An Introduction to U.S. Higher Education— Past, Present, and Future

An Introduction to U.S. An Introduction to U.S. Higher Education—Higher Education—

Past, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and Future

TopicsTopics

HistoryHistory Types of Colleges and UniversitiesTypes of Colleges and Universities Governance of Colleges and UniversitiesGovernance of Colleges and Universities The Future of Higher EducationThe Future of Higher Education

HISTORYHISTORY

c. 975: Al-Azhar University, Cairo

c. 1076: University of Bologna

c. 1117: Oxford University

1170: University of Paris

1209-28: Cambridge University

1385: University of Heidelberg (first German university)

1636: Harvard University (first American university)

Harvard, 1828

Harvard: founded 1636, PuritanHarvard: founded 1636, Puritan William and Mary: 1693, Anglican William and Mary: 1693, Anglican Yale: 1701, Congregational (Puritan)Yale: 1701, Congregational (Puritan) Pennsylvania : 1740, nonsectarian (Anglican)Pennsylvania : 1740, nonsectarian (Anglican) Princeton: 1746, nonsectarian (Presbyterian)Princeton: 1746, nonsectarian (Presbyterian) Columbia: 1754, AnglicanColumbia: 1754, Anglican Brown: 1764, BaptistBrown: 1764, Baptist Rutgers: 1766, Dutch ReformedRutgers: 1766, Dutch Reformed Dartmouth: 1769, Congregational (Puritan)Dartmouth: 1769, Congregational (Puritan)

Early Public Early Public Colleges and UniversitiesColleges and Universities

North Carolina, 1789/1795 North Carolina, 1789/1795 Georgia, 1785/1799Georgia, 1785/1799 Vermont, 1791Vermont, 1791 Virginia, 1800/1819Virginia, 1800/1819 Ohio, 1804Ohio, 1804 Michigan, 1817Michigan, 1817 Indiana, 1820Indiana, 1820

“ “our liberty can never be safe but in the hands our liberty can never be safe but in the hands of the people themselves, and that, too, of the of the people themselves, and that, too, of the people with a certain degree of instruction. people with a certain degree of instruction. This is the business of the state to effect, and This is the business of the state to effect, and on a general plan.” on a general plan.” --Thomas Jefferson, --Thomas Jefferson, 17861786

“ “this institution [the University of Virginia] will this institution [the University of Virginia] will be based on the illimitable freedom of the be based on the illimitable freedom of the human mind. for here we are not afraid to human mind. for here we are not afraid to follow truth wherever it may lead, nor to follow truth wherever it may lead, nor to tolerate any error so long as reason is left free tolerate any error so long as reason is left free to combat it.” to combat it.” --Thomas Jefferson, --Thomas Jefferson, 18201820

The Land-Grant College ActThe Land-Grant College Act(Morrill Act), 1862(Morrill Act), 1862

“ “without excluding other scientific and without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military classical studies and including military tactic, to teach such branches of tactic, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.”several pursuits and professions in life.”

The Land-Grant College ActThe Land-Grant College Act(Morrill Act), 1862(Morrill Act), 1862

Kansas State University, 1862Kansas State University, 1862 Iowa State University, 1858/1864Iowa State University, 1858/1864 Rutgers University, 1766/1864Rutgers University, 1766/1864 Michigan State University, 1855/1862Michigan State University, 1855/1862 University of California, 1855/1868University of California, 1855/1868 Connecticut, 1881Connecticut, 1881 Hawaii, 1907Hawaii, 1907 District of Columbia, 1967 (cash, not land)District of Columbia, 1967 (cash, not land)

“Old Main,” Iowa State University, 1864-68

Black Colleges and UniversitiesBlack Colleges and Universities

Reconstruction, 1864-1877Reconstruction, 1864-1877 Fisk University, 1866Fisk University, 1866 Howard University, 1867Howard University, 1867 Alcorn State University, Mississippi, the first Alcorn State University, Mississippi, the first

state-supported higher education institution state-supported higher education institution for African Americans, 1871for African Americans, 1871

1890 Morrill Act 1890 Morrill Act Higher Education Act of 1965: 110 Higher Education Act of 1965: 110

Historically Black Colleges and UniversitiesHistorically Black Colleges and Universities

Women and Higher EducationWomen and Higher Education

Separate women's colleges: Wesleyan Separate women's colleges: Wesleyan College (Georgia), 1836/1839 College (Georgia), 1836/1839

Oberlin the first coeducational college, Oberlin the first coeducational college, 1837; Antioch the second, 18521837; Antioch the second, 1852

1879: almost 1/2 of all colleges were 1879: almost 1/2 of all colleges were coeducational, especially the new state coeducational, especially the new state universities created by the Morrill Actuniversities created by the Morrill Act

College Graduates (baccalaureate or first professional degree), 1870-1920

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

3500018

70

1873

1876

1879

1882

1885

1888

1891

1894

1897

1900

1903

1906

1909

1912

1915

1918

Men Women

Curricular InnovationsCurricular Innovations

Ph.D. (research) degrees: Yale the first, Ph.D. (research) degrees: Yale the first, 1861; spread slowly1861; spread slowly

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1861Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1861 Morrill Act, 1862: Engineering, agriculture, Morrill Act, 1862: Engineering, agriculture,

military officer trainingmilitary officer training Wharton School (Business), 1881Wharton School (Business), 1881 Teachers College: Columbia University Teachers College: Columbia University

among the first, 1887/1892among the first, 1887/1892 Majors and electives widespread by late 19Majors and electives widespread by late 19thth

centurycentury

From Normal Schools toFrom Normal Schools toTeachers’ Colleges and BeyondTeachers’ Colleges and Beyond

Concord, Vermont, 1823 (first private)Concord, Vermont, 1823 (first private) Lexington, Massachusetts, 1839 (first public)Lexington, Massachusetts, 1839 (first public) Michigan State Normal School (now Eastern Michigan State Normal School (now Eastern

Michigan University), 1853Michigan University), 1853 Minns Evening Normal School, 1857 (California Minns Evening Normal School, 1857 (California

State Normal School, 1862; moved to San JosState Normal School, 1862; moved to San José, é, 1871; now 1871; now San JosSan José State University)é State University)

Los Angeles branch of the California State Los Angeles branch of the California State Normal School, 1881 (now UCLA)Normal School, 1881 (now UCLA)

San Francisco State Normal School, 1899 (now San Francisco State Normal School, 1899 (now San Francisco State University)San Francisco State University)

Manual Training Class, San Jose State Normal School, 1892

Community CollegesCommunity Colleges

First established in Joliet, Illinois, 1901, as an First established in Joliet, Illinois, 1901, as an extension of the local high schoolextension of the local high school

Vocational emphasis in 1920s and 1930sVocational emphasis in 1920s and 1930s Also developed as transfer institutions, providing Also developed as transfer institutions, providing

the first two years of a baccalaureate educationthe first two years of a baccalaureate education Rapid growth in 1960sRapid growth in 1960s Technical training emphasis in 1980sTechnical training emphasis in 1980s Typically practice open admission; 42% of Typically practice open admission; 42% of

entering public community college students must entering public community college students must take remedial coursestake remedial courses

Higher Education SystemsHigher Education Systems California (Master Plan, 1960): University of California (Master Plan, 1960): University of

California (9), California State University California (9), California State University (23), California Community Colleges (109)(23), California Community Colleges (109)

Florida: State University System (11), Florida: State University System (11), Community Colleges System (28)Community Colleges System (28)

New York: State University of New York, New York: State University of New York, 1948 (64), City University of New York, 1961 1948 (64), City University of New York, 1961 (21)(21)

Texas: Uni. of Texas (15), Texas A&M (12), Texas: Uni. of Texas (15), Texas A&M (12), Texas State (4), Uni. of Houston (4), Texas Texas State (4), Uni. of Houston (4), Texas Tech (3)Tech (3)

Types of Colleges Types of Colleges and Universitiesand Universities

Carnegie Classification for Carnegie Classification for Colleges and UniversitiesColleges and Universities

Research/doctoral universities: 285Research/doctoral universities: 285 Master’s degree granting: 665Master’s degree granting: 665 Baccalaureate degree granting: 766Baccalaureate degree granting: 766 Associate degree granting: 1,705Associate degree granting: 1,705 Special purpose: 806Special purpose: 806 Tribal colleges: 32Tribal colleges: 32

Colleges and Universities by Colleges and Universities by Funding SourceFunding Source

PublicPublic Private, non-affiliatedPrivate, non-affiliated Private, church-related Private, church-related ProprietaryProprietary

Examples of Colleges and Examples of Colleges and Universities in the SF Bay AreaUniversities in the SF Bay Area

PublicPublic Private, Private, non-affil.non-affil.

Private, Private, Church-rel.Church-rel.

ProprietaryProprietary

Research/ Research/ DoctoralDoctoral

UC UC BerkeleyBerkeley

Stanford, Stanford, Golden Golden Gate U.Gate U.

USFUSF

Special Special PurposePurpose

UCSFUCSF MenloMenlo Grad. Grad. Theo.UnionTheo.Union

Phoenix, Phoenix, Acad. ArtAcad. Art

Master’sMaster’s SF State, SF State, CSU EBCSU EB

MillsMills Santa ClaraSanta Clara

Baccalau-Baccalau-reatereate

Cal. Cal. MaritimeMaritime

DominicanDominican

AssociateAssociate CCSFCCSF

Examples of Public InstitutionsExamples of Public Institutions

UC Berkeley (doctoral/research): UC Berkeley (doctoral/research): 23,863 undergrad., 10,070 grad. & prof. students23,863 undergrad., 10,070 grad. & prof. students 108 bacc. degree programs, 64 masters, 96 doctoral, 108 bacc. degree programs, 64 masters, 96 doctoral,

32 professional32 professional undergraduate fees: $8,383/yr. for full-time enrollmentundergraduate fees: $8,383/yr. for full-time enrollment

SF State (masters/comprehensive): SF State (masters/comprehensive): 23,843 undergraduates, 5,785 graduate students23,843 undergraduates, 5,785 graduate students 109 bacc. degree programs, 85 masters, 5 doctoral109 bacc. degree programs, 85 masters, 5 doctoral undergraduate fees: $3,486/yr. for full-time enrollmentundergraduate fees: $3,486/yr. for full-time enrollment

City College of San Francisco (associates):City College of San Francisco (associates): 93,877 students, 29,211 credit FTES93,877 students, 29,211 credit FTES 30 degree or certificate programs30 degree or certificate programs fees: $20 per unit, approx. $600/yr. for full-time fees: $20 per unit, approx. $600/yr. for full-time

enrollmentenrollment

Largest Undergraduate Largest Undergraduate Degree ProgramsDegree Programs

SAN FRANCISCO STATESAN FRANCISCO STATE Business Administration Business Administration Psychology Psychology Biology Biology EnglishEnglish Cinema Cinema Art Art Radio & Television Radio & Television Engineering Engineering Liberal Studies Liberal Studies Journalism Journalism

UC DAVISUC DAVIS Psychology Psychology Biological SciencesBiological Sciences EconomicsEconomics Managerial EconomicsManagerial Economics Political SciencePolitical Science CommunicationsCommunications Biochem and Molecular Biochem and Molecular

BiologyBiology SociologySociology EnglishEnglish International RelationsInternational Relations

Community Colleges ProgramsCommunity Colleges Programs

Provide courses for transfer to a baccalaureate-Provide courses for transfer to a baccalaureate-granting institutiongranting institution

Workforce training -- Workforce training -- Police, firefighters, nursesPolice, firefighters, nurses Aeronautical and automotive mechanicsAeronautical and automotive mechanics Culinary arts – chefs, bakers, etc.Culinary arts – chefs, bakers, etc. Medical and dental assistants and techniciansMedical and dental assistants and technicians Machinery maintenance Machinery maintenance

Adult educationAdult education Personal enrichmentPersonal enrichment

Governance of Governance of Colleges and Colleges and UniversitiesUniversities

AccreditationAccreditation

Internal GovernanceInternal Governance

Accreditation -- Accreditation -- self-regulation of academic quality through accreditation

Middle States Association of Colleges and Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Schools

New England Association of Schools and New England Association of Schools and Colleges Colleges

North Central Association of Colleges and North Central Association of Colleges and Schools Schools

Northwest Commission on Colleges and Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities Universities

Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Western Association of Schools and CollegesWestern Association of Schools and Colleges

WASCWASC

Accrediting Commission for Senior Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities (151 institutions Colleges and Universities (151 institutions in California, Hawaiin California, Hawai'i, and the Pacific)'i, and the Pacific)

Accrediting Commission for Community Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges (140 institutions)and Junior Colleges (140 institutions)

Accrediting Commission for Schools Accrediting Commission for Schools (3,800+ K-12 and occupational schools)(3,800+ K-12 and occupational schools)

College and University College and University Internal GovernanceInternal Governance

Governing BoardsGoverning Boards

AdministratorsAdministrators

Academic SenatesAcademic Senates

Governing Board (Directors, Regents, Trustees)

Chief Executive Officer (Chancellor, President)

Chief Academic Officer (Academic

Vice-president/chancellor, Provost)

Other Vice-presidents/chancellors

(finance, administration, development,

student services)Academic Administrators

(Associate Vice-presidents, Deans, Directors)

Legal Authority

University GovernanceUniversity Governance

Joint Decision-makingJoint Decision-makingCollegial Decision-makingCollegial Decision-making

Academic Governance Academic Governance in the United Statesin the United States

1889: first academic senate in the U.S. 1889: first academic senate in the U.S. established at Cornell Universityestablished at Cornell University

1915: American Association of University 1915: American Association of University Professors organized to define and protect Professors organized to define and protect academic freedomacademic freedom

1966: Statement on Government of Colleges 1966: Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities (AAUP, with recognition by and Universities (AAUP, with recognition by the American Council on Education and the the American Council on Education and the Association of Governing Boards of Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges)Universities and Colleges)

Areas Subject to Areas Subject to Joint Decision-MakingJoint Decision-Making

The Curriculum: Courses and Degree ProgramsThe Curriculum: Courses and Degree Programs Academic PoliciesAcademic Policies

General education requirements Grading practices and standards Academic planning Admissions criteria and procedures Campus policies that govern the library and research

facilities The academic calendar

Hiring, Retention, Tenure, and Promotion of Faculty Hiring, Retention, Tenure, and Promotion of Faculty MembersMembers

Searches for AdministratorsSearches for Administrators Budget Planning, Facilities PlanningBudget Planning, Facilities Planning

Governance at SFSU:Governance at SFSU:The Academic SenateThe Academic Senate

55 members elected by and from the voting members of the 55 members elected by and from the voting members of the faculty; elected senators serve three-year terms:faculty; elected senators serve three-year terms:

42 Senators elected from each College, the Library, and 42 Senators elected from each College, the Library, and Student Services, including at least one lecturer from each unit. Student Services, including at least one lecturer from each unit.

10 Senators elected at large. 10 Senators elected at large. 3 members of the Academic Senate CSU elected at large. 3 members of the Academic Senate CSU elected at large. 10 appointed or ex officio members:10 appointed or ex officio members: The President of the University. The President of the University. The Provost. The Provost. 4 Senators appointed annually by the University President.4 Senators appointed annually by the University President. 3 Senators chosen by the Associated Students.3 Senators chosen by the Associated Students. 1 Senator chosen by the staff. 1 Senator chosen by the staff.

Proposal Originates: Individual faculty member Departmental committee

Special Taskforce All-University Standing Committee

President, Provost, other Administrator

Senate Standing Committee Senate Executive Committee

Other Members of the University Community

How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

Proposal Originates: the university community.

Executive Committee of the Senate Ex. Com. declinesto take action,proposal dies.



Executive Committee of the Senate

Senate Standing Policy Committee:Academic Policies Committee

Curriculum Review and Approval Com.Faculty Affairs CommitteeStudent Affairs Committee

Ex. Com. declinesto take action,proposal dies.

Committee declinesto take action,proposal dies.




Senate Standing Policy Committee

Ex. Com. declines to take action, proposal dies.

Committee declines to take action, proposal dies.

Academic Senate Senate defeats proposal.




Senate committee



Senate Senatedefeatsproposal.

President




Senate committee



Senate Senatedefeatsproposal.

PresidentPresident approves proposal.Proposal becomes Universitypolicy.

President declines to approve.Proposal dies.

President modifies proposal and Senaterefuses to accept changes.Proposal becomes executive policy.


University Decision-MakingUniversity Decision-Making

Often complex, involving several layers of Often complex, involving several layers of decision-making and considerable timedecision-making and considerable time

Bold presidential initiatives may well Bold presidential initiatives may well generate strong faculty oppositiongenerate strong faculty opposition

Collective Bargaining and Collective Bargaining and Academic GovernanceAcademic Governance

Where collective bargaining exists and where the Where collective bargaining exists and where the faculty have voted to unionize -- faculty have voted to unionize --

Terms and conditions of employment (salaries, Terms and conditions of employment (salaries, benefits) are usually determined through collective benefits) are usually determined through collective bargaining; bargaining;

Criteria and standards for personnel actions are Criteria and standards for personnel actions are usually determined through academic governance; usually determined through academic governance; andand

Curriculum and related academic policies are Curriculum and related academic policies are determined through academic governance.determined through academic governance.

Other GroupsOther Groups Students – usually have their own Students – usually have their own

governance structure, may have formal governance structure, may have formal responsibility for certain fees and facilities, responsibility for certain fees and facilities, may be represented on the governing boardmay be represented on the governing board

Alumni -- usually have their own Alumni -- usually have their own organization, may be organized through organization, may be organized through University Development, may be University Development, may be represented on the governing boardrepresented on the governing board

Staff – may be unionized, may have their Staff – may be unionized, may have their own organizationown organization

Does it work?Does it work?

I think you should be more explicit here in step two.

The Future of Higher The Future of Higher EducationEducation

Guessing about the Future of Guessing about the Future of Higher EducationHigher Education

Continued resource constraints for public Continued resource constraints for public universities, both research (UC) and universities, both research (UC) and comprehensive (CSU)comprehensive (CSU) Increasing reliance on transfers from Increasing reliance on transfers from

community colleges for first two years of community colleges for first two years of undergraduate studyundergraduate study

Increasing emphasis on private fund-raising Increasing emphasis on private fund-raising by public universitiesby public universities

Continuing increases in student feesContinuing increases in student fees

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An Introduction to U.S. Higher Education— Past, Present, and Future