teachers intending to enter school administration were more humanistic than their

colleagues. Teachers who intended to leave the classroom for positions outside of

education were found to be under more stress from students, less efficacious and more

custodial than those teachers intending to remain in the classroom. Quite opposite to

this, Bas (2011) showed some negative significant correlations among teachers

student control ideologies and their perceived burnout levels.

Statement of the problem

"An investigation into the relationship among Teacher's Occupational Stress, Job Satisfaction, Work Values and Pupil Control Ideology".

Objectives of the study

The investigator has started the work with the following objectives:

1. To develop two standard tools of research, namely Teachers Occupational Stress Scale and Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale, which will prove as valuable additions to the psychometric units of Indian Universities and abroad also.

2. To study the general pattern of occupational stress of secondary school teachers.

3. To study the combined and individual effect of demographic factors on teachers' stress toward their occupation.

4. To study the relationship between occupational stress of secondary school teachers and their demographic factors.

S. To study the combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation.

6. To explore the relationship between occupational stress of secondary school teachers and their job satisfaction.

7. To study the combined and individual effect of work values on teachers' stress toward their occupation.

8. To explore the relationship between occupational stress of secondary school teachers and their preferences of work values.

9. To explore the relationship between occupational stress of secondary school teachers and their pupil control ideology.

10. To point out the main educational implications of this study.

iv

The main purpose of this study is broadly stated to investigate the relationship among secondary school teacher's occupational stress, demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology. In this study demographic factors and work values have been taken in the sense as:

➢ Demographic factors include: Gender, teaching experience, qualification, salary and subjects taught by teachers.

> Work values include: Good economic return, high status! prestige, opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/ cooperating colleagues, security of service, fair/ sympathetic supervisions, opportunities of further progress/ advancement, opportunities of intellectual stimulation, work consistent with my (teacher's) life goals! values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority, freedom in work.

Questions posed for the study In this study of teachers occupational stress in relation to their demographic

factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology, certain pertinent

questions arise which may be stated as under:

1. What is the general pattern of secondary school teachers' stress toward their occupation?

2. Do predictor demographic factors explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

3. Do demographic factors explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

4. Do predictor factors (job satisfaction and pupil control ideology) explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

5. Does job satisfaction explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

6. Do predictor factors of work values explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

7. Do work values explain .the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

8. Does pupil control ideology explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?

V

Hypotheses of the study

In the light of the above-mentioned objectives, the study was conducted after

formulating the following research hypotheses:

1. The secondary school teachers, in general, experience more stress toward their occupation.

2. The predictor demographic factors are not the significant predictors of teachers' stress toward their occupation.

3. There is no significant difference in occupational stress in relation to demographic factors of the teachers'.

4. The predictor factors (job satisfaction and pupil control ideology) are not the significant predictors of teachers' stress toward their occupation.

5. There is no significant difference in occupational stress in relation to job satisfaction of the teachers'.

6. The predictor factors of work values are not the significant predictors of teachers' stress toward their occupation.

7. There is no significant difference in occupational stress in relation to the perception of teachers' work values.

8. There is no significant difference in occupational stress in relation to pupil control ideology of the teachers'.

Sample of the study

The sample was selected keeping in view the needs and objectives of the

study. It should be mentioned that these 608 secondary school teachers' have been

chosen from 41 schools of Eastern and Western U.P. of India. These schools

constitute different categories of management, some of them are privately managed,

and some are managed fully or partially by the government. The types of management

are categorized as Government, Government Aided, Muslim Managed, Non-Muslim

Managed, and Aligarh Muslim University Managed Schools. Out of the 41 schools

selected in the study, ten are single-sex male schools constituting 153 teachers, seven

are single-sex female schools having 128 teachers, and twenty four are co-educational

schools having 327 teachers in total. The number of the female teachers' is more than

that of male teachers, their numbers being 327 and 281, respectively.

vi

Data collected for the study

The following baseline data were collected for carrying out the present

investigation:

> Data used for the development of Teachers Occupational Stress Scale.

➢ Data used for the development of Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale.

➢ Scores on the teachers stress toward their occupation.

➢ Scores of the teachers demographic factors.

➢ Scores of the teachers job satisfaction.

➢ Rank scores of the teachers on their preferences of work values.

> Scores of the teachers pupil control ideology.

Tools used for the study The investigator used following tools for the collection of data:

> Teachers Occupational Stress Scale (developed by the investigator).

> Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale (developed by the investigator).

> Work Values Scale (11 work values were selected from the six lists of different work values suggested by the eminent vocational psychologists).

➢ Pupil Control Ideology Scale (developed by Khatoon & Munir, 2009).

> Personal information sheet (prepared by the investigator).

Statistical techniques employed

The investigator proceeded with the analysis of data by using relevant

statistical techniques, which were selected only after the investigator found them to be

the most appropriate and compatible for the analysis of data. They are specified as

follows:

> Determination of the reliability and validity of the Teachers Occupational Stress Scale and Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale.

> Computation of mean and standard deviation.

> Use of linear measure of correlation (Pearson's Product Moment Coefficient Correlation).

> Use of Multiple Regression for seeing the combined and individual effect of variables on the dependent variable.

Use of F-test for measuring the significance of difference among more than two means.

➢ Use of t-test for measuring the significance of difference between two means.

Findings

After statistical analysis, the following conclusions were drawn in accordance

with the hypotheses and results of the study:

1. General pattern of occupational stress of secondary school teachers

i. The analysis of the data indicated that majority of secondary school

teachers' (47.70%) have less occupational stress.

ii. Results have also proved that greater percentage of female teachers'

(54.74%) face less stress toward their occupation than their male

colleagues (39.50%).

2. Combined and individual relationship of demographic factors with teachers' occupational stress

i. The results of the study showed that 10% of the variance in teachers' stress

toward their occupation can be explained by the combined effect of the

predictor demographic variables, i.e. gender, teaching experience,

qualification, salary and subjects taught.

ii. Gender is indicated as the best predictor of occupational stress in this

study, and contributed 12% to teachers' occupational stress.

3. Relationship between occupational stress and demographic factors

i. The analysis of the results . reveals that males' occupational stress is

significantly higher than the female complements. Females, thus, were

observed to come across less stressful experiences in the secondary

schools.

ii. This study shows an inverted curvilinear relationship with the lowest stress

found among novice teachers, i.e. 0-5 years and among those working as a

VIII

teacher for more than 16 years, while those with an average range of

experience, that is, 6-10 and 11-15 years appear to have most stress.

Further, no significant differences are seen in mean occupational stress

scores of three groups (0-5 years and 11-15 years, 0-5 years and more than

16 years groups, and 11-15 and more than 16 years) of teaching

experience.

W. It has been found that academic qualification of teachers' is related to their occupational stress. In the present sample, 33.88% of the teachers were not

trained at all. Results further show that, progressive advancement in lower

educational levels leads to a rise in occupational stress among teachers,

while with the attainment of highest educational level, the occupational

stress among teachers' decrease.

iv. No relationship has been demonstrated between salary groups and

occupational stress of teachers'. Gender-wise breakdown shows that males

have more occupational stress than their female colleagues, but a

statistically significant difference is observed only in teachers' falling in

15,000 INR onwards salary group.

v. Furthermore, another variable which is not found to be an influencing factor for occupational stress among teachers' is the subjects taught by

them. The results obtained did not support the idea that the Ianguages, arts,

social sciences and sciences teachers differ on the level of stress

experienced by them.

4. Combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation

i. The analysis of the results put to light that 69% of the variance in teachers'

occupational stress is explained by the combined effect of predictor

variables, i.e. job satisfaction and pupil control ideology.

ii. It has been found that satisfaction in teachers' with their job results to be

the strongest factor (74%) in comparison to pupil control ideology (18%)

which predicts their occupational stress.

ix

5. Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

The major findings in regard to the relationship between occupational stress

and job satisfaction towards teaching are given below:

i. A significant and negative correlation is found between the teachers'

occupational stress and job satisfaction (r= -0.81).

ii. Less satisfied teachers are significantly different from the more satisfied

group in regard to their occupational stress. The former group of teachers'

is more stressed with their teaching occupation than the more satisfied

group of teachers'.

iii. Less satisfied teachers' are found to be significantly different from the

moderate satisfied group in relation to their occupational stress. The

former group of teachers is found to be more occupationally stressed than

their complements.

iv. Moderate satisfied group is found to be significantly different than the

more satisfied group in regard to their occupational stress levels. The

former group is found to be more stressed with their occupation than their

counterparts. i

v. No significant differences are found in the male and female teachers of

less, moderate and more job satisfaction groups regarding their

occupational stress. However, females in less satisfied and more satisfied

groups have more occupational stress than their male colleagues.

6. Combined and individual effect of work values on teachers' stress toward their occupation

I. The analysis of the results displays that 19% of the variance in teachers'

occupational stress is explained by the combined effect of eleven predictor

variables of work values.

ii. The results in this study further show that opportunities of exercising

power/ authority by the teachers' emerge as the strongest factor (61%)

among all the work values which predict their occupational stress. 0

X

7. Relationship between occupational stress and preferences of work values

This study also explores the links between differently preferred work values

and occupational stress of secondary school teachers'. The major findings are as

follows:

i. The results indicate that secondary school teachers' recognize high status/

prestige as the most preferred work value, sequentially preferred by nine

different work values; while opportunities of exercising power/ authority

work value fallouts as the least preferred one by them.

ii. Though negative yet significant correlations are observed between

teachers' occupational stress and three of the work values, namely, good

economic return (r= -0.18), high status/ prestige (r= -0.13) and

opportunities of exercising power/ authority (r= -0.30).

iii. Five positive significant correlations between occupational stress and work

values are also spotted in this study, i.e. security of service (r= 0.12),

opportunities of further progress/ advancement (r= 0.15), work consistent

with my life goals/ values (r= 0.11) and freedom in my work (r= 0.11),

opportunities of intellectual stimulation (r= 0.01).

iv. Occupational stress is not related to three work values of secondary school

teachers, namely opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/

cooperating colleagues and fair/ sympathetic supervisions.

This study also ventures further to find the preferences of work values among

the less, moderate and more occupational stress groups of teachers. With regard to the

relative importance of work values as perceived by different occupational stress

groups of teachers, the following findings were arrived at:

i. Less stressed teachers consider security of service to be the most important

work value, followed by freedom in my work and then by opportunities of

human/ social service. As against this, this group assigned the lowest ranks

to opportunities of exercising power/ authority, opportunities of

intellectual stimulation and good economic return, with respect to the

descending order of preference.

xi

ii. More stressed teachers consider good economic return work value to be

the most important, followed by high status/ prestige, and then by

opportunities of human/ social service. As against this, the least preferred

work values by this group consist of work consistent with my life goals/

values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation, with their respective ranks of 10, 9 and 8.

iii. Moderate stressed teachers give top most importance to high status/

prestige, followed by good economic return, and thereafter, friendly/

cooperating colleagues. The least important work values for this group

constitute opportunities of intellectual stimulation, opportunities of

exercising power/ authority and fair/ sympathetic supervisions, with the

ranks of 11, 10, and 9 respectively.

The findings led to the conclusion that less stress group of teachers do not see

eye to eye with more and moderate stress groups of teachers in regard to their

perception of the relative importance of various work values in teaching.

8. Relationship between occupational stress and pupil control ideology

Major findings relating to the relationship between various occupational stress

groups of teachers' and pupil control ideology are reported below:

I A significant and positive correlation is found between occupational stress

behavior of teachers' and pupil control ideology (r= 0.48). ii. Humanistic teachers' are significantly different from the custodial group of

teachers in regard to their occupational stress. The former group of

teachers' is more humanistic in their approach to problems of discipline

than the other group, and therefore, experiences less stress than the latter.

iii. Humanistic and moderate groups of teachers' differ between themselves in

regard to their occupational stress, the former being more humanistic and

less stressful than the latter group.

iv. There exists significant difference between moderate and custodial groups of teachers' as far as their occupational stress is concerned, the former being more adaptable to humanitarian approach and less stressed than the

latter.

XII

v. There occurs significant difference between male and female teachers of

moderate pupil control ideology group in relation to their occupational

stress. Interestingly, male teachers' in this group are found to be more

• stressed than their female counterparts.

Educational implications

From the research findings in the present study, several implications for the

school administrators, school authorities, management committees, policy makers,

educationists, psychologists, student-teachers and future researchers may be drawn

with regard to occupational stress of teachers' in secondary schools of India. The crux

of the current problem may lie on the assumption that teachers view their stress

problem at personal level, and that schools seldom at least try to render help on such

personal basis.

• The study has shown that there are variations in the experience of stress

related to demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values, and pupil control

ideology by the male and female secondary school teachers. This points to the need

for the effective management of these determinants of stress, either by making use of

different management strategies at regular intervals, or by providing effective

guidance and counseling.

For the significant changes to take place, it is instructed that they may have to

be implemented at the school or in some cases at the department level. It is therefore

recommended that principals and the school management committee should

• investigate the causes for teachers' occupational stress and if possible, to provide

ways, like workshops, seminars, and periodical stress management programmes for

reducing the levels of stress among the teachers, which in turn will improve their

functional skills and lead to effective teaching/ learning in the classroom. Some major

points should be taken care by the institution that, supervision, support and

relationship with the teachers' need to be corrected and enhanced most strongly. On

the other hand, some areas like frustration, ignorance and recognition need to be taken

care so as to reduce the stress and dissatisfaction in teachers'.

The findings of the study also revealed that teachers' with less occupational I

stress are more satisfied with their profession than their counterparts. Thus, with

respect to the efficiency of teachers' and their role in productivity of education the

study indicates the need to facilitate professional development and healthy socio-

emotional development of teachers. This study highlights the importance of day-to-

day interaction among the school partners — teachers, pupils, parents — in shaping

teachers' own experiences. Promoting a positive school climate should therefore be

considered a fundamental part of school development planning.

The present study shows a strong relationship between teachers' occupational

stress and their preferences for work values. Thus, administrators and policy makers

must comprehend the different needs and requirements of their teachers' and staff members, and must provide greater consideration of all teachers' needs and work

values through more flexible management structures, professional development

support, supportive school culture, recognition, stable contracts, rewards and

collaborative decision-making.

This study also confirms an association between teachers' occupational stress

and their pupil control ideology, with higher occupationally stressed teachers showing

a more custodial orientation in comparison to teachers with less stressed teachers'.

This implies that teachers' should also be conscious of the negative effects of stress.

More schools with humanistic orientations need to be established than the custodial.

Also, the teacher training institutions should introduce relevant refresher courses and

in-service programmes for student-teachers as well as front-line teachers to be aware and deal with the notion of stress; as well as lessen the tendency of teachers' toward

adopting custodial control ideology more. To reduce the stress on administrative

work, the Education Department should provide more administrative support, fund

and resources to schools, such as computerization or additional clerical staff to help

teachers' in clerical work.

Thus, this study is useful to guide employee readers also to achieve their goals

in order to satisfy their career by creating awareness about these causal factors of

stress and adopt coping strategies for minimization of stress in their life; as stress

cannot be vanished from life. So we may conclude that the implications of research

are many and varied.

Limitations of the study

Limitations of the study should not detract from the value of the study. They

are as enumerated below:

xis

1. The study was confined to secondary schools from eastern and western regions of Uttar Pradesh state of India. The findings could have been more convincing if a larger sample size had been taken from secondary schools covering more number of districts of the state.

2. The results of the present study had reflected the secondary school teachers' occupational stress in various districts of Uttar Pradesh at a particular time. But these findings may be quite different at some other time or in other socio-cultural settings.

3. This study was focused on secondary school teachers only. Therefore, the results may not be generalizable to teachers, administrators and student-teachers of other levels—primary, elementary, higher secondary. The extent to which the findings may be considered applicable to other situations will depend upon the similarity between the teachers under study and the group in question.

4. The present study was limited to serving teachers of Government, Government-aided, Muslim managed, Non-Muslim managed, and Aligarh Muslim University managed secondary schools. It did not study the occupational stress of teachers who had left the secondary sector for various reasons, such as prolonged occupational stress, burnout, change of jobs, promotion and emigration.

5. Only five of the demographic factors were studied as the latent variables in this study, so the findings may not be applicable to rest of the demographic variables. Also, the present study was mainly confined to three variables, i.e. job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology, although a number of other variables are known to affect teachers' occupational stress.

6. As stress is believed to be caused by different aspects of the working environment, more factors or variables can also be included in the questionnaire. With increased sample size, a more detailed empirical study among independent variables and the variables that have multiple categories can be performed; and need to be reported in a future study.

I

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG TEACHER'S OCCUPATIONAL STRESS,

JOB SATISFACTION.,. WORK VALUES AND PUPIL CONTROL IDEOLOGY

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AINARD'OF THEEDEGREE1\OF

DotevNe"WICIFr of IN - r1 /

EDUCATION. 7a'

BY MARIYA AFTAB

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. TAHIRA KHATOON

(Associate Professor) (


ALIGARH (U.P.) -INDIA 2013

T9063

e3)

1 & • 2O4

Dedicated to My Loving Parents

&~? Pt~one~External:0571-2721332 * ;r~ Internal: 3045 & 3046


ALIGARH-202 002 (INDIA)

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I, Mariya Aftab, Department of Education certify that the work embodied in

this Ph.D. thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of

Dr. Tahira Khatoon at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in

this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to

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theses, etc., or available at web-sites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited

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This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best

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kY Dr. T hire I hatoon (Asso fate Professor) Department of Education

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

(Signature of the Chair4an of the Department with seal) c%TA1RMAN

09PARWENT OF EDUCAT104~ ALIGARH tW5LtH UNIVEBS1T}

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This is to certify that Ms. Mariya Aftab Department of Education has

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submission seminar requirement, which is part of her Ph.D. programme.

aLi Prof. rTabi Ahmed

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DEPART ME~37 of EDUCATION

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COPYRIGHT TRANSFER CERTIFICATE

Title of the Thesis: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP

AMONG TEACHER'S OCCUPATIONAL STRESS,

JOB SATISFACTION, WORK VALUES AND PUPIL

CONTROL IDEOLOGY

Candidate's Name: MARIYA AFTAB

COPYRIGHT TRANSFER

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the

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Acknowledgement From the depth of my heart, first and foremost, I offer my highest praise and utmost

gratitude to the AGnighty Alfali for the bounteous Blessings We had bestowed upon me to do

this wor ¶This thesis has been kept on track and been seen through to completion with the

support and encouragement of many in&vidua(r including my well-wishers, my fiien4

coEfeagues and various institutions. At the end of my thesis I would lik to express my thank

to a/I these people who contributed in many ways to the success of this study and made it an

unforgettable e.Verience for me.

At this moment of accomplishment, words are too dehigtating to express my thanl~s to my Supermsor, or 7ahira iatoon (fissociate 2'rofessor, Department of fEducation, A. M. '

for according me the chance to further my studies and learn from her research expertise. 'This work would not have been possible without her va(ua6(e guidance, scholarly inputs and

consistent encouragement, I received throughout the research work A person with an amicable

and positive deposition, Ma'am am has always made herself available to caar fy my doubts despite

her busy schedules. She has also greatly helped me in the preparation of manuscripts, both with

regard to language and techniques, anti thereby helped me improve my presentation sk ffs.

I am immensely pleased to place on record my profoundgratitude and heartfelt tfuinj

to of. fabi Ahmed (Cfrairman, Department of Education, A. 9K. V) for providing me the

opportunity and mating the department fatties available in carrying out this study. Special

thankF go tosProf. C T. S. Chauhan (Professor, Department of Education. )L qw. V.) for his

constructive k iowledge and advice that offered me an opportunity to tang the course work

paper entitled ';d, ced Tec"uw of arc/'' under his guidance. 21is involvement helped

focus and improve my thinking and writing. Special gratitude is due to my beloved teachers,

raf. Rpquiya Zainuddm (F. chairperson, Department of Education, A. S41. v) and Pwf.

unita Sharma (Professor Department of rEducation, A. W. V) for their guidance and

iscussions.

I want to recognize my Caging husband or. Aftab Aslant (Paiwaz star, without

lose Cove, friendship, support, encouragement, input and editing none of this wouldhave been

rsi6fe. I am forever indebted to him for showing me that I could succeed even when things

med impossible. cflhis research work is as much of a testament of his endTurance as it is of

re.

I don't have words to express my profound gratitude to my parents, Mrs Sframeem

Afta6 a Afta6 !fafeez, to whom I am greatly indebted for their undying support, love,

affection, vatua61 advice and useful suggestions, encouragement and tolerance during my

study. 'Without their unconutiona(Cave and ~Dua it was not possi6l to achieve my goat Many

other Coved ones in my life have helped me get to this place. GratefuCappreciation goes as well

to my cheer-leaders— my sister, (Busfira, my 6rotfier Rjimee. and my aunt .Mrs. Shafieen Ara who playeda fundamenta(role in helping celedrate the big ant little victories, as well as coping with

the inevita6fe challenges I am so fortunate to have been ah a to share this experience with

them.

Thanks are due to9Vir.9Fld As f Sian (ssistant), Mr. Imaduittm (cPersonat Assistant)

and Cidrary staff of the cDepartment and ZJniversity for their cooperation and heelping attitudes

since I entered t1te (Department.

I am also indebted to a very dear friend of mine, cDi Sadia 2lahmoad for her

constructive suggestions on analyzing the data I cherish the moments I spent with her. I

always shored with her the problems faced by me in my research work I really appreciate her

passions in listening and then prong vafuafile suggestions in certain dffculi and crucial

situations. I would also like to pay gratitude to my dearest and adorable senior coleagues and

friends, Or Sfiagtfta 9Vlunif Ms Afsana meet, Anita and Safsafeef who along with their

vatuatle suggestions are ie(pfrd to color my life by provudng a stimulating andfun-filled

environment.

I would 6e failing in duty if I forgot at this stage the princapal and teaching staff of

the selected forty one secondary schools in Uttar (ftadesh districts, India who had so fijnd?y

allowed me to tax their time and patience by confronting them with the tools used For their

wing assistance, kind cooperation and prompt responses, I extend my grateful

acknowledgements and highs appreciation.

I also wish to express my gratitude and appreciation to Vniversity Grants Commission,

and the 'Division of Scholarship, ACrgaif 9WusCm `ZJniversity for financing my study through

%zufanaAzadWationa(Feaawship. WFinaay I tank all those who have helped me directly or indirect y in the successful

completion of my thesis. Anyone missed in this acknowledgement are also thankgd

a fta6

CONTENTS Acknowledgement

List of tables

List of figures

Abbreviations and acronyms

Page No.

Chapter-I Introduction 1-36

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 15 1.3 Objectives of the study 15 1.4 Questions posed for the study 16 1.5 Hypotheses of the study 17 1.6 Definition of the terms 18 1.6.1 Dependent and independent variables 18 1.6.2 Teacher 19 1.6.3 Secondary schools 19 1.6.4 Stress 20 1.6.5 Occupational stress 21 1.6.6 Teachers' occupational stress 22 1.6.7 Burnout 23 1.6.8 Coping with teacher stress 24 1.6.9 Demographic factors 25 1.6.9.1 Gender 25 1.6.9.2 Teaching experience 26 1.6.9.3 Qualification 26 1.6.9.4 Salary 26 1.6.9.5 Subjects taught 26 1.6. 10 Attitude 27 1.6. 11 Job satisfaction 28 1.6.12 Values 29 1.6.12.1 Work values 29 1.6.13 Pupil control ideology 31 1.7 Significance of the study 33 1.8 Organization of the study 35

Chapter-2 Review of related literature 37-62

2.1 Teachers occupational stress and demographic variables 38 2.2 Teachers occupational stress and job satisfaction 46 2.3 Teachers occupational stress and work values 51 2.4 Teachers occupational stress and pupil control ideology 55 2.5 Summary 60

Chapter-3 Methodology and design of the study 63-82

3.1 Methodology 64 3.2 Sample 65 3.2.1 Size of the sample 65 3.2.2 Sample used for the development of Teachers 67

Occupational Stress Scale (TOSS) and Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale (TJSS)

3.2.3 Sample used for the study of relationship between 67 teachers' occupational stress and their demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology

3.2.4 Demographic characteristics of the sample 74 3.3 Data collected for the study 76 3.4 Tools used 76 3.4.1 Teachers Occupational Stress Scale 76 3.4.2 Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale 77 3.4.3 Work Values Scale 77 3.4.4 Pupil Control Ideology Scale 78 3.4.5 Personal information sheet and its coding 79 3.5 Methods of data collection 79 3.5.1 Hurdles in data collection 80 3.6 Statistical techniques employed 81

Chapter-4 Research tools 83-104

4.1 Teachers Occupational Stress Scale (TOSS) 83 4.1.1 Procedure 85 4.1.2 Try-out 86 4.1.3 Scoring 87 4.1.4 Item analysis 87 4.1.5 Reliability 89

4.1.6 Validity 90 4.1.7 Usefulness 91 4.2 Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale (TJSS) 91 4.2.1 Procedure 93 4.2.2 Try-out 95 4.2.3 Scoring 95 4.2.4 Item analysis 96 4.2.5 Reliability 98 4.2.6 Validity 98 4.2.7 Usefulness 99 4.3 Work Values Scale (WVS) 100 4.3.1 Selection of work values 100 4.3.2 Scoring 102 4.4 Summary 103

Chapter-5 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of 105-156 data

5.1 General pattern of occupational stress of secondary 107 school teachers

5.2 Combined and individual relationship of demographic 107 factors with teachers' occupational stress

5.3 Relationship between occupational stress and 110 demographic factors

5.3.1 Relationship between occupational stress and gender 110 5.3.2 Relationship between occupational stress and teaching 110

experience 5.3.3 Relationship between occupational stress and 114

qualification 5.3.4 Relationship between occupational stress and salary 116 5.3.5 Relationship between occupational stress and subjects 119

taught 5.4 Combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and 121

pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation

5.5 Relationship between occupational stress and job 122 satisfaction

5.6 Combined and individual effect of work values on 126 teachers' stress toward their occupation

5.7 Relationship between occupational stress and 128 preferences of work values

5.8 Relationship between occupational stress and pupil 133 control ideology

5.9 Discussion 137

5.10 Conclusion 153

Chapter-6 Summary, findings, areas for further research 157-172 and limitations

6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 Statement of the problem 158 6.3 Objectives of the study 158 6.4 Questions posed for the study 159 6.5 Hypotheses of the study 160 6.6 Methodology and design of the study 161 6.6.1 Sample of the study 161 6.7 Data collected for the study 161 6.8 Tools used for the study 162 6.9 Statistical techniques employed 162 6.10 Findings 163 6.11 Educational implications 168 6.12 Areas for further research 170 6.13 Limitations of the study 172

References 173-210

Appendices

Appendix A-1 Appendix A-2 Appendix A-3 Appendix A-4 Appendix B-1

List of paper publications and presentations

Publications

I i_F,~ ire)W1:11 i mJ*

Table No. Title Page No. 3.1 General description of the sample 66 3.2 Distribution of sample by management, schools and gender 69-71 3.3 Distribution of sample by management, number of schools, 73

gender, medium of instruction and number of single-sex/ coed schools

3.4 Sample profile regarding demographic factors, job satisfaction, 75 work values and pupil control ideology

4.1 Item total correlations of the 33 items of the TOSS 88 4.2 Item total correlations of the 20 items of the TOSS 88 4.3 Comparison of means of TOSS scores of teachers judged as 91

more stress and less stress towards teaching occupation 4.4 Item total correlations of the 37 items of the TJSS 97 4.5 Item total correlations of the 20 items of the TJSS 97 4.6 Comparison of means of TJSS scores of teachers judged as 99

satisfied and dissatisfied towards teaching occupation 4.7 Taxonomy of work values 101 5.1 Percentages of teachers having less, moderate and more 108

occupational stress (total and gender-wise) 5.2 Multiple regression analysis for predicting occupational stress 109

using gender, teaching experience, qualification, salary and subjects taught

5.3 Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of 111 gender

5.4 Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores 113 and experience in teaching

5.5 Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of 113 experience in teaching

5.6 Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores 115 and qualification of teachers

5.7 Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of 115 qualification

5.8 Comparison of mean occupational stress scores of two groups 117 of salary of teachers

5.9 Gender-wise comparison of mean occupational stress scores on 118 the basis of salary

5.10 Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores 120 and subjects taught by teachers

5.11 Multiple regression analysis for predicting occupational stress 121 using job satisfaction and pupil control ideology

5.12 Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores 123 and job satisfaction

5.13 Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of 123 three groups of job satisfaction

5.14 Gender-wise comparison of occupational stress scores on the 125 basis of three groups of job satisfaction

5.15 Multiple regression analysis for predicting occupational stress 127 using different work values

5.16 Hierarchical order of preference given to different work values 128 5.17 Product moment coefficient of correlation between 129

occupational stress and work values 5.18 Work value preferences of teachers having less, moderate and 131

more stress— Hierarchical Order 5.19 Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores 135

and pupil control ideology 5.20 Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of 135

three groups of pupil control ideology 5.21 Gender-wise comparison of mean occupational stress scores on 136

the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Title Page No. 3.1 Pie diagram showing distribution of sample by management 72 5.1 Distribution of teachers in each category on the basis of

their occupational stress 108

5.2 Mean occupational stress scores on the basis of gender 111 5.3 Mean occupational stress score on the basis of teaching

experience 113

5.4 Mean occupational stress score on the basis of qualification 115 5.5 Mean occupational stress score on the basis of salary 117

5.6 Gender-wise mean occupational stress scores on the basis of two groups of salary

118

5.7 Mean occupational stress score on the basis of subjects taught

120

5.8 Mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of job satisfaction

123

5.9 Gender-wise mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of job satisfaction

125

5.10 Mean work values rank scores on the basis of occupational stress groups

132

5.11 Mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

135

5.12 Gender-wise mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

136

Abbreviations and Acronyms

A.M.U. Aligarh Muslim University

Co-ed Co-educational

df Degree of freedom

i.e. That is

M Mean

N Number of teachers

N.S. Not significant

P Level of significance

PCI Pupil Control Ideology

r Correlation

SD Standard deviation

Sr. Senior

TJSS Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale

TOSS Teachers Occupational Stress Scale

WVS Work Values Scale

Chapter-1

Introduction

Introduction

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

The present age has been called the age of anxiety and life is not as simple as

most of us think. With the rapid changes in the world around us sometimes it seems

difficult to keep in pace and adjust according to these changing situations. Likewise,

individuals often feel helpless in solving their problems and thereby increase their frustrations. Variety in the nature of problems makes it difficult to maintain

equilibrium of mind, and this disequilibrium ultimately leads to stress. Stress is

common in the world of day to day activities, and is not something strange to our

daily life anymore. Being familiar to layman and professionals both, it is still

perceived as a problem to people of all walks of life. Stress produces a range of

undesirable, expensive, and debilitating consequences (Ross, 2005), which affect both

individuals and organizations. Too much of stress may be counterproductive and

would in due course impair both an individual's physical and mental health. When

individuals experience extreme stress, all aspects of human behavior, including the

work in which they are actively involved get affected. Stress holds an impact on the employee's physical health, mental well-being, effectiveness in the workplace,

reduces the efficiency in workers and has been increasing in recent years (Spielberger

& Reheiser, 1995). Evidences through various researches and studies prove that

nothing can isolate stress from human beings. Stress, thus, is an integral part of the

natural fabric of life that affects people of all ages, socioeconomic status, occupation,

and ethnic group.

The term "stress" was first introduced by Hans Selye, who characterized it as a

process in which environmental forces threaten an individual's well-being. The

researcher (Selye, 1976) further defined stress as a physiological non-specific reaction

to external or internal demands. Stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or

suspense, and; a number of normal reactions of the body (mental, emotional, and

physiological) designed for self-preservation (Princeton University, 2001). Despite its diffuse perception, most of the well-known definitions emphasize stress as any factor

that threatens the health of an individual or has an adverse effect on the functioning of

the body (Oxford Medical Publications, 1985). Stress is a perception phenomenon

I

Introduction

which exists from a comparison between the command given and ability of a person

to execute the task successfully. Unbalanced situation in this mechanism leads to

stress experience and ultimately into stress reaction (Cox & Brockley, 1984).

Stress, in general, and occupational stress, in particular, is a fact of modem

day, life that seems to have been increasing. Stress is an unavoidable characteristic of

life and work. Work-related stress is defined as, "a pattern of emotional, cognitive,

behavioral and physiological reactions to adverse and noxious aspects of work

content, work organization and work environment" (European Commission, 2002).

Stress involving work is termed as Occupational Stress. It occurs when there is

discrepancy between the demands of the workplace and that of individual's (Tsutsumi

et al., 2009). Beehr and Newman (1978) defined occupational stress as a stimulus

wherein the job related factors interact with the workers to change (i.e., or enhance)

his/ her psychological and/ or physiological condition so that the person (i.e., mind/

body) is. forced to deviate from, normal functioning. Occupational stress describes

physical, mental and emotional wear and tear brought about by incongruence between

the requirement of the job and the capabilities, resources and needs of the employee to

cope with job demands (Akinboye, Akinboye, & Adeyemo, 2002).

Stress is a widespread feature of work in teaching. The teaching profession is

one , of the helping professions in which practitioners are normally committed to

giving their best for the welfare of those entrusted in their care. Researchers (Bravo et

al., 201.0; Morris, 2010; Severino & Messina, 2010) believed teacher to be the most

significant environment factor at student learning. The main task of a teacher

comprises of imparting knowledge or skill through instruction. Simultaneously,

teachers have to live up to a great many expectations besides their routine work like

preparing lessons, teaching, marking assignments, etc. They also have to individualize

instruction, personalize reinforcements, to be innovative and creative, to adapt to new

changes and meet new challenges. Other than this, teachers have to attend seminars, a

variety of meetings with colleagues, students and parents etc. They have to oversee

extra-curricular activities, and to attend or conduct morning assemblies in many

mission schools. Teachers hold the responsibility to guide students to learn by

providing clear directions and explanations in order to educate the future generation.

Moreover, they act as role models and their each action taken; reflect upon their

2

Introduction

professional status as teachers. Their heavy workload is more than the teachers can

shoulder and they, therefore, experience stress to a great extent.

The working environment for teachers is highly stress-provoking

(Sveinsdottir, Gunarsdottir, & Fridriksdottir, 2007). High stress level of a teacher

causes disappointment, frustration, aggression, anxiety, avoidance of work, increased

absenteeism, and/ or decreased teachers and student performance levels (Kaiser &

Polczynski, 1982). In addition to this, facets of teacher performance, such as

creativity, classroom management, and implementation of educational techniques,

may suffer when teachers experience high levels of stress (Kaiser & Polczynski,

1982; Solomon, 1960). Organizational stress affects the teacher's psychological,

physical and behavioral responses (Beard, 1990; Ferreira, 1994; Marais, 1992).

Severe physical and psychological consequences for teachers include, fatigue,

anxiety, depression, poor teaching performance and judgment as well as low job

satisfaction (Capel, 1987; Eckles, 1987). Researchers (Riaz & Ramzan, 2013) further

advocated that the main signs of stress among teachers' include tension, pain in the

neck/ shoulders, and/or suffer from migraine and emotional expression. Stressed

teachers, thus, have more illness (Bailey, 2013), medicine intake, anxiety, depression,

and sexual passivity. In schools, teacher stress is manifested in a growing number of

teacher absences per year as well as an increase in early retirement. Stress is reported

as one of the biggest problems faced by teachers today, and that it is the main health

and safety concern in four out of five schools (National Union of Teachers, 1999).

Teacher stress is seen as the unpleasant feelings that teachers experience as a

result of their work (Boyle et al., 1995). Some teachers have defined stress as anxiety,

fear, inability to cope, frustration and unhappiness (Pratt, 1979), while others

associate stress with personal weakness and professional incompetence (Dunham,

1984). Teacher stress has been described as negative feeling or unpleasant emotional

state resulting from work as a teacher (Kyriacou, 1989). Occupational stress of school

teachers is a "response by a teacher of negative effect (such as anger, anxiety or

depression) accompanied by potentially pathogenic physiological changes (such as

increased heart rate, or release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone into the blood-

stream) as a- result of the demands made upon the teacher in his role as a teacher",

(Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1977). Its most common occupational use- i.e., "under stress"-

Introduction

implies a "response syndrome of negative effects resulting from the teacher's job"

(Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978b).

Moreover, occupational stress has been associated with burnout, which is

considered a product of long term exposure to stress (Burke & Greenglass, 1994;

Mearns & Cain, 2003), Also, exposure to chronic stress can cause teachers to

experience symptoms of burnout. This robs the individual of the will to achieve, and

contributes to the development of a lowered sense of self-esteem, decrements in work

performance, cynicism and apathy (Sarros, 1988). Freudenberger (1980) simply

equated burnout with stress. In general, burnout is a function of feeling

inconsequential-feeling that no matter how hard one works, the payoffs in terms of

accomplishment, recognition, or appreciation are not there. Gold and Bachelor (2001)

defined burnout as "a function of the many stresses felt by individuals in both their

social life and their work experiences".

Beehr and Franz (1987) argued that any study of organizational stress must

focus on stressors and strains; its antecedents and its outcomes. A stressor is defined

as an experience or situation within or outside the individual, which elicits a stress

response. It is the individual's unique perception, which determines whether the stress

is viewed as negative or positive (Hayward, 1993). A wide range of organizational

stressors has been identified across different teachers in different contexts. Typically,

they include stressors in the areas of work role (e.g., workload); administration; class

size; role ambiguity and conflict, (e.g., the sometimes conflicting demands of school

management); the pressures of the teachers' roles (e.g., counselor, facilitator); poor

working conditions; little recognition and low remuneration; lack of involvement in

decision-making; student recalcitrance; lack of effective communication, as well as

the many emotional demands of teaching (Blix et al., 1994; Brown & Ralph, 1992;

Cooper & Kelly, 1993; Punch & Tuetteman, 1990). Furthermore, the factors reported

by teachers as being troublesome or stressful have indicated student discipline,

negative student attitudes toward school, physical violence, inadequate preparation

time, lack of resources, in-competent administration, lack of clear role definition, and

heavy workloads (Beasley, Myette, & Serna, 1983; Chichon & Koff, 1978; Golladay

& Noel, 1978; Olander & Farrell, 1970).

The nature and causes of teacher stress is complex (Borg & Riding, 1991 a).

Dunham (1992) advocated that three main approaches could be used to understand the

4

Introduction

nature of stress in teaching. The first one is analogous to the "engineering" model of

stress. There are external pressures exerted on teachers in schools, and teachers have

limits to stress. In this approach, stress is a set of causes. The second approach is

based on the "physiological" model, which focuses on the forms of reactions taken by

teachers in response to these pressures. They may be emotional and bodily

manifestations. The third one is the interactional approach that emphasizes the need to

identify the sources of stress and the behavior that they adopt to cope with these

demands. Mearns and Cain (2003) have examined the role different factors may play

in relation to teacher stress such as environmental factors, contextual factors, and

teacher coping and personality characteristics.

One of the frequent causes of stress in secondary schools is learners'

disrupting the process of education and low levels of motivation (Payne & Furnham,

1987; Kyriacou, 1987). The discipline and classroom control issues cause

interpersonal stress for teachers at all grade levels. The other frequently stated causes

of stress among teachers are large number of students in a classroom, packed

timetable, uneven duties, uncomfortable working conditions, co-curriculum activities,

meetings, in-house trainings, courses to attend extra classes, unnecessary amounted

paperwork (Hunnur et al., 2013), incompatible and excessive demands on teachers,

and frequent school reforms (Wahlund & Nerell, 1976). In addition, a study in

Bahrain by Al-Khalefa (1999) found work conditions, salaries, bonuses and

allowances, status of physical education, supervision, school facilities, workload and

career development to be the major causes of stress for physical education teachers.

Furthermore, Farber (1984) assessed the sources of stress of suburban teachers

in the United States and found that excessive paperwork, unsuccessful administrative

meetings, and the lack of advancement opportunities in teaching were related to

stress. Workload, lack of resources, poor professional relationships with colleagues,

inadequate salary, pupil misbehavior, difficult interactions with parents and

expectations of other staff have been identified as sources of stress in many studies

(Borg, Riding & Falzon, 1991; Boyle et al., 1995; Pierce & Molloy, 1990; Pithers &

Soden, 1998; Travers & Cooper, 1993). Other sources of occupational stress reported

include poor working conditions, work overload or underload, role conflict and

ambiguity, unsatisfactory career development and erratic work hours (Quick & Quick,

1984). Smilansky (1984) examined teachers' work satisfaction and reports of job-

5

Introduction.

related stress in some English elementary schools, and. he found that teachers' general

satisfaction and stress at work were related mostly to their reported feelings about

what had happened within class (such as relations with pupils, the process of teaching,

and pupil behavior in school) rather than to administrative or policy questions (such

as degree of work autonomy, relations with principals).

Increase in workload, a hostile environment, large classes, delay and non-

payment of salaries, poor working environment, poor condition of service, parents'

insults and assaults, and time pressure have been identified as sources of occupational

stress (Jack and Punch, 2001). It is widely accepted that many identified teacher

stressors appear consistently and may be classified under the general domains of

environmental and personality based stressors. Environmental stressors include

student discipline and attitude problems, teacher competence, and teacher-

administrator relations. Additional stressors include accountability laws, large classes,

low salaries, intense pupil dependence, and declining community support. Sources of

personality-induced stressors relate to one's self-perception. In addition, stressful

events in the teacher's domestic life may also influence his or her overall emotional,

cognitive, and behavioral state. It is well accepted that highly stressed teachers let

work dominate their lives to such an extent that instead of coping with their stress,

they brought work home, cutting back on their social and family lives. According to

Lasky (1995), demands associated with family and finances can be a major source of

èxtra-organizational' stress that can complicate, or even precipitate, work-place

stress. The prevalence of stress among teachers is now well documented. The lack of

discipline in schools, abolishment of corporal punishment, unmotivated learners,

redeployment, retrenchments and retirement packages for teachers, Iarge pupil-teacher

ratios and a new curriculum approach all contribute to raising the stress levels of

teachers (Saptoe, 2000).

The teaching context (teachers' background, sex, experience, teaching load,

class composition, school, teaching subject, workload), personal factors and

satisfaction have been found to all directly affect a teacher's stress level (Hodge,

1992; Smith & Bourke, 1992; Tuetteman & Punch, 1992). Demographic factors may

play a significant role in the level of occupational stress felt by teachers and other

staff (Kahn & Byosiere, 1992; Kyriacou, 2001). Demographic variables that are

proven to relate to someone's job stressor/ health relationships include gender, age,

Introduction

marital status, job tenure, job title, and hierarchical level (Dua, 1994; Lind & Otte,

1994; Murphy, 1995), among which gender, age and hierarchical level were found to

be the most significant. In particular, the literature suggests four variables that may

have significant interactions with occupational stress: gender, age, experience in the

job and position (Antoniou et al., 2006; Lau, Yuen & Chan, 2005; Laughlin, 1984a;

Manthei & Gilmore, 1996; McCormick, 1997a; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996). On the

contrary, some studies reported that teacher demographic factors like age, sex,

teaching experience, and length of training did not correlate significantly with

perceived teacher stress (Chichon & Koff, 1978; Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978b), as

further explanations reveal.

Workplace stress has emerged as a major problem, and it has been suggested

that gender may be an important demographic characteristic to consider in the

If

experience of stress (Dick & Wagner, 2001; Jick & Mitz, 1985; Laughlin, 1984a;

McCormick, 1997a; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996). However, the literature is far from

conclusive about the nature of the relationship gender has with occupational stress

(Spielberger & Reheiser, 1995). For example, McCormick (2000) in his study of

Australian Catholic school teachers reported that males experienced significantly

more stress attributed to system demands than females. Crane and Iwanicki (1986)

also found male special education teachers to exhibit higher levels of stress than

females. Results from a study by Bhagawan (1997) on job stress among 53 male and

47 female teachers indicated that male teachers experienced more stress compared to

female teachers. The findings have been echoed by many researchers (Leithwood,

Jantzi, & Steinbach, 2001; Tumkaya, 2001).

On the other hand, Laughlin (1984a) in his study of Australian teachers

reported that female teachers experienced more stress than their male colleagues. This

finding has been echoed by other studies (Al-Mohannadi & Capel, 2007; Antoniou et

al., 2006; McCormick & Solman, 1992b). Females employed in education and related

sectors accounted for more work stress related claims than their male colleagues

(Guthrie, 2006). Calabrese (1987) asserted that female teachers experienced higher

levels of stress than males, and indicated that societal, personal, and that

organizational factors all negatively influence the female teachers.

There is also an abundance of research suggesting no gender differences in

occupational stress (Chan, 2002; Chaplain, 1995; Dick & Wagner, 2001; Jepson &

Introduction

Forrest, 2006; Solman & Feld, 1989; Whitehead & Ryba, 1995). Studies examining

teachers' stress levels more specifically, have often failed to find any gender

differences (Kaur, Kumari, & Sharma, 2013; Paese & Zinkgraf, 1991; Ushasree,

Seshu-Reddy, & Vinolya, 1995). Findings of the study conducted by Lath (2010) on

the occupational stress among teachers in India also revealed no significant difference

in the job stress experienced by male and female teachers.

Years of experience in the profession would also contribute to stress levels. It

could be that, as stress is cumulative, the longer they have been a teacher, the more

stressed they will be. The study by Sari (2004) among Turkish special school teachers

has been found to support this notion. Quite opposite to this, Blix et al. (1994) found

that faculty having less than 10 years of experience had higher stress than faculty with

more than 20 years of experience. A correlation between younger teachers and reports

of higher stress levels has also been presented by the researchers (Altemaier, Russell,

& Van Velzen, 1987; Maslach & Jackson, 1996). Similarly, Malcolmson, Naylor, and

Schaefer (2003) indicated younger, less-experienced teachers report both more stress

and lesser ability to cope with it, as compared with their older and more experienced

colleagues. However, a number of studies suggest that experience has no relationship

with occupational stress (Chaplain, 1995; Jepson & Forrest, 2006; Solman & Feld,

1989). Feitler and Tokar (1982) found that stress levels did not covary with years of

teaching experience.

Some studies have been found to posit the relationship of occupational stress

with the teachers' qualification. A study by Lawrenson and McKinnon (1982) found

that master's level teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders

(EBD) have higher attrition rates than those with bachelor's degrees. Cooper and

Kelly (1993) found that primary school teachers suffer more stress than secondary

school teachers, deputy head teachers and head teachers. Similarly, New Zealand

primary and secondary teachers in urban and rural areas were found to report `high' or

èxtremely high' levels of occupational stress (Manthei & Solman, 1988). Most

studies of work stress in teachers have found that junior and secondary teachers

experience similar levels of stress and distress, and that teachers in one place are

about as stressed as their colleagues elsewhere (Finlay-Jones & Burvill, 1977; Nagy

& Davis, 1985).

E:3

Introduction

Stressors arising from the non-work personal domain, such as family and

financial stressors, may contribute to occupational stress levels in an additive way

(Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1987). Olivier and Venter (2003) in their research.

observed that respondents indicated that salaries cause a great deal of stress,

especially taking into account the after-hours input their jobs demand from them and

how negatively their salaries compare with those of people in the private sector and

other government departments. That is perhaps the reason why some teachers embark

on second jobs, mostly to the detriment of the school and the learners. Al-Qaryoti and

Al-Khateeb (2006) also found a relationship between teacher's salary satisfaction and

their burnout. Teachers of some school subjects may be more stressed than teachers

generally (Bergin & Solman, 1988; Friesen & Sarros, 1999; Hamann, 1990; Sarros &

Friesen, 1987). There is some evidence that music teachers could be one of these

-7 more stressed groups (Malik, 1970).

The relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress has been

well established in the literature as a negative one. That is to say, higher job

satisfaction is related to lower occupational stress, and vice versa (Bhatti et al., 2011;

Burke & Greenglass, 1994; Davis & Wilson, 2000; Day, Bedeian & Conte, 1998;

Manthei & Gilmore, 1996; McCormick, 1997b; Murphy & Schoenborn, 1989).

Mishra (1987), Srivastava (1987), Penn, Romano, & Foat (1988), Parsa, Alizadeh, &

Kasraie (2013) found a significant negative relation between occupational stress and

job satisfaction. In addition to this, a statistically significant negative correlation

between stress and job satisfaction has been observed by Ostroff (1992) in her study

of job satisfaction, attitudes, and performance in schools. The findings are in

corroboration to Can (1993), and Decker and Borgen (1993) who also noted a

correlation between burnout and job satisfaction.

Studies examining the dimensions of job satisfaction and stress variables have

shown that stress factors, such as role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload have

differing strengths of relationships with job satisfaction, though the direction of the

relationships are generally still negative (Ray & Miller, 1991; Smith & Bourke, 1992;

Starnaman & Miller, 1992). For example, Currivan (2000) reported that role

ambiguity was more strongly related to job satisfaction than role conflict. In another

study, role ambiguity and role conflict had relationships of various strength with

extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction (Summers, DeCotiis, & DeNisi, 1995). Despite

Introduction

the differences in terminology and measurement, most studies have obtained

significant negative relationships between role conflict and/ or role ambiguity and job

satisfaction (Greene & Organ, 1973; Kahn et al., 1964; Lyons, 1971; Rizzo, House, &

Lirtzman, 1970). Tosi (1971), however, failed to find a significant relationship

between role conflict and job satisfaction. Thus, a direction of causality cannot be

specified for job satisfaction and occupational stress. They influence one another.

It is to be noted that Herzberg's two-factor theory posits that job satisfaction

comes from one set of job variables (called motivator needs or satisfiers) and job

dissatisfaction from another set of variables (hygiene factors or dissatisfiers),

Satisfiers include recognition, responsibility for one's work, personal growth,

achievement and advancement, while dissatisfiers include other aspects of work

external to the self, such as pay, relationships with colleagues and supervisors, work

conditions and security (Herzberg, 1968). Most interestingly, this theory considers job

satisfaction and job dissatisfaction as separate constructs. The absence of hygiene

factors was believed to lead to job dissatisfaction, but their fulfillment did not lead to

job satisfaction. Similarly, the presence of motivator needs led to job satisfaction, but

their absence did not lead to dissatisfaction. Also, teachers reporting higher job

satisfaction were more likely to identify stress arising from personal issues as sources

of stress. Corrigan, Holmes and Luchins (1995) reported that satisfaction with

collegial support was associated with diminished burnout. Teachers' satisfaction is

generally determined by school factors, community factors and the characteristics of

the teacher (Appiah-Agyekum, Suapim, & Peprah, 2013); and the greatest sources of

job satisfaction among teachers include healthy school environments, favorable

workplace conditions, supportive school administrations and adequate parental

supports, and proper salaries and fringe benefits (Adams, 1992).

Also, occupational stress can make teachers dissatisfied and weaken/ lower

their work values. If an organization can provide individuals with the basic elements

they value, stress is reduced (Knoop, 1994b). Besides, the meaning attached to work

has been changing through the developmental stage of human society. Work is

considered something that is physical in nature and included the kinds of activities

one is obliged `to do'. Ideally, work consists of activities through which one may

realize his complex values. Values are capable of being structurally organized within

10

Introduction

the individual and the society not only in terms of priority, but also in terms of

extensiveness of adherence to any particular value and consistency (Williams, 1970).

Work related values include those motivationally relevant factors which

energize and sustain human behavior at work. These work values assist in defining

career paths and goals (Brown et al., 2002). Work related values, therefore, cover the

broad context of motivation in organization. Responsibility theory (McCormick,

2000) that explains teacher occupational stress, posits that teachers blame their

occupational stress on various aspects of the work environment (McCormick &

SoIman, 1992a) and that, factors of the work environment (such as students, school

administration and the school system) are separate work domains to which teachers

may attribute their stress (McCormick, 1997a; 1997b; 2000). In this vein, stressors

such as work relationship, work-life balance, job overload, job control, job security,

pay and benefits, resources and communication, as well as aspects of the job could

also be the source of pressure in the workplace (Makhbul & Khairuddin, 2013).

Organizational culture embraces the values, character, attitudes, language and

beliefs of an organization. Most organizational cultures consist of a dominant culture

that signifies the core values shared by the majority of the organization's members,

and many subcultures that reflect common experiences and difficulties shared by

smaller groups of members (Robbins et al., 1994). The climate that persists in the

organization can be potential source of stressors. The freedom given to plan the work,

weightage given to the views and opinions, participation in decision making, sense of

belonging, free and fair communication and sympathetic approach towards personal

problems were considered to measure the stressors in organizational climate.

Organizational commitment is one of the most important job-related outcomes

that is attitudinal in nature and is negatively related to work stress in many studies

conducted by different researchers (Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Sager, 1994), which

means higher the work stress, lower the level of organizational commitment. Yousef

(2002) found that role ambiguity which is considered as one of the stressors, directly

and negatively influenced the organizational commitment i.e. affective and

continuance commitments. Interestingly, Shirotriya and Quraishi (2013) observed job

work load, job work ambiguity, job work conflict, job work pressure, under job work

participation, powerlessness, work job peer relations, intrinsic impoverishment, job

work support, strenuous job work conditions, on job recognition, infrastructure and

11

Introduction

equipments, on job development opportunities, and prevailing misconceptions to be

the major causes of occupational stress for physical education teachers.

Merbler, Schlichte, and Yssel (2005) found that when relationships are poor,

attrition is increased. This sentiment has been echoed in the finding by the researchers

(Betoret, 2006; Le Blanc et al., 2001, Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Teven, 2007) that

where collegial relationships were seen as supportive and a resource, rather than as an

obstacle or hindrance, burnout levels were lower. Abbey and Esposito (1985)

observed that teachers who perceive greater social support from their principals'

report less stress than those who do not receive any social support. The research

conducted by Shea (1990) put forth that teacher who gets support from experienced

parents of students and colleagues show lighter stress reactions. Studies of teachers

have produced equivocal results. Pierce and Molloy (1990) found that high burnout

teachers reported lower social support than did low burnout teachers. Setting up

shared decision-making processes in schools, such as governance councils, allows

teachers to participate in school processes rather than feel subordinate to their

principals and coerced into participating in school and teacher responsibilities (Nagel

& Brown, 2003). Competition amongst colleagues and differences in personality

clashes amongst fellow workers can give rise to stress (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997).

On the other hand, Sheffield, Dobbie and Carroll (1994) reported that social

support did not affect the impact of teacher stress on psychological well-being.

Significant indicators of job satisfaction which emerged from Mwamwenda's study

(1995) included positive relationships between teachers and principals, colleagues,

learners, and parents; holidays; learner's results and achievements. According to

Sutherland and Cooper (1990), the quality of interpersonal relationships at work is

important in that supportive relationships are less likely to create pressures associated

with rivalry, bickering and gossip mongering. In addition, the superior-subordinate

relationship can be potentially stressful when the leadership style is authoritarian,

lacks understanding that feedback about performance and recognition and praise for

effort are beneficial for boss-subordinate relationship. In conjunction with this,

Cartwright and Cooper (1997) indicate that in situations where the relationship

between supervisor and subordinate is psychologically unhealthy, problems of

emotional instability may occur. Clearly, a key predictor of stress, burnout and

eventually attrition is the relationships between colleagues.

12

Introduction

Although classroom discipline is a well documented source of teacher stress

(Lewis, 1999), this situation is exacerbated when teachers are faced with having to

deal with pupil- teacher ratios of 1050:15 (Webb, 2005). Empirical evidence indicates

that a teacher's personality influences the classroom climate, students' behaviors, and

their interpersonal relationships (Shukla, 2013). Several authors (Burke, Greenglass &

Schwarzer, 1996; Byrne, 1993) indicated overall classroom climate and student

discipline problems were cited as among the most powerful factors that contribute to

teacher burnout. Because, as the quality of the classroom climate gets worse, teachers

can become emotionally exhausted, develop negative attitudes toward their students

and their job, and accomplish few educational goals for their students. As compared

to the large body of literature that focuses on positive teacher communication

behaviors, fewer studies have been done on negative teacher communication

behaviors (Wanzer & McCroskey, 1998). Kyriacou (2001) suggests that few studies

have examined the impact of pupil behavior problems and pupil-teacher interaction on

teacher stress.

According to Abidin and Kmetz (1997), teacher-student relationships are one

of the factors that influence teachers' stress, and the stresses developed by teachers

are reflected in their behavior towards students. They further added, if teachers' stress

levels increase, this will decrease their positive behavior towards the students, and the

teacher will avoid contact or ignore the students. The more stress induced by the

students, the less engaged the teacher will be with the students, affects the teacher-

student relationship (Abidin & Kmetz, 1997). Class discipline and student

misbehavior has been noted as a main factor contributing to teacher burnout and

discontent (Zeidner, 1988). Moreover, the research shows that behavioral problems

significantly correlate with teacher stress and perceptions of control (Pullis, 1992).

The Pupil Control Ideology (PCI) has become one of the major instruments

used by researchers to examine school climate and pupil control orientation

(Anderson, 1982). PCI is a measure of ideology concerning pupil control rather than

controlling behavior. The role of the assistant principal is characterized as custodial in

nature and one that deal with discipline, coordination behavior (Reed & Hirnmler,

1985). Teachers who become burned out may be less sympathetic toward students,

may have a lower tolerance for frustration in the classroom, may plan for their classes

less often or less carefully, may fantasize or actually plan on leaving the profession,

13

Introduction

may feel frequent emotional or physical exhaustion, may feel anxious, irritable,

depressed, and in general, may feel less committed and dedicated to their work

(Farber & Miller, 1981). On the contrary, a humanistic orientation is related to low

dogmatism, acceptance of others, and high teacher creativity (Brenneman, 1975;

Halpin, Goldenberg, & Halpin, 1974; Lunenburg & 0' Reilly, 1974). Further, a

humanistic orientation has been found to be related to positive feelings toward

teachers among elementary school students (Lunenburg & Stouten, 1983) and positive

attitudes toward school among secondary school students (Pritchett & Willower,

1975). Student-centered verbal behavior and the use of innovative classroom practices

have also been found to be related to a humanistic ideology, as measured by the PCI,

among classroom teachers (Willower, 1975).

Research has found that student misbehavior affects teacher stress, well-being,

and confidence (Lewis et al., 2003; Little & Hudson, 1998; Miller, Ferguson, &

Byrne, 2000; Poulou & Norwich, 2000). Significant correlations were found among

teacher stress and negative relationships between teacher and student (Yoon, 2002).

Teacher stress arises from being unable to discipline pupils in the way they would

prefer (Lewis, 1999).

To sum up, teaching is indicated as an occupation which is always demanding

and changing (Claxton, 1989), so there has been interest in teachers job stress at

different schools and universities (Leung, Siu, & -Spector, 2000). A third of all

teachers, approximately, will find their occupation extremely stressful (Borg, 1990;

Broiles, 1982; Friesen, Prokop & Sarros, 1988; Gold & Roth, 1993). It therefore,

becomes necessary to get a deeper knowledge of antecedents and consequences of

teachers' stress.

Our country has put a high expectation in our school teachers. They are

perceived as the architect, designer, and saver of the future generations. A teacher is

seen as a counselor to students and parents both, is also sometimes a nurse, a social

worker, and even to some degree a parent for the students that are under his/ her

tutelage. With the increasing number of roles that students and parents ask from

teachers, as well as the requirements from the local Boards of education and State

Departments of Education across the nation, it is no wonder that teaching is not an

easy job as what other people think and perceive. However, it is equally true that

teacher stress is on a steady increase. Stress among teachers' affects the performance

14

M

Introduction

of schools because teachers who are burdened by stress will not be in a position to

teach students in an optimal manner due to stress which makes them to have apathy

towards their work. Therefore, the study seeks to identify causes of stress in

secondary schools and identify remedial measures toward the same.

Due to the insufficiency of empirical studies on the causal factors of stress in

the secondary schools, this study wants to have an empirical evidence of the stress

causing factors like demographic factors, job satisfaction, teachers work values and

pupil control ideology among the secondary school teachers. Conceptually, they

appear to influence the teachers' occupational stress but their influence has not yet

been empirically studied adequately in India, especially work values and pupil control

ideology. Determination of these factors in this study will generate empirical data

which could be of value to policy and decision makers, and to school administrators

and other professional associations in the education sector of India. It is for this

reason that the researcher deemed it necessary to investigate the relationship among

the various factors associated with stress among teachers of the secondary schools in

Uttar Pradesh District.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

"An investigation into the relationship among Teacher's Occupational Stress, Job Satisfaction, Work Values and Pupil Control Ideology ".

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this research study is to investigate the relationship among

teacher's occupational stress, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology.

Against this background the following were the aims and objectives of the present

study:




15

Introduction


5. To study the combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation.




9. To explore the relationship between occupational stress of secondary school teachers and their pupil control ideology.


The main purpose of this study is broadly stated to investigate the relationship

among secondary school teacher's occupational stress, demographic factors, job

satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology. In this study demographic

factors and work values have been taken in the sense as:


> Work values include: Good economic return, high status/ prestige, opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/ cooperating colleagues, security of service, fair/ sympathetic supervisions, opportunities of further progress/ advancement, opportunities of intellectual stimulation, work consistent with my (teacher's) life goals/ values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority, freedom in my (teacher's) work.

1.4 Questions posed for the study

In this study of teachers occupational stress in relation to their demographic



1. What is the reliability and validity of the, developed tools i.e., Teachers Occupational Stress Scale and Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale?

Introduction







8. Do work values explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?


1.5 Hypotheses of the study

In order to give proper direction to the investigation, it was thought necessary

to formulate certain hypotheses which may be tested in this study. The investigator

was guided by the results of previous researches in this area, theoretical viewpoints

available in related literature and investigator's intuitive understanding and insight.

For the present study, the hypotheses have desirably to be stated in the null-form,

except the first one which is stated in the statement form. The reason is obvious, when

they are conceived as research hypotheses they are generally stated in the form of

statements, but when they are conceived as statistical hypotheses, usually they take

the form of null-hypotheses.

The following null-hypotheses have been constructed for testing throughout

the study. The confidence interval set up for the purpose of accepting or rejecting the

hypotheses in the study is 0.05 and 0.01 levels. The reason for fixing the rigorous

limit is discussed in Chapter 3. Common practice in this regard, is to set-up a region

of 0.05 and 0.01 levels. The following hypotheses were established:


17

Introduction








1.6 Definition of the terms

Some terms and concepts have been repeatedly used in this study owing to the

unfortunate situation that those terminologies in behavioral sciences have not yet

attended a standardized form. It appears necessary that their definitions as accepted

for this study are given so that any term may not mean different things to different

readers of the thesis. It is obvious that the investigator has not coined her own

definitions, but has for each term selected the one from those given in standard text

books which were found to have best solved the purposes of the present study.

1.6.1 Dependent and independent variables

The terms `dependent variable' and ìndependent variable' have been

borrowed from the field of math in behavioral researches. The dependent variable

(DV) is defined as one about which the experimenter makes a prediction. Infact, the

dependent variable is the participant's response that is measured, and is the outcome

of experiment. The independent variable (IV) is defined as one which is measured,

manipulated or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an

observed phenomenon (or DV). In a research study, the independent variable defines

a principal focus of research interest. It is the consequent variable that is presumably

affected by one or more independent variables that are either manipulated by the

Introduction

researcher or observed by the researcher and regarded as antecedent conditions that

determine the value of the dependent variable (Jaeger, 1990). The DV is the variable

predicted to, whereas the IV is predicted from. The DV is the presumed effect, which

varies with changes or variation in the independent variable. Thus, DV responds to

the IV and is called `dependent' as it depends on the independent variable.

In the present study, the demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values

and pupil control ideology constitute the independent variables, whereas the

occupational stress of teachers constitute the dependent variable.

1.6.2 Teacher

A person employed in an official capacity for the purpose of guiding and

directing the learning experiences of pupils/ students in an educational institution.

Teacher is a person who has completed a professional curriculum in a teacher

education institution and whose training has been officially recognized by the award

of an appropriate teaching certificate, and has been found capable of instructing others

(Good & Merkel, 1973). The word `teacher' is used to describe a person who because

of rich or unusual experience or education or both in a given field is able to contribute

to the growth and development of other persons who come in contact with him/ her.

A teacher is the central figure in the formal teaching learning set up. He is the

ultimate agent who dispenses knowledge, frames the time schedule, selects reading

materials and evaluates learning outcomes, helps pupils to overcome their difficulties

and personal problems. A teacher is the only person responsible to set the standards,

builds up desirable attitudes, and approves or disapproves pupil behaviors. The prime

aim of a teacher concerns with molding the raw material (the pupils) into the refined

product (the future citizens). As such, it is apt to say that the destiny of India is being

shaped in her classrooms (Education Commission of India, 1966).

1.6.3 Secondary Schools

The schooling system in India is divided into three levels, i.e. primary (nursery

to class V), secondary (class VI to class X), and senior secondary (class XI and XII).

Some states refer to Standards (Grades) IX and X as High School, while XI and XII

are termed as Intermediate. These schools may be affiliated to national boards/

Councils like Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), Council for the Indian

School Certificate Examination (CISCE) or National Institute of Open Schooling

19

Introduction

(NIOS) or various state boards. Usually, students from ages 14 to 18 study in this

section.

Secondary school which serves as a step towards preparation for higher and

professional education has been described by The New International Webster's

Comprehensive Dictionary of English Language as, "high school or preparatory

school beyond the elementary or primary, and below the college level". The education

at secondary level consists of subjects like mother tongue, national language,

mathematics, science, social science, hindi and english together with arts and crafts

for all students. There is no personal choice in the subjects and the pattern of

education in general. In class X there is a public examination known as matriculation

examination conducted by the School Education Board of the concerned state.

The schools, thus, imparting education till secondary level are clubbed under

the head secondary schools. Hence, secondary school is the stage where education

that follows the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education is imparted.

It is a school that is intermediary in level between elementary school and college, and

that usually offers general, technical, vocational, or college preparatory curricula.

Therefore, in this study, those teachers who were teaching 9th and 10th secondary

stages were considered as secondary school teachers.

On the other hand, senior secondary school is a school where young persons

prepare for employment, provision for the introduction of different types of vocational

courses is made, and follows a uniform structure of 10+2 i.e. 12 years. Furthermore, a

public examination is conducted at the national or state levels at the end of the higher

secondary stage.

1.6.4 Stress

The word stress is derived from the Latin word "strictus", which means "to

tighten" (Jex, 1998). Stress, in general, can be defined as the reaction of individuals to

demands (stressors) imposed upon them (Erkutlu & Chafra, 2006). These researchers

used the term stress, to refer to situations where the well-being of individuals is

detrimentally affected by their failure to cope with the demands of their environment.

Stress was described by researchers in the 1950s as "response to internal or external

processes which reach those thresholds levels that strains its physical and

psychological integration capacities to; or beyond their limit" (Basowitz et al., 1955).

Introduction

Stress can be viewed as an "adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics

and/or psychological processes, that is the consequence of any external action,

situation or event that places special physical and/psychological demands upon a

person" (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980).

Stress is defined as "a state of tension that arises from an actual or perceived

demand that calls for an adjustment or adaptive behaviour" (Olson et al., 1989). Allen

(2002) claimed that stress is a feeling we experience, when we loose confidence in

our capability to cope with a situation. It is a state characterized by high levels of

arousal and distress and often by feelings of not coping. Stress is defined as a

condition of negative affects (e.g. anger) resulting from aspects of the teacher's job

which are perceived by the teacher as a threat to his/her psychological or physical

well-being (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978a).

Sorenson (2007) states, "Stress is a condition of twenty-first-century education

that continues to increase as more accountability standards and new policy initiatives

are introduced". Further, Kruger (1992) maintains that "stress is a phenomenon that

manifests in the individual person as a result of various stressors that arise from the

self and the environment and affect the individual person in accordance with the way

in which he or she attributes meaning to the events, stimuli or demands affecting him

or her, and in accordance with the way in which he or she experiences and enters into

or handles such events, stimuli or demands". On the other hand, distress is negative or

destructive stress, as it causes serious ailments or discomforts (Keiper & Buselle,

1996). It impacts negatively on the organisation and the individual's physical and

mental system. This could result in reduced performance, absenteeism, errors, job

losses, accidents, unethical behaviour, dissatisfaction and illness (Schermerhorn et al.,

2000).

1.6.5 Occupational Stress

Occupational Stress, also known as job stress, has been defined as the

experience of negative emotional states such as frustration, worry, anxiety and

depression attributed to work related factors (Kyriacou, 2001). It is a mental and

physical condition which affects an individual's productivity, effectiveness, personal

health and quality of work (Cornish & Swindle, 1994). Geese and Moss (2001) define

the occupational stress as a mutual action between the working conditions and

21

Introduction

individual features of a worker, It is defined as a result of imbalance between job

demands and workers' capabilities. Also, harmful physical and emotional responses

that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources,

or needs of the worker, can be termed as occupational stress (NIOSH, 2008).

Occupational stress is an individual experience, depending on the traits of individuals,

in that not all people react to events the same way (Manthei & Gilmore, 1996;

McKenna, 1987). Bendell et al. (1986) state that occupational stress is a potential

tormenting reaction which the worker shows towards a stressogenic factor.

Occupational role stress is considered as an unpleasant emotion, which manifests

itself through tension, frustration, anxiety, anger and depression. All these emotions

are the result of different aspects of working environment and personal lives of the

universities teachers (Khurshid, 2008).

According to Okebukola and Jegede (1989), occupational stress is defined as

"a condition of mental and physical exertion brought about as a result of harassing

events or dissatisfying elements or general features of the working environment."

Whereas, Leka, Griffiths, and Cox (2004) refers to occupational stress as "the

response people may have when presented with work demands and pressures that are

not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to

cope". Occupational stress arises from a discrepancy between the teacher's work

needs, values, and expectations and the failure of the work environment to provide

occupational rewards, job demands and the capacity of the worker to meet these

requirements (Cooper, 1981).

1.6.6 Teachers' Occupational Stress

Teacher stress has been viewed as an interactive process which occurs

between teachers and their teaching environment which leads to excessive demands

being placed on them and resulting in physiological and psychological distress

(Forlin, Douglas & Hattie, 1996). Teacher stress can also be demarcated as the

occurrence of perceived negative situations that result in adverse teacher reactions or

behaviors. The three main stressors that result in teacher stress are environmental,

interpersonal and intrapersonal stress (Swick & Hanley, 1985). Also, Borg (1990) has

conceptualized teacher stress as a negative and potentially harmful to teachers' health.

The key element in the definition is the teacher's perception of threat based on the

three aspects of his job circumstances, which could be summed up as -- (1) that

22.

Introduction

demands are being made on him, (2) that he is unable to meet or has difficulty in

meeting these demands, and (3) that failure to meet these demands threatens his

mental/ physical well-being. MasIach and Jackson (1984) defined teacher stress as an

uncomfortable feeling, negative emotion such as anger, anxiety and pressure which

originated from their work. Teacher stress is defined by Kyriacou (1987) as "the

experience by a teacher of unpleasant emotions, such as tension, frustration, anxiety,

anger, and depression, resulting from aspects of work as a teacher". Teachers'

occupational stress for the present study will mean a multi-dimensional concept

composed of factors within the individual, the institution, nature of work place and

society that leads to the lowering of feelings of personal self-worth, achievement,

effectiveness and coping within one's professional role.

1.6.7 Burnout

Burnout is a distressed psychological state; a person suffering from burnout is

emotionally exhausted, has low work motivation; it involves being depressed about

work and having little energy and enthusiasm for the job (Spector, 2000). It has been

opined that burnout is an affective reaction due to prolonged exposure to job stress

(Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). Burnout lacked

definitional clarity until the development of a widely accepted instrument for its

measurement, the MasIach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Cordes & Dougherty, 1993).

Burnout is discussed as a "state of fatigue or frustration brought about by devotion to

a cause, a way of life, or a relationship that failed to produce the expected reward"

(Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980). The MBI conceptualized burnout as a "syndrome

of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment

that can occur among individuals who work with people in some capacity" (Maslach

& Jackson, 1996). These researchers further reported that low degree of emotional

exhaustion and depersonalization, and a high degree of personal accomplishment

reflect a low level of burnout; high degree of emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization coupled with low degree of personal accomplishment reflect a high

level of burnout; while average degrees of all three dimensions represent a moderate

level of burnout.

Thus, burnout contains three job related dimensions:

• Emotional exhaustion: The emotional lassitude a person experiences when they are fatigued and frustrated

23

Introduction

• Depersonalization: A person's tendency to isolate themselves from others, and • Personal accomplishments: The person's self-evaluation of their own work

Emotional exhaustion is often most measured; covering feelings of job-related

strain, being used up; fatigued and working too hard. It is the depletion of emotional

energy and a feeling that one's emotional resources are inadequate to deal with the

pressures encountered (Warr, 2002). Depersonalization is the development of a

cynical and callous feeling towards others (Spector, 2000). It is an excessive

detachment from people with whom one works, treating individuals in the work

setting (eg. Clients or patients) as objects rather than people (O'Driscoll & Cooper,

2002). Reduced personal accomplishment is the feeling that the employee is not

accomplishing anything worthwhile at work (Spector, 2000); by evaluating one's

performance negatively, it leads to feelings of incompetence and inability to achieve

goals (0' Driscoll & Cooper, 2002).

Some researchers (Capel, 1987; Carpel, 1992; Jenkins & Calhoun, 1991) have

begun to acknowledge the difference between the two concepts (stress and burnout)

and do not use the terms interchangeably. Burnout is implied to have evolved from

stress, low salaries, increased teacher loads, reduction in force, lack of involvement in

program planning, and a myriad of other factors (Chapman & Green, 1986; Chase,

1986).

1.6.8 Coping with Teacher Stress

Many students are taught by teachers whose competence is reduced because of

high levels of stress. Being personally destructive, coping with stress successfully

requires restructuring efforts, such as, increased levels of commitment to school goals

(Fullan, 1993); greater sensitivity by teachers to the diverse needs of their students

and an expanded and more flexible instructional repertoire (Murphy, 1991); more

collaborative working relations with fellow teachers (Liberman, Saxl, & Miles, 1988)

as well as with students and parents (Connors & Epstein, 1994). Kyriacou (1980a) in

his study showed that the most frequently used coping actions included trying to keep

things in perspective, to avoid confrontations and to relax at work.

Teachers say they become more able to manage stress, however, even in the

face of organizational constraints, if they have a substantial voice in deciding and

initiating stress management strategies. Stress-management research conducted by

24

Introduction

several researchers (Bunce & West, 1996; Cahill & Feldman, 1988; Forman, 1981;

Ganster et al., 1982; Higgins, 1986; Pines & Aronson, 1983; Reynolds, Taylor, &

Shapiro, 1993) found that many successful intervention programs begin by building

participants', knowledge and awareness of stress and burnout. These awareness

sessions presented in a non-threatening environment provide participants with

updated information about the nature, signs, causes, and symptoms of stress.

In order to decrease stress among teachers it is recommended to improve their

working conditions, decrease their weekly lesson loads to get them work more

efficiently, promote sport activities, integrate them in social and cultural activities,

and improve their financial opportunities. Conferences, seminars, workshops, etc.

must be organized to inform teachers on these subjects so as to decrease the stress in

them. Cognitive restructuring and positively reappraising the situation may help

alleviate physical and emotional exhaustion, and enhance a sense of personal

achievement. Also, the readiness to seek support from others may help teachers guard

against becoming depersonalized, and the use of task-related and interpersonal

problem-solving may also increase the sense of personal achievement.

1.6.9 Demographic Factors

Socio-economic characteristics of a population expressed statistically, such as

age, sex, education level, income level, marital status, occupation, religion, birth rate,

death rate, average size of a family, average age at marriage. The best example of

demographic factors is a census, which is a collection of the demographic factors

associated with very member of a population.

1.6.9.1 Gender

Gender regime is defined as "the pattern of practices that constructs various

kinds of masculinity and femininity among staff and students, orders them in terms of

prestige and power, and constructs a sexual division of labor within the institution"

(Kessler et al., 1985). The authors further said, the school is an institution that is

characterized at any given time by a particular gender regime, As Connell (2002)

noted, when we look at a set of gender arrangements, whether the gender regime of an

institution or the gender order of a whole society, we are basically looking at a set of

relationships—ways that people, groups and organizations are connected and divided.

The term gender difference is used throughout the thesis and its meaning is

25

Introduction

synonymous with sex difference. That is, gender here refers simply to boy or girl,

male or female in the sense they are generally understood.

1.6.9.2 Teaching Experience

Teaching experience is termed as the accumulation of acquired knowledge,

attitudes or skills that results from one's own perception and direct participation in

events or activities. Years of experience has also been described as tenure, number of

years teaching or length of service (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992; Crossman &

Harris, 2006; Klecker, 1997).

1.6.9.3 Qualification

Academic qualification is the standard of one's academic background. Such

qualification is asked for applying any job. Getting job as per one's academic

qualification will satisfy him/ her; on the other hand if some one's job is inferior to

his/ her academic qualification, it brings dissatisfaction to him or her. This would

result into stress. Academic qualification is the prime factor of being qualified to be

recruited as teachers in government/ private schools of India.

1.6.9.4 Salary

Salary is referred to the periodic wage paid to someone for work; or wages

received on a regular basis, may be weekly, bi-weekly or monthly. Sometimes the

term is used to include other benefits, including insurance and a retirement plan.

1.6.9.5 Subjects taught

Teachers possess command over their teaching subjects. Basically four

subjects, namely, Ianguages, arts, sciences and social sciences have been included in

this study. Languages as a subject refer to a set of language whose grammar permits

an independent clause to lack an explicit subject. Of the thousands of languages in the

world, Hindi and English are most commonly taught by the teachers in India. Arts,

usually referred to as fine arts deals with the art forms developed primarily for

aesthetics and/ or concept rather than utility. Arts as a subject includes music, dance,

drawing, visual arts, etc.

Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the

form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. In general, science

refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and

26

Introduction

rationally explained. Science is any systematic knowledge-base or prescriptive

practice that is capable of resulting in a prediction. Science is a continuing effort to

discover and increase human knowledge and understanding through disciplined

research. The single most important principle of science education is to instruct

students to identify assumptions, use critical thinking, make logical deductions, and

consider alternative explanations. Subjects like mathematics, chemistry, biology,

physics, geography, computer fall under the subject Science.

Social Sciences is concerned with the study of society and human behaviors,

and social life of human groups and individuals. Most commonly, social science is used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural

sciences, which include anthropology, archaeology, economics, education, linguistics,

political science, sociology, geography, history, law and psychology.

1.6.10 Attitude

An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of

like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views regarding

person, place, thing or event. On this note, Le Roux (1994) termed attitude as, "a

positive or negative emotional relationship with or predisposition toward an object,

institution or person". According to International Dictionary of Education, the term

attitude may be defined as, "predisposition to perceive, feel or behave towards

specific objects or certain people in a particular manner". Attitudes are thought to be

derived from experience rather than innate characteristics, which suggest that they can

be modified.

Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) explained that by understanding an individual's

attitude towards something, one can predict with high precision the individual's

overall pattern of behavior to the object. In general, attitude may be defined as;

enduring non-verbal features of social and physical world acquired through

experience and exert a directive influence on behavior (Berckler & Wiggins, 1991). These definitions suggest that attitude can be understood as an emotion that has an

influence on the behavior of human beings. Attitude, thus, affects people in

everything they do and in fact reflects what they are, and hence a determining factor

of people's behavior.

27

Introduction

1.6.11 Job Satisfaction

The term `job satisfaction' was first utilized by Hoppock (1935), referring to a

combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that

make a person feel satisfied with his job. It is a general attitude towards one's job; the

difference between the amount of rewards workers receive, and the amount they

believe they should receive. This attitude results from balancing and summation of

many specific likes and dislikes experienced in connection with a job. Job satisfaction

is the favourableness experienced with which employees view a job. Job satisfaction

has been defined as the extent to which a staff member has favourable or positive

feelings about work or the work environment (De Nobile, 2003). It refers to the

positive attitudes or emotional dispositions people may gain from work or through

aspects of work (Furnham, 1997; Locke, 1976). Conversely, job dissatisfaction refers

to unhappy or negative feelings about work or the work environment (Furnham,

1997). Job satisfaction is defined as a positive emotional state that results from

.

appraisal of one's job situation and is linked to the characteristics and demands of

one's work (Arches, 1991; Butler, 1990; Dressel, 1982).

Job satisfaction results when a job fulfills or facilitates the organizational

attainment of individual's values and standards, and on the other hand dissatisfaction

occurs when the job is seen blocking such attainment (Locke & Latham, 1990). On

this note, Herzberg (1968) found five factors that intended to influence job

satisfaction positively: (1) achievement, (2) recognition, (3) work itself, (4)

responsibility, and (5) advancement. Factors, which if inadequate tended to support

job dissatisfaction were: (1) salary, (2) possibility of growth, (3) interpersonal

relations (subordinates), (4) status, (5) interpersonal relations (superiors), (6)

interpersonal relations (peers), (7) supervision technical, (8) company policy and

administration, (9) working conditions, (10) personal life, and (11) job security. In

teaching profession, distress has been linked to dissatisfaction with job and to

negative affective and professional consequences (Ruma et al., 2010; Eichinger,

2000).

Job characteristics which cause stress consist of the following three

dimensions:

28

Introduction

• Role Conflict: This indicates the degree to which an employee is experiencing

incompatible role demands and loyalties at work.

• Role Ambiguity: This indicates the extent to which the priorities, expectations,

and evaluation criteria are not clear to the employee.

• Role Overload: This indicates the degree to which job demands exceed

personal and workplace resources, and the extent to which an employee is

unable to complete expected work assignments.

1.6.12 Values

There is no definitive correct definition of values (Haydon, 2007), arguing it is

`not a technical term' being more `part of the experience of everyone' (Haydon,

2007). Carr (2004) asserts they are rational dispositions or principled preferences. In

contrast to this, the National College of School Leadership (Flintham, 2006) suggests

values are often deeply held but they are not necessarily rational. Aspin (2000) argues

that values are embedded and embodied in everything we do, as part of the warp and

weft of ourself and our community's whole form of life. Values can come with any

degree of abstractness, or concreteness, generality or specificity (Haydon, 2007). An

American psychologist, Milton Rokeach (1979), has written extensively on individual

and organizational values, and thus, provides a useful framework within which- the

importance of personal values can be explored as:

The ultimate function of values is to provide us with a set of standards to guide us in all our efforts, to satisfy our needs and at the same time maintain and in so far as possible, enhance self esteem, that is to make it possible to regard ourselves to be regarded by others as having satisfied societally and institutionally originating definitions of morality and competence. It is the stance the self takes to the environment as expressed through his behavior,

ideas, body feelings and imagination. (Andres, 1980). In this study, it refers to work

values.

1.6.12.1 Work Values

Work values are beliefs pertaining to desirable end-states (e.g. high pay) or

behavior (e.g. working with people). Lee (1994) indicated that work values could be

viewed as proportion of personal value systems; all evaluations and preferences

related to work could be held as the expression of work values. Super (1980) defined

work values as "an objective, either a psychological state, a relationship, or material

f 4!]

Introduction

condition, that one seeks to attain". The different work goals are ordered by their

importance as guiding principles for evaluating work outcomes and settings, and for

choosing among different work alternatives. Likewise, Elizur (1984) defined work

values as, "the importance individuals give to a certain outcome obtained at work

context". Furthermore, Zytowski (1994) noted that work values often refer to positive

reinforcers of job satisfaction.

Because work values are constructs that refer only to goals in the work setting,

they are more specific than basic individual values. But the work values usually

studied are still quite broad. They refer to what a person wants out of work in general,

rather than to the narrowly defined outcomes of particular jobs. As a final point, work

values, like basic values, are verbal representations of individual, group, and

interaction requirements.

The present study has identified a set of 11 work values among teachers in

different schools, which could be defined as:

1. Good Economic Return: Describes the amount of financial remuneration that is received and the degree to which this is viewed as equitable vis-a-vis that of others in the institution. Refers to the financial dimension basically, and includes pay, fringe benefits and monetary rewards.

2. High Status! Prestige: Refers to a position of superior status, social status, and prestige. %

3. Opportunities of Human/ Social Service: The human service practitioner is a professional who acts as an agent to assist and or empower individuals, groups, families and communities to prevent, alleviate or better cope with crisis, change and stress to enable them to function more effectively in all areas of life and living.

4. Friendly/ Cooperating Colleagues: whether the job permits chances to make friends, whether co-workers are friendly and helpful and whether one's co-workers take a personal interest in himlher. Valuation of this dimension reflects a worker's desire for the satisfaction of social needs from the work activity. Collegial relations include the relationships between teachers within a school as well as the relationship between teachers and administrators.

5. Security of Service: Work which provides one with certainty of having a job even in hard times.

6. Fair/ Sympathetic Supervisions: Deals with the abilities of the supervisor to provide technical assistance and behavioral support.

30

Introduction

7. Opportunities of Further Progress/ Advancement: Describes the chances for promotional avenues in the organization. In this study, it refers to the act or fact of being raised in position or rank, and giving a privilege for professional growth.

8. Opportunities of Intellectual Stimulation: Refers to excitement, novelty and challenge in life.

9. Work consistent with my life Goals/ Values: It is the extent to which the job provides the individual with interesting tasks, opportunities for learning, and the chance to accept responsibility.

10. Opportunities of exercising Power/ Authority: Describes the control or dominance over pupil and resources.

11. Freedom in my work: Refers to the condition of being free, and the power to act, speak or think without externally imposed restraints. It is the teacher's capacity to exercise choice, frankness or boldness, and free will without religious, political, or institutional restrictions.

Therefore, the researcher used the term "work values" to define the

hierarchical organization of relatively stable needs, desires, and goals as applied to a

teacher's world of work. Work values in the present study are operationally defined as

enduring beliefs and standards that influence an individual when he! she evaluate his!

her job and work environment.

1.6.13 Pupil Control Ideology

Pupil control orientation can be conceptualized as a point on a continuum

ranging from authoritarian to humanistic (Willower, 1975). Teachers with a custodial

(authoritarian) pupil control orientation stress the maintenance of order and strict

pupil control, impersonality, one-way communication, distrust of students, and a

punitive, moralistic attitude; while the teachers with a humanistic orientation

emphasize the psychological and sociological bases of learning and behavior, open

channels of communication, an accepting and trusting view of students, and

confidence in students' ability to develop self-discipline and responsibility. An

individual teacher's pupil control orientation may fall anywhere between these two

extremes.

Educators classified as humanistic are patient, congenial, and easily

approached by students. They are responsive to students' suggestions and ideas and

31

Introduction

encourage pupil self-discipline and independence. In contrast to the humanistic

orientation, the model of [authoritarian] orientation depicts a classroom atmosphere

with a rigid and highly controlling setting concerned primarily with the maintenance

of order (WiIlower, Eidell, & Hoy, 1973). In this model misbehaviour is viewed as a

personal affront and students are perceived as persons who must be controlled through

the application of punitive sanctions. Authoritarian educators manifest suspicion and

distrust of pupils, often addressing them in an unpleasant and angry manner. They

react personally and judgmentally toward students who misbehave (Lunenburg &

Mankowsky, 2000).

The model for the custodial orientation is the traditional school in which

behavior is rigid and tightly controlled; maintenance of order is a primary concern.

Students are stereotyped in terms of their appearance, behavior, and parents' social

status. Teachers do not attempt to understand student behavior; in fact, they view

misbehavior in moralistic terms and as a personal affront. Students must accept the

decisions of teachers without question. The flow of power and communication is

unilateral and downward, and cynicism, impersonality, and watchful mistrust imbue

the custodial orientation.

On the contrary, the model for the humanistic orientation is the school as a

learning community in which members learn by cooperative interaction and

experience. Interpersonal relationships are close, warm, and friendly. Learning and

behavior are interpreted in psychological and sociological terms, not moralistic ones.

Self-discipline and self-regulation are substituted for rigid and strict teacher control.

Both teachers and students are willing to act upon their own volition and then accept

responsibility for their actions.

Therefore, the researcher's operational definition of humanistic pupil control

ideology refers to teachers who conceive of the school as a democratic organization

with open channels of two-way communication between students and teachers and

increased self-determination of students. A humanistic orientation is marked by

optimism, openness, flexibility, understanding, and increased student self-

determination, while custodial pupil control ideology means teachers who conceive of

the school as an autocratic organization with a rigid - pupil-status hierarchy. Teachers

with a custodial orientation of pupil control view students as irresponsible and

32

Introduction

undisciplined individuals who must be controlled by punitive sanctions. A secondary

school teacher's ideology may fall anywhere between these two major extremes.

1.7 Significance of the study

Stress at work has been singled out as an important area of investigation for

the reasons being; most people spend a considerable amount of time at work, and

work is important as a fundamental means for implementing and fulfilling personal

aspirations and expectations (Yankelovich, 1979). Teachers play an extraordinarily

important role in providing the support and guidance that students need as they set out

to find their way in today's world and society. Pressure, thus, has gone drastically for

those engaged in the teaching profession. It is therefore, important to identify the

factors which might further deplete our teaching force through early retirement or

attrition in order to best support teachers. If educational systems fail to identify factors

that contribute to teacher stress, the common masses would be reluctant towards

teaching as a profession. Hence, demands for teachers may potentially become higher,

which in turn will cause higher shortages and attrition.

Most of the educational administrators start their career as classroom teachers;

therefore to have an understanding of the career-change process is important for

human resource personnel and school policy makers, as well as educational

researchers. Understanding this process implies an understanding of stressful factors

which influence decisions and differentiate between different classes of decision-

makers, particularly stayers and leavers. The conditions that create a stressful

environment are present in most school systems, certainly some more than others. The

long working hours, overcrowded classes, upset parents, limited resources, potentials

for physical violence, and so forth go with the job of most teachers.

The tragedy is that like most formal organizations, educational systems

typically tend to ignore the impact that stress has on administrators and teachers. The

saddest fact is that dysfunctional stress is usually considered as a personal problem,

for which those suffering must find their own way out. Thus, it is deemed important

for studies be conducted on this matter in order to enrich information and to display

statistical evidence for the consideration of the parties that are concerned with the

educational systems.

33

Introduction

Significance of the study Iies in the notion that by examining the stress levels

of secondary school teachers, one can better recognize the early signs of stress which

may further lead to burnout, and take measures to prevent it, especially in "at risk"

(high stress) groups. Also, the quality of education to most people is almost synonym

to the quality of teaching. Accordingly, the quality of teaching depends largely on the

characteristics of individuals serving as teachers, their training background,

aspirations, experience, subject areas concerned; and no less important, their general

state of physical and emotional well-being. Teachers play a pivotal role in the

molding of the future generation envisioned by Vision 2020, so it is of paramount

importance that the overall effectiveness of teachers as educators is not undermined

by the stressors they encounter. Thus, it is obviously desirable for a systematic study

and an inquiry into the phenomenon to be carried out.

To ensure that teachers perform to the best of their abilities, it is necessary to

pay attention to their satisfaction levels. In this light, this study also sheds light on the

relationship between teachers' occupational stress and their job satisfactions. It

becomes important for the management to secure information about these satisfied/

dissatisfied teachers before making decisions that might affect them. This study thus,

is a humble attempt to make school administrators and planners learn more about the

organizational behavior as well. Therefore, they may be able to improve the job

conditions and bring a direct benefit to teachers.

This research on work values and stress is significant because it will help the

school administrators bring to Iight some of the problems and needs of the teachers of

secondary schools, which are important in attracting and holding the teachers. The

knowledge and awareness of their work values and stress may contribute to the

creations of a harmonious relationship between teachers and personnel, thus

encouraging the first to remain in the teaching profession. As a consequence, teaching

will be elevated to a competitive status among other profession. They will perform

better, exhibit positive attitudes and would be more enthusiastic in helping students.

Also, the need to control or direct is implicit in the job of teaching, and it

seems important that teachers should learn to control their classrooms in the most

humane and efficient manner possible. Another important implication of this study

may be to determine if it is possible, the extent of pupil control orientations among

secondary school teachers. It is well evidenced and documented that stress among

34

Introduction

teachers, if not properly and adequately checked and diagnosed, could result in

physical, psychological, social problems, hostility towards colleagues, students and

family members.

Policy makers may use information on the impact of current organizational

experiences on teachers' work-related stress to modify their policies and procedures.

Thus, those concerned with developing and providing pre-service and in-service

education programs may also view the findings of the study as relevant. The lack of

sympathy by the public towards teachers is due to the lack of understanding of the

problems and grievances faced by teachers, perhaps. Thus, a systematic and an

empirical inquiry into the phenomenon is obviously beneficial in view of shedding

light and giving a better understanding and awareness to the educational

administrators and the public as well.

Most of the work in the area of teacher stress has been done in developed

countries but, not many studies are conducted in the Indian context that explores the

teachers stress towards their occupation. On this note, this study would be beneficial

as a few critical and interesting variables will also be included in the present study

such as, whether there is any difference in the level of stress experienced by teachers

with regard to the subjects taught — namely the teachers who teach languages, as

compared to teachers who teach arts, science and social science; their work values and

pupil control ideology.

Finally, the tools developed for the study might provide a means of assessing

the work-related stress of teachers along with their job satisfactions. All the foregoing

findings and discussions highlight the value of gaining insight into occupational stress

factors amongst teachers so as to begin to find ways to remedy the apparent situation

that prevails within the teaching profession. Causes of excessive stress must be found

before appropriate solutions to it can be developed. In the present investigation,

therefore, the researcher aimed to determine some of these factors amongst Indian

teachers.

1.8 Organization of the study

This study has been presented in six chapters. Chapter I includes the

introduction, purpose statement, research questions, hypotheses, definitions of terms,

significance of the study, and organization of the study. Chapter II will provide a

35

Introduction

review on various researches done related to the variables taken in the study. Having

laid the theoretical and conceptual foundations, Chapter III will discuss a detailed

description of the methodology and strategy for collecting data with a plan for

analysis. Chapter IV will offer a description of the research tools employed along with

their construction — the pilot study, the reliability and validity of the questionnaires, as

well as the selection of teachers' work values. Chapter V will be devoted to the

presentation and analysis of the data. The present study will also conclude with a

discussion of the findings in this chapter. Chapter VI will comprise of summary,

conclusion, implications, recommendations for practice, with a view to suggest some

possible ways for future investigations.

36

Chapter-2 Review of

Rebated Literature

Review of Related Literature

Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature

Review of related literature is an important pre-requisite for actual planning

and execution of any research work. The present chapter embodies a brief review of

the researches done in the area related to the present investigation. A particular thing

should not be neglected because it is of past and a new one should not be accepted

because of its newness. It is only with the reference to old that a new thing can be

learned. Alternatively, it is necessary to connect previous knowledge with the new

idea to be grasped. It means that to learn a new thing our previous knowledge must be

brought to the forefront. It is imperative for a review of previous studies on the subject before embarking upon making a fresh study. Thus, a review of the literature

is important because, without it one cannot acquire an understanding of his/ her topic, of what has already been done on it, how it has been researched, and what the key

issues are. The Educational Resources Information Center (1982) defines a literature

review as an "information analysis and synthesis, focusing on findings and not simply

bibliographic citations, summarizing the substance of the literature and drawing

conclusions from it". Further, Fink (1998) defined literature review as a systematic,

explicit and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and interpreting the

existing body of recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners.

A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually

has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary

is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-

organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation

of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might

trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending

on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader

on the most pertinent or relevant. The focus of a literature review, however, is to

summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others without adding new

contributions. Literature reviews give an overview and act as a stepping stone to carry

research. The review of literature, thus, becomes a link between the research proposed

and the studies already done.

37


In this chapter an attempt has been made to take cognizance of studies, which

s relevance to present problem, both in India and abroad. A summary of the

aearch literature in the area of teachers' occupational stress and its correlates shows

that teachers stress has been a subject of several studies both at national and

international level. A substantial body of research has accumulated concerning the

various factors that affect and cause stress among teachers. Only such studies are

reviewed in some depth of details that have considerable bearing on the present

investigation, although, some more could be added for the purpose but the

investigator has to be selective for obvious reasons. Sometimes the studies reviewed

could not be classified into the areas concerned. The review was intended to provide a

background to the study that followed and it was thought that such an attempt would

be of great help for the formation of hypothesis.

2.1 Teachers occupational. stress and .demographic variables

Teacher stress becomes problematic and potentially harmful, when the

challenges teachers.face outpace their perceived ability to cope, or when they perceive

that important needs are not being met (Dutta, 2009). Nayak et al. (2009) conducted a

study on the correlation of demographic characteristics and the various components of

organizational sources of stressors among 100 male and female degree college

teachers of Dharwad city, Karnataka. It was found that higher percentage of the

teachers (70.5%) was in the low stress category followed by very low stress category

(23.5%) and lesser percent in moderate stress category (6.0%). Jeyaraj (2013)

surveyed 305 higher secondary teachers in Tamil Nadu and found a majority of

62.30% to have a medium level of stress, 20% a low level of stress and the remaining

17.70% to have a high level of stress. To explore the levels of stress, Durani (2009)

carried a study on 450 working women, and observed that among 150 women

working as -teachers in schools, 39% were having low stress, 20% were having high

stress, 15% were having very average stress, 13% were having very high stress, 8% of

the respondents no stress, and 5% very low stress and 0% i.e. negligible were

abnormal. Mathews (2005) also conducted a study to find out the level of

occupational stress among 60 higher secondary school teachers of Idukki and

Kotayam districts in Kerala, and evidenced that higher secondary school teachers are

not under stress in both these districts in Kerala.

38


A more clear view has been provided in a study on school teachers' job stress

and job satisfaction, by Mondal, Shrestha, & Bhaila (2011). Investigating the gender

differences, they found a significant difference between male and female teachers.

Male teachers reported more psychological stress than the female teachers. Also,

physical stress was more significant among the males than the females. In the same

vein, De Nobile and McCormick (2007) investigated biographical differences in

relation to several aspects of occupational stress among 356 staff members of Catholic

primary schools in New South Wales, Australia. They reported males to have greater

occupational stress generally than their female colleagues. Chaplain (1995) while

identifying biographical factors with regard to job stress in U.K. primary schools, also

found significant differences between men and women. Male teachers reported more

stress than their female counterparts in relation to professional tasks and pupil

behavior! attitude, while female teachers scored higher than men on professional

concerns. In Algeria, Mokdad (2005) surveyed 126 primary school teachers and

reported a significant difference between sex and occupational stress. These findings

are corroborated with the results from the study by Olaitan et al. (2010). Kelly (1993)

conducted a study on 220 assistant principals (teachers) in Hong Kong secondary

schools and observed sex to be significantly related to the stress of these assistant

principals. Males were significantly reported to be more stressed than the females.

Singh (2012) also reported male secondary teachers to be more occupationally

stressed than females. These findings have been echoed by several researchers (Pei &

Guoli, 2007; Lau, Yuen, & Chan, 2005).

Contrary to this, female teachers also indicated a higher level of stress as

compared to the male teachers in several studies (Abdul Majid, 1998; Gandhi &

Sharda, 2013; Jan, Malik & Ahmad; 2013; Murphy, 1986). Ravichandran and

Rajendran (2007) administered Teacher's Stress Inventory on 200 higher secondary

teachers and indicated a gender difference on perceived personal stress. Female

teachers reported more stress in their study as compared to their male counterpart.

Greenglass, Pantony, and Burke (1988) conducted a study with 555 teachers

investigating the relationship between work stress, social support and role conflict.

The role-conflict scales were used and it was found that role- conflict was

significantly higher in women than in men. The results suggested that job stress was

related to role-conflict more often for women than for men. However, in a study on

39


occupational stress among university teachers, female teachers were discovered to be

a noted exception with higher misfit scores than their male counterparts in a study by

Blix et al. (1994). Female teachers were more likely to consider job change as a result

of job stress.

Research findings have shown the existence of significant relationships

between occupational stress of male and female teachers, to this non-parallel result

was reported by Siong and Yet (2004). In their survey on 100 government aided

Chinese committee primary school teachers (Grade• A) in Zone Two urban district

area of Kuching, Sarawak, a no significant difference was observed between the level

of stress and gender. Similarly, Khatal (2011) surveyed 50 primary teachers working

in Z. P. primary school in Akola Taluka, India and showed that occupational stress

and sex were not related to each other. Gender was found not to significantly

influence teachers' and principals' job stress by Darmody and Smyth (2011) when

they studied job satisfaction and occupational stress among primary school teachers

and school principals in Ireland. On the same note, gender has not caused any

variation on the stress level of the elementary teachers in a study by Roxas (2009).

Further, exploring the possible links between teacher stress and gender, Lam

Yee Mei (2006) and Tse (1982) found no significant differences between sex and

occupational stress in their studies. Thus, these researchers concluded that the stress

experienced by the male and the female teachers were more or less the same in Hong

Kong. Furthermore, using an ex-post facto design among 392 secondary school

teachers working in Ondo state, Nigeria, Jude (2011) found no significant difference

between the occupational stress experienced by male and female teachers. On this

note, Okeke & Dlamini (2013) used Pearson Product Moment Correlation and

observed no significant relationship between work-related stress and gender among

high school teachers, Swaziland. These findings are corroborated with the results

from the study by Fontana and Abouserie (1993), Johannsen (2011), Yahaya and Nik

Husain (2007).

In the same vein, Yahaya, Hashim, and Kim (2006) investigated the stress

contributing factors and the level of occupational stress among 92 technical teachers

in Johore, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan. A no significant difference of work stress

was noted among the respondents based on gender. Further support to this is provided

40


by Adebiyi (2013) who showed that sex has no significant difference on stress

experienced by male and female lecturers of Ekiti State University, Nigeria. Also,

Adeoye and Okonkwo (2010) examined gender as one of the factors responsible for

job stress among 250 workers (male and female) in Nigeria Universities, and found no

significant difference in job stress and gender. Spielberger and Reheiser (1994)

conducted a study with 1781 working adults, measuring gender differences in

occupational stress using the Job Stress Survey (JSS) in American University and

corporate settings. It was found that there were no significant differences in the

overall stress levels for the two genders. These findings are corroborated with the

results from the study by Kinman (1998) carried on 782 academic and academic-

related staff employed within the old and new universities and other higher education

institutions (HEIs) in the U.K.

The early years of teacher's career have been recognized as being stressful.

Some of the causes of anxiety may be the same for experienced teachers — like,

concern with discipline, motivating pupils, dealing with individual differences; but

some may be unique to inexperienced teachers — like, concern about classroom

management. Based on their study of beginning teachers in Hong Kong, Cooke et al.

(1990) reported that the first year of teaching was not at all easy. About 45% of the

sample considered their first year experience as difficult or extremely difficult.

Teaching experience and age were found to significantly influence stress level by

Yahaya and Nik Husain (2007) when they studied the factors influencing stress level

among 400 secondary school teachers in four states. Ravichandran and Rajendran

(2007) found that variables like age and years of teaching experience differ

significantly, and directly contribute to sources, of stress among Chennai teachers

Personal Stress.

On this note, Abdul Majid (1998) showed that less experienced teachers rated

a significantly higher level of stress compared to the group of more experienced

teachers. Contradict to this, Mondal, Shrestha, and Bhaila (2011) indicated that the

school teachers in Nepal having >10 years of experience showed more Physical Stress

and the teachers having >5 to <=10 years of experience showed more Psychological

Stress. Primary and junior high school teachers' with long teaching experience have

been reported to have high work stress (Wang, 2012). In opposition, Kelly (1993)

41


indicated that the assistant principals who had been in the assistant principal-ship for

over 15 years were more satisfied with their present job. On the other hand, assistant

principals with less teaching experience appeared to be more dissatisfied with their

jobs.

Alternatively, Holeyannavar and Itagi (2010) reported that the stressors as

well as overall stress of teachers had negatively and highly significant relationship

with age and work experience. On the same note, Nayak (2008) investigated age and

total service to be negatively and significantly correlated with different components of

employment organization sources of stressors viz, work, role, personal development,

interpersonal relation, organizational climate and total stressors. Further, analyzing

the impact of age and management experience on occupational stress of academic

managers in higher education institutions of Pakistan, Mahmood et al. (2013) revealed

a significant negative relationship between the variables. Khurshid, Butt, and Malik

(2011) indicated an inverse relationship between the age and occupational role stress.

Interestingly, they also reported a gradual increase in level of occupational role stress

with the increase in age of teachers (N=500) of both public and private sector

universities. They observed that the senior teachers of the private sector universities

experience more occupational role stress than senior teachers of public sector.

No significant differences among the stress level of primary (Siong & Yet,

2004; Mokdad, 2005) alongwith elementary (Roxas, 2009) school teachers and years

of teaching experience have also been shown. Further, Lam Yee Mei (2006) in a

quantitative research of teacher stress on primary and secondary schools in Hong

Kong found that there is no correlation between the number of years of teaching

experience and the reported stress level. Also, no correlation between the age of the

teachers and the stress experienced was noted by them. In another study, Johannsen

(2011) made a correlation study to determine the link between stress factors and years

of teaching experience, and identified no differences in stress based upon years of

teaching experience. Secondary school teachers in a study by Shukla (2008) have

shown that their stress and teaching effectiveness on the basis of experience and age

of teachers are not related. Tahir (2011) in his study on stress level in teaching job of

106 college teachers in Pakistan reported no statistical significance between level of

academic performance for different cadres of college teachers and their teaching

42


experience. Also, Adebiyi (2013) revealed no difference in stress outcomes of

Nigerian lecturers who have spent long years (>=11 years) and those with lesser years

(<11 years).

Teachers' qualification as a source of stress was found to be significant on

Personal Stress by Ravichandran and Rajendran (2007). Singh (2012) also showed

undergraduate teachers to be less occupationally stress than the post graduate

secondary teachers. Researchers (Mondal, Shrestha, & Bhaila, 2011) on the

relationship between teachers occupational stress and their qualification have shown

that postgraduate teachers were having significantly less job satisfaction on job role

item than the Undergraduate and Graduate teachers. On the contrary, Hong Kong

teachers without finishing professional training and of junior rank reported themselves

to be more burned out in a study carried by Lau, Yuen, and Chan (2005). They

observed teachers rank to be the best predictor for personal accomplishment. Ling

(1991) also found that teachers of lower forms and of higher professional rank

suffered from high level of strain in job dissatisfactions. De Nobile and McCormick

(2007) in their study linked general occupational stress by position and found that,

while classroom teachers reported the highest levels of general stress, teacher's aides

appear to be the least stressed, by a wide margin, compared to classroom teachers,

executive staff and other non-teaching staff.

Nayak (2008) showed designation to be significantly and negatively correlated

with work role, personal development and total stressors among the degree college

teachers of Karnataka, India. Khurshid, Butt, and Malik (2011) observed qualification

to be a significant factor that affected the level of occupational role stress of 500

university teachers. The results showed that the master's degree holder exhibit less

occupational role stress than the Ph.D. degree holders. Chand and Monga (2007) on

examining the correlates of job stress and burnout among 100 teachers from two

universities of Himachal Pradesh, India found that maximum job stress was reported

by Professors and minimum by the Assistant Professors.

Jandaghi et al. (2011) also investigated the relationship between job traits and

stress in Shahed University's comprehensive plan with 123 subjects (45 professors

and 78 employees). They reported a positive and significant relationship between job

major aspects and job stress of professors, while there was no significant and positive

43


relationship between job major aspects and job stress of employees. Siong and Yet

(2004) in their study on 100 primary school teachers in Kuching, Sarawak, reported

no significant difference between the level of stress and academic qualification. No

significant difference was also observed between trained and non-trained Algerian

primary school teachers in a study by Mokdad (2005). In a similar way, Yahaya,

Hashim, and Kim (2006) also demonstrated no significant difference of work stress

and highest academic qualification when they surveyed 92 teachers from nine

technical schools in three states (Johore, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan).

Seenivasan (2007) chose higher secondary school teachers and found all the

teachers (secondary grade teachers, graduate and postgraduate teachers) to be satisfied

with their job irrespective of their qualification. A study on occupational stress as

perceived by assistant principals in Hong Kong aided secondary schools was done by

Kelly (1993). Results of the data collected from 220 assistant principals revealed no

significant difference between stress and academic qualifications of these assistant

principals. Shukla (2008) surveyed 93 English medium secondary school teachers and

reported that relationship of teaching effectiveness as perceived by teachers and

burnout did not make any difference between qualified or over-qualified teachers.

Further, using Pearson Product Moment Correlation, Okeke and Dlamini (2013).

reported no significant relationship between work-related stress and qualifications

among high school teachers. Also, no correlation between the teachers' qualification

and the stress level was reported by Lam Yee Mei (2006), when she carried out a

quantitative research of teacher stress on primary and secondary schools in Hong

Kong.

Satisfaction of teachers is knitted closely to their occupational stress, and

salary is an important determinant of teachers' satisfaction. Finding a limited research

on teachers' occupational stress and salary, the researcher has mainly discussed the

related studies based on teachers' satisfaction and salary in this section. Salary was

found to affect job satisfaction of both male and female teachers in a study by Tasnim

(2006). Also, the timely payment of salaries and school expenditures were shown to

be positively linked to teacher satisfaction by Sargent and Hannum (2003). A cross-

sectional study among 392 teachers in private secondary schools by Ofili, Usiholo,

and Oronsaye (2009) identified poor salary to be the major cause of job dissatisfaction

44


and intention to quit in Nigeria. Khurshid, Butt, and Malik (2011) showed that the

university teachers with low income, experience more occupational role stress than

teachers with higher income level. On the same note, monthly income was negatively

and significantly correlated with different component of employment organizations

stressors viz, work, role, personal development, interpersonal relation, organizational

climate and total stressors by Nayak et al. (2009).

Researchers have also indicated significant differences among teachers

occupational stress and the various subjects taught by them. Mehra and Kaur (2011)

worked on job satisfaction among 300 government and 300 private secondary school

teachers of various academic streams, and found that Social Science teachers

exhibited better job satisfaction than Language, Mathematics and Science teachers.

Regression analyses were conducted by Hodge, Jupp, and Taylor (1994) to investigate

which work stressors, attitudinal and demographic variables predicted the reported

emotional distress (anxiety, depression and physical symptoms) and burnout

(emotional exhaustion, use of depersonalization and feelings of personal

accomplishment) of Music and Mathematics teachers working in secondary schools.

Results showed that Music teachers were substantially more distressed and burnt out

than Mathematics teachers. Hui and Chan (1996) found that the perceived stress level

of guidance teachers was significantly higher than non-guidance teachers. With regard

to student abilities, Byrne (1991) found that teachers of students in regular, academic

mainstream reported significantly higher emotional exhaustion than teachers of

vocational students.

On the other hand, Shukla (2008) conducted a study on stress, burnout and

teaching effectiveness among 93 secondary school teachers and found no significant

difference in the relationship between perceived burnout and teaching effectiveness as

perceived by teachers on the basis of subjects taught (Language, Social Science,

Science). Working with job satisfaction and stress of Home Economics teachers,

Holley and Kirkpatrick (1987) mailed questionnaires including a teacher profile, the

short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the New York State

Teachers Survey on Teacher Stress, to 150 teachers. Respondents included 100

currently employed consumer, homemaking and occupational home economics

teachers. They also found no relationship between stress and job satisfaction, or


between stress and any demographic variables. However, they reported significant

difference in job satisfaction for the demographic variables of number of pupils

taught, years as a teacher and marital status.

2.2 Teachers occupational stress and job satisfaction

A considerable level of impact of stress on job satisfaction and job

involvement among teachers has been reported (Muthuvelayutham &

Mohanasundaram, 2012). Ayan and Kocacik (2010) proposed a study to establish the

relationship between the level of job satisfaction of 482 high school teachers and

types of personality. It was seen that teachers were satisfied with their jobs near to an

intermediary level. It was also found that their job satisfaction showed significant

differences in terms of characteristics of liking competence, being ambitious in the

social area and occupation, getting angry easily, and hiding their feelings. Hollifield

(2005) examined the relationship between teacher job satisfaction, work-related stress

and organizational culture in three school districts. A total of 136 teachers drawn from

elementary, middle and high schools were included in the study. Results of this study

indicated that teachers who had positive perceptions of school effectiveness were

more likely to significant differences found for job satisfaction or work-related stress

indicating that teachers at each building level were experiencing moderately high

levels of job satisfaction and low levels of work-related stress. These findings are in

line to Kayastha and Kayastha (2012) that showed a significant relationship between

job stress and job satisfaction among higher secondary level school teachers in Nepal.

Chaplain (2001) reported levels of perceived stress and job satisfaction among

primary headteachers. Sources of stress and job satisfaction were examined under four

headings: managing oneself and others, managing finances, managing the curriculum

and managing change. The highest levels of satisfaction came from personal factors

and organizational factors. School organization was noted to be a source of stress and

of satisfaction. The lowest level of satisfaction, was with the level of social support.

Two subgroups reporting `very high' levels of stress differed markedly in levels of

job satisfaction— one `very satisfied', the other `not satisfied'. These differences were

related to gender, interestingly, and perceived as sources of job satisfaction and stress.

46


Further, investigating the prevalence of stress and the level of job satisfaction

among 844 primary school teachers in Maltese state schools, Borg and Falzon (1989)

revealed significant negative correlations between self-reported teacher stress and job

satisfaction. De Nobile and McCormick (2005) investigated the relationships between

job satisfaction and occupational stress among Catholic primary schools in New

South Wales, Australia. Their study on 356 staff members from 52 primary schools of

six Catholic school systems found that four stress domains (information domain,

personal domain, student domain and school domain) were predictors of job

satisfaction. Moderate to strong correlations existed between most of the job

satisfaction and occupational stress variables.

Borg and Riding (1991a) investigated the relationships between occupational

stress and job satisfaction among 545 teachers in Maltese secondary schools. They

found that teachers who reported greater stress were less satisfied with teaching.

Smith and Bourke (1992) in Australia explored work-related stress and job

satisfaction among secondary school teachers and identified four aspects of teacher

stress: staff tensions and conflict, time pressure, students and classroom conditions,

and lack of rewards and recognition. Teaching context, workload and satisfaction

were found to affect stress directly. Their findings are corroborated with the results

from the study by Fisher (2011). In three multiple regression tests, stress and burnout

were found to be statistically significant predictors of job satisfaction; years of

experience, job satisfaction, and burnout were statistically significant predictors of

stress; and job satisfaction, preventive coping skills, and stress were statistically

significant predictors of burnout.

Kelly (1993) conducted a study on 220 assistant principals in Hong Kong and

observed a statistically significant and positive correlation (r = 0.4549) between self-

reported occupational stress and overall job satisfaction score. The study further

examined that about 70% of the assistant principals were generally satisfied with their

jobs and that an increase of occupational stress would lower job satisfaction of the

assistant principals. The findings revealed that female assistant principals appeared to

be more satisfied with their jobs than male assistant principals. Tse (1982) proposed a

study to identify levels of occupational stress and job satisfaction among 182 Hong

Kong secondary school teachers of both government and subsidized sectors. The

47


findings showed that almost half of the teachers rated their job as either very stressful

or extremely stressful. Further, in the area of job satisfaction, overall responses

indicated satisfaction, with some tendency toward greater satisfaction on the part of

government teachers. Work load and bad behavior of pupils were identified as the

main sources of stress experienced by the teachers.

Borg, Riding and Falzon (1991) studied occupational stress and its

determinants among 710 Maltese primary school teachers, through a questionnaire

survey. Their results also showed that teachers who reported greater stress were less

satisfied with their job and less committed to choose a teaching career if given a

second chance. The investigators discovered that among the four environmental

factors, `professional recognition needs' were found to have the strongest inverse

relationship with job satisfaction and career commitment. Sutton and Huberty (1984)

administered the Wilson Stress Profile for Teachers to 20 school teachers in public

and private schools and observed an inverse relationship between job satisfaction and

stress levels. Similarly, Brewer and McMahan—Landers (2003) examined the

relationship between job stress and job satisfaction among a random sample of 133

industrial and technical teacher educators. Correlational analysis revealed a strong

inverse relationship between the constructs, with stressors related to lack of

organizational support being more strongly associated with job satisfaction than

stressors related to the job itself were. There also were significant differences in

correlations between job satisfaction and frequency of stressors and correlations

between job satisfaction and intensity of stressors, suggesting that frequency of

stressors had a greater impact on participants' job satisfaction than did intensity of

stressors.

Educational researchers have long been concerned with role stress among

teachers. In education, research on the consequences of such role stress for teachers

has largely concerned with outcomes valued by individuals such as job satisfaction

and reduced stress. Using a sample of elementary and secondary teachers, Conley and

Woosley (2000) empirically examined, first whether three role stresses-role

ambiguity, role conflict and role overload were related to two individually and two

organizationally valued states and second, whether teachers higher-order need

strength moderates these role stress-outcome relationships. They found that role

48


stresses were related to individually and organizationally—valued outcomes among

both elementary and secondary teachers. Usman et al. (2011) examined the

relationship between role conflict, role ambiguity and attitudinal outcomes of the job

i.e. job satisfaction and organizational commitment of 160 teachers in the Punjab

University of Pakistan, by using personally administered questionnaires. The findings

of the study suggested a positive and significant relationship between role stress i.e.

role conflict and role ambiguity and work stress. However, work stress was negatively

and significantly associated with job satisfaction and organizational commitment of

the teaching staff of the university under examination.

Gursel, Sunbul, and Sari (2002) used Job Satisfaction Scale (JSS) and the

Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) to measure the dimensions—Emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization, personal accomplishment, of high schools headteachers'

(N=80)and teachers' (N=210) burnout in Turkey. They found that headteachers had

more job dissatisfaction, personal accomplishment and depersonalization than

teachers, showing a significant difference on two of the three dimensions of burnout.

However, differences in job situation according to their roles (teachers and

headteachers) were not significant on emotional exhaustion. Chenevey, Ewing, &

Whittington (2008) designed a study to consider the relationships between job

satisfaction, occupational stress, personal strain, personal coping resources and

burnout among agricultural education teachers. A random sample (N=388) of the

population (N=628) received a mailed questionnaire (37% response, N=145) by them.

They found that the majority of agricultural education teachers in the study possessed

high levels of job satisfaction, low levels of occupational stress and personal strain,

and high levels of personal coping resources. However, teachers in the study indicated

a moderate level of frequency of burnout and a moderate to high level of intensity of

burnout.

A total of 153 elementary resource room teachers in Taiwan were questioned

using a self-report questionnaire by Cheng and Ren (2010) to investigate how well the

job satisfaction may be predicted through an understanding of their job stress and

demographic characteristics. Following the questionnaire, 10 veteran resource room

teachers were asked to provide further insight into their work. Results for the 135

participants exhibited that both the working condition dimension of job stress and

!~7


education level were significant predictors of job satisfaction. Matsushita et al. (2011)

examined the levels of occupational stress/ job satisfaction among 173 nursing

teachers working in 17 Japanese universities. The results showed that nursing teachers

have different Ievel of occupational stress/ job satisfaction from clinical nurses and

other working female. The association between self-reported teacher stress and three

response correlates of teacher stress job satisfaction, absenteeism and intention to

Ieave teaching was investigated by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979a) among 218

teachers in England. It was found that self-reported teacher stress was negatively

associated with job satisfaction (r= -0.27),

On a similar note, a descriptive research approach was utilized by Watson and

Hillison (1991) to examine the relationships among satisfaction, temperament types

and demographic variables. They found 63 agricultural education teachers to be

generally satisfied with the intrinsic aspects of their jobs. No extrinsic factor scored as

high in satisfaction as the lowest intrinsic factor (i.e. chance to tell people what to do).

Conversely, just over one-third of all teachers were found to be satisfied with their job

by Chaplain (1995). Teacher stress and job satisfaction were found to be negatively

correlated, with high reports of occupational stress related to low levels of job

satisfaction. Similarly, Pelsma and Richard (1988) found job satisfaction and teacher

stress to be strongly correlated. They also noted that the amount of stress and degree

of job satisfaction experience by teacher directly influence the quality of teacher work

life. Using a questionnaire survey on 204 teachers in secondary schools of Malacca,

Abdul Majid (1998) also found a negative but significant correlation between overall

stress and job satisfaction (r = -0.3882), and between human relations stress and job

satisfaction (r= -0.3409).

Ahsan et al. (2009) investigated the relationship between job stress and job

satisfaction among 203 public university academicians from Klang Valley area in

Malaysia. The results showed a significant negative relationship between the job

stress and job satisfaction. Besides, Ismail, Yao, and Yunus (2009) reported a

significant correlation firstly, between physiological stress and job satisfaction, and

secondly an insignificant correlation between psychological stress and job

satisfaction. Their study on 80 academic employees in private institutions of higher

learning in Malaysia demonstrated that level of physiological stress had increased job

50


satisfaction, and level of psychological stress had not decreased job satisfaction. The

study further confirmed that occupational stress does act as a partial determinant of

job satisfaction in the stress models of the organizational sector sample. Most

interestingly, using Pearson correlation, Chaudhry (2012) demonstrated no

relationship between the occupational stress and overall job satisfaction in case of

both male and female faculty members of Pakistani universities.

2.3 Teachers occupational stress and work values

A considerable amount of literature has emerged on the factors influencing

occupational stress among school teachers, yet it is equally true that there is a paucity

of recent, comprehensive empirical research in the area citing relationship between

teachers stress and work values. Work values are goals that one seeks to attain to

satisfy a need; they may be satisfied by more than one kind of activity or occupation.

In view of this, Kokkinos (2007) measured the relationship between job stressor and

burnout in primary school teachers by using 63 job stressor which had 11 subscales of

work stress- student's bahaviour, managing student's misbehavior, decision making,

relationships with colleagues, role ambiguity, poor working conditions, appraisal of

teachers by students, work overload, appraisal of teachers, time constraints, specific

teaching demands. The study ran correlation analyses and showed that emotional

exhaustion and depersonalization were significantly positively correlated with all job

stressor while work stressor was negatively correlated with personal accomplishment.

Allida (2005) investigated the work values, occupational stress, and teaching

performance of 140 teachers and 12 principals of SDA secondary school teachers in

Luzon. Religious, Occupational, and Intellectual Achievement-oriented work values

were identified as the three very important primary work values by the researcher.

Workload and Time Pressure, managing Students Behaviour and Learning, and

Financial Security were found to be the three major stressors of the respondents

wherein they experienced moderate stress. Female teachers were reported to have a

significantly greater preference towards Interpersonal and Religious work values than

the male teachers. In all, the author explored significant relationships between work

values and occupational stress. In the same vein, Canova and Porto (2010) conducted

a study to determine the organizational values as predictors of the occupational stress

51


level among 321 secondary school teachers. The stress factor analysis pointed out two

factors and the multidimensional scaling of the Organizational Values Profile

Inventory presented 5 motivational types: ethics and concern with the community;

domain, organizational prestige and accomplishment; autonomy and employees well-

being; conformity; and tradition. The authors suggested an inverse relationship that,

the more the teacher was aware of autonomy and employees well-being and ethics

and concern with the community, the less he. reported occupational stress.

Organizational values were significantly reported to influence occupational stress.

Ahghar (2008) studied the influence of the organizational climate of a school

on the occupational stress of 220 secondary school teachers in Tehran. A 27-item

questionnaire on organizational climate, alongwith a 53-item occupational stress

questionnaire, employing 11 scales, was used as the main instruments to gather data.

The predictability rate of occupational stress among teachers was found to be highest

for the open climate and gradually decreases through the engaged, and disengaged to

the closed climate. Among the teachers working in the disengaged and closed climate,

the rate of occupational stress significantly exceeds that recorded among the teachers

working in the open climate.

A causal comparative and co-relational type of descriptive research among

150 secondary level female teachers was conducted by Singh (2005) in Allahabad to

find out the relationship between stress and work values. The data collected on

Teachers Stress Scale and Work-Value Differential suggested that stress is negatively

related to five work values namely- economic return, social service, power,

independence and adventure. The values of product moment coefficients of

correlation between work values and stress among secondary level female teachers

also revealed six non-significant correlations. So, it can be concluded that stress is not

related to intellectual challenge, chances of progress, material handled, associates,

surrounding and variety work values.

Mufti et al. (2012) designed their study to identify the stressors causing stress

in the faculty members of public and private sector universities of Pakistan.

Questionnaire instrument was designed and data was collected that resultantly showed

that student/ faculty interaction, leadership style, and collegial/ social interaction were

the most important occupational stressors identified by these faculty members. Also,

52


Paschoal and Tamayo (2005) administered the Work Stress Scale and the Work

Values Scale to 237 workers of a banking institution and found no relation of work

values with occupational stress.

Social support as one of the major work values includes administrative and

collegial support, and is often viewed as crucial to the buffering of the experience of

stress (Adams, 2001; Engelbrecht & Eloff, 2001; Jonas, 2001; Van Dick et al., 1999).

Griffith, Steptoe, and Cropley (1999) surveyed the coping strategies of 780 primary

and secondary school U.S. teachers and reported active planning and seeking social

support to be more successful in moderating stress. High job stress was found to be

associated with low social support at work and greater use of coping by

disengagement and suppression of competing activities. Schwarzer and Greenglass

(1998) pointed out that there is a difference between perceived and actual levels of

social support, and that the relationship between social support and stress can also be

explained by reverse causation: that is, that highly stressed individual are less likely to

form or maintain supportive workplace relationships. On the contrary, Hogan,

Carlson, and Dua (2002)found no support for the hypothesis that social support is an

important moderator of stress.

Boyle et al. (1995) undertook a structural modeling of the causal relationships

between the various latent variables and self-reported stress on a sample of 710

teachers. -Although, both non-recursive and recursive models incorporating `Poor

Colleague Realtions' as a mediating variable were tested for their goodness-of-fit, a

simple regression model provided the most parsimonious fit to the empirical data,

wherein workload and student misbehavior accounted for most of the variance in

predicting teaching stress. On a similar note, the overall findings of the study by

Chand and Monga (2007) suggested that 100 university teachers, with internal locus

of control, high social support and high job involvement experienced less stress and

burnout. Supervisor and co-worker support was negatively and significantly

correlated with job stress in needs deficiency by Ling (1991) in a study on Hong

Kong aided secondary school teachers. The findings showed that social support had

main or additive effect on teacher stress and strain.

53


Darmody and Smyth (2011) explored the association between teacher stress

and relationships with other staff members, and stress levels of the principal in the

school. They found poor administrative support to be associated with higher stress

levels among principals. Most interestingly, principals were more likely to report

feeling stressed when they considered teachers in their school to be less open to new

developments and challenges. Raschke et al. (1985) designed a study to identify

specific factors that elementary teachers deemed most responsible for both their job

satisfaction and dissatisfaction. 230 K-6 public school teachers in the central Midwest

were administered an open-ended questionnaire. As opposed to strictly monetary

rewards, the results revealed that almost three-fourths of the respondents indicated

their primary job satisfaction to be derived from the intrinsic benefits that accrued

from working with children. Saunders and Watkins (1980) in their study concluded

that the recent and continuing economic concerns of teachers have contributed to their

stress. They, therefore, conjectured that when economic times become more positive,

the degree of stress felt by teachers may decrease.

Lopez et al. (2010) from an integrative approach identified the main predictors

of different manifestations of occupational malaise (stress, burnout and job

dissatisfaction). The results from statistical analysis conducted (correlation and

regression) on a sample of 1,386 secondary education teachers strongly supported the

existence of (personal, psychosocial and contextual) determining factors common to

all three phenomena. Specifically, support by colleagues, optimism, hardiness, daily

hassles and life events were explored to be the valid predictors of stress, burnout and

job dissatisfaction in these secondary school teachers by them. Other variables like-

type A behavioural pattern, family support, conscientiousness also showed that

account for the specificity of each of the phenomena.

Ahsan et al. (2009), through the multiple regression analysis showed that the

association between homework interface and job stress was significant with 3= 0.218.

At the level of institution, factors such as, social support amongst colleagues and

leadership style have been found to be important in affecting levels of stress. Dussault

et al. (1999) assessed isolation and stress in 1110 Canadian teachers and found a

strong positive correlation. Similarly, the study by Jonas (2001) among 104 black

educators in the Pietersburg area also indicated the relationship between stress and the

54


X5/;'11 ilt~iv perceived social support of friends anT amily members. While, Salaam, Alawiye, &

Okunlaya (2013) revealed that uncooperative attitude of the staff is the major cause of

stress among the university librarians. Although such studies indicate colleague

support can buffer stress reactions among educators, the study carried out by

Jacobsson, Pousette, and Thylefors (2001) revealed that colleague and principal

support were not among the more important stress buffers, as expected. Ahsan et al.

(2009) also observed that relationship with others had no significant effect on job

stress while, workload pressure, role ambiguity and performance pressure were the

significant predictors that directly affected job stress. Moreover, Saunders and

Watkins (1980) concluded that teacher-teacher relationships as well as teacher-

administrator relationships are not perceived as sources of teacher stress in the

system.

A study by Seenivasan (2007) found the low experienced group of 41 teachers

to be dissatisfied with factors- salary, interaction in the work group, opportunity for

advancement and nature of communication, while the high experienced group was

observed to be dissatisfied on factors like- personal benefits, working condition, work

itself, opportunity for advancement and curricular issues. Using a questionnaire,

Archibong, Bassey, and Effiom (2010) gathered data from a sample of 279 academic

staff and showed that career development was the greatest source of stress to

academic staff. Also, sourcing funds for career development was reported to be

highest with respect to career development.

2.4 Teachers occupational stress and pupil control ideology

Teacher—student attachment and teachers' attitudes towards work appear

critical in promoting and maintaining positive teacher behaviors. Communication

connects students with teachers, improving the classroom atmosphere. Teachers who

communicate effectively with their students can give them appropriate and helpful

feedback. Teacher—student interaction is extremely important for a successful

relationship through the entire school year (Ahmad & Sahak, 2009). In the same vein,

Farber (1999) also notes that, "it is the student- teacher relationship that offers the

greatest opportunity for stress as well as the greatest opportunity for reward and

gratification". Kinman (2001) in the tertiary section suggested that contact with

55


students may protect teachers from stress. She noted that professionals can find some

aspects of their work intrinsically satisfying, despite high levels of stress and

dissatisfaction with other extrinsic aspects—like workload and pay. She also reviewed

the findings indicating that academic staff in universities are generally enthusiastic

about their work and find it rewarding and satisfying despite also reporting high levels

of workload and burnout.

In the study on Irish teachers and principals, Darmody and Smyth (2011)

found teachers to be more satisfied when their students were well behaved and parents

were more involved in school life. They observed that, the more pupils with

emotional/behavioral difficulties there were in the school, the higher were the stress

levels experienced by the principal. Their findings are corroborated with the results

from the study by Archibong, Bassey, and Eff om (2010) conducted on 279 academic

staff. They have reported students to be the greatest source of stress to academic staff

with respect to interpersonal relationships. Hastings and Bham (2003) indicated that

several researchers found that teachers identify student misbehavior as a source of

stress. Bilbou—Nakou, Stogiannidou, and Kiosseoglou (1999) reported that difficulty

in managing disruptive children have been presented as one of the major cause of

burnout.

Investigating the functioning of primary school classroom management Konti

(2011) explored the application methods of class and branch teachers in primary

schools, qualities of these methods, plan and program preparations, how the teachers

manage the relationship in their classrooms, how they prepared teaching environment,

whether the teachers control the target aims are gained to the students or not, how the

teacher prevent occurring misbehaviors in the classroom, reasons of misbehaviors

occurring and methods adopted by the teachers to prevent misbehaviors in the

classroom. Findings of the study showed that teachers need classroom management

training. Likewise, Hosotani and Imai--Matsumura (2011) investigated the emotional

experience; expression, and regulation processes of high-quality Japanese elementary

school teachers while they interacted with children, in terms of teachers' emotional

competence. It was found that teachers considered emotion expression in front of

children as a skill, and their emotion regulation processes involved considering

various purposes, appropriately using emotion expression, and ideal teacher images.

W


Interestingly, a study by Crocker and Brooker (1986) sought to identify

dimensions of classroom control derived from factor analysis of selected classroom

process variables, to interpret these dimensions in relation to two contemporary

models of classroom control, and to explore the relationships between dimensions of

control and certain cognitive and affective outcomes. Data used in the study were

drawn from a larger data base developed for some 30 hours of observation per

classroom, pre-and post-testing, teacher interviews, and other data sources in a sample

of 36 second grade and 39 fifth grade classes. Results of the study indicated that

dimensions of boundary control and disruptive behavior were readily identifiable but,

contrary to what have been suggested by other authors, warmth or emotional climate

could not be clearly separated from disruptive behavior or discussion — recitations.

Agoglia (1998) proposed a study to examine the differential effects of the

predictor variables of 117 teachers' locus of control, pupil control ideology and

perceived occupational stress on the criterion variable of attitudes toward inclusive

education. Significant direct relationships were found between pupil control ideology

and occupational stress. Alternative path models provided more parsimonious fits to

the sample data, wherein pupil control ideology and locus of control accounted for

most of the variance in attitudes toward inclusive education. These models suggested

that teachers' control beliefs (i.e., locus of control and pupil control ideology),

independent of occupational stress, significantly affected attitude formation.

Helwig (1997) analyzed the relationship between student-related stress,

teacher efficacy, pupil control ideology (PCI) and intent to leave teaching for 957

Oregon school teachers. He found that teachers intending to enter school

administration were more humanistic than their colleagues. Teachers who intended to

leave the classroom for positions outside of education were found to be under more

stress from students, less efficacious and more custodial than those teachers intending

to remain in the classroom. Using an experiential learning methodology based mainly

on humanistic psychological theory, Hall, Hall, and Abaci (1997) reported the

outcomes of a two-year, part time Masters' programme in human relations. The

learning style preferences of 42 experienced teachers were considered as independent

variables. Also, a control group of 42 was established with similar demographic

characteristics. Prior to the course, the experimental group and the control group were

57


given the Maslach Burnout Inventory and the Pupil Control Ideology Form. A sample

of 32 from the experimental group was given semi-structured interviews relating to

changes in their professional and personal lives. The results indicated that, following

the training, there was a reduction in reported stress, indications of a more humanistic

orientation towards pupil control and an increase in a sense of an internal locus of

control.

The study by Brame (2007) also examined a hypothesized relationship among

teacher beliefs, teacher behaviors, classroom climate, student engagement, and

student outcomes. The researcher used teacher (N=6) and student (N=1 2) interviews,

observations, and the mining of documents and material culture to collect data. The

finding revealed that humanistic teachers operated in an atmosphere of student

empowerment and high levels of student engagement while custodial teachers

operated in an atmosphere of student compliance and low levels of student

engagement. Outcomes, (grades, office referrals, and accountability scores) were

more positive in humanistic classrooms than in custodial classrooms.

Correlations with outcomes were generally consistent with these found in

other process-product studies. Baloglu (2008) examined the relationship between

prospective teachers' preferred strategies for coping with stress and their perceptions

of student control by use of a relationship survey model and determined the relations

between these concepts. Pearson moment correlation was used to analyze the data

collected from 267 prospective teachers in Turkey. Findings showed that there was a

noticeable meaningful statistical relation between the variables. Quite opposite to this,

some studies have also shown negative results like that of Suzanna Zavaleta (2009).

Exploring the relationship between classroom behavior management, self-efficacy

and occupational stress of head start teachers, she found a negative relationship

between teachers with children and their reported self-efficacy in classroom behavior

management.

A sample of 376 elementary school teachers in Turkey reported their student

control ideologies and their perceived burnout levels using the Student Control

Ideology Scale and the Maslach Burnout Inventory in a study carried by Bas (2011).

Pearson moment's correlation coefficient analysis showed some negative significant

correlations among teachers student control ideologies and their perceived burnout

58


levels. It was also found that teachers' student control ideologies were significant

predictors of their burnout levels and approximately 17% of the total variance for

teachers' burnout was explained by their student control ideologies. Sava (2002)

analyzed the data from 109 teachers and 946 high school pupils using path analysis,

and suggested that, teachers who preferred a custodial approach of controlling pupils,

who had lower morale due to school climate conditions and who were less likely to

burn out, tended to adopt conflict-inducing attitudes towards pupils.

The study by Harris, Halpin, and Halpin (1985) supports the bivariate and

multivariate relationships between the dependent variable of pupil control orientation,

and the independent variables of the dimensions of teacher stress, sex and age. They

surveyed 130 full—time teachers from three states and found that all of the correlations

between the PCI and the stress factors were negative, Results obtained on the

bivariate analyses indicated that an authoritarian orientation was significantly related

to higher scores on four of the five stress factors. Also, no significant relationship

existed between sex and the five stress factors, although female teachers tended to

have a more humanistic orientation.

Sari (2011) surveyed 75 female teachers working in elementary schools in

Turkey and indicated that gender roles of women teachers had important effects on

their educational. practices. Stress, close relationships with students and parents, and

lack of authority and issues of confidence came out to be the few main points in

teachers' explanations that how their gender roles affected their profession mostly.

Friedman (1995) examined how typical student behavior patterns contribute to

predicting burnout among teachers. The findings showed that the typical student

behaviors — disrespect, inattentiveness and sociability — accounted for 22% of teacher

burnout variance for the whole sample and for 33% of burnout variance in teachers in

religious schools. Humanistic teachers were affected mainly by disrespect, whereas

custodial teachers were affected mainly by inattentiveness. Burnout among male

teachers was mainly affected by students' inattentiveness, whereas burnout among

female teachers was mainly affected by students' disrespect.

An investigation of teacher stress by Harris (1984) focused upon teachers'

personality, ideology, gender, age, locus of control, and pupil control orientation.

Teacher responses obtained from the Pupil Control Ideology Form, Teacher Locus of

59


Control Scale and Teacher Occupational Stress Factor Questionnaire investigated

professional inadequacy, principal-teacher professional relationship, collegial

relationships, group instruction, and job overload as the factors frequently implicated

in teacher stress. Findings indicated that an authoritarian pupil orientation was

associated with high stress for four of the five stress factors. Further, an external locus

of control was associated with stress for three of the five factors, and male teachers

tended to have a more authoritarian approach than female teachers. Using factor

analysis, item response modeling, systems of equations and a structural equation

model on a sample of 1,430 practicing teachers Klassen and Chiu (2010) also found

teachers with greater workload stress to have greater classroom management self-

efficacy. Female teachers reported greater workload stress and greater classroom

stress from student behaviors, and lower classroom management self-efficacy.

2.5 Summary

The relationships between teachers' occupational stress and demographic

factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology in the literature

review show mixed results. Reporting the demographic factors, several studies have

shown significant difference while others have indicated no significant difference.

Some independent variables were more significant or correlated compared to others,

for example, many studies reported males experiencing more occupational stress than

females, while females facing more occupational stress than males were also reported

in other studies. Contrary to the aforementioned findings, there were studies which

reported no significant differences between male and female teachers occupational

stress. Generally, a large number of researches reported that teachers experience stress

mainly in the beginning years of their career. Few studies show years of experience

differ significantly and thus, contribute directly to teachers stress. Some of the

researches deal with an evidence of older! more experienced teachers to face higher

levels of stress, while a significant portion stated no differences in stress based upon

years of teaching experience. Further, teachers of junior rank possessing less

qualification reported themselves to be more stressed out; while there have been

enough evidences where higher degree holders exhibited more occupational stress.

Quite opposite to this, there were studies which observed no significant difference

between academic qualification of teachers and their occupational stress.


The literature review shows a paucity of studies on occupational stress and

salary/ subjects taught. Poor salary is negatively correlated with teachers stress, and

has been identified as the major cause of dissatisfaction among teachers. A little

indication has also been given where salary provided satisfaction for both male and

female teachers. Besides, studies that are specific to significant differences between

subjects taught and teachers' occupational stress were also addressed. Although, no

significant differences have also been shown between various streams of teachers and

their stress levels, yet these studies were not found to be many, and a need requires for

information regarding the population of teachers serving students with different

subjects. A range of results were also found among the job satisfaction, where it was

seen through few studies that teachers reporting greater stress are less satisfied with

teaching, normally. Whereas, other reported studies of job satisfaction among teachers

indicate that as an occupational group teachers report relatively high levels of

satisfaction to partly/ intermediary satisfaction levels. Specially, gender role strongly

affects job satisfaction of teachers. Due to cultural differences, it was also seen that

job satisfaction differs between male and female based on regional differences.

Specific factors that contribute to stress levels among teachers were also

examined through various work values. Mainly these factors affecting the teachers'

stress are termed as pay, job security, working conditions, social support among co-

workers and management, supervision, career advancement opportunities, promotion,

work itself and supervision. Based on an analysis of the literature, it is evident that

significant relationships do exist between teachers work values and their occupational

stress. In the gender realm, female teachers show a greater preference towards work

values and depict a higher level of work values than the male teachers. A large

number of researches echoed that stress is negatively and significantly related to work

values (supervisor and co-worker support, teachers salary and economic status of

schools) while some showed no relation of work values with occupational stress.

Research further suggests a relationship, exists between occupational stress and how

teachers behave in the classroom, i.e. their pupil control ideologies. The literature

cited provides enough evidence that no matter how positive a classroom environment,

children sometimes do misbehave, thereby causing stress among teachers. As a result,

teachers often resort to punishment. Many of the reported studies showed that pupil

control ideologies are significant predictors of teachers stress levels with an

61


association of authoritarian pupil orientation, generally, with high teacher stress. It is

also reflected in few studies that effective training may influence these variables in a positive direction.

Chapter-3 Methodology and

Design of the Study

Methodology and Design of the Study

Chapter 3 Methodology and Design of the Study

The term `methodology' describes a process, refers to simple set of methods

or procedures, a body of practices, and a set of working methods and rules used by

researchers engaged in an inquiry in a particular field. Research methodology is a way

to systematically solve the research problem, and is defined as a science of studying

how research is to be carried out scientifically with the help of underlying rationale

and philosophical assumptions. The various steps that are generally adopted by a

researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them, is to be

studied in it. Most essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their

work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research

methodology. It is aimed to give the work plan of research.

Plan of a research study entails over view of the total layout including a

consideration of how the work is to be executed. It is at this stage that decisions

crucial for the accomplishment of the aims of the study such as, how the research

problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypotheses have been

formulated, how population is to be defined and sampled, what measures of gathering

data are to be used, what controls are to be-applied, what kind of data pertinent to the

study are to be collected and what particular method to be adopted, how it is to be

analyzed and why a particular technique of analyzing data to be used, and a host of

similar other questions are usually answered. Needless to say that without proper planning, difficulties to be encountered

during the progress of the work cannot be anticipated and resolved. In fact, successful

completion of the study without preplanning becomes not only difficult but

impossible as well. This chapter includes a detailed description of the methods which

were used in conducting this study, type of the data pertaining to study needed, the

tools and techniques used for their collection, and the procedure by which they have

been collected. The details about the nature of the population, the size of sample, the

method of sampling, tools, procedure of data collection, statistical methods to be

employed are also provided in this section.

63


3.1 Methodology

The method adopted for the present study can be categorized as descriptive

and statistical in nature. Descriptive research describes systematically the facts and

characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately (Isaac

& Michael, 1995). Such studies are designed to obtain pertinent and precise

information concerning the. current status of phenomena and, whenever possible, to

draw valid general conclusions from the facts discovered. Descriptive research studies

portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group;

and may be focused to investigate `what exists' with respect to variables or conditions

in a present situation. Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify

what is; and are more than just a collection of data. They involve measurement,

classification, analysis, comparison, and interpretation. The major purpose of

descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. This

kind of research uses description, classification, measurement, and comparison to

describe what phenomena are.

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different

kinds. In social science research, the , term Ex-post facto research is quite often used

for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables;. he can only report what has happened or

what is happening; Descriptive research,.also known as statistical research, describes

data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. It is

concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes

that are going on, effects that are evident and trends that are developing. Descriptive

research answers the questions who, what, where, when, why and how. It relies on

qualitative and quantitative data gathered from written documents, personal

interviews, test results, surveys, etc. Basic characteristics of descriptive research are

to provide a descriptive analysis of a given population or sample, where the inferences

are left to the readers; to present qualitative, quantitative or a combination of both

types of data; to use hypotheses or broad research questions.

The process of description as employed in this research study goes beyond

mere gathering and tabulation of data. It involves an element of interpretation of the

meaning or significance of what is described. Thus, description is combined with

64


comparison or contrast involving measurement, classification, interpretation, and

evaluation. The use of inferential statistics has also been made in deducing results

from different statistical techniques employed for investigating the relationship

between teachers' occupational stress with their demographic factors, job satisfaction,

work values and pupil control ideology. With the above mentioned goals to be

achieved, this study is designed to be executed in different steps as given below.

3.2 Sample Data are values of qualitative or quantitative variables, belonging to a set of

items. Data are the fundamental base in any statistical investigation and they may be

collected either through `Census' or `Sampling' method. However, sampling method

has become more popular these days. The assumption is that if the units of a sample

are selected at random, its characteristics and inferences will almost be the same as

they exist in the universe. A sample is a segment of the population selected to

represent the population as a whole; and a simple random sample may be defined as a

subset of individuals (a sample) chosen from a larger set (a population), where each

individual is chosen randomly and entirely by chance such that each individual has

the same probability of being chosen at any stage during the sampling process, and

each subset of k individuals has the same probability of being chosen for the sample

as any other subset of k individuals (Yates, David, & Daren; 2008).

A sample random sample is meant to be an unbiased representation of a group.

The problem of actual selection of the sample of required type and size becomes

indeed very crucial for any systematic and scientific method of enquiry. Adequate

sampling design depends upon many considerations such as definition of the

population from which the sample is to be drawn, available information about the

structure of the population, the parameters to be estimated, the objectives of the

analysis including the degree of precision required, financial and other resources

available at the disposal of the investigator, and appropriateness of the statistical

treatment of the data, etc.

3.2.1 Size of the sample The output of every research is the findings that are generalizable across the

entire population under the study. It is necessary, therefore, to choose a sample that is

representative of the population. The number of the units to be included in a 65


population sample, by and large, depends upon the subject area knowledge, purpose

of the study, detailed knowledge of the measurement tools, the use of results in

decision making, as well as the statistical knowledge to be used. The precision in

sample estimates is directly proportional to the sample size. Generally, more precise

sample estimates are obtained as size of the sample increases. It stands to reason that

the larger the sample, the more accurate will be the results of the study; and the

smaller the sample, the less accurate the results. With a large sample the data are

likely to be more accurate and precise. The larger the sample, the smaller the standard

error, but most investigations find this deal to be really difficult to achieve and in

selection of the sample some compromise is made such that neither the resultant data

becomes unmanageable to handle, nor do the generalizations and findings become

questionable on account of inadequacy of the sample.

The method which is used in selecting the sample is more important than size

of sample. Random selection is an ideal method for estimating the errors of sampling.

Since the present study had to be confined to willing and cooperating principals and

teachers, it does not claim that the sample was selected strictly randomly. The

principle of randomness was adapted to the extent it was practicable. Access to the

teachers and their cooperativeness admittedly were the main factors in selection of

sample for the main study. Furthermore, the sample size slightly varied at different

stages of investigations, partly due to dropping out of a few teachers from

investigation and partly due to non-inclusion of some teachers of the main sample in

subsequent analysis on account of their failure to complete one part of the test or

other. However, the main sample and the sub-samples were sufficiently large

representatives of the teachers of secondary schools, and are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: General description of the sample

S.No. Sample used for Size 1. Development of Teachers Occupational Stress Scale 118 2. Development of Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale 118 3. Study of relationship between teachers occupational

stress and their: (a) demographic factors 608 (b) job satisfaction 608 (c) preferences of work values 608 (d) u it control ideology 608


3.2.2 Sample used for the development of Teachers Occupational Stress Scale (TOSS) and Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale (TJSS)

TOSS and TJSS, both were administered on 118 secondary school teachers, 70

(59%) male and 48 (41%) female teachers, who were randomly sampled from ten

secondary schools of Aligarh district. Out of these ten schools, one was single-sex

male school, other was single-sex female school and the remaining eight were co-

educational schools. These schools belong to different categories of management and

range from good to poor in regard to performance of their pupils, and thereby depict

an indirect account of teaching proficiency of their teachers. Thus, the sample selected

for the scale construction of occupational stress and job satisfaction constituted a

cross-section of the secondary school teachers.

3.2.3 Sample used for the study of relationship between teachers' occupational stress and their demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology

The sample used for the study of secondary school teachers' occupational

stress forms the main sample of investigation which sought to find its relationship

with certain demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control

ideology. In all 608 teachers, 281 (46.22%) male and 327 (53.78%) female teachers

from 41 schools of eastern and western U.P. of India were involved.

It should be mentioned that these schools constitute different categories of

management, some of them are privately managed, and some are managed fully or

partially by the government. The types of management are categorized as

Government, Government Aided, Muslim Managed, Non-Muslim Managed, and

A.M.U. Managed Schools. The schools have been demarcated into the categories that

range from very good to poor in their performance; for instance, Our Lady of Fatima

School of Aligarh (Western U.P.) is a highly reputed and prestigious convent in terms

of its progress, academic output and discipline. Pupils in these schools pay high

tuition fees and belong to well to do families with a high socio-cultural background.

Schools such as Government Girls Inter College and Ashrafia Inter College of

Azamgarh (Eastern U. P.) are Government run schools and deliver poor output in

terms of performance. Generally the pupils in these schools come from the lower

socioeconomic strata of the society. 67


The distribution of teachers according to differently managed schools is

presented in table 3.2, while table 3.3 outlines the distribution of teachers according to

medium of instruction, and single-sex/ co-educational schools. Out of the forty one

schools, ten are Government schools having 138 teachers in which 62 (44.93%) are

male and 76 (55.07%) are female teachers; ten Government Aided schools have 150

teachers including 107 (71.33%) male and 43 (28.67%) female teachers. Further, 112

teachers, 26 (23.21%) male and 86 (76.79%) female teachers were selected from nine

Muslim Managed schools, and 98 teachers i.e. 28 (28.57%) males and 70 (71.43%)

female teachers are from seven Non-Muslim Managed schools; and lastly, five

A.M.U. managed schools had 110 teachers i.e., 58 (52.73%) males and 52 (47.27%)

females.

From the total schools, seventeen schools are single-sex having 281 (46.22%)

teachers; in this ten are single-sex male schools constituting 153 (54.45%) teachers

and the rest seven are single-sex female schools having 128 (45.55%) teachers, while

the remaining twenty four are co-educational schools having 327 (53.78%) teachers in

total. Further the Hindi medium and the English medium schools are seventeen and

twenty four in number respectively. The number of teachers in Hindi medium schools

are 258 (42.43%) and 350 (57.57%) in English medium schools.

Methodology and Design of tlreSludy

Table 342, Distribution of sample by management, schools and gender

Government Government Aided

S.No Name of schools School•wise sam le Management- wise

percentage distribution of

sample

S.No Name of schools School-wise sample Management- wise

percentage distribution of sample

Male Female Total Male Female Total

I A.D. Govt. Girls Inter College, GKP 15 15 22.70 11 Mahatma Gandhi Inter College, GKP 09 09 24.67

2 Gramodaya Seva Sansthan, ALG 05 11 16 12 Imambara Muslim Girls Inter

College, GKP

05 25 30

3 Sarvodaya Inter College, ALG 10 05 15 13 S.A.B.S.U, Madhyamik Vidyalaya,

GKP

16 16

4 Jan Kalyani Inter College, ALG 07 08 15 14 Jain Inter College, RMU 10 10

5 Gyanodya Inter College, ALG 04 08 12 15 Hasrat Inter College, RNIU 10 04 14

6 Jubilee Inter College, GKP 12 08 20 16 Rani Avanti Bai Adarsh Inter College, AW

18 18

7 Govt. Girls Inter College, AMH 03 07 10 17 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Inter College, ALG

06 01 07

8 Govt, Girls Inter College, ALG 13 13 18 Beenapara Inter College, AMH 09 09

9 Ashrafia Inter College, AMH 17 17 19 Janta Inter College, AMH 14 14

10 Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan, ALG 04 01 05 20 Khanja Inter College, AMH 10 13 23

Total 62 76 138 Total 107 43 150


Table 3.2: Distribution of sample by management, schools and gender (contd.)

Muslim Management Non•Muslim Management

S,No Name of schools School-wise sample Management- S.No Name of schools School-wise sample Management. wise wise percentage Percentage Male Female Total Male Female Total distribution of distribution of sample sample

21 Aligarh Public School, ALG 04 08 12 18.42 30 Gagan Public School, ALG 06 16 22 16,12

22 Iqra Public School (Girls), ALG 18 18 31 Takshila Public School, SPN 03 08 11

23 Iqra Public School (Boys), ALG 02 04 06 32 S. I, D. Memorial Public 04 06 10

School, ALG

24 Woodbine Floret Public School, 04 06 10 33 Pooja Public School, ALG 03 08 11

ALG

25 Ayesha Tarin Modern Public 01 12 13 34 Our Lady of Fatima Secondary 04 13 17

School, ALG School, ALG

26 Al-Barkaat Public School, ALG 05 OS 10 35 Blue Bird Senior Secondary 06 05 11 School, ALG

27 Zakir Hussain Model Senior 03 07 10 36 St Teresa School, GZB 02 14 16

Secondary School, ALG

28 Eden Public School, SPN 01 10 11

29 Murtaza Memorial Public High 06 16 22

School, GKP

Total 26 86 112 Total 28 70 98


Table 3,2: Distribution of sample by management, schools and gender (contd,)

Aligarh Muslim University Management

S.No. Name of schools School•wise sample Management•wise

percentage distribution of

sample Male Female Total

37 A,M.U. Girls High School, ALG 02 11 13 18.09

38 A,B,K, Union High School (Girls), ALG 07 21 28

39 ARK. Union High School (Boys), ALG 16 04 20

40 S.T.S, High School, ALG 07 08 is

41 A.M.U. City High School, ALG 26 08 34

Total 58 52 110

71


Government- aidlecl

Muslim Government ,111.Managed

Aligarh Muslim Non-Muslim

University Managed Managed

Fig 3,1: Pie diagram showing distribution of sample by management

72


Table 3.3: Distribution of sample by management, number of schools, gender, medium of instruction and number of single-sex! coed schools

S,No, Management Number Management-wise composition Management- Medium of Single-seal Co-ed

Type of and percentage wise percentage instruction

distribution of (No. of schools) Schools • sample

Male Female 7tal

Hindi English . Male Female Co-ed

1 Government 10 62 76 138 22.70 08 02 02 03 05

(44,93%) (55.07%)

2 Government-aided 10 107 43 150 24.67 09 01 04 01 05

(71.33%) (28.67%)

3 Muslim Managed 09 26 86 112 18.42 _ 09 01 01 07

(23.21%) (76.79%)

4 Non-Muslim 07 28 70 98 16.12 07 07

Managed (28.57%) (71.43%)

5 Aligarh Muslim 05 58 52 110 18.09 _ 05 03 02 — University (52.73%) (47.27%)

Managed

Total 41 (46.12%) r(53,78%) 608 100 17 24 10 07 24

73


3.2.4 Demographic characteristics of the sample

The demographic characteristics of the sample are presented in table 3.4. An

overview of the table reveals that the number of male teachers (281) is less than that

of female teachers (327). For studying the relationship between occupational stress of

teachers with their teaching experience, the data were categorized into four groups,

i.e., having experiences of 0-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years and 16 onwards. Out of

608 teachers, 181 belong to 0-5 years' group, 183 belong to `6-10 years' group, 113

belong to `11-15 years' group and 131 belong to `16 onwards' group. To find out the

relationship between teachers stress and their qualification, the total sample was

categorized into three groups on the basis of their academic qualification attained i.e.

untrained, TGT (Trained Graduate Teachers) and PGT (Post Graduate Teachers). Out

of the total sample, 206 are such teachers who belong to ùntrained' group, 80 are

such teachers who belong to `TGT' group and 322 are such teachers who belong to

`PGT' group. To study the effect of salary on teachers' occupational stress, teachers

were categorized into two groups on the basis of payments received by them, i.e. upto

15,000 INR and 15,000 INR onwards. Out of 608 teachers, 386 received ùpto 15,000

INR' and the remaining 222 teachers' received '15,000 INR' onwards. Furthermore,

the relationship between subjects taught by teachers and occupational stress faced by

them was studied by categorizing the sample into four groups, i.e. languages (English,

Hindi, Urdu/ Arabic/ Persian, Sanskrit), arts (Drawing, P.T.1 Music/ Dance, General

Knowledge), social sciences (Economics, Education, Geography, History, Islamic

studies/ Theology, Political science, Psychology, Sociology) and sciences

(Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Home Science, Computer). Out of the

total teachers, 214 teach languages, 35 teach arts, 144 teach social sciences and 215

teach sciences to their students.

Moreover, 608 teachers responded to the Teachers' Job Satisfaction Scale,

Work Values Scale and Pupil Control Ideology Scale. The schools on the basis of

their management comprised of five categories, i.e. `Government', `Government

Aided', `Muslim Managed', `Non-Muslim Managed' and 'A.M.U. Managed'. The

numbers of teachers in the respective categories of schools are 138, 150, 112, 98 and

110. From the total sample, 281 teachers are in `single-sex schools' and 327 teachers

are in `co-educational schools'. Also, out of 608 teachers, 258 belong to `Hindi' as

74


medium of instruction and .350 belong to Ènglish' as medium of instruction. The

respective percentages of the number of teachers in each category are contained in

Table 3.4.

Table 3.4 Sample profile regarding demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology (N = 608) .

Demographic N

Gender Male 281 46.22 Female 327 53.78

Experience 0-5 years 181 29.77 6-10 years 183 30.10 11-15 years 113 18.58 16 onwards 131 21.55

Qualification Untrained 206 33.88 TGT 80 13.16 PGT 322 52.96

Salary Upto 15,000 INR 386 63.49 15,000 INR onwards 222 36.51

Subjects taught Languages 214 35.20 Arts 35 5.76 Social Sciences 144 23.68 Sciences 215 35.36

Job satisfaction 608 100

Work values 608 100

Pupil control ideology 608 100

Differently managed schools Government 138 22.70 Government Aided 150 24.67 Muslim Managed 112 18.42 Non-Muslim Managed 98 16.12 A.M.0 Managed 110 18.09

Single-sex and Co-educational schools Single-sex (male and female) 281 46.22 Co-educational 327 53.78

Medium of instruction Hindi 258 42.43 English 350 57.57

75


3.3 Data collected for the study The following baseline data were collected for carrying out the present

investigation:


> Data used for the development of Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale.

Scores on the teachers stress toward their occupation.

➢ Scores of the teachers demographic factors.

➢ Scores of the teachers job satisfaction.


> Scores of the teachers pupil control ideology.

3.4 Tools used After careful considerations following tools were selected or developed for

collecting data. Detailed descriptions of these tests are given in the fourth chapter.

3.4.1 Teachers Occupational Stress Scale

This scale was developed by the investigator to measure the stress experienced

by the teachers toward their occupation. The occupational stress scale consisted of 20

negatively worded items. The instrument uses a 5 — point Likert scale and the scheme

of scoring response category, `strongly agree' was given a weight of 5, àgree' a weight of 4, ùndecided' a weight of 3, `disagree' a weight of 2 and `strongly

disagree' a weight of 1 in respect to the responses pertaining to all the negatively

worded statements on occupational stress. The teachers occupational stress score is

calculated by adding the individual scores of all the items together where possible

range can be between 20-100, with mean of 60. Low score on the TOSS indicates low

level of stress or high satisfaction toward teachers job, and high score on TOSS indicates high level of stress or low satisfaction toward teachers job. Teachers

occupational stress levels are categorized into low- (20-5 0), moderate (51-70) and

more (71-100) levels of stress in accordance with stress scores obtained. The scale has

a split-half reliability of 0.83, which when corrected by Spearman Brown Profecy

Formula increased to 0.91. The inner consistency coefficient determined by the Cronbach alpha correlation is 0.92. Another consistency test of the scale is performed

76

I

4

= . ,, Methodology and Design oft/he Study 1

~ J~

.

by item total correlations technique; item total score correlations are between the

range of 0.44 — 0.78 of all items with the total test.

3.4.2 Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale

The investigator developed a 20-item Likert type scale to measure the job

satisfaction of teachers. The scale includes four positively worded and sixteen

negatively worded statements to satisfaction towards job. A 5 — point scale is used to

score the responses. The scheme of scoring response category, `strongly agree' was

given a weight of 5, àgree' a weight of 4, ùndecided' a weight of 3, `disagree' a

weight of 2, and `strongly disagree' a weight of I in respect of responses pertaining to

positively worded to job satisfaction. The scoring was reversed for the statements that

were negatively worded to job satisfaction. The teachers job satisfaction score is

calculated by adding the individual scores of all the items together where possible

range can be between 20-100, with mean of 60. Low score on the TJSS indicates low

level of satisfaction or unfavorable attitudes toward the teaching profession, and high

score on the TJSS indicates high level of satisfaction or favorable attitudes toward

teachers job. Teachers job satisfaction levels are categorized into high (71-100),

moderate (51-70) and low (20-50) levels of satisfaction in accordance with

satisfaction scores obtained. The scale has a split-half reliability of 0.77, which when

corrected by Spearman Brown Profecy Formula increased to 0.87. The inner

consistency coefficient determined by the Cronbach alpha correlation is 0.89. Another

consistency test of the scale is performed by item total correlations technique, item

total score correlations are between the range of 0.48 — 0.77 of all items with the total

test.

3.4.3 Work Values Scale

The investigator has selected the `work values as preference' paradigm after a

careful literature study, mainly referring to that of researchers (Super, 1957; Herzberg,

1959; Rosenberg, 1957; Lofquist & Dawis, 1978; Stefflre, 1962; Schaffer, 1953).

Some value orientations are unique to a single author, and some values incompletely

fill in the categories defined by the remainder. However, there is a substantial

agreement on 12 to 15 value categories. Therefore, taking this set as fundamental, the

researcher picked-up 11 work values from the six lists according to a rationale which


could well serve her purpose. The final selection of work values was made on the

basis of popularity or commonness of different work values. These work values

selected are as follows:

1. Good Economic Return 2. High Status 3. Power/ Authority 4, Security of Service 5. Freedom 6. Social Service 7. Cooperating Colleagues 8. Advancement 9. Intellectual Stimulation 10. Supervision 11. Work Consistent with Life Goals and Values

For the convenience, the statements were asked to be rearranged in the order

of their rank preference in the Work Values Scale with the most favorable — seeming

work value being assigned the number 1 and the least favorable — seeming work value

the number 11. The eleven relevant work values were presented to the teachers. Each

teacher was asked to judge as to which of the values is more important to him/her than

the other. In this way, data regarding the number of occasions on which each value

was judged more important than other was obtained. A frequency matrix was

prepared with the help of the data obtained. The total number of individuals making

the comparative judgments is 608 (N). Dividing the total cell entries in the data matrix

by N (number of teachers) gives the weightage of each work values.

3.4.4 Pupil Control Ideology Scale

Khatoon and Munir (2009) designed the pupil control ideology scale to

identify teachers control orientation in Indian schools. This scale consists of 20 items

about schools, teachers and pupils, designed to measure the pupil control ideology of

educators. Each statement of the tool is scored on a 5-point, Likert type scale where 5

means strongly agree and 1 denotes strongly disagree for all the statements that were

positive to custodial viewpoint. Item responses were coded so that high scores

(maximum of 100) signal a custodial orientation and low scores (minimum of 20) a

humanistic orientation. The pupil control ideology score for a teacher is calculated by

summing the individual scores of all the items together, where the theoretical range of

the scores on this scale extended from 20-100, with mean 60. Thus, a score in the

78


range of 71-100 signifies a custodial pupil control ideology, 51-70 signifies a

moderate ideology, and a score range of 20-50 denotes a humanistic pupil control

ideology. The reliability of the scale is 0.88 as reported by its authors and calculated

by split-half method and corrected by Spearman Brown Profecy Formula. The inner

consistency coefficient determined by the general Kuder-Richardson Formula is 0.91.

A complete test of the items in the scale is provided in the Appendix A-4.

3.4.5 Personal information sheet and its coding

The personal information sheet was prepared by the investigator and it

contained questions which aimed at eliciting information about the teacher's personal

characteristics such as name, school, gender, teaching experience, qualification, salary

and subjects taught. Differential weighting was used for scoring responses of the

items or questions which sought different information. Also, the institutional

information was sought by management type and medium of instruction on this

personal information sheet. All items in this sheet had either two or four options. The

teachers were requested to put a tick mark (4) against the alternative which suits them.

A copy of personal information sheet is given in Appendix B-1.

The coding of the personal information sheet is as follows:

1. Gender: Male =1, Female=2.

2. Teaching Experience: 0-5 years = 1, 6-10 years = 2, 11-15 years = 3, 16

onwards = 4.

3. Qualification: Untrained = 1, TGT = 2, PGT = 3.

4. Salary: Upto 15,000 INR = 1, 15,000 INR onwards = 2.

5. Subjects taught: Languages = 1, Arts = 2, Social Sciences = 3, Sciences = 4.

6. Medium of instruction: Hindi = 1, English = 2.

3.5 Methods of data collection

In order to collect the systematic data, it was essential to approach subjects

personally and the investigator did the same. The relevant data about the occupational

.Tess of secondary school teachers on the basis of demographic factors, job

3tisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology were collected with the help of

ieasuring tools, which were given in the previous section. In this regard, first of all

rior permission from the Principals' of those schools from which the data was 79

Methodology and Design oft/se Study

collected was obtained and a schedule of administering the tests was fixed with them.

The investigator presented the formal letter received from her Supervisor and

Chairman of the Department of Education, A.M.U., Aligarh, so as to seek full

cooperation of the Principals' and teachers in these schools.

Further, after due permission the investigator contacted the teachers and

explained the objectives of the study to them. The respondents were assured that the

information provided by them would be kept confidential. Then, the investigator

distributed all the tests in a booklet form among the teachers. They were explained

and also asked to go through the general instructions given on the top of the front

page of the booklet before filling the given entries. Lastly, the teachers were asked to

read the questions/ statements carefully and requested to give their responses. Doubts

and confusions were made clear by the investigator before moving to the next item.

The investigator also gave full freedom to the teachers to ask the meaning of the

words or sentences which were beyond their understanding. Moreover, there was not

any kind of undue stress and control over the teachers at the time of completion of the

scale booklet. After completion, it was collected from the teachers and at the same

time the booklets were carefully checked by the investigator to see if all the items

were answered or not. If any question was left unanswered, the teachers were

requested to complete it before leaving.

3.5.1 Hurdles in data collection

Unfortunately, the data collection work was delayed due to many unforeseen

difficulties. The main difficulties encountered are as follows:

> Non-cooperation of principals' and teachers': This was one of the biggest hurdles that the investigator encountered during the data collection process. Principals of many schools did not allow the investigator to get the data collected from their schools, and on part of the teachers', many senior teachers were rude enough to show disinterest in answering the scale booklet.

> Holidays and vacations: Winter vacations, gazette holidays, half-working days on weekends in some schools while short periods on Friday in other schools, inspection day etc. proved to be the obstacles in the smooth collection of data.

➢ Examinations as a problem: Various examinations such as terminal, monthly and class tests also proved as hurdles in the normal work of data collection.

> B.Ed trainees: There was a rush of B.Ed trainees in almost every school, which in turn jeopardized the normal activities of the schools.

80


3.6 Statistical techniques employed

In accordance with the objectives of the study the obtained data were

analyzed, and for the data analysis specific statistical techniques were chosen only

after the investigator found them to be the most appropriate and compatible for the

collected data. Each statistical method is based upon its own specific assumptions

regarding the nature of the sample and research conditions. These factors are

considered in advance. Following statistical measures were used for analyzing the

data:

> Determination of the reliability and validity of the TOSS and TJSS.


Use of linear measure of correlation (Pearson's Product Moment Coefficient Correlation).

> Use of Multiple Regression for seeing the combined and individual effect of variables on the dependent variable.

> Use of F-test for measuring the significance of difference among more than two means.

> Use oft-test for measuring the significance of difference between two means.

Assumptions underlying the use of the Product Moment Correlation and 1-test

It may be relevant here to mention assumptions underlying the use of Pearson

Product Moment Correlation and the t-test, and how they are to be satisfied before the

use of these techniques.

Before correlation is computed the data is tested to see if two conditions exist.

The first of these conditions is that we have linear regression which means that our

points on the scattergram tend to fall along a straight line and the second condition is

that we should look for its homoscedasticity which means that the standard deviations

of the arrays tend to be equal.

To the extent that the data are not linear, the size of the computed `r' is

diminished. The size of the `r' reflects the amount of variance that can be accounted

by a straight line. When the data is primarily curvilinear, eta coefficient of the

correlation can be used, but this is not the case with present study. In the present study 81


it was assumed that the data is linear. Consequently, Pearson Product Moment

Correlation was found between total distributions of scores of the variables put into

correlation.

When the analysis oft-test is used, the following assumptions should be met:

> The individuals in the various sub-groups should be selected on the basis of random sampling from normal distributed population.

➢ The variance of the sub-groups should be homogeneous.

➢ The sample comprising the groups should be independent.

The logic of t-test requires all the aforementioned three assumptions. The first

and third assumptions depend upon the adequacy of the experimental design. This

emphasizes the necessity for careful planning prior to the execution of statistical tests.

Chapter-4 Research Tools

Research Tools

Chapter 4 Research Tools

The dependability of research findings is not only determined by planning,

methodology, data analysis and interpretation but also on tools that are used to collect

information or data. The construction of a research instrument or tool for data

collection is the most important aspect of a research because anything that is said by

way of findings or conclusions is based upon the type of information collected; and

the data collected is entirely dependent upon the questions asked to the respondents.

The research tool provides the input into the study and therefore the quality and

validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent upon it. In. a research study,

while selecting research tools many considerations have-to be kept in mind- such as

objectives of the study, the amount of time to be devoted to the study, availability of

suitable tests, their statistical characteristics, etc. Most importantly, amongst the

available tools, those tools should be elected that would provide data which the

investigator seeks to test the hypothesis.

The tools used for collection of 4ta for this study have been briefly discussed

in the foregoing chapter. Pupil Control Ideology Scale has been used in its original

form, whereas to measure the stress experienced by the teachers, Teachers

Occupational Stress Scale is developed by the investigator, through which teachers

were asked to take part in a questionnaire. Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale is also

constructed by the investigator to measure the extent of job satisfaction of teachers in

the teaching profession. Work Values Scale has been constructed with an attempt to

evaluate the preferences given to various values at work by the teachers. The present

chapter is devoted to a discussion of the methods of tools construction. Here the steps

for construction of these aforementioned tools are discussed in detail.

4.1 Teachers Occupational Stress Scale (TOSS) A wide variety of scales to measure teachers occupational stress have been

developed, like that of Cohen, Kamarck, and Mermelstein (1983), Gmelch et al.

(1984), McCormick and associates (McCormick, 1997a; McCormick & Ski, 1999;

McCormick & Solman, 1992b), Ismail, Yao and Yunus (2009), Eres and Atanasoska

(2011). However, in view of all the questionnaires on teacher stress, one of the first

83

Research Tools

instruments developed was Teacher Occupational Stress Factor Questionnaire (Clark,

1980), consisting of 30 Likert-type items which assess teachers' perceptions of

occupational stress. The initial validation study indicated the existence of five factors:

professional inadequacy (SPI), principal-teacher relationships (SPT), collegial

relationships (SCR), group instruction (SGI), and job overload (SJO). Responses were

scored from 1 (not stressful) to 5 (extremely stressful); a high score indicated high

stress. Internal consistency reliability coefficients for the five factors ranged from .93-

.98 in the validation study (CIark, 1980). In addition, partial support for the construct

validity of the TOSFQ was provided in a study by Moracco, Danford, and D'Arienzo

(1982).

The earliest work by Fimian and Santoro (1983) on Teacher Stress Inventory

(TSI) includes a "sources of stress" scale and a "physiological manifestations of

stress" scale. Hanif (2004) utilized Teacher Stress Inventory (TSI-Urdu), adapted

from TSI (Fimian, 1984) on women school teachers, comprising of 49 items

pertaining to 10 subscales of teacher stress. However, the most popularly and

frequently employed measure of teacher stress is the Teacher Stress Inventory

developed by Boyle et al. (1995). Clunies-Ross, Little and Kienhuis (2008) adapted

this scale to Australian English for primary teachers. The inventory presents 20

sources of stress in teaching, and asks teachers to rate on a scale of 0 to 4 the amount

of stress they generally experience from each factor. The Cronbach alpha internal

consistency coefficient for the scale is r = .85 (Griffith et al., 1999).

The Occupational Stress Scale (OSS) developed by Hassan and Hassan (1998)

measures a variety of stressful job situations. The 60-item (5 point Likert) OSS

demonstrated a high internal consistency (Cronbach a ranged from 0.79-0.87). The

scale has also yielded a test-retest reliability coefficient of 0.76. Mokdad (2005)

developed an occupational stress questionnaire consisting of mainly three major areas:

sources of stress, symptoms of ill-health, and coping with stress strategies; having a

reliability coefficient of 0.78. In comparison to these two, a much higher reliability

with Cronbach's alpha calculated at 0.943 has been depicted by Antoniou, Polychroni,

and Kotroni (2009) in their six-point Likert-type self-report rating scale ranging from

no stress at all (1) to very high level ofstress (6).

Teaching and non-teaching staff members in the age range 20-65 years

responded to Job Stress Questioneer (JBSQ) developed by Adeoye and Okonkwo

(2010). It includes 24 questions and measures different perceived causes of job stress.

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Research Tools

The questionnaire was subjected to face validity and content validity by the assistance

of experts in research method, and a reliability coefficient of 0.76 was obtained via a

test-retest method. Items for the instrument tagged Stress Sources Questionnaire

(SSQ) were developed by Archibong, Bassey and Effiom (2010) to assess the extent

of stress experienced by participants at University level in four aspects related to the

job namely- interpersonal relationships, research, teaching and career development.

The Cronbach's Alpha ranging from 0.74-0.82 was recorded for the sub-variables and

0.78 for the entire instrument.

In India, the Occupational Stress Index developed by Srivastava and Singh

(1981) is one of the most often administered scales to the teachers. It consists of 46

items rated on a five point scale that relates to dimensions of job life, viz., role

conflict, powerlessness, low status, etc. Also, the Teachers Stress Scale (TSS) by

Misra and Singh is evidenced to measure stress among female teachers by Singh

(2005). The reliability as worked out by test-retest method was found to be 0.8514.

Specifically, Sheeja (1999) constructed a 3 point Stress Inventory for Teachers (SIT)

to assess the stress levels of primary school teachers. This scale consists of 63 items

divided into 4 components viz., physical and personal, occupational, familial and

social, psychological and emotional stressors. For each statement a score of 2, 1 and 0

is to be given for responses always, sometimes and never respectively. The total score

of stress ranges from 0-126. However, there is a dearth of shorter instruments in India

to measure the occupational stress of particularly secondary school teachers

altogether. Finding a need for a shorter instrument with a straightforward factor

structure, the Teachers Occupational Stress Scale is developed for this research work.

4.1.1 Procedure

As a first step towards the development of Teachers Occupational Stress Scale

(TOSS), 56 statements expressive of stress toward teaching occupation were written

after a careful study of related literature and discussion with several experienced

principals, teachers and teacher-educators. The draft form thus prepared was released

for experts' opinion who were requested to judge the worth of each statement against

the following criteria:

> The statement should be kept short; and in simple and understandable language.

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Research Tools

> The statement should be clear and unambiguous semantically so that it is interpreted uniformly by all respondents.

> The statement should not be double barreled, i.e. two statements in one —two statements should be asked rather than one; it should express one single idea or issue.

➢ Statement should not contain prestige bias— causing embarrassment or forcing the respondent to give false answer in order to look good.

➢ The statements should be grouped into specific topic as it would make it easier to understand and follow.

> The statement should be properly spaced and laid-out in the questionnaire as cluttered questionnaire is less likely to be answered.

> The statement should be relevant i.e. there should be congruence between the statement and the definition of the concept of TOSS as accepted in this study.

As a result of experts' comments some of the statements were modified and

some omitted. The revised version of the initial TOSS contained 33 statements,

consisting of both positively (07) and negatively (26) worded statements toward

stress. Instructions to the subjects required them to respond to each of the item on a 5-

point scale, the response categories being `strongly agree', àgree', ùndecided',

`disagree', and `strongly disagree'. For construction of TOSS scale, Likert's

technique was preferred to Thurston's technique because the former is simpler and

less time consuming. Moreover, Thurstonian approach lacks good indices of validity

items and requires weighting of responses on a prior'basis and not on the basis of item

analysis data. Several popular and widely used teacher stress scales have followed

Likert's technique. Boyle et al. (1995), for example, used the method of summated

ratings (Likert's technique) in his survey of teachers stress because of its relative

simplicity. Teacher Occupational Stress Factor Questionnaire (TOSFQ) constructed

by Clark (1980) utilizes the same method of Likert's technique, and has resulted as

the most comprehensive instrument for measuring teachers stress for more than three

decades.

4.1.2 Try-out

The initial form of TOSS was administered to 118 teachers (59% male and

41% female), randomly sampled from ten secondary schools of Aligarh district.

Research Tools

Nunnally (1970) recommends that the number of individuals for tryout of tests should

be three to four times the number of items. Thus, the sample used for tryout of TOSS

was quite adequate.

The schools from which sample was selected belong to different categories of

management and range from good to poor in regard to standard of performance of

their pupils, which bear an indirect account of teaching proficiency of their teachers.

Thus, the sample selected for tryout of the Teachers Occupational Stress Scale

constituted a cross-section of the secondary school teachers. From the approximately

145 teachers in the schools, the investigator was able to collect 118 duly filled in

questionnaires (81% response rate) by making personal visit to each school.

4.1.3 Scoring

The scheme of scoring response categories involved differential weighting, in

respect of responses pertaining to negative worded statements on stress, such that the

response category, `strongly agree' was given a weight of 5, àgree' a weight of 4,

ùndecided' a weight of 3, `disagree' a weight of 2, and `strongly disagree' a weight

of 1. The scoring was reversed for the positive worded statements. The occupational

stress score of a teacher is the sum total of scores on all the 33 items of the scale.

Theoretically, the range of scores on this scale extended from 33 to 165. The higher

the score the more is the stress faced by the teacher towards their occupation.

4.1.4 Item analysis

An item analysis was done to determine the discriminating power of each item

with the total test by using Pearson Product Moment Correlation techniques. The aim

was to make the TOSS homogeneous by checking consistency of each item with the

total test and discarding all such items as were found inconsistent. To achieve this

end, scores on each item of the respondents were correlated with their total test scores

(Table 4.1). The items found to have a correlation of 0.40 or less with the total test

were discarded. Such items were thirteen in number. Surprisingly, all items positive to

occupational stress failed to discriminate and hence, were also included among the

rejected ones. To remove the effect of the eliminated items scores of the respondents

on them were deducted from their total score and item total correlation again

computed in respect of the remaining 20 items. The reiterative procedure increased

the original coefficient such that none of the 20 items were found to have a correlation

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Research Tools

Table 4.1 Item total correlations of the 33 items of the TOSS

Item No. Correlation Coefficient


1. 0.71 18. 0.71

2. 0.65 19. 0.75

3. 0.28 20. 0.05

4. 0.12 21. 0.66

5. 0.30' 22. 0.74

6. 0.52 23. 0.29

7. 0.71 24. 0.70

8. 0.58 25. 0.11

9. 0.75 26. 0.74

10. 0.16 27. 0.42

11. 0.48 28. 0.51

12. 0.63 29. 0.06

13. 0.40 30. 0.64

14. 0.53 31. 0.28

15. 0.03 32. 0.51

16. 0.34 33. 0.06

17. 0.56

* Rejected items

Table 4.2 Item total correlations of the 20 items of the TOSS

• Item No. Correlation Coefficient


1. 0.73 11. 0.73

2. 0.65 12. 0.78

3. 0.48 13. 0.69

4. 0.74 14. 0.74

5. 0.60 15, 0.74

6. 0.77 16. 0.76

7. 0.50 17. 0.44

8. 0.63 18. 0.52

9. 0.48 19. 0.66

10. 0.59 20. 0.53

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of less than 0.44 with total test. It was considered sufficiently high size for retaining

an item for the final form of the TOSS.

The instrument in its finished form consisted of 20 negatively worded items on

teachers' occupational stress, the examples of which could be cited as: (i) I am bored

with my job (ii) My opinions are not appreciated by my principal (iii) My job does not

satisfy me any longer. Teachers occupational stress score is calculated by adding the

individual scores of all the items together where the possible range lies between 20 -

100. Correlations for each of the 20 items constituting TOSS are reported in Table

4.2. Statement numbers correspond to these given in final version of the TOSS test. A

specimen of TOSS is given in Appendix A-1.

4.1.5 Reliability

The consistency of data will be achieved when the steps of the research are

verified through examination of such items as raw data, data reduction products, and

process notes (Campbell, 1996). Hence, it is the researchers' responsibility to assure

high consistency and accuracy of the tests and scores. Thus, Crocker and Algina

(1986) say, "Test developers have a responsibility of demonstrating the reliability of

scores from their tests". In order to find as to what extent the TOSS developed by the

investigator possesses this quality, split-half method was employed using the scores of

118 subjects on 20 items of the final form. A split-half reliability coefficient was

found by correlating scores of the subjects on odd items of the test with their scores

on even items. The correlation coefficient thus obtained was 0.83 which when

corrected by Spearman Brown Prophecy Formula increased to 0.91.

Yet another method i.e. Cronbach Alpha was carried out on all the 20 items of

the TOSS, which yielded an acceptable a = 0.92. Cronbach's alpha is the most

commonly used measure of reliability (i.e., internal consistency), that is, how closely

related a set of items are as a group; and is not a statistical test technically. It was

originally derived by Kuder and Richardson (1937) for dichotomously scored data (0

or 1) and later generalized by Cronbach (1951) to account for any scoring method.

Alpha is the mean of all split-half reliabilities (Cronbach, 1951). If the items in a test

are correlated to each other, the value of alpha is increased. However, a high

coefficient alpha does not always mean a high degree of internal consistency. This is

Research Tools

because alpha is also affected by the length of the test. If the test Iength is too short,

the value of alpha is reduced (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994; Streiner, 2003). Thus, to

increase alpha, more related items testing the same ,concept should be added to the

test.

There are different reports about the acceptable values of alpha, ranging from

0.70 to 0.95 (BIand & Altman, 1997; DeVellis, 2003; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). If

alpha is too high it may suggest that some items are redundant as they are testing the

same question but in a different guise. The closer Cronbach's alpha coefficient is to

1.0 the greater the internal consistency of the items in the scale. George and MaIlery

(2003) provide the following rule of thumb: _ > 0.9 — Excellent, —> 0.8 — Good, —>

0.7 — Acceptable, —> 0.6 — Questionable, > 0.5 — Poor, and — < 0.5 — Unacceptable.

Besides, Streiner (2003) recommends a maximum alpha value of 0.90.

41.6 Validity

The method employed for establishing validity of the TOSS was based on

principals' judgment method. The principals of various schools whose teachers had

participated in this study were approached.. They were asked to read carefully the

descriptions of more stress as well as less stress behavior towards teaching, and

identify those of the teachers of their respective schools whose stress behavior

matched clearly with either of the two descriptions. In this way two groups of

teachers, one having more stress and the other less stress towards teaching occupation

were identified.

The means of TOSS scores of those two groups were compared to test the

hypothesis that the mean of TOSS scores of the group judged as having more stress

towards teaching would be significantly higher than the mean of TOSS scores of the

group judged as having low stress. For this purpose, a t -- test of the difference of the

means of two independent, small sample was applied and the value of `t' calculated

by using one — tailed test. The result of the comparison is contained in table 4.3. The

validation procedure yielded a t-value of 8.87 which was found significant at the 0.01

level indicating, thereby, that the difference in the two means was significant and in

the predicted direction. Content validity of the items was ensured through rational

logical analysis of the teachers, principals, and experts in the questionnaire

construction. Also, correlation between total scores and item scores were used for

Research Tools

assuring validity. This approach assumes that the total score is valid; thus, the extent

to which the item correlation varies with the total score is indicative of construct

validity for the scale.

Table 4.3: Comparison of means of TOSS scores of teachers judged as more stress and less stress towards teaching occupation

Judged stress N Mean TOSS

score

t P

More stress 15 58.53 8.87 <.01

Less stress 15 23.93

4.1.7 Usefulness

This tool has 20 items which cohere to produce a scale of Teachers

Occupational Stress Scale for use to evaluate the stress faced by teachers towards

teaching profession. It appears to be helpful for the principals and research scholars.

The students of education and psychology can also use it to study the stressful

experiences of teachers towards the occupation. The data, supporting the reliability,

homogeneity, content validity and construct validity of this scale commend the

instrument for further use. Further, studies are now needed in order to test the

usefulness of this scale in specific research context. TOSS seems to represent a

promising measure of teachers stress toward their occupations.

4.2 Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale (TJSS)

Job satisfaction is a primary requisite for any successful teaching learning

process, as the quality of teaching depends upon the job satisfaction of teachers. A

great number of instruments that measure the phenomenon of job satisfaction have

been cited in the literature; some of the examples being; the Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss et al., 1967); the Job Descriptive Index (JDI; Smith,

Kendall & Hulin, 1969; Roznowski, 1989); the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS; Spector,

1985); the Job in General Scale (JIG; Ironson et al., 1989); the Global Job Satisfaction

(GJS; Quin & Shepard, 1974; Pond & Geyer, 1991; Rice, Gentile & McFarlin, 1991),

etc.

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It is obvious that teachers differ from typical employees in various ways. A

knowledge of teacher's professional inner-world may guide educational policy and

decision makers in nurturing teacher's professional well-being and consequently,

helps in improving teaching. Therefore, instruments that usually measure such job

satisfaction dimensions as appreciation, communication, coworkers, fringe benefits,

job conditions, nature of work, organization itself, organizations' policies and

procedures, pay, personal growth, promotion opportunities, recognition, security,

supervision may not always match with teachers' job satisfaction aspects (Spector,

1997). Other researchers highlight such dimensions of job satisfaction as: students'

characteristics and behavior, classroom control, availability of the resources, relations

with students, colleagues and administrators (Ramatulasamma & Rao, 2003; Rosser,

2005; Sharma & Jyoti, 2009).

The Job Satisfaction Scale (JSS) developed by Hackman and Oldham (1974)

is a 14-item scale designed to measure five specific satisfactions within the teacher's

work environment: pay, job security, social, supervisory, and growth satisfaction.

Altinisik (1998) computed the reliability of the JSS scale administering on different

sample groups; an obtained a coefficient alpha of .85 for the Turkish teachers sample.

Ayan and Kocacik (2010) constructed the Job Satisfaction Scale with the help of that

given by Kuzgun, Sevim, and Hamaci (2005). The scale contains 20 items consisting

of 14 positive and 6 negative items. It is accepted that when the scores obtained are

high, job satisfaction of the individual, that is, satisfaction with the essence of the

profession is high.

An Index of Job Satisfaction by Brayfield and Rothe (1951) comprises of 18

statements by which the teachers were asked to rate their responses to those

statements on a Likert, five-point scale labelled strongly agree, agree, undecided,

disagree and strongly disagree. The responses to these statements were scored from I

to 5 for statements 1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 15 and 17 while the rest of the statements were

scored from 5 to 1. The lower the score, the higher is the job satisfaction. Also, the

original Brayfield-Rothe instrument was modified by Chenevey, Ewing and

Whittington (2008) to remove out-of-vogue jargon, terms, or items. The reliability for

the overall scale, using Cronbach's alpha, was reprted as a =.75 by them. Kelly

(1993) employed the Overall Job Satisfaction Scale adopted and modified from Law

(1987), Miskel and Gerhardt (1974) to measure the level of job satisfaction of the

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assistant principals. An alpha coefficient of 0.7507 has confirmed the high reliability

of the scale.

An eight-section self-administered questionnaire was specially devised for

their study by Borg and Riding (1991a). The fourth section is devoted to job

satisfaction, and asked teachers to indicate how satisfied or dissatisfied they were with

their job in response to the question "Overall, how satisfied are you with teaching as a

job?" Ofili, Usiholo and Oronsaye (2009) also used a 5 point Likert scale (ranging

from very dissatisfied to very satisfied) to grade levels of satisfaction among Nigerian

teachers. De Nobile and McCormick (2006) measured job satisfaction using an

adapted version of the Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) developed by

Lester (1987). Some items from the original version of the survey were omitted as

they referred to aspects of work not pertinent to the larger study, leaving 51 of an

original 77 items. Each item comprised a statement regarding supervision,

recognition, working conditions, colleagues, responsibility and the work itself.

The MSQ (Weiss et al., 1967) is used worldwide to measure the job

satisfaction of teachers. There have been enough evidences of its successful usage in

various studies (Bester & Boshoff, 1997; Boshoff & Hoole, 1998; Van der Vyver,

1998). Singh (1989) developed Job Satisfaction Questionnaire that includes 20 items

to measure the degree of job satisfaction. Each item was rated on five point rating

scale ranging from highly satisfied to highly dissatisfied with a weighted score of 5 to

1. So far, it is found that many of the Job Satisfaction Survey's facets do not

correspond to teachers' job satisfaction dimensions well. Nowadays, there is generally

a widespread feeling that teachers, especially at the secondary level are in a state of

unrest and hence, unsatisfied with their job. Secondary section being a recent

evolution in the 80's, still remains in the evolving stage in the state of Uttar Pradesh

and grievances of teachers are one and many in India. The investigator decided to

construct and standardize an attitude scale to study the job satisfaction, so that the

newly constructed scale may contain all the factors to measure the job satisfaction of

secondary school teachers.

4.2.1 Procedure

As a first step towards the construction of the Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale

(TJSS), the investigator has written 60 items expressive of attitude towards teaching

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job after a careful study of related literature and discussion with several experienced

principals, administrators and teachers. The draft of the scale thus prepared, was

released for experts' opinion who were requested to judge the worth of each statement

against the following criteria:

> The statement should be kept short, and in simple and understandable language.

➢ The statement should be clear and unambiguous semantically so that it is interpreted uniformly by all respondents.

> The statement should not be double barreled, i.e. two statements in one — two statements should be asked rather than one; it should express one single idea or issue.

➢ Statement should not contain prestige bias— causing embarrassment or forcing the respondent to give false answer in order to look good.

> The statements should be grouped into specific topic as it would make it easier to understand and follow.

> The statement should be properly spaced and laid-out in the questionnaire as cluttered questionnaire is less likely to be answered.

➢ The statement should be relevant i.e. there should be congruence between the statement and the definition of the concept of TJSS as accepted in this study.

As a result of experts' comments some of the statements were modified and

some omitted. The revised version of the initial TJSS contained 37 statements, which

depicts high and low satisfaction toward teachers job. Nunnally (1967) recommends

the use of negatively and positively worded items to reduce response rate when

measuring the same construct. Instructions to the subjects required them to respond to

each of the item on a 5-point scale, the response categories being `strongly agree',

àgree', ùndecided', `disagree', and `strongly disagree'. For the construction of TJSS

in the present study, Likert type scale has been employed and preferred to Thurston's

technique for the reasons being; it is less laborious and less time consuming than the

Thurstone technique. It does not require the opinions of a group of judges as to the

degree of favorableness or unfavorableness each statement expresses. It is more

reliable.

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Likert approach gets a five point judgment on each item rather than the mere

rejection or acceptance in the Thurstone scale. The Likert-type scale is easy to score.

Several popular and widely used teacher job satisfaction scales have followed Likert's

technique, for example, Brayfield and Rothe (1951) used the method of summated

ratings (Likert's technique) in their survey because of its relative simplicity. Job

Descriptive Index (JDI) developed by Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) is also

measured on a six-point Likert scale, and has emerged as a reliable facet measure over

time (Kinicki et al., 2002), applicable across a variety of demographic groups

(Golembiewski & Yeager, 1978; Jung, Dalessio, & Johnson, 1986).

4.2.2 Try-out

The initial form of Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale was administered to 118

teachers, which included 70 (59%) male and 48 (41%) female teachers, randomly

sampled from 10 secondary schools of Aligarh district. These schools from which

sample was chosen belong to different categories of management and range from

good to poor in regard to standard of performance of their pupils, which bear an

indirect account of teaching efficiency of their teachers. Thus, the sample selected for

try-out of the Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale constituted a cross-section of the

secondary school teachers. The investigator was successful in collecting 118 (81%)

completed questionnaires from the approximately 145 teachers in the schools, by

making personal visits to each school.

4.2.3 Scoring

The scale was constructed by making use of Likert's methods of summation to

get a five point judgment on each item. Against each statement, five alternative

responses, namely, `Strongly Agree' (SA), Àgree' (A), Ùndecided' (U), `Disagree'

(D) and `Strongly Disagree' (SD) were given. Weights of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 were given

for positive statements in the order of their favorableness and for negative statements,

the scoring system is reversed. Thus, if one chooses `Strongly Agree' response for a

positive statement, he/she gets a score of `5' and for the same response, if the

statement is negative one gets a score of `1'. Only for the Ùndecided' response, one

gets always a score of `3' whether a statement is positive or negative. An individual's

score in this scale is the sum total of the scores for all the statement by the subject

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(Summated Ratings). The higher the score, the more satisfied is the teacher with his/

her job; and the lower the score, the more dissatisfied is the teacher with his/ her job.

4.2.4 Item analysis

In the method of summated ratings, rejection or selection of statements is done

on the basis of item analysis. An item analysis determines the discriminating power of

each statement using the item total correlation . by Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Technique. The item analysis aimed to make the TJSS homogeneous by

checking consistency of each item with the total test and discarding all such items as

were found inconsistent. To achieve this end, scores on each item of the subjects were

correlated with their total test scores (Table 4.4). The items found to have a

correlation of 0.43 or less with the total test were discarded. Such items were

seventeen in number. To remove the effect of the eliminated items scores of the

subjects on them were deducted from their total score and item total correlation again

computed in respect of the remaining 20 items. The reiterative procedure increased

the original coefficient such that none of the 20 items were found to have a correlation

less than 0.48 with total test (Table 4.5). It was considered sufficiently high size for

retaining an item for the final form of the TJSS.

The finished form of the scale consisted of 20 items, out of which 04 were

worded positively and 16 worded negatively to job satisfaction. Examples of both

positive and negative type items are (i) teachers lead vocationally unsatisfied lives (ii)

people give me much respect when they know that I am a teacher. Teachers' job

satisfaction score in this scale is the sum total of the scores for all the statements

answered by himl her (Summated ratings), where the possible range can be between

20 — 100 in the direction of increasing levels of job satisfaction. The higher the score

in this scale, the greater will be the job satisfaction. Correlations for each of the 20

items constituting TJSS are reported in Table 4.5. Statement numbers correspond to

these given in final version of the TJSS test. A specimen of TJSS is given in

Appendix A-2.

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Table 4.4 Item total correlations of the 37 items of the TJSS Item No. Correlation

Coefficient Item No. Correlation

Coefficient 1. 0.47 20. 0.20 2. 0.57 21. 0.73 3. 0.70 22. 0.38* 4. 0.17* 23. 0.59 5. 0.55 24. 0.16 6. 0.17 25. 0.67 7. 0.70 26. 0.52 8. 0.09 27. 0.49 9. 0.44 28. 0.24

10. 0.44 29. 0.50 11. 0.52 30. 0.21 12. 0.36 31. 0.54 13. 0.61 32. 0.20 14. 0.36 33. 0.06 15. 0.28 34. 0.27 16. 0.37 35. 0.41 17. 0.49 36. 0.38 18. 0.52 37. 0.61 19. 0.48

Rejected items

Table 4.5 Item total correlations of the 20 items of the TJSS Item No. Correlation

Coefficient Item No. Correlation

Coefficient 1. 0.54 11. 0.61

2. 0.57 12. 0.48

3. 0.70 13. 0.77

4. 0.55 14. 0.67

5. 0.74 15. 0.66

6. 0.53 16. 0.52

7. 0.54 17. 0.55

8. 0.59 18. 0.56

9. 0.61 19. 0.66

10. 0.54 20. 0.68

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4.2.5 Reliability

Reliability of TJSS was calculated by using the scores of 118 subjects on 20

items of the fmal form. A split-half reliability coefficient was found by correlating

scores of the subjects on odd items of the test with their scores on even items. The

correlation coefficient thus obtained was 0.77 which when corrected by Spearman

Brown Prophecy Formula increased to 0.87. Yet another method i.e. Cronbach Alpha

was carried out on all the 20 items of the TJSS, yielded a ^ 0.89 which is acceptable.

Cronbach's alpha determines the internal consistency or average correlation of items

in a survey instrument to gauge its reliability. In other words, it is a measure of how

well each individual item in a scale correlates with the sum of the remaining items. It

measures consistency among individual items in a scale.

Alpha coefficient ranges in value from 0 to 1 and may be used to describe the

reliability of factors extracted from dichotomous (i.e., questions with two possible

answers) and/or multi-point formatted questionnaires or scales (i.e., rating scale: 1 =

poor, 5 = excellent). The higher the score, the more reliable the generated scale is.

Nunnally (1978) has indicated 0.7 to be an acceptable reliability coefficient but lower

thresholds are sometimes used in the literature, while Streiner and Normal (1989)

have suggested that alpha should be above 0.7, but not much higher than 0.9. Besides,

the Wikipedia says that as a rule of thumb, a proposed psychometric instrument

should only be used if an a value of 0.8 or higher is obtained on a substantial sample.

4.2.6 Validity

The method employed for establishing validity of the TJSS was based on

principals' judgment method. The principals' of schools whose teachers had

participated in the study were approached. They were asked to read carefully the

descriptions of satisfied as well as dissatisfied behavior of teachers toward teaching,

and identify those of the teachers of their respective schools whose job satisfaction

behavior matched clearly with either of the two descriptions. In this way two groups

of teachers, one having satisfied behavior and the other dissatisfied behavior towards

teaching occupation were identified. The means of TJSS scores of those two groups

were compared to test the hypothesis that the mean of TJSS scores of the group

judged as satisfied behavior towards teaching would be significantly higher than the

mean of TJSS scores of the group judged as dissatisfied behavior. For this purpose, a t

-- test of the difference of the means of two independent, small sample was applied

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and the value of `t' calculated by using one — tailed test. The result of the comparison

is contained in table 4.6.

Table 4.6; Comparison of means of TJSS scores of teachers judged as satisfied and dissatisfied towards teaching occupation

Judged behavior N Mean TJSS score t P

Satisfied behavior 15 67.27 8.37 <.01

Dissatisfied behavior 15 45.13

The validation procedure yielded a t-value of 8.37 which was found significant

at the 0.01 level indicating, thereby, that the difference in the two means was

significant and in the predicted direction. The scale represents the Ùniverse of

Content' as it includes 20 statements from various dimensions of job satisfaction

namely, interest and attitude towards teaching, salary and benefits, academic freedom,

job security, inter-personal relationships, opportunities for professional development,

and working environment. Due weightage was given to all the dimensions while

selecting items. Hence, it has content validity. It has also construct validity as items

were selected having the correlations equal to or more than 0.48. The scale was given

to experts in the field of education and they agreed that the items in the scale were

relevant to the objectives of the study. Hence, it has face validity also.

4.2.7 Usefulness

This tool developed and standardized by the investigator has 20 items which

cohere to produce a scale of Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale for use to study the

school climate and the satisfaction levels of secondary school teachers. It can prove to

be useful for principals' and research scholars. The students of education and

-)sychology can also use it to find out and analyze various factors associated with

eachers' satisfaction or dissatisfaction, so that necessary steps can be taken to create

~n environment in which the human and professional needs of the teachers can be

filled. The data, supporting the reliability, homogeneity, content validity and

struct validity of this scale commend the instrument for further use. Further,

'=^s are now needed in order to test the usefulness of this scale in specific research

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context. TJSS seems to represent a promising measure of teachers' satisfaction levels

towards their occupations.

4.3 Work Values Scale (WVS)

4.3.1 Selection of work values

Several inventories of work values have been constructed explicitly for the

purposes of prediction and counseling rather than to test the hypotheses concerning

work behavior of individuals. Hammond's Occupational Attitude Rating Scale

(OARS, 1956), Stefflre's Vocational Values Inventory (VVI, 1962), Super's Work

Values Inventory (WVI, 1968), and the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ;

Gay et al., 1971), generated in the Minnesota studies are some of the examples. Super

(1957) originally developed the WVI in conjunction with the Career Pattern Study. It

yields score for 15 values. The initial form of the WVI was a forced-choice paired

comparison of 225 items. A subsequent modification reduced the reliability of two

scales below 0.70. Hendrix and Super (1968) recasted the scales into 45 items with 5-

point Likert type responses. The reliabilities of the scales are presently all above 0.80,

except for two with coefficients of 0.74 and 0.76.

Observation of the articles reviewed in the papers finds considerable variation

in the number, nomenclature and organization of the work values employed. Table 4.7

lists the values named in the three of the inventories, plus the values employed by

Rosenberg (1957), Schaffer (1953) and the satisfiers and dissatisfiers of Herzberg

(1959). All of the six authors included some variants of security, prestige, and

economic return. These values plus advancement and recognition might be called

extrinsic factors, representing the outcomes of work, as contrasted with the mean.

Starting with surroundings and ending at supervision might be the category of

concomitants, as conceived by Ginzberg (1951). The values between associates and

altruism lap the range of relationship with people on the job, but the factors starting

with independence through to the end of list are likely all part of the job itself or

extrinsic factors, rather than extrinsic or outcomes of worker.

Looking crosswise in the table, it may be observed that some value

orientations are unique to a single author, and that some values incompletely fill in the

categories defined by the remainder. Moral values in the MIQ (Lofquist & Dawis,

1978) stand in this position to way of life. Super's supervisory relations combines

technical and personal supervision in other schemes. Nevertheless, there is substantial

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Table 4.7: Taxonomy of work values

S.No. Super Herzberg Rosenberg Lofquist & Dawis Stefre Schaffer (MIQ)

I Security Job security Secure future Security Security - 2 Prestige Status Status, Social status Prestige Socio-economic

prestige status 3 Economic Salary Good deal of Compensation Money Economic

returns money security

4 Achievement Achievement Achievement Mastery and Advancement — Advancement — achievement, Recognition Recognition Recognition -

approbation

5 Surroundings Work conditions, Working conditions, company policy — company policy and — - and administration administration

6 Associates Interpersonal Work with Co-workers — Affection and relations – peers people interpersonal

relationships

7 Management Interpersonal Leadership Authority Control Dominance relations – subordinates

8 Supervisory Interpersonal Supervision – Dependence relations relations – — human relations —

superiors, Supervision – Supervision technical technical

9 Independence — Free of Independence Job Independence supervision freedom

10 Altruism Work itself Helpful to Social service Altruism Social welfare others Self–

expression

11 Creativity — Creative, Creativity Self- Creativity and original realization talent

12 Way of Life Factors in — Moral values — Moral value personal life scheme

13 Intellectual Possibility of Use special Ability utilization — -- Stimulation growth abilities

14 Variety Responsibility -- Variety — - Responsibility

15 Aesthetics — Adventure Activity — —

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agreement on 12 to 15 value categories, and this set may be taken as fundamental.

Therefore, the researcher could adopt any of the lists of work values, or she could

pick-up work values from the six lists according to a rationale which could well serve

her purpose. In situation such as this, the common practice prefers the criteria of

frequency of occurrence. Following this practice, the final selection of work values

was made on the basis of popularity or commonness of different work values.

1. Good Economic Return and High Status, common to all six Iists were selected.

2. Power/ Authority, Security of Service, - Freedom and Social Service, common to five lists were selected.

3. Cooperating Colleagues, Advancement and Intellectual Stimulation common to four lists were selected. -

4. Supervision, common to three lists was selected.

5. Work Consistent with Life Goals and Values, common to one list was selected.

The fmal selected lists of eleven work values not only forced to cover all aspects

of work, but were supposed to be relevant to the teacher's job. The work value scale is

produced as Appendix A-3.

4,3.2 Scoring

The numbers in identifying each of the eleven work values are of course,

arbitrary. It is convenient, however, to rearrange the statements in rank order with the

most favorable — seeming work value being assigned the number 1 and the least

favorable — seeming work value the number 11.

The eleven relevant work values were presented to the teachers. Each teacher

was asked to judge as to which of the values is more important to him/her than the

other. In this way, data regarding the number of occasions on which each value was

judged more important than other was obtained. A frequency matrix was prepared

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with the help of the data obtained. The total number of individuals making the

comparative judgments is 608 (N). Dividing the total cell entries in the data matrix by

N (number of teachers) gives the weightage of each work values. In this study (due to

the scoring process) the higher mean weightage work values show less preferred work

value, while the less mean weightage values show more preferred work value.

4.4 Summary

In the present chapter, constructions and standardizations of TOSS and TJSS,

along with WVS are reported. The TOSS is a 20 item Likert type scale in which all

the items are negatively worded to stress. Responses are scored on a five point scale,

higher the score on the TOSS indicate high level of stress of the teachers.

By the standard usually applied, TOSS appears to be an efficient instrument in

terms of its reliability and validity. Split-half reliability of the full test is 0.91 which

can be considered satisfactory for this type of test. Cronbach Alpha yielded a

coefficient of 0.92. Considering the fact that Alpha correlation under estimate

reliability, a power of the TOSS, to discriminate between more stress behavior and

less stress behavior was also well-proved by t-test applied to study the significance of

difference between means of TOSS scores of the two groups. Therefore, the TOSS

scale can, thus, be recommended as a reliable and valid instrument for use by

researchers in studying the stress of primary, secondary and senior secondary

teachers.

TJSS is also a 20 item Likert type scale in which four are positive worded and

sixteen are negatively worded to satisfaction towards job. A five point scale is used to

score the responses. Higher the score on the TJSS, higher will be the job satisfaction

of teachers. Split-half reliability of the full test is 0.87. Cronbach Alpha yielded a

coefficient of 0.89 which can be taken as a satisfactory measure. Thus, TJSS can be

recommended as a reliable and valid job satisfaction measure of primary, secondary

and senior secondary teachers.

The characteristics of the work environment that are tapped in the WVS rank

questionnaire developed by the investigator encompass 11 work values, which are an

outgrowth of a careful and detailed content analysis of the several work value

measures. For the convenience, it was suggested to rearrange the statements in the

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order of their rank preference in the WVS with the most favorable -- seeming work

value being assigned the number 1 and the least favorable — seeming work value the

number 11. Therefore, WVS stands as a comprehensive measure of preferences of

work values for primary, secondary and senior secondary teachers.

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Chapter-5 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of

Data

Presentation, Analysis and Inter.

Chapter 5 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Once the data for the research study has been collected, the next step usually

involves the analysis of that data. The choice of the analytical procedures depends on

several factors, including the type of research question that were asked originally and

the characteristics of the data that were collected (Sowell & Casey, 1982).Analysis

refers to the process by which sense and meaning are made of the data gathered in

qualitative research, through categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of

data, so as to obtain answers to the research questions. Analysis serves a two-fold

purpose — at first, it aims to extract as much information as possible i.e. pertinent to

the subject under consideration. Secondly, it aims to reduce data to intelligible and

interpretable form so that the relations of research can be studied and tested.

Since the general purpose of conducting a research study is to answer

questions in a systematic manner, the interpretation of the results must focus first on

the question that was asked, or inferred, in the problem statement. Thus, interpretation

takes the results of analysis, makes inferences pertinent to the research relations

studied, and draws conclusions about these reported relations. The researcher who

interprets research results searches them for their meaning and implications. This is generally done in two ways — in one way, the relations within the research study and

its data are interpreted. In other way, the broader meaning of the research data is

sought, by comparing the results and the inferences drawn within the data to theory

and to other research results and conclusions either of one's own or of other

researchers. More important is that one compares one's results with demands and

expectations of the theory.

The present chapter concerns with presentation, analysis and interpretation of

the data. In this study the data has been critically analyzed through textual

discussions, tabular and graphical devices. The textual - discussions have been utilized

to point out generalizations and significant interpretations. The tables and figures have

been used to clarify significant relationships. They are so constructed that they are

self-explanatory. To bring the study to its successful fruition, the total data (608

teachers) collected in regard to teachers' occupational stress in relation to certain

demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology, is being 105


systematically organized, analyzed and interpreted. The raw data was first organized

into separate tables for each variable of the study. For computation of the needed

statistics and application of appropriate statistical tests, most of the data was analyzed

on Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 16.0). A part of the data was

treated manually.

The descriptive statistical measures used in testing the hypotheses are —

Multiple Regression, which is an extension of bivariate regression analysis, that

allows for the simultaneous investigation of the effect of two or more independent

variables on a single dependent variable (Zikmund, 2000), t-test for testing the

difference between mean of occupational stress scores of two groups using two-tailed

test, F-test is applied where more than two groups are involved in this study. F-test is

used to see the overall significant difference between more than two means. F-test,

when found significant, employs a need to use t-test for further investigation, and

when found insignificant there is no need to use t-test. Pearson Product Moment

Correlation is also applied wherever needed. The statistical procedures and

descriptive statistics -- mean (M), standard deviation (SD), along with degree of

freedom (dt) and t-values of the relevant variables for the research group as a whole

are indicated in the concerned tables and figures, and briefly discussed in this chapter.

The present chapter is devoted to presentation, analysis, and interpretation of

the data, along with its discussion as per the following scheme:

> Study of general pattern of occupational stress of secondary school teachers.

➢ Study of the effect of demographic factors on teachers' stress toward their occupation.

➢ Study of the effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation.

➢ Study of job satisfaction of teachers and their stress toward occupation.

> Study of pupil control ideology of teachers and their stress toward occupation.

➢ Study of the effect of work values on teachers' stress toward their occupation.

A

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5.1 General pattern of occupational - stress of secondary school teachers

The data analyzed to test the tenability of the first hypothesis regarding

general pattern of occupational stress of teachers', yielded the following results:

To determine the degree of occupational stress experienced by secondary

school teachers, their scores on the Teachers Occupational Stress Scale were divided

into three categories i.e., less stress, moderate and more stress. The results appear in

table 5.1. A score in the range of 20-50 scores was determined as Less Stress. Scores

ranging from 51-70 was taken as an indicator of Moderate Stress, whereas a score

above 70 upto 100 was determined as More Stress level. An examination of table 5.1

further shows that the percentages of less stress, moderate and more stress are 47.70,

40.95 and 11.35 respectively. In male sub-group, these percentages translate into

39.50, 45.91 and 14.59 respectively while in female sub-group it is 54.74, 36.70 and

8.56 respectively. From these results it is evident that there is a lot of variation in

teachers' stress toward their occupation, with nearly half of the teachers experiencing

less stress toward their occupation; while about approximately 11% indicated more

occupational stress. The results of the analysis also make it clear that the percentage

of female teachers experiencing less occupational stress is greater than the male

teachers. The graphical presentation of the percentages of scores of these groups is

given in fig. 5.1.

5.2 Combined and individual relationship of demographic factors with teachers' occupational stress

To understand the effects of demographic factors on teachers' stress toward

their occupations, step-wise multiple regression analysis was used. With teachers'

occupational stress as the dependent variable and gender, experience, qualification,

salary and subjects taught as the independent variables, a regression equation to

represent this relationship is computed. Regress results are shown in table 5.2 (Part I

and II). Table 5.2 (Part I) depicts the computed F-value and R2 to understand the

overall significance of the regression model. The prediction equation which contained

all independent variables is found to be significant (R = 0.17, R2 = 0.03, F = 3.44,

P<0.01). Therefore, the dependent variable is related directly to these independent

variables. 107


Table 5.1: Percentages of teachers having less, moderate and more occupational stress (total and gender-wise)

Groups No. of teachers Occupational stress sub-groups

No. of teachers Percentages

Total 608


Moderate 249 40.95

More stress 69 11.35

Male 281


Moderate 129 45.91

More stress 41 14.59

Female 327

Less Stress 179 54.74

Moderate 120 36.70

More stress 28 8.56

b q

60

y ,

c/) _T

50

40 X11 I~

eu o wI 30 I

20 2 O C G ` 10 C, a

0 Total Male Female

Groups

Fig. 5.1: Distribution of teachers in each category on the basis of their occupational stress

108


Table 5.2 (Part I) shows that the coefficient of multiple determinations

indicated that these variables combined together accounted for 10% of the variability

in teachers' stress toward their occupation. Table 5.2 (Part II) lists detailed data on the

statistical coefficients of the regression model. The standardized beta weights indicate

that the relative contributions of these variables in predicting occupational stress are

(table 5.2, Part II) - the gender contributes 12% (Beta = 0.12, t = 2.90, P< 0.01),

teaching experience contributes 1% (Beta = -0.01, t = 1.98, P< 0.05), qualification

contributes 11% (Beta = -0.11, t = 2.54, P<0.01), salary contributed 7% (Beta = 0.07,

t = 1.37, P >0.05) and subjects taught contributed 1% (Beta = 0.01, t = 0.18, P>0.05).

As seen in table 5.2 (Part II), occupational stress is negatively related to

teaching experience, qualification, subjects taught and positively related to gender and

Table 5.2: Multiple regression analysis for predicting occupational stress using gender, teaching experience, qualification, salary and subjects taught

Multiple Regression Part I

Criterion Multiple R2 Adjusted Standard df F P variable R R2 error

Occupational 0.17 0.03 0.10 15.06 5, 3.44 <0.01

Stress 602

Multiple Regression Part II

S.No. Predictor variables

B Standard error

t P

1 Gender 3.68 1.27 0.12 2.90 < 0.01

2 Teaching

experience

-0.19 0.66 -0.01 1.98 <0.05

3 Qualification -1.81 0.71 -0.11 2.54 < 0.01

4 Salary 2.10 1.53 0.07 1.37 N.S.

5 Subjects taught -0.09 0.48 -0.01 -0.18 N.S.

salary. The result shows that gender is the best predictor of occupational stress,

qualification is second in order, salary stands at third place, and teaching experience

along with subjects taught come last in the sequence. Therefore, it is found that the

109


predictor demographic factors are related to occupational stress of teachers. Hence,

the second hypothesis stating that "the predictor demographic factors are not the

significant predictors of teachers stress toward their occupation" is rejected on the

basis of the present result.

5.3 Relationship between occupational stress and demographic factors

5.3.1 Relationship between occupational stress and gender

It is evident from the result shown in table 5.3 that 281 (46.22%) male and 327

(53.78%) females comprise the total number of respondents. This portrays that there

are more female teachers than mate teachers teaching in secondary schools in Uttar

Pradesh, India. The mean occupational stress scores of male and female teachers were

found 53.40 and 49.60, with SDs of 15.44 and 14.81 respectively. When the means of

two groups compared, the t-test yielded a statistically significant gender difference

between the mean scores of male and female teachers on the overall occupational

stress scale (df = 606, t = 3.09, P<0.01). More specifically, male teachers score

significantly higher (M = 53.40, SD = 15.44) as compared to the females (M = 49.60,

SD = 14.81). Thus, more occupational stress was observed among the male teachers

than the females. The relevant results are graphically presented in fig. 5.2. The

analysis do not confirms the prediction hypothesized in this study for the present

sample. A relationship between occupational stress and gender has been demonstrated

by the findings.

5.3.2 Relationship between occupational stress and teaching experience

Differences in the occupational stress among teachers' and the number of

years of teaching experience were investigated by categorizing the data into four

groups i.e. having experiences of 0-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years and 16 onwards,

on the basis of teaching experience. As shown in table 5.5, of the 608 respondents 181

teachers had between 0-5 years teaching experience, 183 had between 6-10 years, 113

had between 11-15 years and 131 had more than 16 years of experience. The mean

occupational stress scores of these four groups are 48.66, 55.11, 51.37 and 49.81

110


Table 5.3: Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of gender

Gender N Mean score SD _ df t P

Male 281 53.40 15.44 606 3.09 <0.01

Female 327 49.60 14.81

Fig. 5.2: Mean occupational stress scores on the basis of gender

111


respectively. The years of work-experiences of teachers was compared with the help

of F-test through occupational stress. The mean scores of these four groups when put

to analysis of variance give F-value as 6.22, which is significant at 0.01 level, with df

=3, 604 (table 5.4.). This implies that there is significant overall difference in the

means of these four groups. Hence, t-test was applied for further investigation.

When t-test was applied for further investigation, the mean scores, SD and t-

values obtained are contained in table 5.5. The mean occupational stress scores of

teachers' who had an experience of 0-5 years is 48.66, SD= 15.30, 6-10 years is 55.11,

SD=16.53, 11-15 years is 51.37, SD=14.28 and with 16 years onwards experience in

teaching, the mean occupational stress score is 49.81, SD=12.90. t-test was applied to

compare each mean to every other means, which showed 3 is out of 6 to be

significant. An investigation of the provided mean scores reveal that teachers with an

experience of 6-10 years have significant highest mean occupational stress scores

(M=55.11, SD=16.53) than the other three teaching experience groups. Similarly,

those teachers with 11-15 years of teaching experience have significantly higher

occupational stress scores (M=51.37, SD=14.28) than those with 0-5 and 16 onwards

groups; and teachers in the 16 onwards group have significantly higher occupational

stress scores (M=49.81, SD=12.90) than those with 0-5 years of experience group.

Further, teachers with the least teaching experience (0-5 years) in this sample reported

significantly lowest mean occupational stress scores as compared to other three

groups (M=48.66, SD=15.3 0).

From the trend it is quite clear that a gain in the teaching experience to a

certain time period increases the occupational stress in teachers; and after a certain

period the stress decreases gradually. Teachers with 6-10 years of experience that

records the highest mean occupational stress score, is the most stressful group

whereas teachers with 0-5 years of experience is the least stress with the lowest mean

occupational stress score. The graphical presentation is given in fig. 5.3.

112


Table 5.4: Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores and experience in teaching

Source of variation

df Sum of squares Mean square F P

Between groups 3 4209.48 1403.16

6.22 <0.01 Within groups 604 136299.20 225.66

Total 607 140508.68

Table 5.5: Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of experience in teaching

Teaching experience groups

N Mean score

SD t-value

(1) (11) (IM (I 0-5(1) 181 48.66 15.30 x

6-10(11) 183 55.11 16.53 3.86 x

11-15(111) - 113 51.37 14.28 1.52 1.99 x

16 onwards (IV) 131 49.81 12.90 0.70 3.06 0.90 x

'P< 0.05 with df= 294 #0P <0.01 with df" 362 and 312, respectively.

60 55.11 °' 48.66 51.37

50 N

40 Frf 30

0

20 U o 10 C)

0 • 0-5 (1) 6-10 (II) 11-15 (III) 16

onwards Years of Experience (IV)

Fig. 5.3: Mean occupational stress score on the basis of teaching experience

113


5.3.3 Relationship between occupational stress and qualification

In order to study the relationship between occupational stress and

qualification, the data was splitted- on the basis of teachers' qualification into three

groups i.e untrained, TGT (trained graduate teachers) and PGT (post-graduate

teachers). Table 5.7 displays that 33.88% (206 teachers) are not certified in their

current teaching assignment, 13.16% (80) graduate teachers hold a training certificate

and 52.96% (322) constituted the majority of post graduate teachers. The mean

occupational stress scores of the teachers of these groups are obtained as 51.96, 57.22

and 49.50. The mean scores of these three groups were put to analysis of variance and

they give F-value as 8.72, which is significant at 0.01 level, with df = 2, 605 (table

5.6). This implies that there is significant overall difference in the means of these

three groups. Hence, t-test was applied for further investigation.

On further investigation, the t-test applied gave the mean scores, SD's and t-

values as tabulated in table 5.7. The mean occupational stress scores of untrained

teachers is 51.96, SD = 15.61; in case of TGT teachers, the mean occupational stress

score is 57.22, SD = 15.39 and in case of teachers who were PGT's, the mean

occupational stress score obtained is 49.50, SD = 14.55. The calculated t-value

between untrained and TGT is 2.57 (P<0.05, df = 284), untrained and PGT is 1.84 and

lastly between TGT and PGT is 4.20 (P<0.01, df = 400). From the trend it is quite

clear that with the urge to have an increase in lower (untrained and TGT) educational

levels, there is an increase in occupational stress among teachers; and with the

attainment of highest (PGT) educational levels, the stress levels decrease accordingly.

The graphical presentation in fig. 5.4 displays that the lowest mean occupational

stress score is found of the teachers who are PGT's and on the other hand the highest

mean occupational stress score is found of the teachers who have TGT degree.

114


Table 5.6: Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores and qualification of teachers

Source of variation

df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P

Between Groups 2 3936.54 196827

8.72 <0.01 Within Groups 605 136572.14 225.74

Total 607 140508.68

Table 5.7: Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of qualification

Qualification groups N Mean score SD t

U T P

Untrained (U) 206 51.96 15.61 x

TGT (T) 80 57.22 15.39 2.57 x

PGT (P) 322 49.50 14.55 1.84 4.20 X

-P < 0.05 with df = 284 "P<0.01 with df = 400

60 57.22

5'1.98 49.5 Fj 50

40

30

20 0

10

0 Untrained (U) TGT (T) PGT (P)

Qualification

Fig. 5.4: Mean occupational stress score on the basis of qualification

115


5.3.4 Relationship between occupational stress and salary

To identify the effect of monthly salary on teachers' occupational stress, the

teachers were grouped in two categories. One those who were getting monthly salary

upto 15,000 INR and others those who were earning more than 15,000 INR. It is

clear from the table 5.8 that the number of teachers' earning upto 15,000 is 386

(63.49%) and 15,000 onwards is 222 (36.51%). The mean occupational stress score of

teachers earning upto 15,000 is 50.73 (SD= 15.93), while the mean occupational stress

score of teachers earning 15,000 onwards is 52.44 (SD=13.85). Application of t-test

shows that there is no statistical significant difference between monthly salary and

occupational stress among secondary school teachers, that is to say, teachers with

higher monthly income are not necessarily having higher stress levels than their

colleagues with lower monthly income, vice versa. Fig. 5.5 shows the mean score of

occupational stress of the two groups.

A perusal of t-test in table 5.9 shows that the computation of means and SD's

for male and female sub-samples earning 15,000 INR and 15,000 INR onwards salary

showed that males have more occupational stress in both groups than female

counterparts. But application of t-test shows that there is no statistical significant

difference in 15,000 salary group. However, 15,000 INR onwards salary group

showed a statistical significant difference (t = 4.51, P<0.01, df = 220). The graphical

presentation is given in fig. 5.6. The analysis confirms the prediction hypothesized in

this study for the present sample. A relationship between occupational stress and

salary has not been demonstrated by this finding.

116


Table 5.8: Comparison of mean occupational stress scores of two groups of salary of teachers

Salary N Mean score SD di t P

Upto 15,0061NR 386 50.73 15.93 606 1.34 N.S.

15,000 INR onwards

222 52.44 13.85

60 50.73 52.44

flj 50 W H

30

20. 0

10 as

0 Upto 15,000 INR 15,000 INR onwards

Salary

Fig. 5.5: Mean occupational stress score on the basis of salary

117


Table 5.9: Gender-wise comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of salary

Salary Gender N Mean score

SD df t P

Upto 15,000 INR Male 146 51.29 17.09

384 0.55 N.S. Female 240 50.38 15.21

15,000 INR onwards

Male I35 55.67 13.12

220 4.51 <0.01 Female 87 47.44 13.51

. s m 60 m I L LL U.

50

'N4 0 J

Ta 30

Cd

20 0

10

0 Upto 15,000 INR 15,000 INR onwards

Salary

Fig. 5.6. Gender-wise mean occupational stress scores on the basis of two groups of salary

118


5.3.5 Relationship between occupational stress and subjects taught

Subjects taught by teachers and its relationship with occupational stress score

was explored in this study. To find out the effect of subjects taught on the

occupational stress of school teachers', the total sample was categorized into four

groups of teachers on the basis of their chosen field of subject taught per day, i.e.

languages, arts, social sciences and sciences. The number of teachers in these groups

are 214 (35.20%), 35 (5.76%), 144 (23.68%) and 215 (35.36%) respectively. The

mean occupational stress score of these groups were observed as 51.60, 49.31, 50.15

and 52.24 respectively. The scores of these groups were put to analysis of variance to

find out whether there is any significant difference between the groups in relation to

their subjects taught in class. The results are given in table 5.10.

The results of one-way analysis of variance of the mean scores of the four

groups yields a non-significant F-value of 0.77, with df = 3, 604. This implies that

there is no significant difference in the means of these groups (fig. 5.7), i.e. to say,

occupational stress is not found among the teachers teaching languages, arts, social

sciences and sciences. Hence, t-test could not be applied for further investigation. As

there are slight differences in the level of stress among teachers according to the

subjects taught; fig. 5.7 portrays that science teachers constitute the most stress group

whereas; arts teachers are the least stress group being ranked according to the mean of

occupational stress among the subject groups of teachers.

Not all of the aforementioned results and analyses confirm the prediction

hypothesized in the study for the present sample. A relationship between occupational

stress of the teachers and gender, experience in teaching and qualification has been

demonstrated by the above findings. Hence, the third hypothesis stating that, "there is

no significant difference in occupational stress in relation to demographic factors of

the teachers" is partially rejected. There occurs a relationship between occupational

stress of teachers' and three of the five demographic factors i.e. gender, teaching

experience and qualification. On the other hand, this study fails to validate the

prediction hypothesized in the study for the present sample. An association between

teachers' occupational stress and salary, and subjects taught has not been

demonstrated by these findings.

119


Table 5.10: Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores and subjects taught by teachers

Source of Variation df Sum of Squares Mean Square F P

Between Groups 3 535.63 178.54

0.77 N.S. Within Groups 604 139973.04 231.74 _

Total 607 140508.67

60 61.6 5015 62.24

49.31 50

40 ev

30

v 0 20 c .a

10

0 Languages Arts Social Sciences Sciences

Subjects

Fig. 5.7: Mean occupational stress score on the basis of subjects taught

120


5.4 Combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation

Multiple regression analysis was used to ascertain how teachers' occupational

stress might be predicted by job satisfaction and pupil control ideology. Regression

equations were generated using a step-wise procedure. The prediction equation which

contained both the independent variables is significant (R = 0.83, RZ = 0.69, F =

672.43, P < 0.01). Therefore, the dependent variable is related directly to the

independent variables. Table 5.11 (Part 1) shows that the coefficient of multiple

determinations indicated that these variables combined together accounted for 69% of

the variability in teachers' stress toward their occupation. The regression coefficients

of the variables presented in table 5.11 (Part II) indicate a significant role of these

variables in predicting occupational stress: the job satisfaction contributes 74% (Beta

-0.74, t = 29.92, P <0.01) and pupil control ideology contributed 18% (Beta = 0.18,

t = 7.41, P <0.01). As seen in table 5.11 (Part II), an inverse relationship was noted

between the job satisfaction and teachers' occupational stress, meaning that an

increase in job satisfaction levels would bring about a decrease in occupational stress.

Also, occupational stress is positively related to pupil control ideology, meaning that

with an increase in the custodial behavior of teachers', occupational stress would

increase accordingly. The result shows that job satisfaction is the best predictor of

occupational stress, and pupil control ideology comes next to it. Therefore, it is found

that the predictor factors influence the occupational stress of teachers. Hence, the

Table 5.11: Multiple regression analysis for predicting occupational stress using job satisfaction and pupil control ideology


Criterion Multiple R2 Adjusted Standard df F P variable R RI error

Occupational 0.83 0.69 0.69 8.49 2, 672.43 <0.01 stress 605


S.No. Predictor B Standard B t P variables error

1 Job satisfaction -0.94 0.03 -0.74 29.92 < 0.01 2 Pupil control 0.29 0.04 0.18 7.41 < 0.01

ideology

121


fourth hypothesis stating that, "the predictor factors (job satisfaction and pupil control

ideology) are not the significant predictors of teachers stress toward their occupation"

is rejected on the basis of the present result.

5.5 Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

To investigate the relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

of secondary school teachers, the measure of Teachers Occupational Stress Scale was

correlated with the Teachers Job Satisfaction Score using Pearson Product Moment

Correlation, and a significant negative relationship is found between job satisfaction

scores and occupational stress scores (r= -0.81). The negative direction of the

correlation suggests that higher job satisfaction is associated with lower levels of

occupational stress, and vice versa. In other words, the findings indicated that increase

of occupational stress would lower job satisfaction of the teachers.

To analyze the influence of job satisfaction on occupational stress the whole

sample is divided into three categories as less satisfied — having satisfaction score

ranging from 20-50 and this group constitutes teachers who are Iittle satisfied being a

teacher, the second category is named as moderate satisfied — having scores in the

range 51-70 and constituting of teachers who have satisfaction level not very high but

of medium level. The last category i.e. more satisfied comprises of teachers having

scores ranging from 71-100 and constituting of teachers who are very much involved

in their teaching activities and are highly satisfied being a teacher.

From calculated occupational stress score, it is obtained that 40 (6.58%)

teachers fall under less satisfied group, 332 (54.60%) teachers are under moderate

satisfied group and the remaining 236 (38.82%) comprise the more satisfied group. To

determine the relationship between job satisfaction and occupational stress of the

teachers, the three job satisfaction categories of the sample are selected along with

stress towards occupation scores. Analysis of variance was employed to determine the

significance of difference in occupational stress scores of the teachers with different

groups of job satisfaction. The mean occupational stress scores of these groups are

68.82, 59.12 and 37.47 respectively. The total sum of squares between and within the

means of the teachers was calculated. The F ratio comes out to be 374.63 and is found

122


Table 5.12: Analysis of variance in respect to occupational stress scores and job satisfaction

Source of variation df Sum of squares Mean square F P

Between Groups 2 77737.75 38868.88

374.63 <0.01 Within Groups 605 62770.92 103.75

Total 607 140508.68

Table 5.13: Comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of job satisfaction

Job satisfaction N Mean score SD t

Less satisfied

Moderate satisfied

More satisfied

Less Satisfied 40 68.82 7.90 x

Moderate Satisfied 332 59.12 11.05 5.39 x

More Satisfied 236 37.47 9.21 20.30 24.63 x

All is are significant at <.01 level

2 68.82

cn 70

59.12 v, 60 a,

50 a 37.47 0 40 is V o 20

10

0 Less Satisfied Moderate More Satisfied

Satisfied

Job Satisfaction

Fig. 5.8: Mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of job satisfaction

123


significant at 0.01 level for df = 2, 605 (table 5.12). This implies that there is a

significant overall difference in the means of these three groups. Hence, t-test is

applied for further investigation.

When t-test is applied, the calculated mean scores, SD's and t-values obtained

are given in table 5.13. Significant differences are obtained among all the three means

of the three groups less, moderate and more satisfied (t = 5.39, P <0.01, df = 370; t =

20.30, P <0.01, df = 274 and t = 24.63, P <0.01, df = 566). The results clearly show

that as the job satisfaction of the teachers increases their occupational stress decreases

accordingly (table 5.13). Since less satisfied group teachers have significantly higher

occupational stress than the moderate and more satisfied group teachers, and moderate

satisfied group has significant higher occupational stress compared to more satisfied

group, therefore, there is observed a relationship between job , satisfaction and

occupational stress. The graphical presentation is given in fig. 5.8.

Further, to get the gender-wise analysis in the different job satisfaction groups,

t-test is applied to the male and female sub-samples of less, moderate and more

satisfied groups. From the analysis it is found that there is no significant difference in

the male and female teachers in less, moderate and more job satisfaction groups (df =

38, t = 0,51; df = 330, t = 0.64 and df = 234, t = 1.53) respectively. It is also seen that

females in less satisfied and more satisfied groups have greater mean occupational

stress scores (M = 69.41, M = 38.12) than their male counterparts (M = 68.11, M

36.19), while in moderate satisfied group males were found to have greater mean

occupational stress score (M = 59.47) than the females (M = 58.68). The result shows

a trend that female in the two groups have more occupational stress than the male

counterparts, but this has not been statistically proved. Results are contained in table

5.14 and graphical presentation is shown in fig. 5.9.

124


Table 5.14: Gender-wise comparison of occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of job satisfaction

Job Satisfaction Gender N Mean score SD df t P

Less Satisfied Male 18 68.11 10.26

38 0.51 N.S. Female 22 69.41 5.47

Moderate Satisfied Male 183 59.47 10.95

330 0.64 N.S. Female 149 58.68 11.18

More Satisfied Male 80 36.19 10.56

234 1.53 N.S. Female 156 38.12 8.39

Fig. 5.9: Gender-wise mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of job satisfaction

125


5.6 Combined and individual effect of work values on teachers' stress toward their occupation

A standard multiple regression procedure is performed in order to assess the

relationship between occupational stress of the teachers' as the dependent variable

and 11 work values (i.e. good economic return, high status! prestige, opportunities of

human/ social service, friendly/ cooperating colleagues, security of service, fair/

sympathetic supervisions, opportunities of further progress/ advancement,

opportunities of intellectual stimulation, work consistent with my life goals/ values,

opportunities of exercising power/ authority and freedom in my work) as the

independent variables. -

Table 5.15 (Part I) shows that the eleven set of work values when taken

together yielded a multiple regression coefficient (R) of 0.45, a multiple R square of

0.20 and adjusted R square of 0.19. The interpretation of this is that 19% of the

variance in the teachers' occupational stress can be explained by the combined

influence of the eleven work values. The analysis shows that R is significantly

different from zero (F = 13.80, P <0.01, df = 11, 596). This indicates that the

effectiveness of the predictor variables in predicting teachers' occupational stress

could not have occurred by chance.

Table 5.15 (Part II) shows that occupational stress is negatively related to all

the eleven work values. The result shows that opportunities of exercising power/

authority by the teachers' seems to be the strongest factor which predicts their

occupational stress with regression weights of 3.00 at P <0.01 and contributes 61% of

the observed variance, this was followed by good economic return (2.04, P <0.01

contributing 47% of the observed variance, high status/ prestige with regression

weights of 1.46 at P <0.05 contributing 33% of the observed variance, friendly/

cooperating colleagues (1.67, P <0.05 contributing 31% of the observed variance) and

fair/ sympathetic supervisions (1.59, P <0.05 contributing 28% of the observed

variance) in sequence.

126


Table 5.15: Multiple regression analysis for predicting occupational stress using different work values


Criterion Multiple R2 Adjusted Standardized df F P variable R R2 error

Occupational 0.45 0.20 0.19 13.71 11, 13.80 < 0.01 stress 596


S.No. Predictor variables B Standard error

B t ' P

1 Good economic return -2.04 0.73 -0.47 2.80 <0.01 2 High status/ Prestige -1.46 0.72 -0.33 2.04 < 0.05 3 Opportunities of human/ social

service -1.02 0,71 -0.22 1.43 N.S.

4 Friendly! Cooperating colleagues -1.67 0.72 -0.31 2.33 < 0.05 5 Security of service -0.79 0.72 -0.15 1.I0 N.S. 6 Fair/ sympathetic supervisions -1.59 0.72 -0.28 2.19 < 0.05 7 Opportunities of further

progress/ Advancement -0.72 0.72 -0.13 0.99 N.S.

8 Opportunities of intellectual stimulation

-1.03 0.72 -0.20 1.43 N.S.

9 Work consistent with my life Goals/ Values

-0.95 0.72 -0.18 1.32 N.S.

10 Opportunities of exercising Power! Authority

-3.00 0.73 -0.61 4.12 < 0.01

11 Freedom in my work -0.75 0.70 -0.16 1.07 N.S.

It is also observable from the table that the values of t-ratio is not significant

for the next sequences of work values- i.e. teachers' opportunities of human/ social

service, opportunities of intellectual stimulation, work consistent with my life goals/

values, freedom in my work, security of service and opportunities of further progress/

advancement; and contribute 22% (with regression weight of 1.02), 20% (with

regression weight of 1.03) and 18% (with regression weight of 0.95), 16% (with

regression weight of 0.75), 15% (with regression weight of 0.79)and 13% (with

regression weight of 0.72) respectively. Therefore, it is found that the predictor

factors of work values influence the teachers' stress toward their occupation. Hence,

the sixth hypothesis stating that "the predictor factors of work values are not the

significant predictors of teachers stress toward their occupation" is rejected on the

basis of the present result.

127


5.7 Relationship between occupational stress and preferences of work values

To find out the relationship between occupational stress and differently preferred

work values of teachers, the total sample was arranged according to the weightage

given to each work values in the order of the most favorable — seeming work value to

the least favorable — seeming work value by the teachers, with a rank order 1 to 11.

This implies that the work value with the lowest rank mean will be the most preferred

than the work value with the highest rank mean, which will be the least preferred by

them, and the remaining nine work values would slide in between these two extremes.

The results of the weightage given to each work values along with their rank means

are given in table 5.16.

Table 5.16: Hierarchical order of preference given to different work values

(N=6D8)

S.No. Work values preference Mean Order of preference

1 High Status/ Prestige 5.14 1 2 Opportunities of Human/ Social Service 5.47 2 3 Good Economic Return 5.51 3 4 Security of Service 5.66 4 5 Freedom in my work 5.71 5 6 Friendly! Cooperating Colleagues 5.77 6 7 Opportunities of Further Progress/

Advancement 5.97 7

8 Work consistent with my life Goals/ Values 6.26 8 9 Fair/ Sympathetic Su ervisions 6.32 9 10 Opportunities of Intellectual Stimulation 6.52 10 11 Opportunities of exercising Power/ Authority 7.66 11

The result shows that the high status/ prestige is the most preferred work value

(M = 5.14) among secondary school teachers, opportunities of human/ social service

(M = 5.47) is the second most preferred work value, good economic return (M = 5.51)

is third in order of preference, security of service (M = 5.66) comes at fourth place in

order of preference, freedom in my work (M = 5.71) come at fifth place, friendly/

cooperating colleagues (M = 5.77) work value stands sixth in the sequence of

preference and opportunities of further progress/ advancement (M = 5,97) work value

is given seventh place in the order of preference.

128


Proceeding towards the less preferred work values, a steady increase in the

mean of the work values is further seen with the work consistent with my life goals!

values (M =6.26), fair/ sympathetic supervisions (M=6.32) and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation (M=6.52) work values, which stands at eighth, ninth and tenth

place respectively in the order of preference list of these work values. The result

reveals that the opportunities of exercising power/ authority work value has the

highest rank mean (M=7.66) and is therefore, the least preferred work value by the

secondary school teachers.

Further, to support this result, Pearson Product Moment coefficient of

correlations between each of the eleven work values and occupational stress were

calculated. Table 5.17 presents the values of product moment coefficients of

correlation between these eleven work values and occupational stress among

secondary school teachers. A perusal of correlation coefficients in the table shows that

three negative correlations, i.e. good economic return, high status/ prestige and

opportunities of exercising power/ authority are significant at 0.01 level with values

of correlation -0.18, -0.13 and -0.30 respectively. The result shows that occupational

stress is negatively related to three work values, namely good economic return, high

status! prestige and opportunities of exercising power/ authority.

Table 5.17: Product moment coefficient of correlation between occupational stress and work values

S.No. Work values r P l Good economic return -0.18 < 0.01 2 High status/ Prestige -0.13 < 0.01 3 Opportunities of human/ social service 0.08 N.S. 4 Friendly! Cooperating colleagues -0.04 N.S. 5 Securityofservice 0.12 < 0.01 6 Fair/ sympathetic su ervisions 0.04 N.S. 7 Opportunities of further progress/Advancement 0.15 < 0.01 8 Opportunities of intellectual stimulation 0.0I < 0.05 9 Work consistent with my life Goals! Values 0.11 < 0.01 10 Opportunities of exercising Power/ Authority -0.30 < 0.01 11 Freedom in m work 0.11 < 0.01

It is also clear from the table that four positive correlations are significant at

0.01 level and one is significant at 0.05 level, which are for security of service (r =

0.12), opportunities of further progress/ advancement (r = 0.15), work consistent with

my life goals/ values (r =0.11), freedom in my work (r = 0.11) and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation (r =0.O1) respectively. The results indicate that as occupational 129


stress in teachers' increases, the keenness to acquire security of service, opportunities

of further progress! advancement, work consistent with my life goals! values, freedom

in my work and opportunities of intellectual stimulation among teachers' increases

accordingly. An overview of the table also reveals that three correlations are not

significant at 0.05 level, i.e. opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/

cooperating colleagues and fair/ sympathetic supervisions. This leads to the

interpretation that occupational stress is not related to opportunities of human/ social

service, friendly/ cooperating colleagues and fair/ sympathetic supervisions work

values among secondary school teachers.

Furthermore, the preferences of work values among the three groups of

occupational stress (less, moderate and more stress) are seen among the whole

sample. It is observable from table 5.18 that the three most preferred work values

among the less stress group of teachers' comprise of security of service (M = 5.27),

freedom in my work (M = 5.29) and opportunities of human/ social service (M =

5.34) respectively. On the other hand, opportunities of exercising power/ authority

with the highest rank mean (M = 8,61) is identified as the least preferred work value

by less stress group of teachers. This is further succeeded by two of the work values —

opportunities of intellectual stimulation and good economic return that have an equal

mean of 6.22, and come at ninth place simultaneously, in the order of preference.

Additionally, the remaining five work values, namely opportunities of further

progress! advancement (M = 5.41), high status! prestige (M = 5.66), friendly!

cooperating colleagues (M = 5.89), work consistent with my life goals/ values (M =

5.93) and fair! sympathetic supervisions (M = 6.14) lie between the two poles of

preferences and, thereby, stand at fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth place,

respectively in the preference list of less stress group of teachers'.

Heading towards the moderate stress group of secondary school teachers, it is

seen from table 5.18 that this group preferred high status/ prestige work value (M =

4.63) the most, followed by good economic return (M = 4.88) and friendly/

cooperating colleagues (M = 5.58);- while they adhered least preference to

opportunities of intellectual stimulation, opportunities of exercising power/ authority

and fair/ sympathetic supervisions work values with highest rank means of 6.85, 6.78

and 6.54, respectively. The five work values that left behind, namely — opportunities

of human! social service (M = 5.64), security of service (M = 5.98), freedom in my

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Table 5,18: Work value preferences of teachers having less, moderate and more stress— Hierarchical Order

Less stress group (N=290) Moderate stress group (N=249) More stress group (N=69)

Order of Mean of Preference of work Order of Mean of Preference of work Order of Mean of Preference of work preference ranks values preference ranks values preference ranks values

1 5.27 Security of Service 1 4.63 High Status/ Prestige 1 4.75 Good Economic Return

2 5,39 Freedom in my work 2 4.88 Good Economic 2 4.78 High Status/ Prestige Return

3 5.34 Opportunities of 3 5,58 Friendly/ Cooperating 3 5.43 Opportunities of Human/ Social Colleagues Human/ Social Service Service

4 5.41 Opportunities of 4 5.64 Opportunities of 4 5.96 Friendly! Cooperating Further Progress/ Human/ Social Colleagues Advancement Service

5 5.66 High Status/ Prestige 5 5.98 Security of Service 4 5.96 Freedom in my work

6 5.89 Friendly/ 6 6.12 Freedom in my work 5 6.17 Security of Service Cooperating Colleagues

7 5.93 Work consistent 7 6.47 Work consistent with 6 6.25 Fair/ Sympathetic with my life Goals/ my life Goals/ Values Supervisions Values

8 6.14 Fair/ Sympathetic 8 6.51 Opportunities of 7 6.32 Opportunities of Supervisions Further Progress/ Further Progress!

Advancement Advancement 9 6,22 Good Economic 9 6,54 Fair/ Sympathetic 8 6,59 Opportunities of

Return Supervisions Intellectual Stimulation 9 6,22 Opportunities of 10 6.78 Opportunities of 9 6.81 Opportunities of

Intellectual exercising Power! exercising Power/ Stimulation Authority Authority

10 8.61 Opportunities of 11 6.85 Opportunities of 10 6.85 Work consistent with exercising Power/ Intellectual my life Goals/ Values Authority Stimulation


9 1 Security of Service

I Freedom in my work

t Opportunities of Human! Social Service

0 Opportunities of Further

7 Progress/ Advancement

I NO Status! Prestige

1 Friendly! Cooperating Colleagues

I Work consistent with my life Goals/ Values

0 1 Fair/ Sympathetic Supervisions

Good Economic Return 4

Less Stress Moderate More Stress 0 Opportunities of Intellectual Stimulation

I Opportunities of exercising Occupational Stress Groups Power! Authority

Fig. 5.10: Mean work values rank scores on the basis of occupational stress groups


work (M = 6.12), work consistent with my life goals/ values (M = 6.47) and

opportunities of further progress/ advancement (M = 6.51) slide in between these two

preference extremes and accordingly perceived at fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and

eighth place respectively in the order of preference list.

Moreover, the mean rank scores among the more stress group of teachers draw

our attention to the three most preferred work values in this group, i.e. good economic

return, high status/ prestige, and opportunities of human/ social service which have

been subsequently listed at first (M = 4.75), second (M = 4.78) and third (M = 5.43)

place in the order of preference. Diverging from these most preferred work values, the

more stress teachers' enumerated work consistent with my life goals/ values (M =

6.85), opportunities of exercising power/ authority (M = 6.81) and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation (M = 6.59) as three of the least preferred work values. Most

interestingly, where it can be noted from table 5.18 that the remaining work values

slither between the two preference poles from most to Ieast; the result also reveals that

two of the eleven work values in the more stress group occupy a fourth place (M =

5,96) simultaneously, i.e. friendly/ cooperating colleagues and freedom in my work.

The left over work values in the order of sequence are kept at fifth, sixth and seventh

place, and can be listed as security of service (M = 6.17), fair/ sympathetic

supervisions (M = 6.25), and opportunities of further progress/ advancement (M =

6.32), respectively.

5.8 Relationship between occupational stress and pupil control ideology

In order to determine if there is any relationship between the occupational

stress scores of the teachers and their pupil control ideology scores, Pearson Product

Moment Correlation is applied. A significant positive correlation is found (r=0.48)

which indicates that as occupational stress increases, pupil control ideology increases

accordingly. It may be stated that more the custodial ideology of teachers, the more

stress is observed. To analyze the effect of pupil control ideology on occupational

stress the whole sample is divided into three categories as humanistic — having pupil

control ideology score ranging from 20-50 and this group constitutes teachers who are

patient, congenial, easily approached by students, and strive to establish a basis of

mutual respect and friendship in their relationships with pupils, the second category is

133


work (M = 6.12), work consistent with my life goals/ values (M = 6.47) and

opportunities of further progressl advancement (M = 6.51) slide in between these two

preference extremes and accordingly perceived at fourth, fifth, sixth, , seventh and

eighth place respectively in the order of preference list.

Moreover, the mean rank scores among the more stress group of teachers draw

our attention to the three most preferred work values in this group, i.e. good economic

return, high status/ prestige, and opportunities of human/ social service which have

been subsequently listed at first (M = 4.75), second (M = 4,78) and third (M = 5.43)

place in the order of preference. Diverging from these most preferred work values, the

more stress teachers' enumerated work consistent with my life goals/ values (M =

6.85), opportunities of exercising power/ authority (M = 6.81) and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation (M = 6.59) as three of the least preferred work values. Most

interestingly, where it can be noted from table 5.18 that the remaining work values

slither between the two preference poles from most to least; the result also reveals that

two of the eleven work values in the more stress group occupy a fourth place (M =

5.96) simultaneously, i.e. friendly/ cooperating colleagues and freedom in my work.

The left over work values in the order of sequence are kept at fifth, sixth and seventh

place, and can be listed as security of service (M = 6.17), fair/ sympathetic

supervisions (M = 6.25), and opportunities of further progress/ advancement (M

6.32), respectively.

5.8 Relationship between occupational stress and pupil control ideology

In order to determine if there is any relationship between the occupational

stress scores of the teachers and their pupil control ideology scores, Pearson Product

Moment Correlation is applied. A significant positive correlation is found (r=0.48)

which indicates that as occupational stress increases, pupil control ideology increases

accordingly. It may be stated that more the custodial ideology of teachers, the more

stress is observed. To analyze the effect of pupil control ideology on occupational

stress the whole sample is divided into three categories as humanistic — having pupil

control ideology score ranging from 20-50 and this group constitutes teachers who are

patient, congenial, easily approached by students, and strive to establish a basis of

mutual respect and friendship in their relationships with pupils, the second category is

133


named as moderate — having scores in the range 51-70 and constituting of teachers

who have pupil control ideology not very high but of intermediate level sliding

between authoritarian and democratic teachers. The last category i.e. custodial

comprises of teachers having scores ranging from 71-100 and constituting of teachers

who are impersonal and aloof in their relationships with students, strive to maintain a

high degree of order among their pupils, and are stringent and unyielding in dealing

with them.

Analysis of variance was employed to determine the significance of difference

in occupational stress scores of the teachers of different groups of pupil control

ideology. Table 5.19 shows that the total sum of squares between and within the

means of the teachers is calculated. The F-ratio comes out to be 66.63 and found

significant at 0.01 level for df = 2, 605. This implies that there is a significant overall

difference in the means of these three groups. Hence, t-test is applied for further

investigation. -

The t-test is applied with an aim to see among which group of teachers the

difference exists. As shown in table 5.20 teachers with humanistic pupil control

ideology have significantly lowest occupational stress score (M = 34.00, SD = 11.14)

than the other two groups. Similarly, those teachers with moderate pupil control

ideology have significantly lower occupational stress scores (M = 51.71, SD = 13.57)

than custodial pupil control ideology group. Further, teachers with custodial pupil

control ideology have significantly highest occupational stress scores than the other

two groups (M = 58.53, SD = 15.54). Graphical presentation is given in fig. 5.10.

These results show that higher occupational stress scores consistently accompany the

increase in pupil control ideology. Further, computation of the means for male and

female sub-samples of each control ideology group (table 5.21) shows that male

teachers have more occupational stress score than the female counterparts in the

moderate and custodial pupil control ideology groups. But, application of t-test

indicates that there is a statistically significant gender difference only in the moderate

pupil control ideology group (t = 4.31, P <0.01, df = 415). Fig. 5.12 contains the

graphical presentation.

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Table 5.19! Aikalysis of variance in "respect to oceupational stress 'score`s and pupil control ideology

Source of variation df Sum of squares Mean square F P

Between groups 2 25363.05 12681.53

66.63 <0.01 Within groups 605 115145.62 190.32

Total 607 140508.68

Tattle 5.20: Comparison of mean occupational aties"s scotes oh the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

Pupil control ideology groups

N % Mean score

SD t

(1) (2) (3)

Humanistic (20-50) (1)

62 10.20 34.00 11.14 x

Moderate (51-70) (2) 417 68.58 51.71 13.57 9.79 x

Custodial (71-100) (3) 129 21.22 58.53 15.54 11.12 4.81 x

Significant at p<0.01 with df = 477, 189 and 544 respectively.

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Humanistic Moderate Custodial

PCI Groups

Fig. 5.11: Mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

135


Table 5.21: Gender-wise comparison of mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

Pupil control ideology groups

Gender N % Mean score

SD df t P

Humanistic (20-50) Male 30 4.93 32.00 9.14

60 1.38 N.S. Female 32 5.26 35.88 12.59

Moderate (51-70) Male 198 32.57 54.66 12.98

415 4.31 < 0.01 Female 219 36.02 49.05 13.58

Custodial (71-100) Male 53 8.72 60.77 16.55

127 1.38 N.S. Female 76 12.5 56.96 14.70

m 70 m m E 60 _ ., m

50 E

7a ° 34 m IL 20 i O c 10

0 Humanistic Moderate Custodial

PCI Groups

Fig. 5.12: Gender-wise mean occupational stress scores on the basis of three groups of pupil control ideology

136


The analyses do not confirm the prediction hypothesized in this study for the

present sample. A relationship between occupational stress of the teachers and pupil

control ideology has been demonstrated by the findings. Hence, the eighth hypothesis

stating that, "there is no significant difference in occupational stress in relation to

pupil control ideology of the teachers" is rejected at 0.01 level. There is a relationship

between pupil control ideology of the teachers and their stress toward occupation.

5.9 Discussion

The present study among others is conducted in the area of teachers

occupational stress, but its distinctive feature is that it sought to study the impact of

certain teacher variables not included in earlier studies with teacher stress, especially

work values and pupil control ideology. In the present discussion an attempt is made

to reconcile the findings of the present study with the previous investigations. It is

needless to say that india is a vast country with diverse religious, ethnic, cultural and

linguistic communities. All these factors effect attitudes, behavior and values of

different members of a community including the teachers'. Under such conditions no

national norms of teachers' stress can be developed, nor are they necessary. Only a

general picture of teachers occupational stress behavior and its correlates is therefore

sought to be drawn by investigating the findings of the present study, and other

related investigations (where such investigation is possible). For the present study,

data from a large contemporaray sample of secondary school teachers' was analyzed

and multiple regression, F-test, t-test and correlation was applied to determine the

affects of predictor variables on criterion variable.

General pattern of occupational stress of secondary school teachers

Occupational stress is a universal phenomenon that is being progressively used

at the workplace. Its main feature is to challenge the psychological, familial and social

dimensions of an individual; and is considered an illness of the advanced and

industrialized societies. An examination of the results of the present study shows that

the percentages of less stress, moderate and more stress teachers' are 47.70, 40.95,

r

137


and 11.35, respectively. These percentages in respect to the male teachers' are 39.50,

45.91, and 14.59, respectively; while with respect to female teachers' the percentages

of the three stress groups are 54.74, 36.70, and 8.56, respectively. Thus, it is evident

from this analysis that majority of the teachers' are less stressed with their job.

However, the percentages of more stress teachers though only 11.35 cannot be

considered as flattening. The result of the analysis also makes it clear that less stress is

felt by female teachers' more than the male teachers'.

The results obtained in the study are supported by other investigations.

Khurshid, Butt, and Malik (2011) reported that public sector university teachers'

reported experiencing a moderate to high level occupational role stress, whereas the

private sector university teachers reported mild to moderate role stress. In the study of

Fontana and Abouserie (1993), it was found that 72.6% among the 95 teachers'

involved were experiencing moderate level of stress while 23.2% were experiencing

serious stress levels; though no significant difference was identified between male and

female teachers'. On the other hand, Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1979a) found that male

department heads and female classroom teachers' reported higher stress levels than

female heads of department and male teachers' respectively. While, in Malaysia,

Samad et al. (2010) reported that majority of the teachers' experienced medium level

of stress (71.7%). Ahghar (2008) reported that 40.2% of the teachers' showed

occupational stress at levels below the mean value, 26.6% at the mean level, and

13.42% at the level higher than the mean. Holeyannavar and Itagi (2010) noted that

34.3% and 35.2% of teachers expressed average and low occupational stress,

respectively while 30.5% indicated high occupational stress. The studies conducted by

Kalyva (2013), Anitha Devi (2007), Pandey and Srivastava (2000) also reported the

low levels of stress among teachers. -

The reason is that human beings have many biological, psychological and

social needs. When these needs are not satisfied, they experience stress. Teaching

profession is generally associated with limited working hours and clear cut duties, less

role overload, reasonable pay, and longer periods of vacation due to which they can

give enough time for recreation with family members and social activities. Thus, their

nature of job remains unchanged; and as a result, they experience low level of stress.

Contradictory results were given by Bharati and Reddy (2002) in India who observed

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that 79.0% of teachers showed average to high levels and only 22.0% had low levels

of job stress. But, in U. K., Borg and Riding (1991a) reported 36.6% of secondary

school teachers' rated their job as very stressful.

Combined and individual relationship of demographic factors with teachers' occupational stress

The results presented in table 5.2 (Part I and II) show that allof the five

predictor demographic variables i.e. gender, teaching experience, qualification, salary,

and subjects taught, when taken together bring forth an adjusted R square of 0.10. The

interpretation of this is that 10% of variance in the teachers' occupational stress can

be explained by the combined influence of the above mentioned five predictor

variables. Further, beta weights offer an indication of relative effects of each predictor

variable on prediction of the occupational stress. It is apparent from the table that

gender is the best predictor of occupational - stress (12%) followed by qualification

(11%), salary (7%), and teaching experience alongwith subjects taught have the least

contribution (1% each) to teachers' occupational stress. Using multiple regressions,

Raveeswaran et al. (2011) showed that there are significant differences in

occupational stress of teachers based on age, sex, experience and parenthood.

Additionally, they found age, sex, and parenthood to have significant impact on the

level of occuaptional stress of teachers. On the contrary, Kalyva (2013) reported

gender, age, and years of teaching experience were not associated with teacher stress.

Relationship between occupational stress and demographic factors

Out of the five demographic variables as mentioned above, this study has

identified three demographic factors related to occupational stress of teachers in

secondary schools. These variables were namely, gender, teaching experience and

qualification. On the other hand, salary and subjects taught have no effect on

occupational stress. When data was analyzed to see the significant difference in

teachers' occupational stress between male and female teachers, it is found there

occurs a significant difference between the mean occupational stress scores of two

groups. Gender-wise analysis shows that male teachers are more stressed than female

teachers. It is not readily apparent why males should find teaching more stressful.

This may be because, with increasing age male teachers become less tolerant of, and

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more stressed by factors like— pupil misbehavior and poor working conditions in

their work environment (Borg & Riding, 1991, in press), with the result that their job

is perceived more stressful.

More occupational stress among male teachers can also be attributed to the

perceptions of female teachers to shoulder the responsibilities same as males in this

competitive world, along with their aspiration level, social acceptability, challenges,

job responsibilities and career development. Moreover, it is a widely accepted fact

that discrimination of sex exists at the management level; thus, secondary schools are

heading towards the work environments that are non-masculinized. Borg and Riding

(1991) noted that male teachers' reported greater stress than female teachers'. On the

contrary, Payne and Furnham (1987) found that female teachers reported greater

stress than their colleagues. McCormick and Solman (1 992b) found that the position

held either as a classroom or executive teacher and gender were significant predictors

of stress in their regression analysis. The finding is further supported by Byrne (1998)

and Bhagawan (1997) who emphasized that the causes leading to burnout/stress affect

male teachers more than the female teachers who have higher motivation. Whatever

the underlying explanation, the results reported here contradict those of other studies

that reported higher stress in female primary and secondary staff (Abdul Majid, 1998;

Antoniou et al., 2006; Antoniou, Ploumpi, & Ntalla, 2013; Ravichandran &

Rajendran, 2007; Timms et al., 2006), and no difference between the gender in the

three burnout syndrome (Zhao & Bi, 2003; Dali, 2004; Coulter & Abney, 2009).

The present study also provides valuable information regarding the four

groups of teaching experience and occupational stress among the secondary school

teachers. The analysis showed that the length of experience in teaching was also a

factor in assessing the occupational stress among teachers. There occurs an inverted

curvilinear relationship with the lowest stress found among novice teachers, i.e. 0-5

years and among those working as a teacher for more than 16 years, while those with

an average range of experience, that is, 6-10 and 11-15 years appear to have most

stress. This finding is in congruence to that of Mertler's study (2002) who detected

teachers with up to five years and eleven or more years' experience reported higher

job satisfaction than those with 6-10 years' experience. In the same vein, Ganai and

Ali (2013) provided an indirect support to the findings of the present study. They

140


found senior higher secondary teachers' to have more job satisfaction than junior

higher secondary teachers'.

Further, when t-test was applied to compare each mean with every other

means of the four groups in this study, there were no significant differences witnessed

in mean occupational stress scores of three groups (0-5 years and 11-15 years, 0-5

years and more than 16 years groups, and 11-15 and more than 16 years) of teaching

experience. Researchers also found teaching experience was not significantly related

to teacher stress (Harlow, 2008) or workload of teachers (Chughati & Perveen, 2013).

This finding has been contradicted by Li, Yang and Shen (2007) who have indicated

that teachers' length of teaching has significant effects on their personal teaching

efficacy, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment.

In contrast to the findings of the present study, it is largely believed that new

recruits are not familiar with the culture of the school and it is the first month of

school that is very overwhelming for new teachers. Less stress amongst teachers with

16 years onwards experience may be due to lesser working hours and more material to

re-use. Huberman (1993) supports the findings of the present study that the older

teachers might be more experienced and adaptable to the environment and more ready

to cope with stress. The reason might be related to their professional role as a teacher

that at older age, the role burden usually gets diluted because of their potentiality,

increased capacity to analyze their role due to the job clarity; thus, they could perform

their roles better.

The results of the present study pertaining to the influence of academic

qualification gained by teachers on their occupational stress show that a large

population of 66.12% teachers consisted of trained teachers, either trained graduate

teachers (13.16%) or post graduate teachers (52.96%) as compared to 33.88%

teachers who were not trained at all. Further analysis shows that PGT teachers have

significantly less occupational stress than the teachers who were untrained and TGT's.

There is no significant difference in mean occupational stress scores of untrained and

PGT groups of qualification among teachers. This is consistent with the findings of

Zakiah (2003) who has also indicated no highest academic qualification differences in

stress levels.

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Notwithstanding Payne and Furnham's (1987) interpretation in their study that

teachers who attained a lower level of qualification or were not trained enough would

be more susceptible to malicious demands from others on the understanding that they

are not confident enough to stand on their stance and belief, which further escalates

their perception on their stressors. However, with regard to their trained or higher

degree counterparts, most of them were already a bachelor's degree holder once they

entered the profession. In this connection, less stress was experienced by them with

respect to this aspect. A strong empirical evidence to this has been provided by

Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978b) who also proved that teachers with higher academic

qualification, such as bachelor or higher were less stress than their colleagues with

lower academic qualification, such as diploma. On the contrary, because increased

status means increased responsibilities; few researchers (Richard & Kvieshok, 1989;

Ryhal & Singh, 1996) found that higher ranks in teaching profession experienced

maximum stress.

Further, when the data was analyzed to see the significant difference in

occupational stress and two groups of salary of secondary school teachers, it is seen

that there is no significant difference between mean occupational stress scores of two

groups. This result can be viewed as occurrence of better promotion prospects

probably, job security or better pays of teachers where their qualifications are

concerned. The results also advocated that male teachers in 15,000 INR onwards

salary group have more occupational stress than their female colleagues, but a

significant difference is not found in relation to salary in 'upto 15,000 INR' group.

It is quite acceptable that the existing pay scale of secondary teachers does not

come closer to their desires and aspirations. This can lead to stress. Findings of Rizvi

and Shanker (1987), Joseph and Varghesh (1988) put to light that salary variable

function as either satisfier or dissatisfier. An indirect relation between stress and

salary emerged from the study of Anitha Devi (2007) who found poor salary to be the

main cause of job dissatisfaction. Katoch (2012) notified income per annum as an

important factor impacting the level of job satisfaction. A more plausible explanation

for occupational stress among male teachers has been put forth by Bloland and Selby

142


(1980). These researchers reported married men, however, are more likely to leave

teaching in search of higher salaries than are single males.

Furthermore, another variable which is not found to be an influencing factor

for occupational stress among teachers, is the subjects taught by them. The results

obtained did not support the idea that the languages, arts, social sciences and sciences

teachers differ on the level of stress experienced by them. Likewise, an indirect

evidence suggests that the science teachers are more satisfied with regard to their job

than social science higher secondary teachers in Srinagar, India (Ganai & Ali, 2013).

One possible explanation can be that the workload of languages, arts, social sciences,

and sciences teachers has increased in recent years, so much so that there exists no

significant difference between the four groups. Secondly, this may be because every

subject has its own value for the teacher. Teachers, when enter the teaching

profession, possess a deep knowledge of their relevant teaching subject and their

prime concern is to make the students understand their subject and teach well so as to

clear their concepts, irrespective of the subject taught by them. Thus, every teacher

enjoys teaching their main subject and do not experience stress. Most interestingly,

Thody and Bowden (2004) discovered deviated results that teacher stress might be

attributed to unanticipated teaching subjects which are not the teacher's degree

specialism.

Combined and individual effect o f job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation

When two of the predictor factors (job satisfaction and pupil control ideology)

were taken together they generated an adjusted R square of 0.69. The interpretation of

this is that 69% of the variance in teachers' occupational stress can be explained by

the combined influence of the above mentioned predictor variables. An effective

prediction of the teachers' occupational stress by job satisfaction and pupil control

ideology is not surprising because literature has indicated significant relationships

between occupational stress and job satisfaction (Ma & MacMillan, 1999; Pelsma et

al., 1989) and pupil control ideology (AIbertson & Kagan, 1987). As reported by

these researchers, teacher autonomy, that is, having a sense of control over their day-

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to-day teaching, particularly in deciding which year group they teach, is found to

enhance job satisfaction and reduce stress.

The standardized beta weights specified that the relative contributions of these

variables in predicting stress towards teaching occupation are job satisfaction (74%)

and pupil control ideology (18%) with the greatest and smallest contribution,

respectively. This relation confirms the importance of job satisfaction on occupational

stress of teachers as indicated by the need theory of Roe (1970) that explains that an

occupation is a primary source of need satisfaction. Halpin, Halpin, and Harris (1982)

have indicated a possible relationship between susceptibility to stress and pupil

control orientation. The studies carried out by researchers (Lunenburg & Cadavid,

1992; Abaci & Kalkan, 1999) have further confirmed that teacher burnout was related

to custodial student control ideology.

Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

This study finds a negative correlation between teachers' occupational stress

and job satisfaction (r= -0.81), which is an indicative of decreased job satisfcation

with an increase in occupational stress of teachers. This is to be expected because job

satisfaction is an indication of positive attitudes toward work, while occupational

stress relates to negative aspects of work. De Nobile and McCormick (2005) also

reported negative correlation between occupational stress and job satisfaction (r= -

0.50). There is significant corresponding relationship among the three sub-groups of

job satisfaction and mean occupational stress scores. This confirms that an increase in

teacher's satisfaction will result in lowering of occupational stress while on the other

hand, decrease in satisfaction among teachers will result into raising of occupational

stress. Research findings by many researchers (Borg & Riding, 1991a; Litt & Turk,

1985; Otto, 1982) presented an inverse relationship between stress and job

satisfaction.

Though, the gender-wise breakdown of three sub-groups of teachers accounts

to no significant differences among the male and female teachers of all the three

groups, yet more occupational stress among female teachers of less and more groups

of job satisfeation is noticeable as compared to their male complements. The present

study lends support to the high proportion of teachers who are satsified with their job

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(Broiles, 1982; Galloway et al., 1985; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962). As the secondary

school teachers' overall job satisfaction is found to be moderate, this is in line with

the findings of similar studies, such as those of Yaseen (1990), Alarimi (1998),

Alonazi (2001), Alroyali (2002), Alagabri (2003), and Tok (2013).

Secondary school teachers are bound by rules and regulations, so they have

little flexibility. This can be the reason that occurrence of a minor population

representing less satisfaction has also been noticed in this study. Molmar (1985)

reported that job satisfaction is a product of the interaction of meaningful job

motivation and working condition. This study is also in agreement with the findings

of Quitugua (1976) who showed that male teachers were overall more satisfied than

female teachers, but contradict the findings of some researchers' (Klecker & Lodman,

1999; Islam et al., 2012; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962) that female teachers experienced

greater job satisfaction than male teachers. While, Ghazali (1979) reported

insignificant relationship between sex and teachers' overall job satisfaction.

Combined and individual effect of work values on teachers' stress toward their occupation

When all the predictor variables of work values (good economic return,

high status/ prestige, opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/ cooperating

colleagues, security of service, fair/ sympathetic supervisions, opportunities of further

progress/ advancement, opportunities of intellectual stimulation, work consistent with

my life goals/ values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority and freedom in my

work) taken together, they yielded an adjusted R square of 0.19. This can be taken as

an elucidation that 19% of the variance in the teachers' occupational stress can be

explained by the combined influence of the above listed eleven predictor variables of

work values.

The standardized beta weights indicated that occupational stress is negatively

related to all the eleven work values; and that the relative contributions of these work

values in predicting stress towards teachers' occupation are opportunities of

exercising power/ authority by the teachers' (61%) that seems to be the strongest

factor which predicts their occupational stress, followed by good economic return

(47%), high status/ prestige (33%), friendly/ cooperating colleagues (31%) and fair/

sympathetic supervisions (28%) in sequence. Furthermore, the next sequences of 145


work values gave the relative contributions as opportunities of human/ social service

(22%), opportunities of intellectual stimulation (20%), work consistent with my life

goals/ values (18%), freedom in my work (16%), security of service (15%) and to

end, opportunities of further progress( advancement has the least contribution of 13%.

Previous study (De Nobile & McCormick, 2005) also found job stress and

work itself to be negatively related to each other. Devis (1990) reported classroom

situation as a cause of stress; this may be taken as an explanation for the teachers to

exercise power/ authority in their class. An important study along a similar line

include the work of Hoffer (1982) who stated that burnout is related to lack of

students interest, lack of equipment, large classes, behavior's and pupils attitude.

Factors such as age of the taught, non-cooperative relationship of the colleagues,

unsympathetic attitudes of principal, leadership behavior of principal and availability

of less free time due to overloading of work might have contributed to more work

stress among secondary school teachers. These findings get strength from the result of

Cunninghum (1983) who has testified limited promotional opportunities and lack of

support as responsible for teachers' burnout.

Relationship between occupational stress and preferences of work values

Links between differently preferred work values and occupational stress of

teachers were perceived in this study. High status/ prestige is realized as the most

preferred work value among secondary school teachers, sequentially preferred by

opportunities of human/ social service, good economic return, security of service,

freedom in my work, friendly/ cooperating colleagues, opportunities of further

progress/ advancement, work consistent with my life goals/ values, fair/ sympathetic

supervisions, opportunities of intellectual stimulation;. in succession with the

opportunities of exercising power/ authority work value that emerged as the least

preferred one by the teachers.

Three negative correlations were seen between occupational stress and work

values, namely good economic return (r= -0.18), high status/ prestige (r= -0.13) and

opportunities of exercising power/ authority (r= -0.30) which leads to the

interpretation that with increase in occupational stress, there results a decrease in

these three work values. The secondary school teachers enjoy higher income; have


more opportunities for rendering social service, doing their work independently and

exerting power, so they show higher appreciation for these work values. Accordingly,

the highly stressful teachers' may find their stress adversely affecting their efforts to

earn money, do more social work, exert more power and work independently.

Besides, five positive correlations between occupational stress and work

values were also detected in this study, i.e. security of service (r= 0.12), opportunities

of further progress/ advancement (r= 0.15), work consistent with my life goals/ values

and freedom in my work (r= 0.11 each), opportunities of intellectual stimulation (r=

0.01). This means with a gain in security of service, opportunities of further progress/

advancement, work consistent with life goals/ values, freedom in work, and

opportunities of intellectual stimulation, an addition in the occupational stress of

teachers' is maintained. Walonick (1993) stated that career related concerns, such as

job security and advancement are often responsible for stress. It implies that

perception of more economic security and promotion opportunities might have

mediated the effects of stress on teachers' work values.

The present study has shown that occupational stress is not related to three

work values of secondary school teachers, namely opportunities of human/ social

service, friendly/ cooperating colleagues and fair/ sympathetic supervisions. These

relationships seem to reflect lack of secondary school teachers' sensitivity to

differences in these aspects of work. Their abilities might have contributed to

reducing stress in these areas. Miller et al. (1991) suggested if teachers were to work

with an environment where supports such as good relationship with colleagues,

enough resources and facilities were provided; the stress level could be minimized.

Likewise, support and recognition has been consistently associated with job

satisfaction, while lack of it or low supervisory support has been identified to be

related to job stress (Dinham & Scott, 1996; Luthans, 2002).

Perceptions' regarding which work values are more important than others is a

factor capable of differentiating among less, moderate and more stress teachers. Less

stress teachers consider security of service to be the most important work value for

them, followed by freedom in my work and thereby, opportunities of human/ social

service. As against this, they assign the lowest ranks to opportunities of exercising

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power/ authority, opportunities of intellectual stimulation and good economic return,

in the descending order of preference, respectively. While, more stress teachers'

consider good economic return to be the most important of all work values,

sequentially followed by high status/ prestige and opportunities of human/ social

service. Most interestingly, as compared to the less stress group, this group of teachers

also kept opportunities of exercising power/ authority and opportunities of intellectual

stimulation work values in the less preference work value category, in the order of

decreasing rank mean, respectively; while work consistent with my life goals/ values

was addressed as the least preferred work value by the most stress group of secondary

school teachers.

Moderate stress teachers' give topmost importance to high status/ prestige

successively followed by good economic return and thereafter, friendly/ cooperating

colleagues. For this group, the least important work values consist of opportunities of

intellectual stimulation, opportunities of exercising power/ authority, and fair/

sympathetic supervisions, respectively in the order of least preference. This evidence

goes to show that the evaluation of different job factorsis is not done in a like manner

by teachers' which renders a difference to their stress behaviors, or that the spring

heads of satisfaction in job are not the same for the teachers who differ in their stress

behavior.

The discrepancy among preferences of work values in less stress group can be

due to the good institution and healthy environment where these teachers work. As the

teachers indicated they are given due freedom, have security of their jobs, bossy

attitude to lead the group, do not have to execute much extra work, they will feel less

stress in their work. Social interaction is the key to success. In school environment,

teachers have to interact with principal, colleagues, and students. Teachers will be

free of stress if their relations are cordial with all and they are more satisfied with

their relationships. Some researchers (King & Pearl, 1992; Vance et al., 1989) have

determined in their studies that teachers in schools with a clearly established

disciplinary policy and appropriate support from the school management in

disciplinary matters, experience less stress.

`C'!:]


in addition, Robbins et al. (1994) indicated that the more important factors

conducive to job satisfaction include mentally challenging work, equitable rewards,

supportive working conditions and supportive colleagues. Singh (2007) is of the view

that recognition and status area of job satisfaction is negatively related to stress

among primary female teachers. Competing demands of careers, family plans, social

life, civic life and recreation are also stressful to teachers, particularly junior teachers

(Sorcinelli & Gregory, 1987). Kaur, Kumari, and Sharma (2013) opined that the most

important factor that creates stress among the college teachers' is salary and other

benefits followed by working conditions, relations with colleagues, job security and

workload. These findings are also substantiated with that of Hayward (1993) who

asserts that discipline and classroom control issues cause interpersonal stress for

teachers at all grade levels.

Now coming to the work values preferred by more stress group, the plausible

reasons for their preferences to different work values can be attributed to high

position, challenges, adventurous work to perform, and dealing with curricular and

extra co-curricular activities in school environment, which automatically brings along

with it the pressures and responsibilities on the shoulders of teachers. Okeke and

Dlamini (2013) observed contractual problems and the nature of their work to be the

main stressors for the high school teachers. On this note, Smit (2000) pointed that the

highest levels of teacher stress were found to be those arising from lack of rewards

and recognition. This may be the reason that this group of secondary school teachers

confer prime position to good economic return and high status/ prestige, and

experience more stress. Though they have opportunities to utilize their talents and

have good chances for promotion, yet the eagerness/ flair to have more and more

freedom in work, security of service, and fair/ sympathetic supervisions take a toll on

their stress levels. Furthermore, secondary school teachers are expected to work with

some authority while making slight changes in the curriculum when found necessary,

but the rules governing teaching profession do not permit them to do so. This can

cause stress in them too.

However, until fairly recently it was common to find many secondary school

teachers who had reached their maximum wage scale years before and who had

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practically no promotion opportunities or the benefit of extra allowances

commensurate with their qualifications and experience. It would, therefore, seem that

their growing frustration was accompanied by moderate stress levels, as viewed by

the present study. Furthermore, the teachers in this group placed a liking for friendly/

cooperating colleagues, opportunities of human! social service, and security of

service. Research evidences by Fimian (1986a, 1986b) provide support to this

preference relationship, who investigated that the receipt of peer and supervisory

support would act as a moderator of teacher stress.

Besides, by the findings of this study it is discovered that teachers' in the

moderate stress group placed least liking for fair! sympathetic supervisions,

opportunities of exercising power/ authority; followed by opportunities of intellectual

stimulation in the last. This is not surprising as teachers have identified students as the

primary and central factor that has impact on both their professional enthusiasm and

discouragement (LACES, 1997). On the converse, Abdullah, Uli, and Parasuraman

(2009) identified secondary school teachers to be generally dissatisfied with their pay

and working conditions; while they expressed general satisfaction over other work

dimensions such as supervision, promotions, co-workers and work itself. Besides,

Usop et al. (2013) reported elementary teachers were contented with their job

satisfaction facets such as school policies, supervision, pay, interpersonal relations,

opportunities for promotion and growth, working conditions, work itself,

achievement, recognition, and responsibility. Moderate levels of stress may improve

effort to work, diligence and stimulate creativity (5chermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn,

2000).

Relationship between occupational stress and pupil control ideology

Now coming to pupil control ideology, another important variable of the

study, a definite relationship has been found to exist between this variable and the

occupational stress behavior of the secondary school teachers'. It is observed that

there is a positive correlation between occupational stress of teachers and their pupil

control ideology (r= 0.48), which indicates that as occupational stress scores increase,

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pupil control ideology scores increase accordingly. As an increase in the total score on

the pupil control ideology scale represents a more custodial student control ideology

among teachers', it may be stated that the more the custodial teachers' ideology

occurs, the more stress is observed. The teachers' with less stress experiences are

more humanistic in their approach to problems of pupil control and discipline than

those who use moderate type of behavior/ practices or have quite more stress

experiences. A significant corresponding relationship occurs among the three sub-

groups of pupil control ideology and occupational stress. This designates that a

custodial pupil control ideology will lead in more occupational stress while a

humanistic pupil control ideology will mark less occupational stress among teachers.

Besides, gender basis analysis of three sub-groups of the teachers is that male teachers

of moderate group of pupil control ideology have more occupational stress in

comparison to their female colleagues. While male and female teachers of humanistic

and custodial pupil control ideology groups show no significant differences. Thus, it

was found that teachers' control-ideologies appeared to be the significant predictors of

their job stress.

A study by Agoglia (1998) stated that significant direct relationships were

found between pupil control ideology and occupational stress of school teachers.

However, in the studies carried out by Lunenburg and Cadavid (1992) and Abaci and

Kalkan (1999), it was noted that teachers' burnout was related to custodial student

control ideology. Additional analysis revealed that custodial teachers were found

more often to experience depersonalization feelings and to frequently experience lack

of personal accomplishment. Willower, Eidell, & Hoy (1973) claimed that teachers'

with custodial student control orientations tended to perceive students as

irresponsible, non-trusting and undisciplined. In a similar study by Friedman (1995),

it was found that custodial teachers tended to be more burn out. On the other hand, it

was also reported that teachers with custodial student control ideologies felt more

anxiety than humanistic teachers (Docking, 1985). Ozdemir (2007) found that as the

classroom management efficacy of teachers' increases, their burnout levels decrease.

The degree of stress which teachers experience is positively related to the degree

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which he/she perceives as a lack of control over a potentially threatening situation

(Hock & Roger, 1996). Literature supports the evidence of a humanistic orientation

associated with increased job satisfaction (Heckert, 1976), while the other reports the

opposite relationship (Krohn, 1979). Lunenburg & Mankowski (2000) found out a

significant correlation between a high degree of school bureaucratization and

custodialism in student control orientation and behavior. So custodialism in student

control orientation is related to a high incidence of rules and regulations, hierarchical

authority, centralization of control and impersonality.

Schools are organizations in which knowledge is constantly reproduced and

both teachers and students play an active role in the learning-teaching process. It does

not matter how much a teacher is effective at teaching a subject, the teacher cannot

force students to learn, if the class management and control is lacked, he or she could

not be successful (Celep, 2002; Demirel, 2009). In this light, the findings of this study

are also consistent with those of many researchers (Hoy & Forsyth, 1986; Okafor,

2006; Donmez, 2007; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008; Yilmaz, 2009) who advocated

that in classrooms where a positive climate exists, there will be a democratic

environment and student-centred learning process prevails. Student discipline has

been identified, at least in some studies, as the major cause of classroom stress for

teachers (Feshbach & CampbelI, 1978; Martray & Adams, 1981; Pettegrew & Wolf,

1982). If teachers have less confidence about how to manage a class they may feel

ineffective. As a result, they may get stressed and emotionally worn out, and may

develop a negative attitude toward students (Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995). It may be

due to this reason that teachers revert from humanistic pupil control ideology to a

custodial pupil control ideology, as shown by the present study.

A rise in the mean occupational stress scores of humanistic to custodial

teachers may be as the secondary school teachers have to deal with students in class

who talk constantly, have to tell students the same things over and over, plan and

organize learning activities for wide ability ranges, feel that students do not

adequately respond to teaching, and feel that adequate control over students is not

attained. It appears both logical and consistent that the custodial teacher should 152


experience higher stress when dealing with facets of group instruction. On the

converse, Emmer and Hickman (1991) found that teachers who perceive themselves

as competent adopt more humanistic orientations in classroom management.

However, Erdogan et al. (2010) opined that crowded classrooms make teachers more

likely to apply custodial orientations and their management less effective in such

classrooms.

5.10 Conclusion

It is conclusive to say that the findings of the present study and results of the

reported studies on the problem investigated have mostly been confirmed. Similar to

previous researches, it can be concluded that the phenomenon of teacher stress is

prevalent in our secondary school teachers', however the results of the present study

show that the majority of secondary school teachers' experience less stress toward

their occupation. Female teachers are far ahead in facing less occupational stress as

compared to their male complements. The study further detects that 10% of the

variance in occupational stress of teachers' can be explained by the combined

influence of the predictor demographic variables. It is apparent from the results that

teacher stress is actually a multiple-factor construct, and these factors are significantly

related with each other.

The results further indicate a relationship between teachers' occupational

stress and demographic factors. It is clear from the data analysis that occupational

stress in males is significantly higher than their female counterparts. This study also

elucidates the connection between years of teaching experience and occupational

stress. As the gain in teaching experience increase up to a certain period, say up to 10

years, the stress among teachers increases, while 11 years onwards a gradual decrease

in the occupational stress among secondary school teachers' is noticed. Qualification

of the teachers' also holds an impact on their occupational stress. This study shows

that with an increase in lower educational levels, say among untrained and trained

graduate teachers, there happens to occur an increase in stress experiences; while the

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attainment of highest educational level leads to a decrease in the occupational stress

among teachers'. I

In our educational settings, one significant factor that may contribute to the

phenomenon of teacher stress is the salary of teachers. However, the results pertaining

to the present study explores no significant difference between teachers' occupational

stress and their salary. Gender-wise breakdown show that males have greater

occupational stress in both the salary groups, but no significant difference prevails in

ùpto 15,000 INR' group. Additionally, as the teachers' specialize in their teaching

subjects, have mastery over the text contents and possess deep knowledge of their

relevant teaching subjects; they do not encounter stress due to it. Therefore, this study

does not show any relationship between occupational stress and different subjects

taught.

The results also prove that 69% of the variance in the teachers' occupational

stress can be explained by the combined influence of the predictor variables — job

satisfaction and pupil control ideology. Moreover, beta weights indicated that job

satisfaction lends the greatest support, i.e. 74% in predicting stress toward occupation

of teachers; while pupil control ideology contributes only 18% to its prediction. The

results also concord that occupational stress is negatively related to job satisfaction

and positively related to pupil control ideology. Next, taking job satisfaction as the

individual variable and examining its relationship with occupational stress, it is

revealed that it is one of the most influencing factors to teachers' stress. The results

display that higher occupational stress scores consistently accompany reduction in job

satisfaction of teachers', and a significant negative relationship is proved between

occupational stress and job satisfaction scores (r= -0.81). Though, female teachers

have more occupational stress than the male colleagues in less satisfied and more

satisfied groups, yet no significant differences exist in all the three job satisfaction

groups.

Now, heading towards another important variable of this study, i.e. work

values, 19% of the variance in the teachers' occupational stress is explained by the

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combined influence of the eleven predictor work values. Remarkably, of all the

variables of work values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority emerged as the

strongest factor (61%) in predicting occupational stress of the secondary school

teachers. The analysis of the results has also shown occupational stress to be

negatively related to all the eleven work values. Coming to the preferences given to

these work values by the teachers', results indicate that high status/ prestige,

opportunities of human/ social service and good economic return is preferred the most

while the opportunities of exercising power/ authority is preferred the least by the

secondary school teachers' followed by opportunities of intellectual stimulation and

fair/ sympathetic supervisions.

Supporting the preferences for these work values by the teachers' results

further showed that there is a negative relationship between occupational stress and

three work values—good economic return, high status! prestige and opportunities of

exercising power/ authority. Besides, significant positive correlations were found

between occupational stress and security of service, opportunities of further progress/

advancement, work consistent with my life goals/ values, freedom in my work and

opportunities of intellectual stimulation. Furthermore, the analysis of the results for

the preferences of work values among less, moderate and more occupational stress

groups show that less stress group of teachers' prefer security of service, freedom in

work and opportunities of human! social service the most in the order of succession,

while opportunities of exercising power/ authority is the least preferred work value by

the less stress group of teachers, that is sequentially followed by opportunities of

intellectual stimulation and good economic return.

The more stress group of teachers' placed almost an equal liking for good

economic return and high status/ prestige work values, that is succeeded by

opportunities of human/ social service; while they treated work consistent with my

life goals/ values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation as the least liked/ preferred work value by them. On the other

hand, among the moderate stress group of teachers', high status/ prestige, good

economic return and friendly/ cooperating colleagues work values are the most 155


preferred against opportunities of intellectual stimulation which is given the least

preference of all the eleven work values by this group.

Moreover, this result shows that increase in pupil control ideology consistently

accompanies with higher occupational stress, and a significant positive correlation is

found between occupational stress and pupil control ideology of secondary school

teachers' (r= 0.48). Also, male teachers have more occupational stress than the female

counterparts in the moderate and custodial pupil control ideology groups. But, male

and female teachers' of humanistic and custodial groups show no significant

difference in occupational stress of secondary school teachers'.

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chapter-6 Summary, Findings,

Areas for Further Research and Limitations

Summary, Findings, Areas for Further Res.

Chapter 6 Summary, Findings, Areas for Further Research and Limitations

6.1 Introduction

Teachers' today are the central force of the school. They are the catalysts that foster changes in education. They are significant in the lives of the students they teach

because they transmit the values of the society to them. Thus, they are overloaded

with the increased responsibilities, accountabilities to broader perspectives, and

greater opportunities for action in the educational field or the school organization.

Teachers are no longer looked at as the mere transferors of knowledge, but as

individuals who need to communicate and engage with students more than before and

to care for their inner worlds (Arnold, 1999). A lot is expected from them — to

empathize with learners, to motivate and encourage them, to participate in classroom

activities, and generally speaking, to help facilitate learning. However, in addition to

all these roles, they also need to engage in many other tasks such as paperwork,

evaluating students, preparing for the class, remaining up-to-date with their teaching

area and preparing their teaching materials. At the same time, they might have

positive or negative encounters with parents, colleagues, administrative authorities

and students, all of which can affect them psychologically.

Work should not compromise on health and family life; rather offer happiness,

peace of mind, certainty, variety and flexibility. On the converse, studies have

continuously proved that teaching is one of the most stressful jobs in comparison to

other occupations (Adams, 2001). Stress ought to have a negative effect on teachers'

well-being (physically, emotionally, behaviorally or mentally), and thereby affects not

only teachers, but also the school (i.e., loss of teaching time), and more importantly,

the students (i.e., students' perceived relation with teacher) (Wilson, 2002). It is

greatly agreed that occupational stress, thus, is unavoidable which adversely affects

the members of every institution, and in real life, the factors creating occupational stress among teachers' will probably continue to increase. In order to perform best

and achieve educational goals better, it becomes essential for them to not only be

aware of the impact of their own behavior but must relate this impact to the goals of

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the school organization. Ironically, their concerns and needs have not always been

addressed in 'the same way. The impetus for the present study emerged from the

recognition of the increasingly complex demands placed on teachers and staff

members and the importance of learning strategies to help manage the stress that

inevitably results from these demands. The identification of stress in teachers' may

help to improve the mental health of teachers' and as a consequence, their job

performance, values at work and their pupil control ideology.

It is well evidenced and documented that occupational stress among teachers'

if not adequately and properly checked and diagnosed, could result in physical

ailments, psychological and social problems" such as depression and anxiety, and

hostility toward colleagues, students and family members (Arikewuyo, 2004).

Therefore, it becomes essential for the administrators to identify the areas where

conflicts of stress exist and determine appropriate actions to remedy it. Thus, in order

to travel around the various factors affecting teachers' classroom behavior, their work

efficiency and their role in teaching-learning process, the present study is an effort to

investigate the relationship among secondary school teachers' occupational stress,

demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology.

6.2 Statement of the Problem

"An investigation into the relationship among Teacher's Occupational Stress, Job Satisfaction, Work Values and Pupil Control Ideology".

6.3 Objectives of the study

The investigator has started the work with the following objectives:





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5. To study the combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation.




9. To explore the relationship between occupational stress of secondary school teachers and their pupil control ideology,


The main purpose of this study is broadly stated to investigate the relationship among secondary school teacher's occupational stress, demographic factors, job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology. In this study demographic factors and work values have been taken in the sense as:


> Work values include: Good economic return, high status/ prestige, opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/ cooperating colleagues, security of service, fair/ sympathetic supervisions, opportunities of further progress/ advancement, opportunities of intellectual stimulation, work consistent with my (teacher's) life goals/ values, opportunities of exercising power/ authority, freedom in work.

6.4 Questions posed for the study

In this study of teachers occupational stress in relation to their demographic






159





7. Do work values explain the differences in mean occupational stress score of teachers?


6.5 Hypotheses of the study

In the light of the above-mentioned objectives, the study was conducted after

formulating the following research hypotheses:









160

Summary, Findings, Areas, for Further Res.

6.6 Methodology and design of the study

Before conducting any research study, it becomes essential to make a

systematic plan and to take decisions, which are crucial for the successful

achievement of the objectives of the study. The method adopted for this study was

descriptive and statistical in nature. The sample used for the study of secondary

school teachers' occupational stress forms the main sample of the study. In all 608

teachers' were involved in the study of investigating the relationship between

teachers' occupational stress with their demographic factors, job satisfaction, work

values and pupil control ideology. The teachers' selected for the study were secondary

school teachers' teaching languages, arts, sciences and social sciences.

6.6.1 Sample of the study

The sample was selected keeping in view the needs and objectives of the

study. It should be mentioned that these teachers' have been chosen from 41 schools

of Eastern and Western U.P. of India. These schools constitute different categories of

management, some of them are privately managed, and some are managed fully or

partially by the government. The types of management are categorized as

Government, Government Aided, Muslim Managed, Non-Muslim Managed, and

Aligarh Muslim University Managed Schools. Out of the 41 schools selected in the

study, ten are single-sex male schools constituting 153 teachers, seven are single-sex

female schools having 128 teachers, and twenty four are co-educational schools

having 327 teachers in total, The number of the female teachers' is more than that of

male teachers, their numbers being 327 and 281, respectively.

6.7 Data collected for the study

The following baseline data were collected for carrying out the present

investigation:


> Data used for the development of Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale.

> Scores on the teachers stress toward their occupation.

> Scores of the teachers demographic factors.

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> Scores of the teachers job satisfaction.


➢ Scores of the teachers pupil control ideology.

6.8 Tools used for the study

The investigator used following tools for the collection of data:

> Teachers Occupational Stress Scale (developed by the investigator).

> Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale (developed by the investigator).

➢ Work Values Scale (11 work values were selected from the six lists of different work values suggested by the eminent vocational psychologists).

> Pupil Control Ideology Scale (developed by Khatoon & Munir, 2009).

> Personal information sheet (prepared by the investigator).

6.9 Statistical techniques employed

The investigator proceeded with the, analysis of data by using relevant

statistical techniques, which were selected only after the investigator found them to be

the most appropriate and compatible for the analysis of data. They are specified as

follows:

> Determination of the reliability and validity of the Teachers Occupational Stress Scale and Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale.


➢ Use of linear measure of correlation (Pearson's Product Moment Coefficient Correlation).

➢ Use of Multiple Regression for seeing the combined and individual effect of variables on the dependent variable.

> Use of F-test for measuring the significance of difference among more than two means.

> Use of t-test for measuring the significance of difference between two means.

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6.10 Findings

After statistical analysis, the following conclusions were drawn in accordance

with the hypotheses and results of the study:

1. General pattern of occupational stress of secondary school teachers

i. The analysis of the data indicated that majority of secondary school

teachers' (47.70%) have less occupational stress.

ii. Results have also proved that greater percentage of female teachers'

(54.74%) face less stress toward their occupation than their male

colleagues (39.50%).

2. Combined and individual relationship of demographic factors with teachers' occupational stress

I. The results of the study showed that 10% of the variance in teachers' stress

toward their occupation can be explained by the combined effect of the

predictor demographic variables, i.e. gender, teaching experience,

qualification, salary and subjects taught.

ii. Gender is indicated as the best predictor of occupational stress in this

study, and contributed 12% to teachers' occupational stress.

3. Relationship between occupational stress and demographic factors

i. The analysis of the results reveals that males' occupational stress is

significantly higher than the female complements. Females, thus, were

observed to come across less stressful experiences in the secondary

schools.

ii. This study shows an inverted curvilinear relationship with the lowest stress

found among novice teachers, i.e. 0-5 years and among those working as a

teacher for more than 16 years, while those with an average range of

experience, that is, 6-10 and 11-15 years appear to have most stress.

Further, no significant differences are seen in mean occupational stress

scores of three groups (0-5 years and 11-15 years, 0-5 years and more than

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16 years groups, and 11-15 and more than 16 years) of teaching

experience.

iii. It has been found that academic qualification of teachers' is related to their

occupational stress. In the present sample, 33.88% of the teachers were not

trained at all. Results further show that, progressive advancement in lower

educational levels leads to a rise in occupational stress among teachers,

while with the attainment of highest educational level, the occupational

stress among teachers' decrease.

iv. No relationship has been demonstrated between salary groups and

occupational stress of teachers'. Gender-wise breakdown shows that males

have more occupational stress than their female colleagues, but a

statistically significant difference is observed only in teachers' falling in

15,000 INR onwards salary group.

v. Furthermore, another variable which is not found to be an influencing

factor for occupational stress among teachers' is the subjects taught by

them. The results obtained did not support the idea that the languages, arts,

social sciences and sciences teachers differ on the level of stress

experienced by them.

4. Combined and individual effect of job satisfaction and pupil control ideology on teachers' stress toward their occupation

i. The analysis of the results put to light that 69% of the variance in teachers'

occupational stress is explained by the combined effect of predictor

variables, i.e. job satisfaction and pupil control ideology.

ii. It has been found that satisfaction in teachers' with their job results to be

the strongest factor (74%) in comparison to pupil control ideology (18%)

which predicts their occupational stress.

5. Relationship between occupational stress and job satisfaction

The major findings in regard to the relationship between occupational stress

and job satisfaction towards teaching are given below:

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i. A significant and negative correlation is found between the teachers'

occupational stress and job satisfaction (r= -4.81).

ii. Less satisfied teachers are significantly different from the more satisfied

group in regard to their occupational stress. The former group of teachers'

is more stressed with their teaching occupation than the more satisfied

group of teachers'.

iii. Less satisfied teachers' are found to be significantly different from the

moderate satisfied group in relation to their occupational stress. The

former group of teachers is found to be more occupationally stressed than

their complements.

iv. Moderate satisfied group is found to be significantly different than the

more satisfied group in regard to their occupational stress levels. The

former group is found to be more stressed with their occupation than their

counterparts.

v. No significant differences are found in the male and female teachers of

less, moderate and more job satisfaction groups regarding their

occupational stress. However, females in less satisfied and more satisfied

groups have more occupational stress than their male colleagues.

6. Combined and individual effect of work values on teachers' stress toward their occupation

i. The analysis of the results displays that 19% of the variance in teachers'

occupational stress is explained by the combined effect of eleven predictor

variables of work values.

ii. The results in this study further show that opportunities of exercising

power/ authority by the teachers' emerge as the strongest factor (61%)

among all the work values which predict their occupational stress.

7. Relationship between occupational stress and preferences of work values

This study also explores the links between differently preferred work values

and occupational stress of secondary school teachers'. The major findings are as

follows:

165


i. The results indicate that secondary school teachers' recognize high status!

prestige as the most preferred work value, sequentially preferred by nine

different work values; while opportunities of exercising power! authority

work value fallouts as the least preferred one by them.

ii. Though negative yet significant correlations are observed between

teachers' occupational stress and three of the work values, namely, good

economic return (r= -0.18),, high status! prestige (r= -0.13) and

opportunities of exercising power! authority (r= -0.30).

iii. Five positive significant correlations between occupational stress and work

values are also spotted in this study, i.e. security of service (r= 0.12),

opportunities of further progress/ advancement (r= 0.15), work consistent

with my life goals/ values (r= 0.11) and freedom in my work (r= 0.11),

opportunities of intellectual stimulation (r' 0.01).

iv. Occupational stress is not related to three work values of secondary school

teachers, namely opportunities of human/ social service, friendly/

cooperating colleagues and fair/ sympathetic supervisions.

This study also ventures further to find the preferences of work values among

• the less, moderate and more occupational stress groups of teachers. With regard to the

relative importance of work values as perceived by different occupational stress

groups of teachers, the following findings were arrived at:

i. Less stressed teachers consider security of service to be the most important

work value, followed by freedom in my work and then by opportunities of

human! social service. As against this, this group assigned the lowest ranks

to opportunities of exercising power/ authority, opportunities of

intellectual stimulation and good economic return, with respect to the

descending order of preference.

ii. More stressed teachers consider good economic return work value to be

the most important, followed by high status/ prestige, and then by

opportunities of human! social service. As against this, the least preferred

work values by this group consist of work consistent with my life goals/

values, opportunities of exercising power! authority and opportunities of

intellectual stimulation, with their respective ranks of 10, 9 and 8.

166


iii. Moderate stressed teachers give top most importance to high status/

prestige, followed by good economic return, and thereafter, friendly/

cooperating colleagues. The least important work values for this group

constitute opportunities of intellectual stimulation, opportunities of

exercising power/ authority and fair/ sympathetic supervisions, with the

ranks of 11, 10, and 9 respectively.

The findings led to the conclusion that less stress group of teachers do not see

eye to eye with more and moderate stress groups of teachers in regard to their

perception of the relative importance of various work values in teaching.

8. Relationship between occupational stress and pupil control ideology

Major findings relating to the relationship between various occupational stress

groups of teachers' and pupil control ideology are reported below:

i. A significant and positive correlation is found between occupational stress

behavior of teachers' and pupil control ideology (r= 0.48).

ii. Humanistic teachers' are significantly different from the custodial group of

teachers in regard to their occupational stress. The former group of

teachers' is more humanistic in their approach to problems of discipline

than the other group, and therefore, experiences less stress than the latter.

iii. Humanistic and moderate groups of teachers' differ between themselves in

regard to their occupational stress, the former being more humanistic and

less stressful than the latter group.

iv. There exists significant difference between moderate and custodial groups

of teachers' as far as their occupational stress is concerned, the former

being more adaptable to humanitarian approach and less stressed than the

latter.

v. There occurs significant difference between male and female teachers of

moderate pupil control ideology group in relation to their occupational

stress. Interestingly, male teachers' in this group are found to be more

stressed than their female counterparts.

167


6.11 Educational implications

From the research findings in the present study, several implications for the

school administrators, school authorities, management committees, policy makers,

educationists, psychologists, student-teachers and future researchers may be drawn

with regard to occupational stress of teachers' in secondary schools of India. The crux

of the current problem may Iie on the assumption that teachers view their stress

problem at personal level, and that schools seldom at least try to render help on such

personal basis.

The findings of the study were important from the point of view of excellence

of teachers, their effectiveness and efficiency in job situation. Stress affects the

teaching efficiency of the individual. So it is necessary to provide proper environment

and support to each to maintain individual stress. The study has shown that there are

variations in the experience of stress related to demographic factors, job satisfaction,

work values, and pupil control ideology by the male and female secondary school

teachers. This points to the need for the effective management of these determinants

of stress, either by making use of different management strategies at regular intervals,

or by providing effective guidance and counseling.

Attempts to spread reform, even among a few hundred teachers, may be too

ambitious. For the significant changes to take place, it is instructed that they may have

to be implemented at the school or in some cases at the department level. It is

therefore recommended that principals and the school management committee should

investigate the causes for teachers' occupational stress and if possible, to provide

ways, like workshops, seminars, and periodical stress management programmes for

reducing the levels of stress among the teachers, which in turn will improve their

functional skills and lead to effective teaching/ learning in the classroom. Further,

some major points should be taken care by the institution, that is, supervision, support

and relationship with the teachers' need to be corrected and enhanced most strongly.

Besides, some other areas like, frustration, ignorance and recognition need to be taken

care so as to reduce the stress and dissatisfaction of teachers'.

Though the results of this study on the less occupational stress among

secondary school teachers seem to deviate from what is found in popular literature on

the topic, the study has brought into focus the need to re-examine the widespread

168


belief that teaching is an extremely stressful occupation. The findings of the study

also revealed that teachers' with less occupational stress are more satisfied with their

profession than their counterparts. Thus, with respect to the efficiency of teachers'

and their role in productivity of education the study indicates the need to facilitate

professional development and healthy socio-emotional development of teachers. This

study highlights the importance of day-to-day interaction among the school partners —

teachers, pupils, parents — in shaping teachers' own experiences. Promoting a positive

school climate should therefore be considered a fundamental part of school

development planning.

The present study shows a strong relationship between teachers' occupational

stress and their preferences for work values. Thus, administrators and policy makers

must comprehend the different needs and requirements of their teachers' and staff

members, and must provide greater consideration of all teachers' needs and work

values through more flexible management structures, professional development

support, supportive school culture, recognition, stable contracts, rewards and

collaborative decision-making. This study suggests that educational administrators of

the Education Department should evaluate its educational policies and controls over

schools so as to narrow the gap between various types of schools regarding aspects of

administration, financial support as well as workload. The Advisory Inspectorate

inspectors must provide teachers with useful and constructive advice through personal

contact during school inspections, or through seminars and conferences, so that they

could become better equipped and more confident in themselves.

This study also confirms an association between teachers' occupational stress

and their pupil control ideology, with higher occupationally stressed teachers showing

a more custodial orientation in comparison to teachers with less stressed teachers'.

This implies that teachers' should also be conscious of the negative effects of stress.

More schools with humanistic orientations need to be established than the custodial.

Also, the teacher training institutions should introduce relevant refresher courses and

in-service programmes for student-teachers as well as front-line teachers to be aware

and deal with the notion of stress; as well as lessen the tendency of teachers' toward

adopting custodial control ideology more. On this note, the Education Department

could play a significant part in reducing teachers' stress. To reduce the teaching load

and to ensure that the teacher has sufficient time in school for administrative duties, it

169


is recommended that the Education Department should decrease the teaching load of

the teachers to not exceeding one half but not less than one third of that for an

ordinary teacher. To reduce the stress on administrative work, the Education

Department should provide more administrative support, fund and resources to

schools, such as computerization or additional clerical staff to help teachers' in

clerical work.

The present study also has implications for individuals working in either

personnel for school districts or admissions for administrator certification

programmes. Those applying for administrator positions and seeking entry into

administrator programmes in colleges of education are likely to reflect a wide

spectrum of attitudes, beliefs, values and ideologies. If personnel or admission

officers have candidates with specific traits in mind, particularly in these areas of

stress, they will need to devise alternate means of discovery than to trust in some type

of natural selection process. Thus, this study is useful to guide employee readers to

achieve their goals in order to satisfy their career by creating awareness about these

causal factors of stress and adopt coping strategies for minimization of stress in their

life; as stress can not be vanished from life. So we may conclude that the implications

of research are many and varied.

6.12 Areas for further research

This study has opened the doors to new researches in the critical field of

occupational stress among teachers. It has also increased the awareness of those

conducting educational research to the needs of those employed in this setting (the

teachers') and to those whom they serve (the students). During its progress, certain

problems closely related to the area of this work came up before the investigator.

These problems if investigated along the present work would help in clarifying the

conceptual misgivings and confusions. This study raised some important questions,

and provided way through few research problems related to the present area that may

be taken by the researchers in future. Thus, the study offers the following

recommendations for conducting further research and study:

> Emerging theoretical and methodological issues in the study of occupational stress of teachers'.

170


Influence of classroom behaviors, perceptions and attitudes on teachers' occupational stress.

> Relationship between personality types and teachers' occupational stress.

> Effect of marital status on teachers' occupational stress.

> Training of teachers' in the management of emotionally and behaviorally challenged learners and its relation to teachers' occupational stress.

> Role of open and closed organizational climate on teachers' occupational stress.

> Teachers' efficacy and its relationship to their occupational stress.

➢ Mutual teacher-principal relationships, personal characteristics and its effect on occupational stress.

> Pupil disruptive behavior and its relation to teachers' occupational stress.

Class size and its correlation with teachers' occupational stress.

> Type of family, family size and number of children as correlates to teachers' occupational stress.

> Teachers' occupational stress as a function of work commitment, work adjustment and religiosity.

> Influence of coronary diseases on health and occupational stress of teachers'.

> Relationship between principal leadership styles and teachers' occupational stress.

> Locus of control and its correlation with teachers' occupational stress.

171


6.13 Limitations of the study

Limitations of the study should not detract from the value of the study. They

are as enumerated below:

1. The study was confined to secondary schools from eastern and western regions of Uttar Pradesh state of India. The findings could have been more convincing if a larger sample size had been taken from secondary schools covering more number of districts of the state.

2. The results of the present study had reflected the secondary school teachers' occupational stress in various districts of Uttar Pradesh at a particular time. But these findings may be quite different at some other time or in other socio-cultural settings.

3. This study was focused on secondary school teachers only. Therefore, the results may not be generalizable to teachers, administrators and student-teachers of other levels—primary, elementary, higher secondary. The extent to which the findings may be considered applicable to other situations will depend upon the similarity between the teachers under study and the group in question.

4. The present study was limited to serving teachers of Government, Government-aided, Muslim managed, Non-Muslim managed, and Aligarh Muslim University managed secondary schools. It did not study the occupational stress of teachers who had left the secondary sector for various reasons, such as prolonged occupational stress, burnout, change of jobs, promotion and emigration.

5. Only five of the demographic factors were studied as the latent variables in this study, so the findings may not be applicable to rest of the demographic variables. Also, the present study was mainly confined to three variables, i.e. job satisfaction, work values and pupil control ideology, although a number of other variables are known to affect teachers' occupational stress. '

6. More factors/ variables can also be included in the questionnaire as stress can be caused by many different aspects of the working environment. With increased sample size, a more detailed empirical study among independent variables and the variables that have multiple categories can be performed; and need to be reported in a future study.

172

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Appendices

APPENDIX A-1

Teachers Occupational Stress Scale Please indicate your opinion about each statement by putting a tick mark (si) in any one of the five columns against the given statements that best represent your beliefs.

S.No. Statements d d

1. I am bored with my job.

2. My opinions are not appreciated by my principal.

3. My job does not satisfy me- any longer.

4. My students do not respond well to my teaching.

5. Going for my job is very exhausting for me.

6. I have difficulty concentrating at work. 7. I face alienation at work.

8. I do not have ample control over my students. 9. My workplace environment is not very pleasing.

10. I get easily irritated at work. 11. I avoid communication with my students. 12. 1 lose confidence when interacting with my work

colleagues. 13. I feel unwell at work.

14. I avoid interaction with my colleagues.

15. I avoid glancing at my students.

16. I feel sick when I think about work. 17. I usually think and worry about my promotion. 18. I am anxious when I am about to give a lecture in my

class. 19. Students' queries in classroom annoy me a lot. 20. I feel stressed out at work.

APPENDIX A-2

Teachers Job Satisfaction Scale Please indicate your opinion about each statement by putting a tick mark (') in any one of the five columns against the given statements that best represent your beliefs.

S.No. Statements cn

E

eD 1. Teachers lead vocationally unsatisfied lives.

2. People give me much respect when they know that I am a teacher.

3. Most people regard teacher as a poor creature. 4. It would have perhaps been better if I had joined some other

profession. 5. School authorities do not deserve co-operation from teachers.

6. Due to the nature of my colleagues, I find it difficult to cooperate with them.

7. Given fresh opportunity for choosing a career, I will again choose teaching.

8. Teaching is dull because teachers deal only with facts out of books.

9. Opportunity of further progress is lacking in teaching.

10. Teaching profession does not attract brilliant and efficient persons.

11. By nature the school children are troublesome creatures. 12. The teaching profession is one among the few noble

professions. 13. Teaching is boring because of repetition of similar work. 14. The teachers are not given due respect by the society.

15. Economic condition of a teacher makes me dislike this profession.

16. I feel proud of introducing myself to anyone as a teacher working in a school.

17. School authority treats teachers roughly. 18. To control students is a headache for the teachers. 19. Kind treatment of teachers spoils the students. 20. The end of my working day brings dissatisfaction for me.

APPENDIX A-3

Work Values Scale

Respondents are requested to rank order all the 11 items from the most important to the least important related to their work life.

I prefer the job which provides:

1. Good Economic Return

2. High Status (Prestige)

3. Opportunities of Human! Social Service

4. Friendly/ Cooperating Colleagues

5. Security of Service

6. Fair/ Sympathetic Supervisions

7. Opportunities of further Progress/ Advancement

8. Opportunities of Intellectual Stimulation

9. Work consistent with my life Goals/ Values

10. Opportunities of exercising Power/ Authority

11. Freedom in my work

APPENDIX A-4

Pupil Control Ideology Scale Please indicate your opinion about each statement by putting a tick mark (/) in any one of the five columns against the given statements that best represent your beliefs.

S.No. Statements

o aka d W

d o~

Qo Cho

m p;

ffq ;

W i~a

Qa

1. A few pupils are just young hoodlums and should be treated accordingly.

2. Pupils must be made to know that teacher's authority is supreme.

3. If pupils are given the freedom to manage their affairs, they will surely abuse it.

4. Most pupils will do not work, if teacher's fear is not there. 5. Friendly treatment by teacher makes the students too bold

and careless. 6. In order to get things done by the students, the teachers must

be strict. 7. Pupils who challenge teacher's viewpoint learn nothing. 8. Pupils should not be allowed to point out teacher's mistakes

because it lowers down his prestige. 9. Pupils should not argue with the teacher on any point

because it would disturb class discipline. 10. Misbehaving pupils can not be corrected through

persuasions and love. 11. Teachers' closeness with the pupils or mixing up with them

is harmful for class discipline. 12. Outside the class, the pupils should be allowed to meet the

teachers only by appointment. 13. It leads to chaos and ill discipline, if pupils are allowed to

question correctness of teacher's discussions. 14. Teacher will lose command over the class, if his contact witi

pupils becomes informal and friendly. 15. Sometimes ridicule and rebuke act as medicine to cure

undesirable behaviours of the pupils.

16. It serves no purpose to be regardful and considerate towards delinquent pupils.

17. Pupils begin to interfere in teachers' work, if they are given freedom to participate in planning and execution of teaching work.

18. No student should be exempted from rules and regulations of the school on any round.

19. The teachers who care for popularity can not enforce discipline in his class.

20. The teacher who has too much regard for feelings and sentiments of delinquents is not their real well wisher.

APPENDIX B-1

Personal Information Sheet

Please fill up the following information and answer the following questions by putting a tick mark (J) against the option of your choice. Your responses will remain confidential and will be used for research work only. Your opinion is greatly appreciated.

1. Name of the Teacher :..................................................................

2. Gender .....................................................................Male/ Female

3. Name of the School :....................................................................

4. Classes with Subjects Taught.........................................................

5. Medium of instruction:

(a) Hindi (b) English

6. Experience in Teaching:

(a) 0-5 Years (b) 6-10 Years

(c) 11-15 Years (d) 16 Onwards

7. Qualification:

(a) Untrained (b) TGT

(c) PGT

8. Salary (Total Emoluments):

(a) Upto 15,000 (b)15,000 Onwards

Publications

1. Demographic differences and occupational stress of secondary school teachers (2012). European Scientific Journal, 8(5), 159-175.

2. Contribution of value education towards human development in India: Theoretical concepts (2012). International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2(12), 2283-2290.

3. Stress among secondary school students: Prevalence, stressors and coping strategies (2012). Emerging Issues & Challenges in Education, Global & Indian Perspective, Vol. 4, 202-209. New Delhi, India: Radha Publications.

Papers in communication

➢ Influence of gender, types of school and occupational stress on pupil control ideology of secondary school teachers in India, International Social Science Journal, UNESCO, France.

Papers presented 1. Evolving the present teachers training programmes: Role of ICT (2012).

National Seminar on "Need and Significance of Remoulding Teacher Trainin Programme", organized by Three Dots Girls' Training College on 5 February, Aligarh, India.

2. Value Oriented Education: Need of Post-Modern Era (2012). International Seminar on "Postmodernism: Dimensions and Challenges", organized by Department of Sanskrit (Interdisciplinary), Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences from 151-3 d̀ March, Shri Varshney College, Aligarh, India.

3. Integrating ICT into Teacher Education (2012). National Seminar on "Amalgamation of Information and Communication Technology: To levitate the quality of Teacher Education", organized by Department of Teachers Education on 12a' March, Institute of Information Management & Technology, Aligarh, India

4. Students' Attitude towards Semester System (2013). International Education Conference on "Reforms in Examination and Evaluation (2E) and its Impact on Quality Education", jointly organized by Faculty of Education from 20c'-21s̀ January, RBS College, Agra and ISEE, Chennai, India.

Publications

ISSN: 1857 - 7431 (Online) ISSN: 1857 - 7881 (Print)

European Scientific Journal

March, 2012 vol. 8, No. 5

European Scientific Journal March edition vol. 8, No.5 ISSN: 1857-7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857-7431

-UDC: -15944.4:373.5-051

DEMOGRAPHIC DIFFERENCES AND OCCUPATIONAL

STRESS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

Mar ya Aftab Department of Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (U.P.), India

Tahira Khatoon Department of Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (U.P.), India

Abstract The present study examined the relationships of a set of independent variables (gender, qualification, teaching experience, salary, subjects taught and marital status) with occupational stress among secondary school teachers. The population in this study consists of 608 teachers from 42 schools of Uttar Pradesh (India). The Teachers Occupational Stress Scale was used for data collection, while t-test and F-test are used for statistical. analysis. According to the results of the analysis, nearly half of the secondary school teachers experience less stress towards their job and males display more occupational stress towards job than the females. Moreover, the trained graduate teachers are found to have higher occupational stress than post-graduate and untrained teachers. Teachers with an experience of 6-10 years face occupational stress the most, and 0-5 years the least; while those falling in the remaining two groups slide in between these two. Findings also reveal no significant differences between monthly salary, subjects taught, marital status and occupational stress of secondary school teachers.

Keywords: Gender, qualification, marital status, occupational stress, secondary school

teachers

Introduction

Occupational stress is known as stress at work. It occurs when there is a discrepancy

between the demands of the workplace and that of individual's (Tsutsumi et al., 2009). Job

stress, also known as occupational stress, has been defined as the experience of negative

emotional states such as frustration, worry, anxiety and depression attributed to work related

factors (Kyriacou, 2001). Occupational stress in the human service professions, particularly in teachers, has been a focus of study in the last decades. Most surprisingly, school teachers

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European Scientific Journal March edition vol. 8, No.5 ISSN: 1857 — 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857-7431

have been considered to be under stress (Beer & Beer. 1992; Boyle et al.,1995; Hammen &

De Mayo, 1982 ; Kinnunen, 1988; Kinnunen & Salo, 1994; Kyriacou, 1987 ; Malik, Mueller,

& Meinke, 1991 ; Smith & Bourke, 1992 ; Pithers, 1995), undergoing the process of burnout(

Beer & Beer, 1992 ; Burke & Greenglass, 1995 ; Kyriacou, 1987) or suffering from

depressive symptoms (Beer & Beer, 1992 ; Hammen & De Mayo, 1982 ; Schonfeld, 1990 ;

Schonfeld, 1992). There exists a substantial body of literature describing teaching as stressful

occupation and suggesting that teacher stress appears to be an increasing problem (Antoniou

et al., 2006; Chaplain, 1995; Guthrie, 2006; Kyriacou, 2001; Laughlin, 1984; Manthei &

Gilmore, 1996; Munt, 2004; Punch & Tuetteman, 1996). In recent time, several studies have

examined occupational stress in the teaching profession. Studies have suggested that teachers

experience disproportionately high level of stress (Adeyemo & Ogunyemi, 2005; Borg,

1990).

A number of factors have been shown to influence teachers' decisions about staying

on or leaving the profession, including job stress, job satisfaction, resilience, and self-efficacy

(e.g., Chan, et al., 2008; Day, et al., 2009). Typically, they include stressors in the areas of

work role (e.g., workload); administration; class size; role ambiguity and conflict, (e.g., the

sometimes conflicting demands of school management); the pressures of the teachers' roles

(e.g., counsellor, facilitator); poor working conditions; little recognition and low

remuneration; lack of involvement in decision-making student recalcitrance; lack of effective

communication, as well as the many emotional demands of teaching (e.g., Blix, et al., 1994;

Brown & Ralph, 1992; Cooper & Kelly, 1993; Punch & Tuetteman, 1990). In addition, a

study in Bahrain by Al-Khalefa (1999) observed work conditions, salaries, bonuses and

allowances, status of physical education, supervision, school facilities, workload and career

development to be the major causes of stress for physical education teachers. Teachers who

become burned out maybe less sympathetic toward students, may have a lower tolerance for

frustration in the classroom, may plan for their classes less often or less carefully, may

fantasize or actually plan on leaving the profession, may feel frequent emotional or physical

exhaustion, may feel anxious, irritable, depressed, and in general, may feel less committed

and dedicated to their work (Farber & Miller, 1981).

Furthermore, Farber (1984) assessed the sources of stress of suburban teachers in the United States and found that excessive paperwork, unsuccessful administrative meetings, and

the lack of advancement opportunities in teaching were related to stress. Workload, lack of

resources, poor professional relationships with colleagues, inadequate salary, pupil

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misbehaviour, difficult interactions with parents and expectations of other staff have been

identified as sources of stress in many studies (Borg, Riding & Falzon, 1991; Boyle, et al.,

1995; Pierce & Molloy, 1990; Pithers & Soden, 1998; Travers & Cooper, 1993). Smilansky

(1984) examined teachers' work satisfaction and reports of job-related stress in some English

elementary schools, and he found that teachers' general satisfaction and stress at work were

related mostly to their reported feelings about what had happened within class (such as

relations with pupils, the process of teaching, and pupil behavior in school) rather than to

administrative or policy questions (such as degree of work autonomy, relations with

principals). Negative self-perception, negative life experiences, low morale, and a struggle to

maintain personal values and standards in the classroom all take their toll (Goodman, 1980;

Schnacke, 1982; Schwanke, 1981). Stressed teachers had more illness, medicine intake,

anxiety, depression, and sexual passivity. More psychological and psychosomatic symptoms

were reported by teachers experiencing high burnout (Bauer et al., 2006).

Background Studies

Research suggests that gender may be an important demographic characteristic to be

considered in the experience of stress (Jick & Mitz, 1985). Mondal et al. (2011) found a

significant difference between male and female teachers, with male teachers having more

psychological stress and physical stress than the female teachers. Also, male teachers were

reported to be more insecure and emphasized financial concerns, while females expressed

concerns about intrinsic facets of their jobs (Rosenblatt et al., 1999). Moreover, males were

observed to have higher stress and anxiety than the females (Cheng, K.-L., Kelly, 1993;

Brember et al., 2002, Gursel et al., 2002, Chaplain, 1995). Quite contrary to this, female

teachers tended to complain more of burnout than male teachers (Chan & Hui, 1995;

Ravichandran & Rajendran, 2007; Bhadoria & Singh, 2010). Some researchers also fail to

advocate any significant result to support a gender difference in their studies regarding level

of stress and gender (Siong & Yet, 2003; Fontana & Abouserie, 1993).

Studies on the relationship between teachers occupational stress and their

qualification have shown that postgraduate teachers have significantly less job satisfaction on

job role item than the undergraduate and graduate teachers (Mondal et al., 2011). Hong Kong

teachers without finishing professional training and of junior rank reported themselves to be

more burned out in a study by Lau et al. (2005). Quite opposite to this, teachers qualification

was not correlated to their stress level (Lam Yee Mel, 2006). Other data support no

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significant difference between stress and academic qualifications of the teachers (Cheng, K.-

L., Kelly, 1993; Mokdad, 2005). The early years of a teacher's career have been recognized

as being stressful. Contradict to this, the year of experience on the school teachers did not

show any significant effect on job satisfaction and job stress (Mondal et al., 2011; Johannsen,

2011; Jepson & Forrest, 2006; Chona C. Roxas, 2009). Younger and less experienced

teachers were observed to be more burned out than older or more experienced teachers

(Abdul Majid, 1998; Lau et al., 2005; Bhadoria & Singh; 2010). Also, low wages and limited

opportunities for promotion, teachers' goals (occupational and financial) have been identified

as a source of stress for Greek primary and secondary teachers (Koustelios and Kousteliou,

1997; Papastylianou, 1997). Inadequate salary and low status were found to be important in

predicting job stress among high school teachers (Litt & Turk, [985). Khurshid et al. (2011)

showed that the teachers with low income experience more occupational role stress than

teachers with higher income level.

On the same note, Social Science teachers exhibited better job satisfaction than

Language, Mathematics and Science teachers (Mehra & Kaur, 2011); while Shukla (2008)

revealed no significant difference in the relationship between perceived burnout and teaching

effectiveness as perceived by teachers on the basis of subjects taught (Language, Social

Science, Science). In addition to this, marital status was related to the reporting of stress with

those who were widowed/divorced/separated generally having a higher proportion in the high

reported stress category (Smith et al., 2000). Quite opposite to this, researchers (Yahaya et

al., 2006; Cheng, K.-L., Kelly, 1993; Chona C.Roxas, 2009) indicated no significant

differences between the marriage status groups in stress levels.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of occupational stress ;dependent variable) with gender, qualification, teaching experience, salary, subjects taught

and marital status (independent variables) among secondary school teachers.

Research questions The research questions for this study include the following:

• What is the level of occupational stress in secondary school teachers?

• Do the demographic factors (gender, qualification, teaching experience, salary, subjects taught and marital status) explain the differences in occupational stress of

secondary school teachers?

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Method The present work is a descriptive study investigating whether the occupational stress

faced by the school teachers differed significantly to their level of occupational stress and

demographic factors. The sample consisted of 608 secondary school teachers, selected from

42 schools of eastern, central and western U.P., of India, in which 281(46.22%) were male

and 327 (53.78%) were female teachers.

Tools Used To obtain the data Teachers Occupational Stress Scale (TOSS) was developed along

with a general proforma by the investigators. The TOSS is a 20-item instrument, containing

all negatively worded statements. The instrument uses a five point Likert scale ranging from

5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Teachers occupational stress score is calculated by

adding the individual scores of all the items together whose possible range can be between

20-100. High score on the TOSS indicate a high level of stress among the teachers towards

the occupation. Teachers stress levels are categorized into less, moderate and more level of

stress in accordance with average stress scores obtained. According to the investigators, this

scale has split-half reliability of 0.79. The inner consistency coefficient determined by the

alpha correlation, which is a generalized form of 20 formulas of Kudar Richardson, is 0.88.

Another consistency test of the scale is performed by item total correlations technique. Item

total score correlations are between the range of 0.35 — 0.69 of all items with total test.

Results and Analysis

The secondary school teachers are divided into three groups (Table 1), that is less,

moderate and more stressed groups, on the basis of their Occupational Stress Scores. The

occupational stress levels of secondary school teachers are between the following range: Less

level of Occupational Stress (i.e. 20-50 scores), Moderate level (i.e. 51-70 scores), and More

level of Occupational Stress (71-100 scores). An examination of Table 1 shows that the

percentages of More, Moderate and Less Stressed groups of teachers are 11.35%, 40.95% and

47.70% respectively. In male sub-group, this translates into 14.59%, 45.91% and 39.50%,

while in female sub group it is 8.56%, 36.70% and 54.74% respectively. Thus, it is evident

from the analysis that nearly half of the teachers are in less stressed group and generally male

teachers experience more stressful situations about their occupation than their counterparts.

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Table 1: Percentage of Teachers Experiencing Less, Moderate and More Stress towards Job

Group N

Occupational

Stress Groups

Number of

Teachers in

each Group

Percentage of

Teachers in

each Group

Total 608

Less Stress 290 47.70 Moderate Stress 249 40.95

More Stress 69 11.35

Male 281


Moderate Stress 129 45.91

More Stress 41 14.59

Female 327


Moderate Stress 120 36.70

More Stress 28 8.56

It is evident from the result shown in Table 2 that the mean occupational stress scores

of male and female teachers are found 53.40 and 49.60 with SDs of 15.44 and 14.81

respectively. When the means of two groups compared, the difference between comparison

groups is found statistically significant (t=3.09, P<0.01). The trend of result showed that male

teachers are significantly more stressed with their job than female teachers.

Table 2: Comparison of Mean Occupational Stress Scores of Male and Female Teachers

Mean Gender N Occupational SD t df P<

Stress Score

Male 281 53.40 15.44 3.09 606 <0.01 Female 327 49.60 14.81

As shown in Table 3, t-test is performed to ascertain whether there is any difference in

occupational stress of teachers according to their qualification. Results show that trained

graduate teachers have significantly higher occupational stress (M=57.22, SD15.39) than

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those of other two groups. Furthermore, post-graduate teachers (M=49.50, SD= 14.55)

experience significantly less occupational stress than both the two groups of teachers.

Table 3: t-values obtained from comparison of Mean Occupational Stress Score of three

groups of Teachers formed on the basis of Qualification

Qualification N Mean

Occupational Stress Score

SD t value

U T P

Untrained (U) 206 51.96 15.61

TGT (T) 80 57.22 15.39 2.57'

PGT (P) 322 49.50 14.55 1.84 4.20

-P<0.05, --P<0.01

Mean scores of the teachers stress based on their teaching experience presented in Table 4, show teachers with an experience of 6-10 years have significant highest mean occupational stress scores (M=55.11, SD=16.53) than the other three teaching experience groups. Similarly, those teachers with 11-15 years of teaching experience have significantly higher occupational stress scores (M=51.37, SD=14.28) than those with 0-5 and 16 onwards groups; and teachers in the 16 onwards group have significantly higher occupational stress scores (M49.81, S1)=12.90) than those with 0-5 years of experience group. Further, teachers with 0-5 years of experience have significantly lowest occupational stress scores than those other three groups (M=48.66, SD=1 5.30). Table 4: t-values obtained from comparison of Mean Occupational Stress Score of four

groups of Teachers formed on the basis of Experience in Teaching

Years of Experience

N Mean

Occupational Stress Score

SD t-value (I) (II) (III) (LV)

0-5(I) 181 48.66 15.30

6-10(11) 183 55.11 16.53 3.86 11-15(111) 113 5I.37 14.28 1.52 1.99

16 onwards 131 49.81 12.90 0.70 3.06 0.90

-P<0.05, --P<0.01

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Table 5 shows there is no significant difference between monthly salary and

occupational stress among secondary school teachers. Teachers with higher monthly income are not necessarily having higher stress levels than their colleagues with lower monthly

income, vice versa.

Table 5: Comparison of Mean Occupational Stress Scores of two groups of Salary of

Teachers

Mean

Salary N Occupational SD t df P<

Stress Score

Uptol5,000 386 50.73 15.93

1.34 606 Not Sig. 15,000 222 52.44 13.85

onwards

One-way ANOVA was used to compare the four subject groups taught by the

teachers: languages, arts, social sciences and sciences. As shown in Table 6, occupational

stress is not found among the teachers teaching languages, arts, social sciences and sciences.

Table 6: Summary of analysis of variance in respect to Occupational stress and Subjects

taught by Teachers

Source of df Sum of Mean F P<

Variance Squares Square

Between 3 535.63 178.54 0.77 Not Sig.

Groups

Within 604 139973.04 231.74

Groups

Total 607 140508.67

A t-test is used to compare married and unmarried teachers on total scores on the

Teachers Occupational Stress Scale. The results in Table 7 reveal no significant difference in

the marital status and occupational stress of secondary school teachers.

European Scientific Journal March edition voi. 8, No.5 ISSN: 1857-7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857-7431

Table 7: Comparison of Mean Occupational Stress Scores of Married and Unmarried Teachers

Marital Mean Status N Occupational SD t df P<

Stress Score Married 436 51.68 15.32 0.86 606 Not

Sig. Unmarried 172 50.51 14.95

Discussion The present study suggests that nearly one-half of the population of secondary school

teachers (47.70%) face less stress towards their occupation, while among the remaining

teachers a large chunk of population falls into moderate stress group (40.95%); in contrast, a minor group consisting of 11.35% of the total population has more stress towards teaching profession. This is in partial accordance with Durani's observation (2009) who reported that among 150 women working as teachers in schools, 39% were having low stress, 20% were having high stress, 15% were having very average stress, 13% were having very high stress, 8% of the- respondents no stress, and 5% very low stress and 0% i.e. negligible were

abnormal. This result is discordant with that of Nayak et al. (2009), who found the higher percentage of teachers (70.5%) to be in the low stress category, followed by very low stress category (23.5%) and lesser percent in moderate stress category (6.0%).

Gender-wise analysis shows that male teachers are more stressed than female

teachers. The lesser degree of job satisfaction among male teachers can be attributed to the perceptions of female teachers to shoulder the responsibilities same as males in this competitive world, along with their aspiration level, social acceptability, challenges, job responsibilities and career development. Moreover, it is a widely accepted fact that secondary schools are heading towards the work environments that are non-masculinized. The finding is supported by Byrne (1998) and Bhagawan (1997) who emphasized that the causes leading to

burnout/stress affect male teachers more than the female teachers who have higher motivation. Whatever the underlying explanation, the results reported here contradict those of other studies that reported higher stress in female primary and secondary staff (Antoniou et al., 2006; Laughlin, 1984; McCormick & Solman, 1992b; Timms et al. , 2006; Abdul Majid, 1998), and no difference between the gender in the three burnout syndrome (Zhao & Bi, 2003; Dali, 2004; Coulter & Abney, 2009).

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This study shows a significant difference between occupational stress among school

teachers and their qualification. The mean occupational stress scores of teachers ranges from

more (Trained Graduate Teachers, 57.22) to less (Post Graduate Teachers, 49.50) with

Untrained teachers in between (51.96). This disparity can be accounted to those teachers who

attained a lower level of qualification or were not trained enough would be more susceptible

to malicious demands from others on the understanding that they are not confident enough to

stand on their stance and belief, which further escalates their perception on their stressors.

However, with regard to their trained or higher degree holder counterparts, most of them

were already a bachelor's degree holder once they entered the profession and possess a deep

knowledge of their subject. In this connection, less stress was experienced by them with

respect to this aspect. Study by Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (1978) has proved that teachers with

higher academic qualification, such as bachelor or higher were less stressed than their

colleagues with lower academic qualification, such as diploma.

This study also reveals a significant corresponding relationship among the four sub-

groups of teachers experience and occupational stress. This means, the stress in teachers

should increase with an increase in the years of their teaching experience. But the teachers

with an experience of >16 years are not found to support this notion. The reason might be

related to their professional role as a teacher that at older age, the role burden usually gets

diluted because of their potentiality, increased capacity to analyze their role due to the job

clarity; thus, they could perform their roles better. Moreover, the older teachers might be

more experienced and adaptable to the environment and more ready to cope with stress

(Huberman, 1993). Also, this study finds that those with an average range of experience, that

is, 6-10 and 11-15 years appear to have most stress. This can be explained, as the experience

in Indian teachers increases, they become more saturated or exhausted and tired and worn

out. This may make them feel less competent, less successful and incompetent to cope with

the challenging demands of their jobs. Also, they might not be confident enough in

teaching/dealing with disruptive pupils as they probably are inexperienced in their profession

comparison to their senior colleagues. Researches have also indicated that teachers length of

teaching has significant effects on their personal teaching efficacy, depersonalization and

reduced personal accomplishment (Li et al., 2007). In this study, teachers having 0-5 years of

teaching experience are seen to be less stressed of all, may be because they are in the initial

years of their career making and enjoy their job to the fullest.

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The present study advocates no significant difference in occupational stress and

salary. This result can be viewed as occurrence of better promotion prospects probably, job

security or better pays of teachers as their qualifications are concerned. Robbins et aL (1994)

indicated that the more important factors conducive to job satisfaction include mentally

challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working conditions and supportive

colleagues. Quite opposite to this, poor salary was found to be the main cause of job

dissatisfaction (Of li et al., 2009; Anitha, 2007). Furthermore, another variable which is not

found to be an influencing factor for occupational stress among teachers, is the subjects

naught by the teachers. This indicates that the languages, atts, social sciences and sciences

teachers do not differ on the level of stress experienced by them. This may be because every

subject has its own value for the teacher and their prime concern is to make the students

understand their subject and teach well so as to clear their concepts, irrespective of the

subject taught by them. Also, no significant associations between the occupational stress of

teachers and marital status are presented in this study, and this finding is in accord with

results of Al-Qaryoti & Al-Khateeb (2006) who reported that being married or not does not

effect on the level of burnout among Arab teachers. This result is not consistent with the

findings of Gold and Roth (1993), who stated that unmarried teachers had a higher stress

level than married teachers.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study concludes that nearly half of the teachers are in less stressed group and

male teachers face more occupational stress than their counterparts. Further, it is revealed

from the result that trained graduate teachers have significantly higher occupational stress

than post-graduate and untrained teachers. The study also finds that occupational stress is

most prevalent among teachers with an experience of 6-10 years and least among 0-5 years of

experience in teaching. Further, a no significant difference is seen between the monthly

salary and occupational stress of secondary school teachers. Also, no significant difference is

found among the teachers teaching languages, arts, social sciences and sciences. In addition

to this, the study also supports no significant difference in the marital status and occupational

stress of secondary school teachers.

Stress affects the efficiency of the individual. So, there is a need to provide proper

conducive environment and support to teachers to maintain individual stress at their workplace. Teachers should be positive in facing their challenges, which will help them in

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improving their functional skills and reduce stress, so that their profession is not affected. It is

recommended that regular assessment of stress level should be conducted for preventive

measures. Direct physiological measures of stress like diagnostic tests and consultation

should be conducted by the Guidance Center and Medical Clinic. Besides that the institution

or management should check that, supervision, support and relationship with the teachers is

properly taken care of and enhanced most strongly. Most importantly, it is recommended that

principals and supervisors should investigate the causes for stress and evaluate the

organizational climate of the school. They should also suggest ways, like workshops and

seminars to alleviate and cope with stress.

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work environment. Research in Education, 56, 63-72. Ravichandran, R., & Rajendran, R. (2007). Perceived sources of stress among the teachers. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 33(1), 133-136. Robbins, S., Water-Marsh, T., Cacioppe, R., Millet B. (1994). Organizational behaviour concepts, controversies and applications. Prentice Hall, Sydney, Australia. Rosenblatt, Z. Talmud, 1. & Ruvio, A. (1999) A gender based framework of the experience of job insecurity and its effects on work attitudes of Israeli School teachers. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 197-217. Schnacke, S. B. 1982. Burnout: Coping with predictable professional life crises. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, Houston, TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 257 836 Schonfeld, I. S. (1990). Psychological distress in a sample of teachers. Journal of Psychology, 124, 321-328.

Schonfeld, I. S. (1992). A longitudinal study of occupational stressors and depressive symptoms in first-year female teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 8(2), 151-I58. Schwanke, D. C. (1981). Teacher stress: Selected ERIC resources. Washington, DC: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Teacher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 204-258) Shukla, 1. (2008). Burnout and stress among secondary school teachers in relation to their teaching effectiveness. E-journal of All India Association for Educational Research (EJAIAER), 20(3 & 4).

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International journal of Asian Social Science

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International Journal of Asian Social Science 2(12):2283-2290

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CONTRIBUTION OF VALUE EDUCATION TOWARDS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA: THEORETICAL CONCEPTS

Shagufta Munirl Mariya Ahab=

ABSTRACT Value education is not simply the heart of education but also the education of the heart. It is a necessary component of holistic citizenship education. Value education has been globally perceived as an answer to the challenge of strengthening moral and social fabric of societies. Fostering of fundamental and human values and generating a caring and compassionate consciousness has tremendous potential to salvage the human goodness. The central idea behind value education is to develop essential values among the students and it teaches to manage complexities that can be continued and further developed Value education is a vital ingredient required to develop a strong moral basis to a student's life and to give them opportunity of doing well on the world Due to modern developments and fast changing role of parents, it has been very d(cult for parents to inculcate significant values in their child The school which gives education should also give equal importance to values, ethics and personality development as a means of preserving the standards of education. Values help us not only in self-evaluation, but also in self-drive too. Education in values is essential in helping each one of us directly encounter the values that we hole understand them completely, so that we may order our relationship to the environment that lies outside us. This paper emphasizes that value education in modern context is considered much wider, transcending the boundaries of religions and encompassing ethical, social, aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. Value oriented education needs to be realistically achievable in consonance with the academic framework of a school. The authors advocate that a judicious combination of academics, culture and value education will be an ideal approach to education and value education needs to be integrated within the school curriculum. Key Words: Value education, Human development and School curriculum

Post Doctoral Fellow, Department of Education, Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh (U.P.)-India

Research Scholar, Department of Education, Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh (U.P.)-India


Education is an essential human virtue that has become significant and crucial in terms of changes as well as quality. It plays the most vital role as an instrument of social change to connect with theory at the level of cultural impact and policy implication, for the development of the society. The first step in the direction of changing the world is to take the needed steps for radical change in the human consciousness. With a view to equipping children of today, who will be the citizens of tomorrow, education has to be reoriented and revamped altogether, Emerging hopes and aspirations in the minds of people have posed new challenges and new problems in re-orientation and re-energisation of education in values at all stages. So, value orientation of education has to be considered as one of the most important means to achieve the re-orientation and re-energisation of education. This will help human beings to conduct themselves in the more desirable directions, and to shape their life patterns by strengthening their beliefs and by integrating facts, ideas, attitudes and actions. It will also help people to become a useful member of the society and develop an appreciation of their culture heritage and live more satisfying lives (Bequist, 1992; Bloom, et al., 1981). Moreover, this will help clarify their aims in life as well as the process to achieve them.

Value education system that aims to enrich the level of one's understanding and respect for various values, and aims to bring an individual's maturity of mind is called value-based education. Value education is a planned educational programme aimed at the development of values in students. In the words of Gawande (2002), when human values are inculcated through curriculum to transcend to cognitive, affective and psychomotor level for conducive development of individual, society, national and international understanding, it is called value education. The evolution of value-oriented education dates back to the pre-independence and after independence period, where several commissions and committees recommended character education, religious education and moral education. Also, moral and religious education were broadly defined and coined into value education (National Education Policy of India, 1986). In moral education each society fixes its own ideals and it is the endeavor of the society to keep these ideals stable. But in value education the changes in human behavior are studied in its new perspective and propagated through various media. Thus, value education encounters with the total personality of the individual student keeping in view all aspects of human personality development--the intellectual, emotional and social. It makes an individual a good child, parent, adult and citizen, and keeps the people and society intact. Value education is considered much wider so as to transcend the boundaries of religions and encompass ethical, social, aesthetic, cultural and spiritual values. This broadened concept has many implications for value education programmes at the school stage.

Values are regarded enviable, imperative and are apprehended with high esteem by a particular society in which a person lives. Values give meaning and strength to an individual's character by occupying a central place in his/her life. Values reflect one's personal attitude and judgments,

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International Journal of Asian Social Science 2(I2):2283-2290

decisions and choices, behavior and relationships, dreams and vision. Values are useful indicators of an individual's decisions and actions (Rokeach, 1973). These values influence our thoughts, feelings & actions and guide us to do the right things. Values are the guiding principles of life that contribute to the all round , development of an individual. They give a direction to life and thus bring joy, satisfaction and peace. Values add quality to life. Values are defined as enduring beliefs, specific modes of conduct or end states of existence alongwith continuum of importance and are relatively resistant to change (Meglino & Ravlin, 1998; Ravlin & Meglino, 1987, 1989; Rokeach, 1973). Thus, one might say that any human activity, thought or idea, feeling, sentiment or emotion, which promotes self-development of an individual, constitutes a value. The other corresponding function of a value is that it should also contribute to the welfare of the larger social unit such as the family, the community and the nation of which an individual is a constituent. Value system is the backbone of the society. Values may vary from one society to another and from time to time. But, every society abides by certain moral values, and, these values are accepted by all the societies as "Global values". Values to be inculcated at primary and secondary school levels are courage, truth, universal love, respect for all religions, respect for elders, dignity of manual work, service, purity, peace, joy etc.

Why is there a need to imbibe values among individuals? In the present Indian scenario, due to manifold changes in various aspects of our civilization such as population explosion, advancement in science and technology, knowledge expansion, rapid industrialization, urbanization, mobilization, IT revolution, liberalization, privatization & globalization as well as the influence of western culture, present society has become highly dynamic. The degeneration in the present day life, the demoralization of public and private life and the utter disregard for values, are all traceable to the fact that moral, religious and spiritual education has not been given due place in the educational system (Rena, 2006). Modernization process is accompanied with multifold problems, anxieties and worries to human life, endangering its original simple nature. Growing global poverty, pollution, hunger, disease, unemployment, unsociability, caste system, child labour, gender inequality, ill-treatment of women, violence, disability, exploitation of natural resources and many such evils have caused value- crisis on the globe, adversely affecting the core human values such as honesty, sincerity, morality and humanity and, as such, there is a great transition in human society. To overcome the problems of the present era, inculcation of values among individuals and promotion of values in educational system, as well as society, is highly essential.

The need of values can be summarized as below: • To guide the human beings in the right path, to inculcate the concept of ùniversal

brotherhood' and to achieve the absolute values of Truth, Goodness and Beauty; • To give direction and firmness to life and bring joy, satisfaction and peace, of life, to

preserve our culture and heritage and to develop morality and character; • To bring the behavioural changes towards positivism; • To promote the peace and harmony in the individuals and in the society;

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• To bring quality of life and sustainable development in the society. Above all, the most important need is to inculcate all the five core values (truth, righteousness, peace, love and non-violence) among the people to make them good human beings in true sense. As we know that school is considered as a sub-system of overall social organisation is expected to act as an agent of preserving and strengthening the social structure, and should therefore translate the value system of the society in terms of aims and objectives for various school programmes. Keeping in view the requirements of providing facilities for all-round development of the child, the students should imbibe the following values and the school should provide the necessary activities and programmes to inculcate them:

1. Aesthetic values: Love for the fine art, dancing, painting and music as well as for the symmetry and beauty in nature, rhyme and rhythm in poetry etc.

2. Spiritual values: Importance given to the soul or the spirit etc. through yoga and meditation.

3. Moral or ethical values: Values related to the code of conduct, honesty, integrity, discipline, selfcontrol, self-reliance, inquiry into the good, the bad and the ugly aspects of human behaviour, code of conduct based on logical reasoning.

4. Social values: Concerning the responsibilities and the contribution of the individual towards the society and its wellbeing. These are governed by the political and social philosophy and the Constitution of the country, freedom, socialism, secularism, democracy, national integration, international understanding, democratic citizenship, equality, social justice, peace, inner harmony, fellow feeling, unity in the midst of diversities, civic sense, responsibility of citizens, camaraderie and cooperation, participation in community activities etc.

How to indoctrinate values? Various co-curricular and curricular activities are required to be given proper orientation, to be an instrument of inculcation of such values. In fact, values are woven in every activity of the school and also in every subject being taught. School environment and academic climate must be so modified that it provides rich experience to the children. The textbook material should be correlated with learning of values by identifying areas in which the desired values may be promoted. The following five steps have been identified for inculcation of values through curricular programmes by suitably introducing the element of values at every step:

1. Knowing: The student must be made aware of the inherent values or ethical issues while going through a particular topic.

2. Making judgments: The student must be provided with conflicting situations while teaching or learning to enable him or her to judge the implications of the related value.

3. Believing: Emphasis should be given to the relevant points helpful in development of faith in these related values.

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4. Action: The student should be encouraged to practice these values in actual life situation as a result of change in his or her behavior brought about by relevant and meaningful experiences.

5. Internalization: Through constant emphasis on relevant ideas, thoughts and actions, the student should be led to a stage where the practice of acquired values becomes spontaneous and immediate. It should be noted that values cannot be taught like a subject, i.e. like language, history, science or mathematics. They can be inculcated through situations deliberately planned while teaching various school subjects.

How teachers can help in the promotion of values for human development? The learning does not solely come from the teacher but the educator for the child is both the teacher and his peer group. Children often see teachers as important role models on par with parents (Rose, 2005). In this light, the teacher is more of a guide and facilitator, and indeed, the true partner in learning (Erwin, 1991). Within any society in which brainpower is the major form of capital, teaching stands as the key occupation for the simple reason that it is the prime vehicle by which the nation's intellectual and human resources are developed, their value added to and realized (Neave, 1992). The role of teachers needs to be determined not only in the context of promoting values but also in that of providing more effective methods of education. Teachers should not only be good in teaching but also be a good citizen possessing basic moral and aesthetic values. Teacher's function is not confined to what he or she does during his teaching hours in the classroom; in reality he or she teaches all the time, constantly, by acting as the role model before the students.

A teacher cannot promote values except by working as a role model. The role is crucial in any action programme to strengthen and nourish the values initially the child has in him. A teacher can help the students in developing a new attitude, a positive approach towards their daily learning tasks and sports, wanting to do something good for oneself, family, friends, society, country and the globe. Environment and resource conservation, and caring for nature are basically to be looked into.

The whole education has to be value added and value-oriented, so as- (i) To promote basic and fundamental qualities like compassion, truthfulness, peace, justice

etc. in the children. (ii) To train them to become responsible citizens in personal as well as social life. (iii) To enable them to become open and considerate in thought and behaviour. (iv) To rise above prejudices on religion, language, sex, caste or creed. (v) To develop proper attitudes towards one's own self and fellow beings.

Ways to integrate value education in the school curriculum: Curriculum must contain distinctive instructions for the values associated with each lesson. While on one hand, the teachers must explain those values to the students and encourage them to put the same into practice in their daily life; on the other hand, the value-based education should also be

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featured in the co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. In this way, we can surely bring about a positive change in the overall attitude of our students towards learning as well as society. Besides integrating values in the provided curricula, the special assemblies and functions could be arranged to instill the vital importance of fair and descent values. This could also be combined with the regular activities in the sports ground and academic contests. Hence, on this note, the authors suggest some of the effective measures to be taken on the part of school as mentioned below:

1. There should be integrated approach in education programme. Instead of tackling piecemeal such as awareness of ecology, environmental problem, community development, productivity etc. they should be handled in a comprehensive manner under the broad spectrum of social responsibility and inner development of human personality.

2. The consciousness of values must permeate the whole curriculum (not just value course), formal or non-formal, starting with assembly, the curricular and co-curricular activities, the celebration of festivals, work experience, team games and sports, subject clubs, social service programmes etc.

3. All teachers should act as teachers of value education, whether they are formally involved or not in the programme.

4. The school atmosphere, the personality and behavior of teachers, the facilities provided in the school—all have a large say in developing a sense of values.

5. Interaction to appreciate and understand innovations and initiatives as voluntary efforts. Those working voluntarily for the deprived and the downtrodden could be invited.

6. Utilization of available folklore, national monuments, forms of folk culture etc. to imbibe a sense of belonging.

7. A certain credit may be assigned at the time of assignment for some of the values like honesty, social service etc.

8. All functions, programmes, celebrations, gatherings etc. need to ensure that no group or community feels neglected or isolated.

9. Inviting persons of character, creative abilities, literary tastes and scholarly activities whose mere presence could inspire children.

10. To make the school responsive to emergent situations like quake, floods, fire or droughts. ii. Visits to institutions, establishments, centres of creative arts, museums etc. and to homes

for the aged, blind and handicapped not only enhance knowledge and understanding but also genuine appreciation and empathy.

12. The teachers should discuss among themselves, during lunch or recess, new incidents in schools that should form `case histories' for value education programme based on real life situations.

13. To innovate new techniques and methods to understand changes taking place in the society. They need to be monitored and the value inculcation programme suitably modified.

14. Examples from social life of school and community that reinforce human aspects of individual efforts and group efforts need to be disseminated and discussed.

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15. Cleanliness within school helps in the development of aesthetic sensibilities among students. They create lasting impressions.

16. Teachers, principals and other staff should take formal oath to the ethics of their profession like other professions.

In a nutshell it can be concluded that education without vision is waste, education without value is crime, and education without mission is life burden. A nation with atomic power is not a strong nation but a nation with people with strong character is indeed a strong nation. Human value is an academic behavior through which progress of individual, society, nation and international understanding are created. Aesthetic, spiritual, moral, ethical and social values are the values we need most at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Thus, our education should be based on these values. Other than keeping these basic values intact, there is a need to imbibe secular values like tolerance, self-respect, love for human dignity, respect and compassion for others, individual freedom and human rights, internationalism, rejection of cruelty, the practice of non-violence and the culture of peace, among students. Besides sustainable educational system, the special focus should be on inclusive growth with inclusive educational policies and programmes. It is through the inculcation of these different types of values that men of character, responsible citizens and sensitive personality of individuals can be established.

Martin Luther King well thought of the glory of a nation in the following words: "The prosperity of a country depends not on the abundance of its revenues, not on the

strength of its fortifications, nor on the beauty of its public buildings; but on its cultivated citizens, in its men of education, enlightenment and character".

Only a value based education can give our youth the heart to understand the feelings of others and a constant awareness to take care not to hurt or insult the hearts of others by words and actions. It is a value-based education only that can give our youth the altruistic and benevolent sense of living for others. Therefore, for the sustainable human development as well as for the social growth, there is a need of value based education, spiritual education, ethical education, as well as need based education. In the light of these evidences, it becomes essential for teachers, school, parents and society to apply moral values in order to overcome misconduct behavior among students (Nachiappan et al., 2012). Hence, there emerges an urgent need for the various educational institutions, local, national and international agencies to work together to make value-based education an essential component of educational programmes, so as to change the attitudes and behavior of the human race.

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REFERENCES

Bequist, W. H. (1992) The four cultures of academy: Insights and strategies for improving leadership in collegiate organization, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Bloom, B. S., Madaus, G. F., & Hastings, J. T. (1981) Evaluation to Improve Learning, New York: McGraw Hill. Erwin, T. D. (1991) Assessing student learning and development: A guide to the principles. Goals and methods of determining college outcomes, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Gawande, E. N. (2002) Value oriented education—Vision for better living, New Delhi, Saruptsons. Govt. of India, MHRD, Department of Education (1992) National Policy on Education, 1986 (with modifications undertaken' in 1992), New Delhi. Meglino, B. M., & Ravlin, E. C. (1998) "Individual values in organizations: Concepts, controversies, and research" Journal of Management, Vol. 24, pp.351-389. Nachiappan, S., Ahmad, A. I., Andi, H. K., & Veeran, V. P. K. (2012) "Relationship between secondary school integrated curriculum (KBSM) good values and aggressiveness among secondary school students" International Journal of Asian Social Science Vol. 2, No. 6, pp.830-840. Neave, G. (1992) The teaching nation: Prospects for teachers in the European Community, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Ravlin, E. C., & Meglino, B. M. (1987) "Effect of values on perception and decision making: A study of alternative work values measures" Journal of Applied Psychology Vol. 72, pp.666-673. Ravlin, E. C., & Meglino, B. M. (1989) "The transitivity of work values: Hierarchical preference ordering of socially desirable stimuli" Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 44, pp.494-508.

Rena, R. (2006) Value-based Education for Human Development —Eritrean Perspective. South Carolina, (USA); Essays in Education (ISSN: 1527 — 9359), Vol. 18, Fall, pp. 1-7 (A Quarterly Journal published by the Department of Education, at the University of South Carolina). Rokeach, M. (1973) The nature of Human Values, New York: Free Press. Rose, M. (2005) Lives on the Boundary, New York: Penguin Books.

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Stress Among Secondary School Students:

Prevalence, Stressors and Coping Strategies

Mariya Aftab

Introduction Education is a powerful tool to progress but it has become a stressful area of life for both children and parents in the.present era. The need to excel and emerge victorious is every parent's goal as much as it is for the child. The pressure to get good grades and to get a degree is very high for a student (Hirsch & Ellis, 1996). This overwhelming burden of information leaves a mini-maI opportunity to relax and recreate and sometimes leads to serious sleep deprivation among them (Lee & Graham, 2001; Firth- Cozens, 2001). Students mainly experience pressures from outside Sources (such as family, friends, or school), but they can also come from within. Forces from the outside world impinging on the individual could be counted as `stress'. Selye (1976) defined stress as a physiological non-specific re-action to external or internal demands. Stress is a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense, and also; a number of normal reactions of the body (mental, emotional, and physiological) de-signed for;self preservation (Princeton University, 2001). Despite its diffuse perception, most of the well-known definitions emphasize stress,as any factor that threatens the health of an individual or has an adverse effect on the functioning of the body (Oxford Medical Publications, 1985). A reported in-crease in the student stress has been accepted as a disturbing trend in student health nationwide.(Sax,-1997).

Personal and environmental events that cause stress are known as stressors (Lazarus, 1990). Stressors can be broadly defined as situations or

Research Scholar, Department of Education, Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh (U.P.) - India

Emerging Issues & Challenges in Education [Volume-4] : 203

%events that have the potential to affect health outcomes (Barling, 1990).Therefore, stress can be defined simply as emotional'disturbances or changes caused by stressors. Stress is seldom the result of a single cause, but is usually created by a number of stressors (Grobler et al., 2002). A student's life is subjected to different kinds .of stressors, such as the pressure of academics with an obligation of success, uncertain future and difficulties envisaged for integration into the system.. Students face social, emotional, physical and family problems which may affect their learning ability and academic performance (Fish & Nies, 1996; Chew-Graham, Rogers & Yassin, 2003). It constitutes various stressors which may cause impaired judgement, reduced concentration, loss of self-esteem, increased.anxiety and. depression (Gisele, 2002). Talking about academic stressors, it includes the student's perception of the extensive knowledge base required and the perception of an inadequate time to develop it (Carveth, Gesse, & Moss, 1996).- On the same note, using the coping strategies effectively and appropriately will help the students in improving their stress level. Coping strategies are defined as the person's. con-stantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the persons resourc-es (Supe, 1998). There is a need to recognize stress on secondary school students, and strategies developed to improve it should be focused on both individual and situational factors (Brissie, Hoover-Demprey, & Bassler, 1988). Effective and appropriate coping strategies may buffer the impact of newly encountered stressful situations on mental and physical health (Park & Adler, 2003). t

Sources of stress . The competition spirit is far exceeding the limits of endurance and reasonable-ness as more and more children feel stressed out and like a failure if they don't get high grades, while the benchmark for high grades only keeps increasing. Even the best CBSE School or a top international school is primarily measured with the yardstick of its academic performance, or in other words, through ranks and such systems. There is no wrong in it; in fact this is the mark of how good the,educational institution is as a choice. But the method in which educa-tion is imparted and the systems being implemented differs within each group of the so-called acclaimed institutions. What set apart the healthy mode of learning are the factors stressed upon during. education. In addition, high achieving parents sometimes unwittingly add to the stress in children's lives as they have great expectations for their children,.who may lack their parents' .motivation or capabilities. With added emphasis on the importance of stan-dardized testing in the schools students have additional stress placed upon them to excel academically.

204: Emerging Issues & Challenges in Education [Volume-4]

Students report experiencing academic stress at predictable times each. semester with the -greatest sources of academic stress resulting. from taking and studying for exams, grade competition, the large amount of content to master in a small amount of tinge, the need-to-adapt to new learningenvironments in terms of the increased, complexity of the material to be • learned and the greater time and effort required to do' so; and the need to constantly self- regulate and to develop better thinking skills, including learning to use specific learning techniques (Abouserie, 1994; Archer & Lamnin,1985;. Britton & Tesser, 1991; Kohn & Frazer,1986). Archer and Lamnin (1985) found that tests, grades, competition, time demands, professors and the class environment, and concern about future careers were major sources of academic stress. Finally, there are financial pressures and other technical difficulties (Kariv & Heiman, 2005). Also, there are other important sources of stress, which included homework, assign-ments and uncomfortable classrooms (Kohn & Frozer, 1986). In addition to academic requirements, relationships with fellow students and time pressure may also be sources of stress (Sgan-Cohen & Lowental, 1988). Relationships with family and friends, eating and sleeping habits and loneliness may affect some students on an average (Shah et al., 2009; Wright, 1967).

Stress and Coping Strategies among Students. Stress can lead to disruptions in both physical and mental health. Stress reduction and adopting a healthier life style have been major concerns of the students (Mundt, 1996). Students revert tb.different coping strategies, harmful as well as constructive. Methods to reduce stress by students often include effective time management, social support,. positive reappraisal, and engagement in leisure pursuits (Blake & Vandiver, 1988; Mattlin, Wethington, & Kessler, 1990). Anxiety reduction and time management in conjunction with leisure activities may be an effective strategy for reducing academic. stress (Misra & McKean, 2000). The only scientific research that specifically related leisure satisfaction to academic stress was that ofRagheb and McKinney (1993), who established a negative association between academic stress and leisure satis-faction. Academic stress in Kadivar, Shokri & Daneshvarpour study (2007) showed a negativee - relationship with task-oriented coping style and positive relationships with emotion-oriented and avoidant coping styles. Stepwise re-gression analysis showed that academic stress, task-oriented coping style, emotion-oriented coping style, and avoidant coping style respectively ac-counted for 9%, 3%, 2% and 1% the variance in academic achievement. More precisely,.the relationship between academic stress and academic achievement is influenced only by task-oriented and emotion-oriented coping styles. In terms of stress management, Lazarus and Folk ian (1984) defined eight sepa-rate coping strategies that they be-lieved individuals employed in stressful situations. These are confrontation, seeking social support, planned problem-

Emerging Issues & Challenges in Education [Volume-4] : 205

solving, self-control, accepting re-sponsibility, distancing, positive reappraisal, and es-cape/avoidance. Students involved in Redhwan et al. (2009) study identified other coping strategies such as shouting, singing, time manage-ment, dancing, crying, massage, vaca-tion, shopping, drinking a lot of water, watch cartons or comedies, eat chocolates, psychological treat-ment, optimis-tic thinking, and breathing.

Role of Parents Children begin to experience stress at a very early age, and they are often more vulnerable to stress than adults because they have not yet Iearned- effective ways to cope with it. As children get older, academic and social pressures create stress. Parents should, therefore begin helping their children acquire the skills necessary to effectively cope with stress while their children are young. In my opinion, parents can help ease their teens' academic stress in following ways:

• Be interested and available to help with schoolwork. • Making sure the child is eating healthy-and getting adequate sleep.

• Sleep is an essential factor in memory development, and on average teens need approximately 9 hours of sleep-.

• Asking questions and showing them that their parents want to be • - involved in their lives. By asking questions they create the space

for their child to express what he or she is experiencing. Once • students verbalize some of the stress they are feeling, they may be

able to approach their school work with a- clearer mind. • Making validating statements such as, "Wow it must really be tough

to do all the work you are doing," "If I was you and I had as much work as you do, Iwould feel stressed out too," "I really give you credit for everything you take on." Students need to hear that it is okay to feel the way they feel.

• Encouraging the child to think positively and use positive self-talk. The best ways to distress a child is by maintaining a good repo with him/her, understanding their needs and wants.

• Helping the child develop a daily academic routine at home. Fix a • leisure time for them, even during examinations like a walk in the

park or talking to friends or even some exercising. • While some children need concrete specific expectations to help • motivate them, most of them need only the reassurance from their

• parents that if he or she works to the best of their ability then the parents will be proud. So it is essential for parents to discuss their own expectations with their children. Every child has relative academic strengths and weaknesses in certain areas and parents need to recognize the ease and encourage and nurture their child's_ strengths.

206: Emerging Issues & Challenges in Education [Volume-4]

• Assisting the child with effective time management strategies; Effective time management is a key approach to preventing avoidable stress which helps them to anticipate their peak stress times and clear their schedule as much- as possible to be able to focus on the most important assignments, exams and other schoolwork. Moreover, suggesting them to keep a to do list of their tasks and do them in order of priority; thus, helping in making them stay organized.

Strategies for Stress Management Effective time management is just one of the many ways to keep from

succumbing to stress overload. In my view, some of the 'ways of stress management for students could. be:

• Associating with people they enjoy with and those support them. • Learning and practicing relaxation or meditation skills, alongw.ith

engaging in a vigorous physical exercise that is convenient and pleasurable to them.

• Never letting one particular thing dominate them, such as school work, relationships, sports, career aspiration, etc.

• Changing their attitude about life and viewing Iife as challenges to seek, not obstacles to avoid.

• Feeling themselves-.responsible for their lives and their feelings, but.. never blaming them.

• Maintaining a reasonable diet and sane sleep habits. • Avoiding the use of sleeping'pills, tranquilizers, and, other drugs to

control stress. • Surrounding themselves with cues from positive thoughts and,

relaxation. • When worries start to build up, * they should talk to someone to

lighten up themselves, or open themselves to new experiences, .try new things, new foods, and new places.

• Protecting the personal freedom and space of students would help them a lot. They should feel free to do what they want and feel, but doing so, respect the rights of others'-too.

• Students should be competent enough in taking action to .change rather than trying to avoid the problem. They should not drift along in troublesome and stressful situations or relationships, as taking chances is the key to emotional well-being.

Conclusion As their parents and mentors it is our duty to see that a child is free from

all anxieties no matter its related to examination. Children should be treated

Emerging Issues & Challenges in Education [Volume-4) : 207

with respect as growing individuals and not as high-score brewing machines. Their unique talents or inclinations to a healthy and creative aspect. of one's personality has to be appreciated and allowed to be developed. They should work hard and streamline their study material in such a manner that it does not put pressure on them in the end. Providing students with meaningful programs that assist in recognizing stress and identi-fying effective -stress management strategies and also building programs about how to manage time will be important. Different stress management techniques such as meditation, support groups, games etc., help in better adoption of coping skills, improved knowledge of stress and enhanced ability to resolve conflicts (Shapiro et al., 2000). `Stress management' and `Time management' taught as a part of their curriculum may assist students in dealing with stress due to study loads (Lee & Graham, 2001). Health education programs, mentorship and extracurricular activities can be important strategies to enable secondary students cope better with the demands of education.

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