An Introduction to Perspective

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PERSPECTIVE,

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY,

DRAWING

AND

PAINTING.

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N

INTRODUCTION

.

peeJsp

ective,

PRACTICAL

GEOMETRY,

DRAWING

AND

PAINTING;

NEW

AND

PERFECT

EXPLANATION

OF

THE MIXTURE OF COLOURS;

WITH

PRACTICAL

DIRECTIONS

FOR

. r > 0 2 8 3

MINIATURE, CRAYON, AND OIL PAINTING:

IN A SERIES <

I

Sir

FAMILIAR DIALOGUES BETWEEN THE AUTHOR'S CHILDREN,

AND LETTERS

ADDRESSED TO

HIS PUPILS.

ILLUSTRATED

WITH

NUMEROUS

WOOD

ENGRAVINGS,

FROM

DRAWINGS BY JOHNHAYTER, ESQ.

AND

COLOURED PLATES.

BY

CHARLES

IIAYTER, ESQ.

THE

SIXTH

EDITION.

LONDON

S AM * EL \ \ AG S T E R A X D

SONS

PATERNOSTER

I I

O

W

M.IK'CC.XI.V.



LONDON:

PRINTKD BY J. WERTHKIMKR AND CO.

CIRCUS

PLACE,

FINSBURY

CIRCUS.



TO

SIR MARTINARCHERSHEE

PRESIDKNT

ft r

TR« RATAL

ACADKMY

OF

ARTS, O.C.I,

. ,

F.R.S.,

KTC. KTC. ETC.

1I Y

WHOSE VALUABLE FAVOUR AND

PATRONAGE

A FORMER EDITION OF THIS

WORK

HAS BEEN FOSTERED

THE

PRESENT

GREATLY IMPROVED SIXTH EDITION

I S BY PERMISSION

DEDICATED

WITH

GRATITUDE

AND

PROFOUND

RESPECT

BY HIS MUCH OBLIGED SERVANTS

THE PUBLISHERS.



fUO



PREFACE.

How many persons, upon finding themselves possessed of the

power of using

a

pencil for their amusement, or at

least

of the

i ncli nat io n to

learn to

draw, have

been

turned

from

becoming

acquainted with the principles of Perspective, by the repul-

siveness

of

the mode in which the necessary i nf ormat io n has

been presented.

Yet

excellence as

an Artist i s not

to

be attained by any

means short of

a

comprehension of the truths of this

science

—

nor

c an any

neglect

i t s paramount claims, without danger of

falling

into

frequent

and glaring

inconsistencies—or

without

i t s

aid, produce even

a tolerable e f f e c t .

Perspective must be studied and mastered

by

a l l who desire

to

excel as Artists.

Is

this science, however, really so

difficult

as

i t i s

repre

sented?

We

affirm that

i t i s

not.

The Author of the present Volume found that i t was not,

when

pursuing

hi s su cc es sf ul career as a Teacher of

Painting

and Perspective Drawing; and he has l e f t us here the results

of hi s long experience, in a series of interesting intelligible

Dialogues between

hi s

children, which familiarly ex plai n the

whole subject—nitiating the reader, and conducting him from



Vlll

PREFACE.

subject

to subject, in a manner at

once delightful and

ob

viously

natural, and

leaving him

l i t t l e

difficulty

to

contend

with,

and

no

labour

beyond t he c arryi ng ou t of Mr.

Hayter's

frequent and

invaluable

admonition,

to

practise

every new

lesson as

i t i s learnt.

To give every possible facility

to

the learner, and

at

the

same time

to

do

justice to

Mr.

Hayter's

instructive

lessons

on

Pers pe cti ve, a series

of entirely new Drawings

has been pre

pared for this edition by John

Hayter,

Esq., and

engraved

by

Mr. Kirchner, in the finest style of wood-cutting:—nd to

illustrate our author's theory of

the

natural

results

of

the

combination of Colours as applied

to

miniature and general

painting, highly finished

coloured

plates

have been

prepared

after Mr.

Hayter's originals. The typography of the

work

has

also

received

the utmost attention ; and, as a whole, the

present

sixth edition of

this popular

book

will

be found not

only

greatly improved, and

beautified

in

appearance, but

more

than

ever adapted to secure i t s amiable author's object—the

form

ation

of a sound basis for either youth or

maturity to

build

on, from

which Genius may

proceed with

advantage.

Paternoster

Row,

December,

1844.



CONTENTS.

Perspective the Foundation

of

Truth in

a

Picture

Perspective

generally defined -

Practical methods of drawing

-

On practical

geometry and the use of the

Instruments

Definitions of

geometry,

with

explanations

Practical

Geometry

Copying by reticulation -

Methods

of squaring

P ri n ci p le s o f

Perspective

-

The

horizon

of a picture

-

The bird's-eye view

The apparent inclination of levels to the horizon

The point of sight, and

horizon -

Reasons for the height of horizon -

Point of

sight

Objects

which

f a l l

under

different angles

The point of distance

-

Effect o f p ers pe ct iv e

drawings

explained

The

proper distance

from a

picture -

Perspective of the stage of a theatre

-

How to begin a sketch from nature -

Scale

of extent of

view - - - -

Angular

view of

objects -

On foreshortening and

anamorphosis

-

Vanishing points

The perspective of a circle

Page

1

2

3-—

( i -

—12

1 3 -

—21

21-

—33

34

86

39

39

41

42

43

45

4B

49

51

53

55

5 0

58

60

63—

7

6 1

67-

-74

74--77



CONTENTS.

Practical Perspective—

Method of procedure

7

Apparent

anomalies

explained

-

80

—

3

Method of

drawing objects

of determinate heights

at given distances 4

To take an angular view by measurement - - 87—2

Process

of

inking in perspective

lines

- -

92

Accidental surfaces

and points

-

92

The perspective of open doors explained

- - 93—

5

The perspective of a chair explained -

-

97—9

The

double

cross

00

—

01

Perspective view of a room - 102—04

Vanishing points—ifficulties resolved

- -

10 5

Reflection of objects on water, e t c . - - 108—12

How

affected by

undulations -

113

The

perspective

of shadows

explained - -

114—19

The practical process of drawing them

- -

12 0—26

On

the

subordinate parts

of a

picture - -

127—

28

\

Letters on

Drawing

and

Painting—

Introduction 29

Genius must be assisted by Art - - - 131

Particular

objects

of

attention - - - - 131

Advantages of inquiry, etc. - 135

Rudimental information

33

Materials and Instruments required, and how to

use them

39

Command

of

hand

explained

-

140

Process

of drawing—

ubjects

recommended

-

142

Directions fo r copying

—

mportance of

precision -

145—51

The human figure 5]—61

Directions

for Chalk Drawing - 162

—68

On Pencil Drawing - -

168—

71

Indian

Ink 71—

73

General Rules fo r li ght and

shade

- - 174

—

80

Drawing

from

solid

objects

-

180

—

82

True and false shadow

distinguished

-

182—83

Truth preferable to ideal beauty -

184—86

The arbitrary

power

of light

-

186—92



CONTENTS.

XI

Paoi

Indian

Ink

(continued).

Blackness considered as shade - 193—96

Memory,

forecast,

manner,

etc. -

196

—

00

Hints on

composition - 200

—02

On

Colours—

The

compendium of

colours -

203

The

mixture

of

colours -

204

—

06

Axioms 07

The

f i r s t

coloured

plate

explained

-

208—10

The ultimatum 11

The

second

coloured plate explained - -

212

—15

The

third coloured plate explained -

215—16

The fourth coloured plate explained

-

216—17

To produce

an

a r t i f i c i a l rainbow - - -

217

Laws

of light, shadow,

and reflection

- -

218

—

21

The principles

on which

the

plates

are

coloured -

221

—

25

Landscape Painting - 25—34

On outline, profile,

the

painting-room, e t c . - 234—38

Miniature Painting

—he

practical

process

- -

239

—

58

Crayons, Oils,

and other materials - 25 8

Recipe

for a composition for painting

in

imitation

of t he a nc ie nt Greek manner - 268—72



A LIST

THE ILLUSTEATIONS.

Case of mathematical

instruments -

Drawing board and parallel

ruler -

Jointed

compasses

Dividers

Protractor ______

Geometrical

Diagrams

—

Lines and angles

Square_ ___

Parallel

l i n e s and

curves -

Segments

Polygons, regular

and

irregular

Four-sided

figures -

The c i r c l e

and

e l l i p s e -

The

principal

s o l i d s

-

Conic sections -

Practical geometric problems

Copying by reticulation -

Reduction of pictures -

How

t o draw a parallelogram outline

Horizon i l l u s t r a t e d

Bird's eye

v iew—

he

chess

board -

Level

planes

i l l u s t r a t e d

-

- -

The point of sight defined - - - -

I t s position explained -

Plate—hewing

the

apparent position of

the

horizon

as viewed

by several ob

servers _____

Engraving.

Page

I

7

2

7

3

8

4

0

5

10

6—2

13

13

14

14 18

15

19—1

16

22

—

1 16—8

32

—7

18—9

38

—9

19

40

—

4

20

45—9

20

50

—8

21—34

89

—

0

34

01

35

92

37

93

38

94

41

95

42

96

44

97

46

98 47





XIV

LIST

OF ILLUSTRATIONS CONTINUED.

Emoi

Compendium of colours -

Ultimatum

- - -

The

effect

of

distance

on

colour

Penknife

Colour

diagram,descriptive

o f t he curious

effect

of combining t he t hre e

primitive colours -

15 0 275

LAVING.

Page

146

203

147

211

148 231

149

2b7

THE COLOURED PLATES.

The Three

Primitive

Colours, Yellow, Red,

Blue, illustrating

the

theory,

that

a l l colours result

from

their combination.

The

Painter s Compass

—hewing the beautiful

comparative

effects of warm and cold t i n t s .

The

effects

of

Shading

proved

not

to

depend

upon

mere

depth

of

colour.

The composition of Light illustrated.

The Artificial Rainbow—n illustration of the results of the

combination of the three primitive

colours.

The Publishers

are

indebted to

the

skill and experience

of

Owen Jones, Esq. for the production of the beautiful coloured

plates

which accompany this volume.



PERSPECTIVE EXPLAINED.

THE

DIALOGUE.





PERSPECTIVE EXPLAINED

IN A SERIES OF DIALOGUES BETWEEN

THE

AUTHOR'S

CHILDREN,

GEOEGE,

ANN,

ELIZA, AND JOHN.

PERSPECTIVE THE FOUNDATION OF TRUTH IN A

PICTURE.

SO 283

INTRODUCTION.

Eliza. My dear brother, when will

you

begin to teach

us

perspective?

You

know I

do

not love a

s t a t e

of darkness; and

you

have

told

me

that a painter might a s well

be

blind, a s

ignorant

of

t h i s

most

important

branch

of

his

a r t .

George. Indeed, my

dear

E l i z a , i t i s

of

the

very f i r s t

importance; and i s rather the main

r o o t ,

or foundation

of

t r u t h , in a picture,

than

a branch. I am

very

happy t o

find

you

s o

earnestly

disposed t o study

i t ;

and

i f s i s t er

Ann

i s

a t

l e i s u r e ,

and

John will be a t t e n t i v e , I w i l l now endeavour to

make you

acquainted

with a l l the

necessary

rules

and

prin

c i p l e s .

I

t r u s t

you

will not

allow

doubts, or c r i t i c a l objections,

to

interrupt

the information I s h a l l o f f e r you.

John. Why, brother,

you

know I

c an draw,

and yet I do

not understand perspective. What i s it? Shall I be able t o

draw better

when

I

have learned

i t ?

Ann.

You know, my dear

boy,

you have

always

something

to copy

from; which,

i t i s granted, you imitate

p r e t t i l y ;

but

what

would you do without

a drawing ready

designed

t o

your

hand?

The

attention

which

George

has

recommended,

will

be the best means of obtaining an answer to your question.

George.

That

i s

well

observed :

and

I

s h a l l

proceed

—

i r s t ,

to

point

out

t o

you the general and

distinguishing character

of

Perspective; which

i s ,

the

representation op

ob-

s

1



2 PERSPECTIVE GENERALLY DEFINED.

JECTS AS THEY

APPEAR,

AGREEABLY

TO THEIR REAL

FORMS, DIMENSIONS, AND VARIOUS

DISTANCES;

BY

DRAW

ING

OR PAINTING

ONA

FLAT SURFACE

:

for

YOU know

that

paintings,

drawings,

and

prints, are a l l produced on flat sur

faces, and

yet on such

f l a t surfaces, distance,

height, width,

depth,

and

the

various

appearances of a l l sorts of

substances,

even

the thi n

air,

i s perceived to

bear

so

nearly

the effect of reality,

as oftentimes

to

de ce iv e t he

imagination: and

to produce this

e f f e c t ,

successfully, a

thorough knowledge of

Perspective,

and a very

ingenious

and judicious u se of such knowledge

i s

absolutely

necessary.

The

EYE

(the

particulars

of

the

con

struction

of

which you

will learn when you

study optics)

i s

so

wonderfully

contrived,

as to receive, at one view

or action of

sight, and comprehend, a l l

the

visible matter which may appear

within

a certain space (or

under

a

certain angle,

according

to

the technical term to be hereafter explained) ; producing a per

fect idea of the real forms seen, by an association of lines and

angles totally different from their absolute or

geometrical mea

surements.

Yet

the

form

of

a true

and

judicious

perspective

representation, will so perfectly agree

with

the

knowledge

con

veyed by the absolute

or

geometric form, that the

one

will

stand as

an evidence,

or

test

of the

truth

of the other.

Thus

:

In

viewing a long walk, or a

street

(which we will suppose to

be level,

straight,

parallel, and uniform in the buildings), i t

will

appear to

diminish

according

to

the distance,

converging

towards

a

point

at the

furthest end—hus, therefore,

a perspective

representation would

describe it

—et would the

drawing preserve

and

convey to the mind a perfect

idea

of the

geometric

and real

forms presented to the v iew. This, however,

so very differently from the objects themselves, that there might

be

but one

retiring, or converging

level

line, that of the

hori

zon,

in the

whole

drawing,—nd no

two

retiring parallel

lines,

e xcept such as were really not so in the objects of v iew , but ac

tually

diverging

from

the

sight

in

the

same

degree

as

real

parallels

appear

to converge

to i t :—o r , a l l other lines

t hat are

seen parallel must be perpendicular l i n e s , and parallel with the

surface of the picture ; a l l

lines

also that

are

parallel with the

horizon must be drawn as seen.



PRACTICAL METHODS OF DRAWING IN PERSPECTIVE. 3

Now for an experimental proof.—o to the window, and

look

s t e a d f a s t l y

through the squ are of g l a s s

which

i s directly

opposite

to

your

face

(you

know

the

g l a s s

i s

a

f l a t

s u r f a c e ,

and

must be understood to constitute what i s called the transparent

plane

in

perspective)

; now,

i f

you can keep

yourself

s t a t i o n a r y ,

within reac h o f the g l a s s , you may

t r a c e ,

with a pen, a proper

perspective o u t l i n e of the scene or objects in view; and by f i r s t

layi ng a thin wash of gum water, or i s i n g l a s s , on the pane,

you

may

trace

the

scene

with a black, or rather red chalk pencil;

and then

placing

a piece of paper over i t , you may trace i t off

a s

an

outline

to

make

a

finished

drawing

from.

Ann.

But, brother,

you must

t e l l us

how to keep

the

eye in

one

p o s i t i o n , a s I perceive a t once the success of the operation

depends on t h a t .

Eliza. O

s i s t e r , that may

be

contrived many

ways —

long to try t o take a view by t h i s method. I wonder painters

do not

use

i t

: I

r e a l l y f e e l

a s i f I wanted no

further informa

tion on the

s u b j e c t .

George. This

could

not

f a i l

of

truth f o r

the

o u t l i n e

of

a l l

stationary objects—ut the sun shadows are

continually

changing

a s

the

day

advances,

while

a tru e pi ctu re requires that

every

thing should be represented as seen a t o n c e , a s when you look

a t

a picture ; which you could not accomplish without receiving

instruction, which will follow in i t s proper p l a c e .— very

complete apparatus has b ee n mad e, by which to take

views

in

o u t l i n e

corresponding

with

t h i s

method;

and

i s

used

where

ex

pedition, or a want of

knowledge

of a r t , makes i t necessary : i t

may be called a Master-key

t o perspective, and

i s

named,

Hatter's portable Perspective Tripod, which I

have simplified

and

rendered

very

portable. But I directed

you

to the tracing on the window, only

t o

CONFIRM your ideas

on t h i s leading f i r s t p r i n c i p l e , that in every thing you draw, you

are to conceive

you

are drawing,

on

a g l a s s or transparent

plane,

o b j e c t s

which

are

supposed

to

be on

the

other

s i d e .

But

you are not t o s i t down with these contrivances,

i f you

intend

to

become

acquainted with the a r t of painting; a s i t w i l l

be

absolutely requisite f o r

you to

learn

a l l

the elements,

beginning

with p r a c t i c a l geometry ( s u f f i c i e n t

knowledge of which

I

s h a l l

X



4 ITS EXTENSIVE

POWER.

r e f e r you t o in due order),

and

leave a l l the secondary means of

picture-making to those who will not acqu ire the a r t of doing

without them.

John.

What

i s meant by secondary means ?

George. All COPYING, whether by measuring,

tracing,

squaring,

or

pouncing; and

a l l mechanical aids in

making

copies of pictures;

because

an o r i g i n a l i s previously provided;

s o that a l l the study, knowledge, and labour which i s required

to produ ce an o r i g i n a l picture, i s already prepared t o the eye

and hand

of the c o p y i s t .

Ann.

Then

engravers

are

but

secondary

a r t i s t s ?

Eliza.

I believe, s i s t e r , t h i s i s too

hasty

a conclusion ; f o r

by what

I have somewhere read

on the

subject,

engraving

(although dependent on some mechanical means to obtain a

certain and correct outline of the subject of imitation) i s one

of

the great departments of a r t ,

and

may be a s excellent, i n i t s

way, a s painting

i t s e l f ; and

such good

engravings a s are done

from

pictures

which

are l e s s correct

in colouring than in l i g h t

and

shade,

may

be

s o

f a r

improvements on

the

o r i g i n a l s .

En

gravers consider

themselves a s

t r a n s l a t o r s

of pictures into

another language,

and

claim

the meri t of improving

on many

o r i g i n a l s ,

with advantage t o

the

s u b j e c t .

John.

I

beg

pardon, s i s t e r s ;

but I think you

should

not

talk

about

engraving now

: i t i s

a hindrance.

George. Now, to convince you of the

great

advantage of

a regular acquaintance with the Art of p e r s p e c t i v e , please to

observe, that a r c h i t e c t s ,

a f t e r

they

have

drawn the geometrical

plans

and

elevations

of a building,

can (by du e knowledge of

t h i s a r t , united

with a tolerably

good t a s t e

f o r landscape

drawing) give very true

pictures

of

intended

buildings or im

provements b e f o r e they are begun, making

due

allowance f o r the

e f f e c t s

of what i s called Landscape-gardening, and they often

convey good hints

f o r

t h a t .

Eliza.

What

entirely

without

seeing

them

?

George.

Yes, a s perfectly a s

you could

trace

them

on a

transparent

plane, a f t e r the

whole

i s

completely built and

planted : and those architects who thoroughly

understand

per

s p e c t i v e ,

can

make

out geometrical plans and

elevations

from



PERSPECTIVE

ATTAINABLE

BY CLEAR RULES. 5

c o r r e c t perspective

pictures of

buildings s o truly a s to

enable

them

t o erect exact copies of a s much of the r e a l e d i f i c e a s i s

represented

in

the

picture;

f o r

t h i s

plain

and

evident

reason,

—

If a geometrical object presents the means of making a t r u e

perspective picture of i t , such picture must contain the material

evidences

of

the

original

geometrical elevation.

Ann.

How delightful

What

an a r t

i t must be —ut

I

cannot help thinking

i t

very d i f f i c u l t .

Eliza. Why, there seems

to

be a

kind of prophetic power

in

perspective,

i f one i s enabled to shew the true picture of a

place before

i t i s

b u i l t .

I

a l s o

have

some

serious

apprehension

of

the d i f f i c u l t y .

George. Never

f e a r , s i s t e r s .

Attention

and perseverance

will surmount great

d i f f i c u l t i e s ;

and perspective being a t t a i n a b l e

by r u l e s ,

must

not

be classed among the g r e a t e s t . I will

do a l l

i n

mypower to

make the whole a s easy and pleasant a s p o s s i b l e .

John. Then you know, E l i z a , we s h a l l be able t o prophesy

pictures without

t r a c i n g .

Eliza.

And

y e t ,

f o r my

p a r t , I

have

conceived

a

great

par

t i a l i t y to t h i s drawing on a g l a s s ; f o r while a t the window I

could

imagine t h e

window frame t o be a picture frame,

and

a l l

I saw

beyond appeared t o be a perfect picture.

Do come

again

and

look,

Ann;

and i f you take my i d e a , you will be

delighted :

f o r

though the

scene i s

not composed

of

the

most

picturesque

o b j e c t s , yet

only

consider

i t ,

a s

I do, a painting,

and

t e l l

me

i f

ever

you

saw

a

better?

Ann. Oh, E l i z a ,

I almost

envy you

t h i s

step I t has

now

taken myimagination r i g h t l y . You may well c a l l i t a perfect

painting, although the scene makes i t a poor p i c t u r e . Well,

who could have thought we should ever f e e l s o much pleasure

in looking towards that

dull s t r e e t

George.

Now, s i s t e r s , i f only # , right

idea

of perspective has

given you

so

much pleasure,

you

may

f a i r l y conclude

that a

right

knowledge

of

i t i s

worth

the

study

;

f o r

t o

study

we

must

proceed:

and

I hope you w i l l never quit any su bject or s u f f e r

me,

t i l l

you c l e a r l y

understand

me.

And

l e t me entreat you to

follow my explanations

a t t e n t i v e l y ,

inquiring f r e e l y about what

i s

passing;

but do not lead on too f a s t by looking forward, a s

f



6 PREPARATIONS EXPLAINED.

that

may

tend t o the

s o r t

of

dispatch

which

must

be considered

more a desire t o get ri d of a

l e s s o n ,

than t o

become

acquainted

with

i t .

ON GEOMETRY

AND THE USE

OF

THE INSTRUMENTS.

Ann. Pray, brother, i s not

practical

geometry the proper

introduction t o perspective?

Eliza. O, geometry —he very word

alarms

me.

George.

And pray, s i s t e r ,

did not the

word alphabet once

alarm

you? and

afterwards the

words

grammar,

French,

geo

graphy,

gamut,

e t c .

?

Anticipation

i s a s often

erroneously

awful

a s

i t i s

pleasing;

possession i s

the t e s t .

Let

the rudi-

mental knowledge

you already

p o s s e s s , teach

you

how t o f e e l

respecting the important addition we are endeavouring t o make

to your

accomplishments.

What say you to geometry, my

brave John?

John. I do not intend to b e alarme d a t a word, I promise

you.

I

suppose

you will

soon

shew

us

the

meaning

of

i t :

—

What i s

Geometry?

George.

P r a c t i c a l l y ,

i t

teaches

the methods of drawing l i n e s ,

polygons,

c i r c l e s , o v a l s , and

a l l

other measurable

surfaces

with

t r u t h , and

proportionate

to any

s c a l e

you may

find occasion

to

adopt. But i t may be some

considerable

g r a t i f i c a t i o n

t o

you

to l e a r n ,

that

l i t t l e more than the names of the

general

f i g u r e s ,

and

drawing the usual p r a c t i c a l problems, will be a l l that i s

requisite t o our

progress

in perspective. There w i l l be very

few

mathematical calculations ; and

I

promise you great pleasure

in the r e s u l t s of your s t u d i e s . One attainment, v ery c ondu c iv e

to your

success

in

perspective drawing will be, the

acquiring a

ready use of the

instruments:

a t the same

time

you

w i l l

be

gaining a knowledge

o f , a t l e a s t ,

the alphabet of a

universal

language; which geometry may be considered, i t s

principles

being

invariably

the

same

everywhere,

and

a t

a l l

times.

Do

you know,

John, where

to find

the

case

of

instruments, and

the

p a r a l l e l ruler

?

John.

You

know you always clean

and

lock them up s a f e l y

in your drawer.





INSTRUMENTS

EXPLAINED.

. over the back of the paper (that side

on

which the

maker's

water-marks

read

backwards);

then take out the

panel, and

place

i t evenly

on

the paper; l i f t up the paper

and

panel

together ; place them in the frame

;

press them

well

up t o the

f r o n t ;

replace the

two bars behind;

and, when

dry,

the

paper

i s ready t o draw o n .

Ann. I s t h i s s o r t of drawing-board absolutely r e q u i s i t e ?

George.

No; draftsmen paste

or glue the edges of very

large s h e e t s ,

and

lay them down on smooth boards;

and

t h i s i s

the

most

usual method with architects

and

others

f o r l a r g e

drawings.

Eliza. Please to t e l l us the p r o c e s s .

George. F i r s t , observe that

you must

damp the back of the

paper, and

l e t

the moisture d i f f u s e t i l l the sheet i s pliant ; then

paste (with strong p a s t e , quickly) about half an inch of the edge

of the

paper.

Some a r t i s t s double

back

a s much of the paper

a s they mean to paste or glue ; but I think i t b e s t , when past

ing, to

lay a

f l a t

r u l e r , a s a barrier

to

the p a s t e . If

you want

to

use the

paper

i n s t a n t l y ,

you

must

glue

the

edge,

a s

that

will

bear

drying

by the f i r e : the pasted edges will not, but must dry

gradually. I t i s well to lay down paper f o r drawi ng on the

evening previous to the day on which you

wish

to use i t .

Recollect to use glue quickly,

and

s t i c k the part you

glue t o

the board a s you proceed; f o r glue will s e t , or h i l l , very

quickly.

John.

I

hope the paper will

soon

be

quite

smooth—want

to

see

you

begin

drawing.

George.

I must f i r s t

ex plai n the in

struments, to which

I beg you w i l l pay

great attention: now take the l a r g e s t

compasses

( f i g . 3 . )

out of the

c a s e ,

and

by

unscrewing that

l i t t l e screw

a t a ,

you may take out the s t e e l leg (take

care

of

i t ) : then take that instrument

out of the case which has a lead pencil

in

i t , b , and place i t in the compasses

where you to ok o ut the s t e e l

l e g ,

and turn

the screw tight again;—hu s we are



INSTRUMENTS EXPLAINED.

provided with the means of drawing the

circular

parts of

geometrical

drawing. Very highly finished

instruments are

made without the screw a , the parts being f i t t e d t o each other

so nicely

a s

to

hold

well together without i t s

help.

Ann. That i s

very complete:

will

you

t e l l me,

brother,

why there i s a joint c in the pencil leg you have fixed in the

compasses, a s there i s not one in the s t e e l leg which

you

f i r s t

to ok o ut?

George. Were i t not f o r the j o i n t , the

p e n c i l , or

drawing

pen,

would

lean too much on i t s side when a

large

c i r c l e i s

required

to

be

drawn,

and

the

l i n e would

of

course

be

broad

with

the p e n c i l ,

and

the pen

would

not mark

;

but by

bending

that

knee or joint you can draw t o the f u l l extent of the compasses,

with the poi nt perpendi cu lar

to

the paper: thus geometry r e

wards

the ingenuity of mechanics. Try i t , and prove i t .

Eliza. Here i s another leg with a joint in i t d; what i s

that

a t

the other

end of

i t , with a

l i t t l e

screw ?

George.

That i s

a

s t e e l

drawing pen, t o

place

in the

com

passes

a f t e r

the

pencil

outline

i s

correct

;

and

you

are

therewith

enabled

to

ink

i n a l l the

circular

parts of your

drawing.

John. Then

I suppose

t h i s long

s t e e l

pen

which

has no

joint i s to ink i n the s t r a i g h t lines?

George. Very rightly supposed, John.

John. And

what

are those compasses f o r ,

which are without any joint or screw? ( f i g . 4 . )

George.

They are to take dimensions with,

and are called

d i v i d e r s ,

and are nicely adapted

to s e t

o f f any

number

of equal p a r t s , e t c .

Eliza. What i s t h i s l i t t l e rule f o r , which

has

s o many l i n e s and

figures on

i t ?

I

mean

t h i s with a joint?

George. You appear perplexed

a t

t h i s in

strument: come,

I

s h a l l

soon relieve you;

i t i s

called

the

s e c t o r ,

and

i s

particularly useful in

many

points

of

mathematical

in

quiry,

but

almost entirely u s e l e s s in the practice of perspective :

yet I

hope you will

find

opportunity f o r learning

the use of the

line of l i n e s

on one s i d e ,

and the

l i n e of polygons on

the

other,

when

you

are

f a r

enough advanced in arithmetic.



10

INSTRUMENTS

EXPLAINED.

Ann. Where s h a l l we

find

the

proper

explanation?

George. In the Encyclopedias,

or

Kerby's Dr. Brook

Taylor's

Perspective

:

there

i s

a l s o

a

cheap

pamphlet

on

the u se

of the instruments.

Ann.

And what use are

we to

make of

t h i s neat

l i t t l e

thin

r u l e ,

which has such a

number

of

l i n e s

and figures

on

i t ? Will

you p l e a s e ,

indulgent master, t o

dispatch

t h i s i n t r i c a t e

a r t i c l e

a s you did the sector?

George. Your request i s granted, without

any

indulgence

on mypart ; a s you

will only

use i t

f o r a

nice r u l e r . But I may

t e l l

you

that

the

l i n e s

and

figures

are

only

proportionate

s c a l e s ;

a s , suppose

you consider

any one whole division on either of

the l i n e s , a s an inch, f o o t , yard, p o l e ,

furlong,

or mile, you will

find the proportionate subdivisions a t the end of that

l i n e

;

and

on the other side i s a l i n e of inches, each divided by t e n (or

what i s

properly

called decimally), and below that i s a

decimal

s c a l e ,

which, by

means of the

diagonal

divisions

a t

each end,

exhibits the smallest tenth

part that

a

draftsman can

distinguish

practically

by

l i n e s .

Eliza. I think

we

s h a l l

not,

hereafter, be

alarmed

a t i n t r i

cate

appearances, since your

explanations are s o

very i n t e l l i

g i b l e .

Ann. We were both cowards, Eliza; but George w i l l par

don u s .

George. Pardon, s i s t e r s You

know

i t

cannot be

long since

I looked on these instruments

with

the same ideas of them a s

you seemed to entertain:

there

i s nothing

t o

pardon but a

l i t t l e impatience.

Deliberate

attention will render the

whole

a s plain a s that

which

I

have already

taught you.

J ohn. Please to

t e l l us what t h i s

half c i r c l e

of

brass

( f i g . 5 . ) i s f o r ,

and

then

we

s h a l l

know a l l the in

struments.

George. I t

i s

c a l l e d the

pro-



THE

PROTRACTOR EXPLAINED.

11

t r a c t o r :

i t i s used

to find

the number of degrees contained in

an

angle; thus—

nn,

draw a right l i n e , and place the straight

edge

of the protractor truly

on i t ; then

make a mark on the

paper,

a t the top of the semicircular part of the protractor, a t

90, and (without moving the protractor) make a mark on the

l i n e exactly a t that l i t t l e mark on the straight edge of the pro

t r a c t o r , which divides i t in h a l f , and which i s the centre of i t s

circular part: now take i t o f f ,

and

draw a right l i n e through

the

two

marks

you have

made

on

the paper, and i t w i l l

be

ex

actly perpendicular to the

l i n e

f i r s t drawn. From t h i s

you

may

remember

that

a

right

angle

contains

90

degrees, or a

quarter of a c i r c l e . *

Ann. I see any other angle may be found in the same man

ner;

do

you

comprehend i t , Eliza?

Eliza.

Not quite s o c l e a r l y a s

you

appear to

; but

George

will favour

me

with another example.

George.

Come, Ann, shew your s i s t e r how to

find the

angle

of 75 degrees.

Eliza.

I

have

i t ,

George

I t

i s

only

t o

mark

a t

75,

a s

Ann

did

a t 90, and

draw

the

l i n e

t o the c e n t r e .

John. Oh any body may do i t ; but I cannot t e l l of what

use i t i s t o know t h i s .

George.

. I

will t e l l you, John, one advantage you

have

gained by

i t ; you know you

are

very

attentive

to conversation :

now suppose you had

heard

any one

say that the

sun

was about

30 degrees

above

the

horizon

(before I taught you t h i s ) , could

you

have

conceived

what

height

the

sun

was?

John. No,

brother.

George. Can you now?

John. I

must consider

a

l i t t l e

: come, ask Ann

and E l i z a ,

and l e t

me hear how they

answer.

Ann. I

think a l i n e drawn from 30 on

the protractor t o

the

c e n t r e , would be in the same oblique direction from the l e v e l of

the protractor, a s the l i n e from my eye to the sun, when i t i s

30 degrees high, or

above

the

horizon.

Eliza. But the difference

between

a degree on t h i s l i t t l e

* The student must practise t h i s , i f u na cquai nt ed w it h what the problem

explains.



12

THE PARALLEL RULER EXPLAINED.

instrument,

and

the

vast extent

of

that

c i r c l e which the sun i s

supposed t o make t o the

e a r t h ,

or

rather

the earth

to

i t , seems

to me t o bear

no

comparison.

George. The observation i s

allowable a t present;

but

you

must henceforth remember, that the three hundred

and

s i x t i e t h

part of the s m a l l e s t c i r c l e t h a t can be drawn, or concei ved, i s a s

much one

whole

degree of such c i r c l e , a s the three

hundred

and

s i x t i e t h part of the l a r g e s t c i r c l e imaginable in the vast im

mensity

of space; and 30

degrees on

the one would form pre

c i s e l y

the same

angle a t

the

centre a s

on the

other Now,

E l i z a ,

f o r

proof;

take

a large

sheet

of

paper,

and

draw

an

angle

of 30 degrees ( l e t the point, or centre, be near the middle of

the paper) : now

place

the

s t e e l

leg of the pencil compasses

on

the point of the angle, and s t r i k e the l a r g e s t c i r c l e the paper

w i l l admit; now s t r i k e the smallest p o s s i b l e , and two or three

intermediate c i r c l e s ,

and

you will observe, that the space

between the two l i n e s which forms the angle of 30 degrees, will

be

found

t o be exactly one twelfth part

of

the circumference

of

each

of

the

c i r c l e s ,

where

they

c r o s s

these

l i n e s ;

and, conse

quently, each

i s

30

degrees, because

twelve

times

30

i s 360.

You must each

of

you

perform

t h i s experiment.

John. Now, brother, I understand how to c onc ei ve the

sun's height when I hear the number of degrees mentioned;

and I love the instruments the more I

know

them: but I

always

thought

them

very

d i f f i c u l t things

t i l l

you

began t o

explain them.

Come, will

you

please t o ex plai n the p a r a l l e l

ruler?

George. (Fig. 2 , c . ) I t almost

explains

i t s e l f .

Practice,

with care and

caution,

will render

i t

familiar t o

you.

When

you

have drawn a l i n e , and require

another p a r a l l e l

to i t ,

take

care t o

keep

the limb of

the

r u l e r ,

which you do not

want t o

move,

quite

s t i l l , and firm t o the p ap er wi th

one

hand,

and

move the other s i d e , or limb of the r u l e r , upwards, or down

wards,

to

the p oi nt requ ired

;

then

hold

that

firm

to

the

paper

while you

draw

the l i n e ; i f

t h i s

i s not nicely

attended

t o , you

will

l o s e

the

p a r a l l e l ,

and

confuse you r drawi ng :

i ndeed, the

whole use of the

instruments

depends on

p r e c i s i o n ,

insomuch,

that

the

words

geometrical

precision

( s t r i c t l y

meaning,

ma



GEOMETRICAL FIGURES EXPLAINED.

13

thematical, )

are

the terms

made

use

of t o

convey

an idea of

the utmost

c o r r e c t n e s s .

There are made p a r a l l e l r u l e r s on

r o l l e r s ,

and

many

other

useful

instruments;

but

I

will

now

go

on with

Practical Geometry

—emanding yo ur w ho le attention

f o r a short space of time; and then, John,

I

will teach

you

to

draw in

perspective

: you

must keep

your

eyes on the

diagrams,

while

I

explain each f i g u r e , or give

you

what i s

termed

THE DEFINITIONS

OF

GEOMETRY.

Fig.

6 This i s

only

a single dot or point,

and

i s

e l , . ,

p . i . t .

j . j l e

f j j . g j .

j . e r m

m

p r a c t i c a l

geometry:

i t

i s

to

be

conceived a s

without

length, breadth,

or thickness.

Fig. 7 i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e , having length without

7 - reference

to

breadth

or thickness,

and

which

you may imagine

to be

a

number

of dots

united.

John.

But, brother,

i f dots

mean

p o i n t s , a s you have s a i d ,

without length, breadth, or thickness, how would they ever

make

a

l i n e

?

George. That i s

a f a i r question, John

; but

you

must allow

the palpable dot

f o r

the present, although you are c o r r e c t .

Figs.

8 and 9 . These two

figures

are curved l i n e s , having no

straight p a r t .

Fig. 10

i s a

right

angled t r i a n g l e ,

or an angle of 90

degrees.

Fig.

11

i s

an acute a n g l e ,

or

l e s s

than 90 degrees.

Fig. 12 i s an obtuse

a n g l e ,

or

more

than

90 degrees.



14

GEOMETBICAL

EXPLANATIONS.

Fig.

13,

a , i s a

l i n e

perpendicular

t o

b , because i t i s

a t

a

right

angle

with

i t .

Observe,

that

l i n e

i s

a l

ways considered perpendicular to

a horizontal or l e v e l l i n e , which

i s a t a right angle with i t ; but a

plumb-line

i s the

original

principle

of a perpendicular, without

any

material

exception

to the object

of our pursuit.

Ann.

Can

there

be

any

exception?

George.

Yes,

when

a

plumb-line i s suspended

near

the side

of

a

mountain,

i t w i l l be attracted out of i t s v e r t i c a l

and

proper

perpendicular

direction, towards the centre of gravity, by the

mountain.

Eliza.

In

what proportionate degree, brother?

George. I t will be

too great a digression

from the object of

our present pursuit t o answer your question properly ;

you

will

find

i t

f u l l y

explained

in

the Encyclopedias,

under

the

word

' ' Attraction

.

which you will

read

a t your

own

convenient

time.

John. What i s a plumb-line?

George. Tie your

top-string t o

the peg of your top,

and

l e t

i t hang a s a

weight, and

the

string

will be a plumb-line. You

may

have

observed

the

bricklayer's

building-rule, that has a

l i n e and plummet of lead : i t i s called the plumb-rule ;

by

which

they

are able

t o

prove

the

perpendicular

of

their

work,

which

i s a

point

of the utmost importance in building : the

pavior's

l e v e l l i n g - r u l e

has a l s o the plumb-line

hanging

perpendicularly

over the centre of i t s level edge or

base l i n e .

Ann.

Then,

a s

they

are s o very

accurate

in their works, I

conceive we shou ld not be

l e s s s o

in our imitations of them.

Now

I

f e e l the

force

of your remarks on my

f i r s t

sketches ; you

used t o say that the houses I drew

were

falling down.

Eliza.

Why, a l l my l i t t l e

landscapes

will shock

me

now;

f o r the architecture i s a l l leaning t o the right hand, l i k e writing.

John.

Yes,

I dare say i t

was

the practice of writing

which made you draw s o sloping; and,

I think,

the best way

w i l l be t o take

more

care

in

f u t u r e .



GEOMETRICAL EXPLANATIONS. 15

George. Fig.

13, b , i s a

horizontal l i n e , and

represents a

perfect l e v e l : i t i s the base l i n e of t h i s f i g u r e . (The term base

l i n e i s properly applied t o that

l i n e on which

a

figure

i s erected.)

The

bottom

l i n e of

any

picture i s i t s

base

l i n e .

Fig.

13, c , i s a

diagonal

l i n e , because i t c r o s s e s the figure a t

opposite

angles, and

in

i t s direction may be considered the

oblique

l i n e : that i s the geometrical term f o r a straight l i n e ,

which i n v e r t i c a l f i g u r e s i s neither l e v e l nor perpendicular;

and

oblique l i n e s , on any plane, are such

a s

are not

perpendicular

or

p a r a l l e l

t o

the

base

l i n e .

Figs.

14

and

15

are parallel

l i n e s

:

~

they always

follow one another

a t

equal d i s t a n c e s . The two edges of the

brass semicircle of the protractor are

a s

p a r a l l e l

a s those of the straight

p a r t .

Fig. 1

6 i s a chord, or

subtense : i t

i s the straight l i n e that

joins

the two

1 6 . extremities of an

a r c , exactly a s the

string

of

an

archer's

bow,

when strung:

i t i s

the

bow

which

makes the t i t l e of archer proper.

Fig. 1 7 . As p i r a l l i n e i s a curved

l i n e

issuing from i t s centre, and

continually expanding, and going

o f f from i t , a t every turn.

John. I can make a s p i r a l l i n e , by rolling t h i s narrow s l i p

of paper

round

my

p e n c i l ,

and

then

letting

i t

l o o s e .

George.

I l i k e

your

observation, John;

I

s h a l l

soon

direct

you

to the means

of

drawing one

properly

; l e t me

f i r s t

explain

a l l

the

f i g u r e s .

f \

Fig.

18 i s a t a n g e n t , which

I J touches another l i n e without c u t -

—

^

—

— ting i t .

8 . 6

Eliza.

By

the

f i g u r e ,

i t

appears

that

the

surface

of

the

table

would be a tangent

t o an

orange ;

I wish

you

would

make the

experiment, brother.

George. The

application

deserves one;

and

we

w i l l

divide

i t by cutting into four equal parts : the l i n e s which pass through







GEOMETRICAL EXPLANATIONS.

147.28 D.grsei.

Fig.

30.

The hendecagon,

or

figure

of

eleven

equal

s i d e s

and

a n g l e s .

Fig.

3 1 . The dodecagon,

or

figure

of twelve equal s i d e s

and

a n g l e s .

When

these

figures are

to be described

within

c i r c l e s , a l l

their

angles must touch the

circumferent

l i n e ; but when pro

duced proportionate t o a given measurement

f o r

one s i d e , the

circumferent

c i r c l e must a r i s e , in some instances, out of the

geometrical

process necessary f o r finding the angles of such

polygon : which

I

will teach

you

in proper course.

The number of

degrees

which i s contained in one side of

each

polygon

i s

marked,

to

shew

you

that

the

protractor

( f i g .

5) may be used

t o divide a c i r c l e

into

any number of

equal p a r t s ,

in

the manner explained

under

i t s proper

head

—

the use

of

the protractor

(pages 10 and

1 1 ) .

Triangular figures are distinguished by what i s c a l l e d the

q u a l i t i e s

of their angles; a s a

right-angled triangle

( f i g . 1 0 ) , an

acute-angled

triangle ( f i g . 11),

an

obtuse-angled triangle ( f i g . 12),

and

the trigon ( f i g . 22).

The

distinguishing

names of

four-sided

f i g u r e s

are

a s f o l

low:—

Fig. 32. The s q u a r e .

Fig. 33. The parallelogram.



GEOMETRICAL EXPLANATIONS.

19

Fig.

34. The

rhombus.

Fig.

35.

The

rhomboid.

Fig. 36. The t r a p e z o i d , which has

two

opposite s i d e s p a r a l l e l ,

and

the

other two

unequal.

Fig.

37. The trapezium,

having

a l l i t s four s i d e s and angles unequal.

The other two regular figures are-

Fig. 38. The true c i r c l e .

Fig. 39. The e l l i p s i s .

y







22

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

e e then a right l i n e drawn through e e , w i l l

divide

the l i n e

AB equally a t G.

.

■

George.

I I I . Now

erect

a

perpendicular

on

the

end

of

a

l i n e .

John. I can

do

i t with the protractor, without following

these directions—nly marking my paper a t 90

degrees,

you

know.

George. We c an p ro ve

that

h e r e a f t e r . Come,

proceed according to your

example

( f i g . 5 2) ; draw

the

l i n e

A B, then open the compasses t o about

half i t s

length,

place one

foot carefully on the

end

of

B,

and

pitch

the other

f o o t

down

a t

adventure

over

the l i n e

A

B,

and

mark i t by C, on

which

f i x

one

foot of

your

compasses, and

then, with

the

o t h e r , mark

the

curves

GF

and

D, then the l i n e from D

through

C

w i l l c r o s s

G F, and produce the point E ; and a l i n e drawn from i t down

to B

w i l l produce the

answer

t o

my

question.

IV.

Now observe

how to l e t f a l l a per

pendicular from

a given point over a

right

l i n e t o

that

l i n e .

A

B

( f i g .

53)

i s

the

right

l i n e ,

and

the given

point

i s

a t

E ; open the

compasses to somewhat l e s s than the space

AE,

s e t

one foot on E, and describe the arc

C D, producing

the

points

C D, on each of which, with

an

equal

opening of the compasses, make the c r o s s

curves

below the l i n e ,

t o which

from E draw E

F, which i s the

l i n e

proposed.

V. To l e t f a l l a

perpendicular

from a

point

nearly,

or

exactly,

over

the

end

of

a right l i n e ; A B ( f i g . 54) being the

given l i n e , and

C

the given

point:

f i r s t

draw

an oblique l i n e from

the poi nt C t o

wards A, a s

a t

F ;

divide

F C equally a s a t

D, s e t one foot on D, carefully extending the other

t o

C, then

describe

the arc C E, draw a l i n e through C

and

E,

and

i t i s done.

VI. To

draw

one l i n e

p a r a l l e l t o an- y

- . . . j G

other

l i n e ,

a t

a

given

distance

asunder.

c

d d

Draw

the l i n e AB

( f i g .

55),

then

take the

a-

j - u

given

distance

C

in

your

compasses, and c

(any

where) on

A

B, s e t one foot a s

a t a , 5 5 .

and describe the curve c c , and again on b , describe d d ;



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

23

¥«

then draw the required l i n e F G a s a tangent

t o

both,

c c and

d d—nd i t will be p a r a l l e l to AB a s required.

VII. To make

a geometrical square

to

a

given measure. Let

the

l i n e

A B

( f i g .

56), of

any

length, be

the measure

of

each side of the square, then draw EF the

same

length,

and erect the perpendicular F D

equal

in

length

with AB

;

now

open your

compasses

to

the

given length A B, and

with

one foot on E describe the curve

a a , and with the compasses opened t o the diagonal space E D

describe

(on

F) m

m,

crossing

a

a ,

and

producing

the

point

C;

then draw the l i n e s

C

D and C E, and the square i s completed.

A VIII. To draw parallelograms t o given

g

measures.

Let

A

be the length

and

B

the width.

F i r s t ,

draw the l i n e C D ( f i g .

5 7) equal t o A, then s e t up the given

width B

perpendicularly

on C, producing

G,

w .

and

by describing the curve e e on D

with

the

length

of

B, then

(with

the

diagonal

measure

G

D

in

your

compasses,

setting one foot on C, )

describe

the curve o o , pro

ducing the point

F,

from which

draw

F D and F G.

IX. To make

a

triangle

by

the given

lengths of i t s three s i d e s , a s A B C ( f i g .

58). F i r s t ,

draw D E equal to A, then

take the length of B in your compasses,

and

with

one foot

on D describe the

curve e

e

repeat

the

l i k e

with

the

length of

C

on

E,

describing the

curve

a a across

e

e , producing the point F, draw D F and E F, and

the

triangle

i s true

to

the given

measures

of i t s s i d e s .

H

„ X. To

make an

angle equ al

t o

one

given. C and A ( f i g . 59) converge

and

meet

a t B, making

the given angle; now

5 9 . ~ draw E F equal to A B,

and

on B describe

the curve

G

H, and with the same opening of your

compasses,

wi th one

foot

on

F,

describe

the

curve

e

e ;

then

take the

space

of

the opening G H,

and

mark the space e e on the curve e e

equal t o GH, then through the upper e draw the side D to

F,

and

the angles are equal.





PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 25

XV. To inscribe

the l a r g e s t c i r c l e

pos

s i b l e within

any

triangle :

—

raw any t r i

angle,

a s ABC

f i g .

64), b i s e c t any

two o f the

angles ( s e e the angle D of the lower diagram)

thus—

e t

one f o o t of the compasses

on

D, and

a t

any convenient

opening describe the curve

fg,

and

on

those

points where fg c r o s s e s the

two

limbs of the angle, s e t your compasses and

mark h h from / , and

i

i from g , producing the

point

E, then the central l i n e D E

b i s e c t s

the angle; follow t h i s

method

on

the angles

of

your

original

t r i a n g l e ,

and where

the

two

bisectional l i n e s a and

e

c r o s s , a s a t o , i s the proper centre

of the required c i r c l e .

XVI. To

find

the s i d e of

any

re

gular

polygon, not

exceeding

twelve

s i d e s , within a c i r c l e . First draw

a

large

c i r c l e , and through O ( f i g .

65),

the

centre,

draw the

diame

t e r

A

B,

which

divides

the

c i r c l e

into two equal parts, then with the

radius of the

c i r c l e ,

and

one

foot

on

A, mark

K and L,

the l i n e K L

w i l l be

the

s i d e of an e q u i l a

t e r a l t r i a n g l e to that c i r c l e ; then A C will be the s i d e of a

regular square

in

the c i r c l e , a s a polygon of four s i d e s ; next

place

one

f o o t of

the

compasses

on G,

and

extend the

other

to

C; describe

C E,

and the straight l i n e

C

E i s the side of a

regular

pentagon,

f i v e s i d e s

;

then

the

r a d i u s ,

or

semidiameter,

makes

the hexagon,

s i x

s i d e s . The heptagon i s

found in half

the length of the

l i n e

K L, a s K

G

or

L G,

t h i s

i s

the

polygon

of

seven s i d e s . Bisect

A

C a s a t I , draw

A

I , that i s the side

of an octagon, or regular polygon of e i g h t s i d e s . The l i n e NL

i s

one-third

of the arc

L

K,

and

consequently i s the true side

of

a regular polygon of

nine s i d e s ,

c a l l e d the

enneagon,

or

nonagon. The decagon i s found by the

length of

O E, or

by

the

chord

of

half the

arc

C

E,

t h i s

i s

the

regular

polygon

of

t e n s i d e s , e t c . Now to find the side of the hendecagon, draw

F N;

then the length

F

H answers f o r the side of the

polygon

of e l e v e n

s i d e s .

And

the chord

of

half the arcs

A

K

or A L,

y



26

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

gives the length

of

the side of a dodecagon, or polygon of

twelve s i d e s .

Ann.

I t

puzzled

me

to

look

a t

t h i s

diagram

t i l l

you ex

plained i t : but suppose

I

had a fixed

measure f o r

one side of

any

polygon—ow should I proceed?

George.

Only follow

me

through the next figure a s atten

tively a s in

t h i s ,

and

you

will not

f a i l

of

an

answer.

XVII.

To

describe any regular poly

gon, including twelve s i d e s or l e s s , to

the gi ven length of

any

one s i d e .

Let

A

B

( f i g .

66)

be

the

given

measure

of

one s i d e ; b i s e c t i t a t

Q,

and r a i s e the

perpendicular Q P;

now

with one foot

on A,

and

the other

extended t o B, de

scribe the arc B H; then on B describe

the

opposite

arc A H; then

divide

the

arc B

H

into

si x

equal p a r t s ,

and

number them a s in the ex

ample:

then on the

point

H, a s a c e n t r e ,

with the compasses

open

H,

1 ,

describe

the

f i r s t

small

semicircle,

I ,

1 ,

7 ,

which

produces the points 7 and

I ;

making I the centre f o r a c i r c l e

t o pass through A and B, which would make the l i n e AB a

side of &

pentagon to such

c i r c l e ;

then

taking H f o r the centre,

and A

B

f o r

one s i d e , you will produce a c i r c l e

which

would

contain a

hexagon

with AB a s one of i t s equal s i d e s . The points

numbered on the

perpendicular,

are the centres f o r their poly

gons,

and are found by placing

one

foot on H ( a s I

7 , was

found),

and

extending

the

other

t o

f i r s t

2 ,

then

3 ,

e t c . ,

describing the

small dotted semicircles up to their p o i n t s , a s numbered on the

perpendicular Q P.

Eliza. Then

i f

I would make the given

l i n e

A B, a side of

an enneagon, I understand that I must make the po int 9 (on the

perpendicular

Q P)

the centre;

and

the

space

9 A, or 9 B,

the r a d i u s , or semi-diameter of that c i r c l e ,

which would contain such polygon.

John.

And

s o ,

of

course,

with

the

other numbers on Q P.

George.

XVIII.

I will now show

you

how t o describe

an oval

of a given length,

without

regard to

width.

AB

( f i g .

67)





28

PRACTICAL

GEOMETRY.

methods; bu t a s the ingenious contrivance of producing a true

r e s u l t by the i n t e r s e c t i o n of l i n e s w i l l be i n s t r u c t i v e ,

you

shall

have

two

d i f f e r e n t examples.

XX.

To

describe,

then,

an

e l l i p s i s of

any

given length and width by the

in

tersection of l i n e s , producing o r d i n a t e s .

First draw the length A C B ( f i g . 69):

take the

half

of the long

diameter

a s at

C,

in

your

compasses,

and

describe the

l a r g e s t c i r c l e ; then with

half

the given

short diameter on the original centre C,

describe the

inner

c i r c l e ; now divide the outer c i r c l e

into

24

equal p a r t s , then lay your ruler on the

centre C, and

(passing i t

successively

on

t o each of the divisional

marks

on the outer

c i r c l e ) , where your

ruler

c r o s s e s the inner c i r c l e , repeat the divi

s i o n a l marks upon i t ; then from every mark o f the inner c i r c l e

draw horizontal l i n e s

t o

the great c i r c l e ,

and

perpendicular

l i n e s

from a l l the marks on the great c i r c l e t i l l they c r o s s the f i r s t

s e t

of

l i n e s ;

the

points

through

which

the

t r u e

e l l i p s i s

can be

traced

will be thus produced.

XXI. This figure exhibits

a

quarter

of a

true e l l i p s i s ; by which method

t h e

whole might

be drawn. First draw AB ( f i g . 70) a s half

the length of an e l l i p s i s , and l e t f a l l the per

pendicular

A C equal t o half the width; then

draw

C

D

p a r a l l e l

to

A B,

and BD E p a r a l l e l

to

A

C,

exactly

twice

the

length

of

A C;

now

divide

A C

and

C

D into si x (or

any

other number) of equ al p a r t s , and draw

l i n e s

from

each division on the line A

C, a l l

converging

to

B;

and

from E,

across

each

division

on the l i n e C D, t i l l each

meets

i t s

correspondent,

a s

in the example

; then a

curve drawn through

the

points thus

found will be a

true quarter part

of an e l l i p s i s .

XXII. But to

find

the

c e n t r e of

a given o v a l , and i t s two diameters;

you

must

f i r s t

draw

the

two

parallel

l i n e s

Q G, and MO ( f i g . 71), in any d i r e c t i o n ,

and any distance a p a r t , within the

given

oval; b i s e c t them a t H

and

N, then

draw the l i n e E P through H

and

N;

\









32

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

from

the

points

c

and B

( s e e

No.

I I . ) ;

then

a

l i n e

from

y

through z produces e

and continues

down t i l l i t

meets

the

perpendicular c g f a t d , which point i s the centre, with the

radius

d

A,

f o r

describing the

arc

required.

Ann.

Why i s t h i s

c a l l e d

a scheme arc?

George. I t

i s

an accepted

name f o r

so

much of a c i r c l e a s

i s seldom l e s s than 70 degrees, or more than 90, and never an

e n t i r e

half

of a c i r c l e .

XXXII.

To draw a scheme arc to

any given height

and

width by the

intersection of l i n e s : A

C B( f i g . 81)

i s

the

width

(or

span)

of

the

a r c ,

and

C e

i t s height ; which i s carried up

to

twice

i t s length a s a t d; then

draw

A d

and B

d ,

subdivide

both into

a

l i k e number of

equal

parts ( a s

here,

into t e n parts),

number them

according

to the

example, and draw

l i n e s

from

1 on

A

d to 1 on Bd ,

then

from 2 to 2 ,

and s o

on; t h i s

w i l l complete

the

required a r c .

Perhaps t h i s ingenious contrivance was that which gave us

the word scheme

a r c ; f o r

i t i s not a

perfect

segment of a

c i r c l e ,

nor can a perfect

c i r c l e

be produced by the

method

here

given.

P XXXIII. To describe

an

arc of

equal height with a

s e m i c i r c l e ,

bu t

of greater span, f i r s t draw the

chord

of the longest span

dg

( f i g . 82)

and

b i s e c t

i t

a t

e

;

then

with

the

radius

of

8 - the s e m i c i r c l e ,

with

one foot on e ,

describe

A c B; now proceed a s in No. XXXL,

and

you will

produce the required arc d

c

g .

Eliza. What i s the use of t h i s

problem,

brother?

George. Suppose the regular facade of a

building

to be an

arcade,

and

that the central

entrance,

or two s i d e

wings,

required

arches of wider

span than

the r e s t , they can

be uniformly

produced

by

the

means

here

adopted

—

h i s

i s

only

one

in

stance

of i t s usefulness; but

were

you to pursue the study

of

geometry, you would

find

every

problem repeated

a s often

a s

you find the alphabet repeated i n langu age, or the nine figures in

arithmetic.

or







PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

35

Ann.

I s

t h i s

the end of

Practical

Geometry?

.

George. I may c a l l i t t h e alphabet rather than the end.

John. Must we remember i t a l l ?

Eliza. We have learned how to read i t a t any r a t e , and can

r e f e r t o our problems, a s we do t o our dictionaries and maps

occasionally.

George.

And

questions

which w i l l

often occur

you w i l l

remember, a s well a s

you

do your language.

Whenever

you would make a small copy of a picture,

divide

the original by whole

numbers,

so that the copy may measure

exactly

one-half,

one-third,

fourth,

f i f t h ,

s i x t h ,

seventh,

or

eighth, e t c . , part

of

the o r i g i n a l , both

in height

and

width

;

that the

proportions may

be the more

e a s i l y

compared.

But should i t be required to

copy

some

particular length

or

width, the proportion to the

o r i

ginal

may

be

perfectly obtained, by

drawing a

diagonal

right l i n e ( f i g .

91)

on

the

o r i g i n a l ,

with

a

piece

of

f i n e twine, or thread, from one

corner

a t the top, t o the opposite

corner a t

the bottom

; then s e t up

the

given

length

from

the bottom)

p a r a l l e l

t o the s i d e ,

or

wi dth from

the

s i d e ,

p a r a l l e l t o the

end,

t i l l

cither touches the diagonal, and

from

that

point

the

corresponding

width

or

length w i l l

be

truly de

termined.

Ann.

Has

the triangular

figure ( f i g . 7 3 ) , any other

use than

what

you

explained

in No.

XXIV.

?

George. One of i t s angles i s made a correct right angle, f o r

the purpose of drawing

right angles

without the geometrical

p r o c e s s .

John. Then why

di d

you not explain

t h i s

before ?

Wecould

hav e done a l l the

right

angles

i n s t a n t l y ,

without so many A's

and B ' s .

\

A

\i

.

s i



36

ON THE DIAGONALS OF THE

SQUARE.

George. Yes ; but then you

would not

have known

how

to

make

or prove this instrument.

Eliza. What

i s

i t s diagonal side

f o r , and

why

i s

one side of

the right angle longest?

George. If the

three

sides

are

proportionally

made to mea

sure three, four, and five inches, f e e t , yards, e t c . , the

squares

of

the two

shortest

sides added t oge ther, are equal

to

the square

of

the

largest,

or diagonal

s i d e .

John. What do you mean

by

t he squ are

of

a side?

George. Multiply

the side three inches

by

three,

and

that

will

be 9 ,

or the square

of

three;

then

multiply

four

by four,

and you have 16, which i s t he squ ar e of the next

shortest

side:

add them

together,

and they make

25.

Nowsquare the longest

side 5, and that will also produce 25, which stands as a general

rule, that

the

square

of any diagonal (or longest side) of a right-

angled

triangle,

i s equal

to the

united

squares of the two lesser

sides: turn to

No.

XXVIII.

,

and

you will find i t proved. By

this rule, builders

begin

to

set their large

framing at right

angles

(s u ch

as

the

f i r s t

timbers

of

roofs,

which

are

termed

plates); and persons

drawing plans,

prove the

truth

of their

proceedings thereby.

John.

I

wish, brother, you would

shew

mehow

they

make

use of this

rule.

George. I will give you one instance : suppose a jointed two-

foot rule

to

be two pieces of timber, 12

feet

long instead of so

many inches ; and you wish

to lay

them down exactly at

a right

angle :

f i r s t ,

open

the

dividers

to

5

inches

( supposed

feet)

;

then

lay the

rule

on the table, with i t s

two limbs

as nearly as you

can

at a ri ght angle,

and place

one

foot of the dividers exactly

at

3

inches

from the

centre

of the joint, down one limb o f t he

rule,

and move the other limb t i l l the other

leg

of the dividers will

touch the point, which i s four inches from the centre, and the

angle

will be

right. This

one

right

angle, thus

found,

i s a

rule

for

the rest of their operations, as

far

as relates to the square,

because their opposite sides must

be parallel,

which i s explained

in your examples Nos.

VII.

and VIII. of

Practical

Geometry,

figures 56 and 5 7 : (the

numbers

6, 8, and 10 f e e t ,

are

gene

rally the builders' guide, because their ten-foot rod proves the



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 37

diagonal of 6 f e e t and

8

f e e t ) . Endeavour t o complete your

knowledge of

geometry; f o r

a smattering of any

a r t

or science

will

only

pass

with

the

ignorant,

and

must

expose

you

to

the

r i d i c u l e or contempt

of

the p r o f i c i e n t . Knowledge

of

t h i s

nature i s

f o r u s e ,

not show ;

and every

step one

takes

in

geometry leads to an end s o delightfully c l e a r , that the student

seems

t o

f e e l as i f he had always known

i t .

Ann.

Can we begin perspective

now?

George.

Yes, by the help of

No. I I I .

of

our

Practical

Geometry;

f o r

you know, s i s t e r , i t will be

r e q u i s i t e t o

have a

right-angled

f i g u r e ,

or

parallelogram,

t o draw

our

designs

i n .

John. I can do that by the protractor now, i f you w i l l t e l l

me

how long and

how

wide i t

must

be

;

i t i s

exactly

our

example VIII., which I could do

with

the

right-angled

triangle

now ;

but I

w i l l use the

protractor to f u l f i l my

promise.

George.

Come, then, draw the figure 3

J

inches long

and

2\

inches

wide;

and explain

your

work a s

you proceed, in

a

clear manner.

John.

I

f i r s t

draw

a

l i n e

A

B

( f i g .

92)

3£

inches

long;

then

I s h a l l s e t the straight edge of the protractor on that l i n e , very



38 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.

even,

and

with

the

l i t t l e mark a t

the centre of i t

exactly

to one

end of

the l i n e ; then I s h a l l make the mark a t 90 degrees, a s

you

told

u s ,

and

draw

a

l i n e

through i t ,

t o

that

end

of

the

base

l i n e whereon I placed the centre of the protractor, which l i n e I

must

mark exactly 24 inches long—hat

makes one

corner, you

know : now I have only to mark the length 34 inches from the

top of the

perpendicular

I

have

drawn,

and

the

wi dth 24

from

the poi nt of the other

end

of the base

l i n e ,

and draw the

other

two s i d e s

t o the

mark

thus obtained, t o complete i t . (See

figure 92).

Eliza.

Well

done,

John.

Ann. I am delighted with i t .

George. Now

t o prove the truth

t h i s

right-angled f i g u r e ,

the

two diagonal

lengths, A

C

and B D, must be

equal.

Ann. This

i s

taught

us by the

diagonal

measure used

in

our

Nos. VII. and

VIII.

George. You

have

now,

I

perceive, vanquished your t e r

ror a t the sound of the word Geometry and i t gives

me

great pleasure t o

be

able t o

pay

you a l l

the f a i r

compliment

of

my

very

sincere

thanks f o r your cheerful attention, and for

the

proofs you

have

evinced

of

my

success a s a teacher.

John. I t i s a l l e a s i l y enough understood, but then i t i s so

t e d i o u s

t o

draw them.

George. My dear brother, a s the love of play and light

amusements

gradually s u b s i d e s , you

w i l l

find

the

benefit of

knowledge

f u l l y

worth

the labour

and

application i t

requires

;

you have already proved how ignorance skulks away a s i n t e l l e c t

advances in power.

We have now l a i d a s u f f i c i e n t foundation f o r our progress in

Perspective.



PRINCIPLES OF PERSPECTIVE.

The youthful reader i s to bear in mind, throughout the following explanations,

—hat the words

Ob je ct o f

study, Scene, or Subject, r e l a t e to real

nature, no t to the p i c t u r e s , or drawings,

they may

undertake to copy,

a s ,

i n

such examples,

a l l

the laws

of perspective

a r e , or should

b e , complete to

t h e i r

hands.

ON

TIIE HORIZON OF

A

PICTURE.

George. Now l e t me

remind

yon

of

the rule l a i d down in

the

f i r s t

part

of

our

conversations,

—

hat

t h i s

outline

or

limit

of

the

picture

( f i g . 92), must

be

conceived to

be

the s i z e of an

a p e r t u r e , through which you view the object

of

your study ( I

mean by t h i s not a p i c t u r e ,

or

drawing, but a

r e a l

scene, or

object of

nature);

and the

g l a s s

s u r f a c e ,

supposed

t o cover t h i s

aperture, i s always t o be understood a s the transparent

plane,

on

which (were your eye

stationary)

the drawing might

be made

a perfect outline : and,

in

drawing the ground

plan and eleva

tions

preparatory

f o r

a

perspective

drawing,

t h i s

transparent

plane i s always represented

by

a

l i n e c a l l e d

the s e c t i o n l i n e ,

which

w i l l

be further

understood

in proper course.

Now,

on viewing

the diagram ( f i g .

93), you

may imagine a

l e v e l

surface extending

from

the base

l i n e

t o the

utmost v i s i b l e





HORIZON

AND

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.

41

John.

Now, if I were

to

draw

the

likeness of my l i t t l e

dog,

I

must have a

high

horizontal line

to

the picture ; because my

eye

must

be

considerably

above

him,

unless,

indeed,

I

placed

him on the table, which, you know, i s not a proper place for a

dog;

but

the portrait

of

a horse, or an elephant,

would

have a

low

horizon, inasmuch as their height i s above the level of my

eye. AmI ri ght, George?

George. You have comprehended me most happily. Such

active and proper

application of what

I have taught you

i s

a

proof of your attention.

Ann.

I have

seen

some

very

strange-looking

prints,

in which

(what I now understand to be) the horizontal l i n e was almost

at the top of the picture,

and

one might see

over

the tops

of

houses, and

even

partly

down the

chimneys, and over

a vast

e xt en t o f country : what name doyou give to this sort of view?

George.

It i s called

a bird's eye view ( f i g . 94) ; because the

height

of the

eye

i s considered, in

such

pictures, to be

inaccessible

to

any eye but

that

of a

bird

high

in

the

air

; by which only

such an extensive

view

c an be obtained.

This

sort of

pictures

i s rather descriptive,

and the chiefpleasure

they give i s information : they convey

a

tolerably

correct

idea

of both plan and elevation, in

one

piece, and are adapted to

explain the positions of f l e e t s

or

armies,

or

the general view of

an estate or fortification. Palaces, and o the r p ub li c buildings,

are

thus represented

occasionally.

John. I hope, brother,

you

will draw us a specimen

of

a

bird's-eye

view.

George. You

will

find

one in the perspective

view

of the

chess-board ( f i g .

94).



42

OF LEVELS

AND

POINT OF SIGHT.

Now be very

attentive

; and, instead of 64 square inches

(which admit to

be

the real dimensions of the chequer-hoax&),

you

must

consider

them so

many

f i e l d s ,

each

a

hundred

yards

square

: l e t this

fix

the scale of proporti on with

regard

to

the height

of

the horizontal

l i n e

;

and you

will find the eye at

c ,

exactly

400 yards above the

base

l i n e ,

or

level ground,

which i s

certainly a

height inaccessible to any eye but

that of

a bird.

Eliza. Or

a

balloonist's

suppose

we

new

name

i t ,

since

bal

loons

have, in a l l probability,

rivalled

the

utmost

height of the

eagle.

Ann. The thought i s a-propos : but the old name i s estab

lished; and, as

i t

conveys the proper idea,

need

not

be

changed.

We

must a l l thank

you,

brother,

for

your

very

satisfactory ex

planations.

ON THE APPARENT

INCLINATION

OF LEVELS TO THE

HORIZON.

George. Now

that

you seem to

comprehend

the

horizon

MW£ .P i

~

lWi niiiirannri~a.

..

,

i.

.

.n,

,

i „.

,„..

,

i irii.rifilliiMTOflE

1

~

. - j j - j i - ^ S ^ H

~ / . C - i e J a i j ^

■ = - ^ ^ . . . . = f - * .

- ^

—— p* ;s=g3* .'pMHMM ^ p B ^ ^ B B==

^jg^j^'il^.. |- - [I

. l ~

W MUKw

-

iBbI

:.i:r;::->4>fc ;.^^

( f i g . 95 ) as the utmost

visible line

of level

land,

or of

water,

you

must

also take

for

a

rule,

that

a l l level planes (such as

f l o o r s ,

steps,



ON POINT OF SIGHT

AND

HORIZON. 43

t a b l e s , s h e l v e s , c e i l i n g s , e t c . ) appear to tend t o the horizontal

l i n e of the picture, a s directly a s level land or water. In the

diagram

are

represented

f i v e

l e v e l

planes,

which

you

may

c a l l

broad

shelves or f l o o r s ,

and their undersides c e i l i n g s :

observe,

they a l l

converge towards the horizontal l i n e , although they are

representatives of

parallel

surfaces

; two

of which are below,

and

three above the

horizon

:

and

were their breadth

t o be continued

to

the

utmost

extent of

v i s i b l e

distance, their retiring

edges

would a l l appear to

unite

in one

point

on the

horizontal l i n e , ac

cording to the l i n e s in the

example.

Eliza.

This

i s

very

c l e a r ,

brother:

now

w i l l

you

t e l l

me

the

proper

name of the point t o

which a l l

their retiring edges

would converge?

George.

I t

i s the POINT

OF

sight; because the eye which

could see the f i v e l e v e l planes just a s they are drawn, must be

exactly opposite that p o i n t .

Ann. Let me understand you c l e a r l y .

I s

t h i s point t o be

considered a s

in

the picture,

and on

the

distant horizon?

or i s

i t placed there t o represent the p oint which f a l l s directly oppo

s i t e t h e eye of

one

viewing the

scene ?

George.

The large white surface in f i g . 96, which repre

sents a plai n

canvass

t o be

painted

on,

explains the

matter a t

once

; there the boy's eye, or real

point

of

s i g h t ,

i s in i t s proper

place, and

the

nominal point

of

s i g h t properly

placed on the

canvass.

John.

That

makes i t

very

c l e a r .

George. Suppose you

go t o the

transparent plane

(the win

dow) and f i x

yourself steady,

a s i f

you would trace on

i t

the

scene before

you,

—here would be one

point

of the

g l a s s

you

look

through

exactly l e v e l with

your eye ; and

the

continuation

of

that point by a l e v e l l i n e , right

and

l e f t , would be the proper

horizontal

l i n e .

But

t h i s

particular

point

must f a l l

precisely

on

that part of such l i n e , where the ray or direct l i n e of sight

would

form

a

r i g h t

angle

with

the

g l a s s ,

s o

a s

t o

be

exactly

per

pendicular t o i t s surface and t o your eye; and the ray of s i g h t ,

thus

determining t h i s point, i s called the

principal

v i s u a l ray ;

which you

w i l l

be well acquainted with

when

you begin

t o



,.-**

44 ON POINT OF SIGHT

AND

HORIZON.

draw in perspective.

Therefore,

a s

a l l visual rays proceed

from

the

e y e ,

and

not

from

t h e

horizon

. o f

the

scene,

the

point

thus

marked

must be

considered

t o be

OPPOSITE

t h e eye ; and

i t

i s

t o

be marked on the horizon, only because i t i s impossible to

describe

the

r e a l situation

o f the eye, which must

always

be

at

l e a s t

t h e

length

of

t h e picture distant from i t , a s will be further

explained a s

we

proceed.

John. I observe, brother, you sometimes say horizon; and

a t

o t h e r s , horizontal

l i n e :

what i s the difference ?

George.

All

drawings

of perspective representations

must

have a

horizontal l i n e

: but

there are many pictures

wherein a

view of the natural horizon, or utmost distance, cannot be

expressed : such

a s

architectural views, i n t e r i o r s , caverns, woody

scenery, mountainous distance, and perspective descriptions of

machinery; the

s t r i c t

distinction therefore i s , that the horizon

i s the r e a l o b j e c t ,

and

the horizontal

l i n e

i s a

l i n e l e v e l with

the

eye, drawn

on

the picture or

transparent

plane, exactly where

the natural horizon would appear,

and

which governs

a l l

the

level objects in a

picture

: because, a s I told

you before,

i t i s

determined by the height o f the eye.



REASONS FOR THE HEIGHT OF HORIZON. 45

Eliza. It seems difficult to agree with one part of your law,

that the appearance

of

l e v e l land should be

drawn

as high as

my

eye,

when,

in

truth,

i t

i s

no

higher

than

my

feet?

George. Your observation i s very just ; and although you

will s t i l l find the horizontal l i n e , in the picture, as high as the

laws of perspective have fixed i t ,

I can give

you the satisfaction

of

knowing, that ^bur inquiry

i s founded

in truth ; and yet,

strange

as

i t

may

seem to you,

the rule

i s

quite consonant with

the law

of vision.

Ann. Come, John, we must attend to this curious point ;

for

if

the

ray

of

sight

does

really

descend

from

one's

eye

to

the

distant horizon, which i s admitted to be level, and consequently

no higher than our f e e t , I cannot

conceive

how George c an

maintain hi s rule, of drawing the horizontal line as high as the

eye.

George.

The ray, which conducts your

sight

down to the

proposed point, i s at

the

same

time a conductor of the

appear

ance of

i t up to your eye; and,

consequently, in e f f e c t ,

i s as

high

as

your

eye.

Suppose

your

eye

to

be

five

feet

higher

than the level

whereon

you

may be supposed

to stand,

and

you

direct a

ray of sight to

t hre e mi le s

distance, towards the

hori zon of

a

level

plain :

now c oncei ve

a

transparent plane of

glass to

be set

up

for

you to sketch the

scene upon

—say

three

feet from

you towards the horizon) ;

i f

you were

to

draw

the horizontal l i n e , on the glass or transparent plane, exactly

where you

would

see i t—ou must allow i t would

be

the true

perspective situation of the horizontal l i n e on the

transparent

plane ;—

nd

how much

would i t

be below the level of your

eye

think

you?

Ann. It must be somewhat

lower.

George. It

i s , as nearly as possible, only the eleventh

part

of the

eighth of an inch lower than your eye, when truly

marked on the glass, at three feet

distance

from i t : this i s an

atom

in

Eliza's

favour

;

but

i t

i s

too

small

a

difference

to

in

fluence

the

rule

laid

down,

that the horizontal

l i n e

in a

perspec

t i v e

drawing

must always be as

high

as

the

e y e .

And

you must

observe,

that

i t i s the distance of the transparent plane from

your



46

REASONS

FOR

THE HEIGHT

OF

HORIZON.

Five

f e e t .

e y e , which occasions t h i s space between the

abso

lute l e v e l of your eye,

and

the descending ray:

f o r

were

you

t o

advance

the

transparent

plane

t o the distance of one foot from

your

eye, the

space between the r e a l l e v e l ,

and

the apparent

horizon,

would

be redu ced the

t h i r t y - t h i r d

part

of the e ighth of an inch ; and, agreeably t o what

I before observed, a s the l e v e l

ray

and the

descending one both meet in the eye, they will

therein be of

one and

the same

height.

For

the sake

of giving

you

a

diagram

within

the compass of our paper, I have reduced the dis

tance from three miles to

36

yards. The di a

gram ( f i g . 97) w i l l prove to you, by

mathematical

demonstration, that an object f i v e f e e t high, at

only 36 yards distance, would be but one inch §

and

£

in

height,

when traced

on the

s e c t i o n ,

or

transparent plane, a t three f e e t

from

the eye

;

and, consequently,

only

that

measure

from

head

to

foot below the horizontal l i n e of the drawing.

The two

l i n e s

drawn on the t a b l e t

(which

i s re

presented

on

an e a s e l bythe

figure)

supposes the

horizontal l i n e , and the height of a l i n e a t 36

yards

distance according with the p r o f i l e , to make

the space of one inch f and £ of an eighth

between

them. Then

suppose

you

were

to

paint

a

l i f e - s i z e

figure

or

group,

with

the

perspective

d i s t a n c e a t 12 f e e t , a figure a t 36 yards

distance

must

be four ti mes the height of the space found

in t h i s example; where the perspective distance

of the

t a b l e t

i s three f e e t .

We may now proceed, t i l l we

arrive

a t the

subject

( f i g . 97), when

I hope

to make you clearly

understand t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n .

John. We

are

sure

now

that the

horizon

can

never be higher than one's eye.

Ann.

I

thank

you,

brother.

But f i r s t

l e t me

ask

you

one

more question

respecting the horizon.

















50

OBJECTS

FALLING

UNDER

VARIOUS ANGLES.

centre on

the s t a t i o n of the eye, on a ground

plan

of rays : a s

in

f i g .

1

1 7 ) , and the more t o the right

or

l e f t objects are from the

principal

v i s u a l

ray,

or

perpendicular

of

your

e y e ,

the greater

must

be the angle under which those objects will f a l l . I

mean

that

the number of degrees between objects furthest a p a r t , must be

the greatest; and in tracing them on the g l a s s , or transparent

plane, a s they would appear thereon, especially near the fore

ground, you would

mark them broader

than their proportionate

s i z e : which w i l l be

made

c l e a r t o you in f i g . 114. Let t h i s

s u f f i c e t o lead

us on

towards a complete knowledge of the point

of

s i g h t .

John. I have heard you explain the ray of sight which

goes

from

one's eye,

directly

through

the g l a s s , or

transparent

plane,

to

the

horizon,

a s the

principal v i s u a l

ray.

This,

I think, I

understand ; but I cannot

s e e

how a ray can be perpendicular to

a

picture,

without

you

lay

i t on the f l o o r ,

and look

down per

pendicularly over

i t .

George. I

cannot expect

you

t o apply a l l

I have

taught you

a t

once;

but

had

you

recollected

the

definition

of

a

perpen

dicular

l i n e , given

in f i g .

13, a ,

I

should think

you would

not

have

raised t h i s

scruple ;

but, f o r

the sake of confirming you in

a thorough knowledge of the

matter, return

t o f i g . 13, which

I hope

w i l l

explain i t

t o

yo u r tho ro ugh comprehension.

Nowyou must a l l attend to the b o y ' s

e y e , and

the dotted l i n e ,

or ray, from

i t

t o the

centre

o f the

canvass,

which dotted l i n e i s

drawn

t o exhibit t o

your

view

the

principal v i s u a l

ray, a s perpen

dicular

t o

the

picture

;

f o r

i t i s

t o

be

understood

t o

be

a t

a

right

angle

with

the surface of the canvass on a l l s i d e s ;

and

i f the pic

t u r e , or canvass, were l a i d down on the f l o o r , a s

John

proposed,

and that ray were a

substance

of straight

wire,

properly fixed,

i t

would

then

be

a s

perpendicular

a s

a

plumb-line: therefore,

place

the

surface

of the

canvass in whatever

direction

you choose,

the

wire (thus

fixed) would

retain

i t s

r e l a t i v e

perpendicular to i t ;

and any eye directed along t h i s ray (of wire) must, according

t o the perspective acceptation of the term,

be

perpendicular

to

the canvass whereon i t i s thus f i x e d .

Eliza. Will

you

shew us how

you

made the pavement in



POINT OF

DISTANCE.

51

this

drawing

look so square: as the compartments

decrease in

their

apparent

width as

well

as length?

—

here

i s some

regular

rule,

1 have

no doubt.

0

2 8 3

ON THE POINT OF DISTANCE

George. The question

which

ended ou r l a s t conversation,

brings

the

point of distance now

under

our attentive considera

tion ; which i s the distance of the

eye from

t he t ran sp are nt plane

through which

you

are supposed to see the objects

of

your study,

and

on

which you would

mark

or

trace them

accordingly,

were

i t not

for

the geometrical means

you

are now learning, to produce

precisely the same effect in another

way

: for although we do

not

absolutely trace on the

glass

from a given point of distance

for the eye, we are under the necessity

of

introducing, on a

ground plan of the subject

(see

ground plan, f i g .

117),

a section

l i n e , to answer the p urp os es o f the

glass,

in order to obtai n the

true perspect i ve

measurements

of

the objects ; and the distance

of

the

eye

from t h i s l i n e ,

or

substitute

for

the

surface

of

the

picture,

(glass, or transparent plane, a l l which mean one and

the same thing), constitutes the point of

distance.

Ann. I

take i t very

kind

that

you

so often re peat t he words

or transparent

plane,

whenever you

have

occasion to

speak of

the

surface

of the picture ; but don't you remember, brother,

we a l l

caught

the

right

idea at the very f i r s t ,

when you

called

John to the window

to trace

the

view

on

it?

I think

you

need only say picture in

future.

Eliza. And leave ou r

minds'

eyes to comprehend the r e s t .

George. I thank you, ladies, for

your

good-nature, attention,

and

wit.

John. Come, brother, shew u s what i s to be done with this

point of distance.

George. It i s always

to

be

marked

on the horizontal line,

on

the

right

or

l e f t ,

or

both,

of the

point

of

sight,

at

exactly

whatever measured distance of the eye from the

picture maybe

determined

on.

Now, Ann, you

shall

make the

drawing

(%, i o o ) .

X





EFFECTS

OF

PERSPECTIVE DRAWINGS EXPLAINED. 53

and rule the horizontal l i n e .

Now we

have

two squares

: come,

John,

you do the third.

John. That i s soon done; bu t I wish to sec as many as are

on the

chess-board—

hen we

should

know how to draw a whole

f l o o r .

George. You shall ; and / will draw i t , to teach you to han

dle the instruments in a better manner than you do .

Now

attend : I shall f i r s t

draw

the representation of the

whole

chess

board ( f i g .

101),

as one large

square seen

in perspective, by

the

same

process

that Ann found

the perspective of

one square of pave

ment; then I shall

divide

i t , at the

base

line,

into

eight

equal

parts, and

draw lines

from

1 0 1 ,

them to the centre, or poi nt of sight : these divisions will cro ss

t he o bli qu e line (which

I

f i r s t

drew,

to

find

the whole

square)

exactly where

the

horizontal

divisions of the

squares

must

be

drawn, giving their apparent depth equal

to

their geometrical

width.

John. I see this comes* like a l l perspective : but I wish you

could draw them to appear quite

square,

as the

real

object does

when I

am n ot t hi n ki n g

about

perspective

:

this

drawing appears

t o diminish ; and the furthest

divisions

look really smaller than

the nearest.

George. I

hope I shall be

able

soon

to

clear away this very

reasonable objection.

One

reason,

perhaps, why

the drawing

does

not gi ve a

truer

effect

may

be,

that

this sort

of

lesson

i s

drawn with

too

l i t t l e

attention to

the gradual

diminution

of each

* Professional term f o r e f f e c t produced.



54 THE INTEGRITY

OF PERSPECTIVE.

retiring

l i n e ,

a s i t

recedes

from the

base

l i n e ; but the

chief

reason i s ,

that

the utmost perfection perspective can give to a

p i c t u r e ,

i s

only

t o

convey

the

true

idea

of

a

scene,

or

o b j e c t ,

when

viewed a t

the

very point of

distance the

a r t i s t

determined

h i s picture

by; whi ch, you have

already

been

informed,

means

the

measured

distance of the eye

from

the picture (see

page

44,

%,

9 6 ) .

Suppose then the picture to be one, two, or more f e e t in

length,

that

measure w i l l

determine

a

proper distance

to view

the p i c t u r e , i f the distance be taken by the rule

I have

made

general

in

my

diagrams.

The

examples

I

have

given

you

are

s m a l l , and the point

of

distance proportionate to them : but i f

you can bring your eye t o that distance,

you

w i l l find the e f f e c t

you wish. Now,

f o r

experiment's sake, open the dividers t o the

length

of the distance ( f i g . 101) that i s equal to the space

between the po int of sight

and

the point of distance ; keep one

foot on the

point

of s i g h t , and r a i s e the

other, a s nearly a s

you

can, perpendicular over the point of s i g h t ; then bring your eye

carefully

t o

the

raised

point

of

the

d i v i d e r s ,

so

a s

not

to

hurt

your

eye, and look s t e d f a s t l y

on

the

drawing

f o r a few seconds,

and

you

will find the

true e f f e c t

i s properly

produced.

John. Indeed, s i s t e r s ,

you

must try t h i s experiment; for

the

whole drawi n g of the

chess-board looks r e a l l y

square, just

a s I meant : mind

t o

keep your eye perpendicular

t o

the point

of s i g h t .

Ann. I confess

I

f e l t the same objection

John

made, t i l l

we

had

t h i s

experimental

proof;

but

i t

i s

now

s o c l e a r , that

I

think

I c ou ld gi ve

another example.

Eliza. Pray, Ann,

t r e a t

us

with

one of your b e s t .

George. I

s e e Ann i s

prepared.

Ann. I t i s c e r t a i n , when I look

upon any o b j e c t ,

that my

eye

i s a t the

only point

a t

which

i t

could

possibly

s e e

i t

in

that

particular

shape;

and were I

t o draw i t ,

while viewed

from

that

point

and

distance,

ever

s o

perfect in

a l l

r e s p e c t s ,

I

think

that no

one (who

was

not determined to

be deceived) could

suppose the drawing

t o

be the r e a l o b j e c t , except while viewing

i t

exactly

in a similar l i g h t , shade, and distance, a s the object



THE PROPER DISTANCE FROM THE

PICTURE.

55

was

when drawn. Now,

only

lay the dictionary on the

table,

as we s i t

in

two

different

directions

from i t ,—ere we to make

each

a drawing

of

i t ,

and then

exchange drawings, without, at

the

same

time,

changing

places,

i t

would

be

impossible

to

com

pare

them

with the original ; a nd , e qu ally

s o ,

to suppose

either

could be taken for the real book.

Eliza. I am very much obliged

to

you, s i s t e r . Now I wish

to ask George, why the

length

of a pi ctu re

i s

fixed on as the

proper distance of the eye from it?

George. It i s the

SHORTEST

distance

allowable ; because,

were you to take a nearer point, you c ou ld not c onv eni ently

perceive,

atone

view, a l l the objects

within

the boundary line

of

the transparent plane, right and l e f t , above and below the

point

of sight or centre of the picture ; for the same distortion and

widening

of

the appearances

of

objects,

that

f a l l

under

a greater

angle than about

25 degrees from the

principal visual

ray,

would

occur, which

I

shall describe to you hereafter

by

f i g . 1

14

; the

triangle, therefore, which

would

shew

you the largest view a

painter

should

take,

i s

found

in

the

heptagon,

as

a

ground

plan,

by taking

the

centre for

the

station of

the

eye, and any one of

the

circumferent

sides

of

the heptagon as the

length

of the

picture

or section

line; which conclusion determines a

single

landscape

to be about one-seventh part of the whole panorama, or c i r c l e .

Ann. I perceive the great importance of

taking

a

proper

distance ; and i f I comprehend what has passed, I think the point,

in a l l respects,

which we

take to paint a pi ctu re must

be

the

best

point

t o

view

i t

from,

as

I

have

tri ed to

prove

by

drawing

and

viewing

our

dictionaries.

George. You

are perfec tly right, s i s t e r ; and I e xpe ct this

subject

will afford you

some

entertainment when we study the

term foreshortening

Eliza. I su ppo se, then , i t i s contrary to the laws of per

spective

for

one to

go

to

various stations in

a

room to view

a picture, since that point and distance

which

the painter per

formed

his

work

by,

i s

determined

to

be

the

best

?

George. Most

assuredly i t

i s ,

when the light f a l l s properly

on the picture; but, unfortunately, many very fine paintings



56

PERSPECTIVE OF A

THEATRE.

are hung s o disadvantageously, that the glittering of the varnish

or

g l a s s , i s a l l one can

see a t the

true mechanical

point; t h i s

obliges one t o

take some

indirect position to

avoid

the g l a r e .

Without some

such

good

reason,

you

may

rely

on

the

r u l e

i n

perspective

a s

an unerring

guide ; always taking a

position

per

pendicular t o

the

point

of

s i g h t ,

and

moving

forward or back

ward t i l l

you

find

you

are a t the

p a i n t e r ' s

d i s t a n c e .

For

the

d i r e c t perspective picture of any

long

room

w i l l

appear

longer

or

shorter than the true measure,

bytaking a greater or

l e s s distance

to

view

i t from than that which the a r t i s t appointed

f o r

the

s c i e n t i f i c government of his

work

;—nd t o do t h i s i s a duty

you

owe the

a r t i s t

before

you

are qualified t o c r i t i c i s e the

perspective

of h i s picture,—specially of

c i r c u l a r

planes.

John. Will you t e l l me why

pictures

of circular planes re

quire t o be v iewed from the proper point more than the repre

sentation of

any

other object ? and a t the same time t e l l me

what are

c i r c u l a r

planes

?

George. Circular planes

are

c i r c l e s described on f l a t s u r f a c e s ,

a s

a

c i r c u l a r

waiter,

a

coach-ring,

a

wheel, the top of a

saucer,

cup,

or g l a s s ; the horizontal section of a column, e t c . ,

e t c .

; which

will not only appear very unpleasing, but incorrect, when seen

perspectively in a picture from

any

point except the true point

of

sight

and d i s t a n c e .

Perhaps the

d i r e c t front

view of S t . Pe

t e r ' s a t Rome (of which there are engravings with the circular

colonnades,) i s one of the best specimens you can prove t h i s

by ;

f o r ,

on viewing t h i s picture obliquely, and a t a wrong

d i s

tance,

the

whole

scene

i s

d i s t o r t e d .

Ann. I

thank

you, brother; t h i s explanation leads t o the

solution of

an e f f e c t which has puzzled me ever

since

we were

l a s t a t the t h e a t r e .

You

know we

s a t

on one s i d e , near the s t a g e ,

and

the scenery and s i d e

wings

appeared

so

badly

arranged

t o

what

they

were before, when we s a t in that box

which i s

behind t h e pit ; then they a l l united s o surprisingly naturally,

that

I

wondered a t the ingenuity of the contrivance : t h i s was

owing t o

my

being

much

nearer

t o

the

p a i n t e r ' s

point

a t

one

time than a t the other ; was i t not ?

George.

Your

observation

has

been

very correct; and i t i s



PERSPECTIVE OP A THEATRE. 57

extremely

cheering t o

me

t o

find

myself s o

well

understood ; f o r

when you s a t in the

front

box, you were

on

an

exact l e v e l

with

the horizontal

l i n e

of the

s c e n e s ,

and a t t h e very

point

of distance

the a r t i s t drew them by, or shou ld have drawn

them

by, which

governs

the

perspective a s s o c i a t i o n s of

the s t a g e ,

s c e n e s ,

and

side wings.

Eliza.

I did not remark

what

Ann

did;

but I could not

discover that the stage was not level t i l l we s a t l a s t i n the s i d e

box. Why does i t slope downwards towards the front?

George.

The

stage

should be

made t o

have

a

due

i n c l i n a t i o n

towards

the

horizontal

l i n e ,

a s

the

s i d e

wings

have

t o

the point

of s i g h t , governed

by

the distance of an eye i n the centre of the

front box; where the deception

or stage

e f f e c t i s the g r e a t e s t ,

and the converging inclination the

l e a s t perceivable.

Suppose

a

theatre

to

be eighty f e e t

long from the front of the boxes

t o

the utmost

extent

o f the s t a g e , then allow

forty

f e e t f o r the p i t ,

and

there w i l l

remain

forty f o r

the stage; but

should i t

be re

quired to make the stage appear 100 f e e t long ( f i g . 102 a p r o f i l e ) ,

*, Real St* . 40 Feet- Appearing 100 Feet

draw

a l e v e l

l i n e 140

f e e t long

(by

a

s c a l e

suited t o the extent

of your paper); then make a mark a t forty

f e e t f o r

the

length

of the p i t , and a perpendicular mark a t forty

f e e t from

the front

of the s t a g e , which i s the real

length

of i t ; then s up po se an eye

in the

front

box

about

four

f e e t

above

the

l e v e l l i n e

f i r s t

made,

and draw a ray from the eye down t o the end of the 140 f e e t

line ;

and

where i t

c r o s s e s

the

perpendicular, which

you marked

to

represent the

r e a l

extent of the house, i s the point t o which

the back of the

stage

must be r a i s e d ,

and

i t will

correspond

with

the

proper horizontal l i n e , and produce the e f f e c t .

John.

Upon

my

word,

he mu st have been a clever fellow

who f i r s t contrived a l l these

things.





SKETCHING FROM NATURE. 59

to view the

scene

; especially i f those

two

extreme objects you

wish most

particularly

to

include,

are no

great

distance from

each

other.

Let

u s

return

to

f i g .

88,

page

34,

and

suppose

the

whole line

c a

to be the principal ray of sight : and

that

part of

d

b which

l i e s

between b

and

the right

angle, to be half

the

le ngt h o f your

tablet—then,

suppose your f i r s t station

to

be

at

« , you could sketch nothing to the l e f t

of

b (we take the dia

gram as a ground plan),

but

should d be a desirable object,

you c an include i t in the original space by moving back to c ;

but

I

must

not confine you

too closely to

rule in

this particular.

The

rule

i s

the

standard,

and

should

never

be lost

sight

of:

yet

there

are

beauties in

picturesque

nature which

perhaps

would

be lost

to

the portfolios of the

landscape

painter, if he

confined

hi s

labours

too strictly

to rule

:

genius

must

ever be

one

of

the

council, and necessity ha s no law.

Ann. Now, suppose I had made a l l those leading marks on

my

paper; how

am

I

to o btai n the oblique

lines

which so

gen

erally oc c ur in the perspective appearance o f bu ild i ngs?

George.

Take

care

to

keep

the top

edge

of

your

paper

strictly horizontal,

and move i t higher

or

lower,

t i l l you see the

lowest end of the inclined l i n e

you

would obtain in your draw

ing;

then sketch

a

line,

as

near

the top of your paper as

you

can, parallel to that line of the

building

which i s the subject of

your observation : this must, of course, be done carefully

over

the place in which i t i s

to

oc c ur in the drawing; and i t s length

i s

supposed

to have been previously marked on the top edge

of

your

drawing,

according

to the former

part of

this

instruction.

Avery

few of

such lines

as are the representatives of converging

l e v e l s

(such as top

and bottom extremities of

roofs, the

hori

zontal lines of

rows

of windows, and the base, or ground line of

level objects),

i f

truly

marked

in their proper

places

in

the

drawing, will converge to

the

horizon, and indeed,

by

their

meeting,

will find and fix the

station

of the horizontal line of

the

drawing ;

which, once

obtained, will

govern

the inclination

of

a l l other

levels. It may

be

a very

good experiment

to prac

tise

this

from large

pictures,

within

doors,

f i r s t ; for

you

have

all

the points

the same, if such pietures

are

truly drawn

from



60

SCALE OF

EXTENT.

nature. If the picture

you

would make t h i s experiment

from

be

four or f i v e

f e e t long, you must

be that distance from

such

p i c t u r e , and your paper must be held i t s

length

distant from

your

eye,

a s

i f

you

we re v i ewi ng

a

scene

i n

nature.

Fig.

103

OSijrcts com

(irehc

l i f t e d within

th e limits of th e aperture.

w i l l

shew

you

the

necessity

of

holding

or

setting

up

your

t a b l e t

a t one invariable distance, a s we find the transparent plane of

the tripod, in order

t o

make your leading marks available to

wards the general truth of your f i r s t sketch. Consider the

aperture a t o be your

sketch-book,

held

up

t o draw any

object

that might be on b , c

or

d , and i t would cover e i t h e r , exactly,

or in e f f e c t a s the eye a t the beginning of the l i n e would see

them; therefore

any

alteration of the distance of your tablet

f ro m yo ur eye would vary a l l the proportions previously marked.

I have placed the

surfaces

in t h i s diagram

about

t h r e e f e e t

apart

(instead of owe

f o o t ,

which, according t o our rule f o r perspective

views, a s

above

given, i s the proper distance, because the aper

ture i s one f o o t ) , t h i s i s done that each

surface

might be seen

by the student c l e a r of the other in t h i s example'. The eye,

not your eye, i s there

represented

a s

looking through

a , the

square

aperture

;

and

the

s u r f a c e ,

6 ,

shews

you

that

the

eye

can

s e e a space twice the length and breadth of the aperture, a t twice

i t s distance

;

and

three

times each way, a t three times the dis

tance ;

and four

times f o u r ,

a t

the fourth

distance

;

and s o on,

in

the same progressive proportion.

John. Then I think

I

can t e l l how large

a space

might

be

seen

through

the

one

foot

aperture,

a t

nine

times the

given

d i s

tance from the eye.

Ann

and

Eliza.

How

can

you

t e l l ?

John. Nine times nine i s eighty-one; i s i t not? then that

would be

a

surface

of eighty-one square f e e t .



AN ANGULAR VIEW. 61

George. You

s e e ,

s i s t e r s ,

that

boys do not

learn their mul

t i p l i c a t i o n

table f o r

nothing ;

you

have known i t

a s

perfectly a s

he

does,

but

practice

has

strengthened h i s

memory

i n t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r , and enabled him to apply h i s knowledge readily : i t

only required

your recollection

of the explanation of the

square

of

a number, t o

have

had

no doubt

of

John's making the answer

he h a s .

By t h i s diagram, i t i s proved

t h a t ,

a t the

distance

of

a mile,

a space of one mile, from right t o

l e f t ,

would be comprehended

by the

eye, within

t h i s one

foot

aperture when

held

up a t one

foot

distance

from

i t .

Do

not fancy

any

thing

more

deep

or

i n t r i c a t e than i t

r e a l l y

i s . By s u f f i c i e n t application you

w i l l

find

a l l become

c l e a r .

AN

ANGULAR

VIEW. iy \) J. O♦•

Ann. I NOWwant

t o

know how

t o draw the chess-board, i n

perspective,

when

viewed

with

one

corner

or

angle

of

i t

nearest

my eye, instead

of

the

side?

George. I hav e one drawn ( f i g . 104).—ow I beg you will

begin a t t e n t i v e l y ,

and

endeavour

t o

explain the manner

of

drawing i t .

Ann.

I

should

f i r s t

draw the

base

l i n e , then the horizontal

l i n e , and mark the point of s i g h t about the centre of the hori

zon ;

and

draw a perpendicular l i n e from i t to the b a s e , to mark

the

corner of the

board

nearest

me;

then

I

should

mark

the

point of distance on the horizon, equally on each s i d e the point

of s i g h t ;

then I s e e

you

di vi de the base

l i n e

into

sixteen equal

p a r t s ,

eight

on each

s i d e

the c e n t r e ,

and draw

l i n e s from each

to

the point of sight;

then

draw the two

oblique

l i n e s , from

the points

of

d i s t a n c e

t o

the

c e n t r e on t h e base

l i n e ; t h i s ,

I

per

ceive, forms the two nearest s i d e s , and the hithermost angle o f the

chess-board ; then I have

only

to draw l i n e s from a l l the

p o i n t s ,

where the

sixteen

equal divisions

c r o s s

the

two

oblique s i d e s , to

the opposite points of distance,

and

the outline i s done.

George. Those p o i n t s , which you c a l l e d the points of d i s t a n c e ,



02

AN

ANGULAR VIEW.

are

a l s o

vanishing

points

( a s

w i l l be explained on

f i g .

1

17,

page 89);

and

the distance

of

the

eye

from the picture w i l l

not

determine

s ' K

t h e i r

s i t u a t i o n ,

except

' ■

\

in

a

very

d i r e c t dia

gonal; in a l l o t h e r s ,

one

point w i l l be f u r

ther

from

the poi nt

of

s i g h t , and the other

nearer, according t o

the angle you view i t

under.

But

the

d i s

tance

may be

always

ascertained bydividing

equally the

space

be

tween

the

two vanish

ing points of a right

angled object in a truly

drawn p i c t u r e . When

you

begin

a

ground

plan,

preparatory to a

perspective

view,

ob

serve to ensure the s i z e

of

your

paper t o the

problem,

by f i r s t mak

ing a section

l i n e , then

open the compasses

from

i t

t o

the

base

l i n e of the paper, s t r i k e

a half

c i r c l e

downwards

from

the section

l i n e ,

an d whe re i t i s cut by

the

half

c i r c l e , the two

vanishing points are

given

t o

the f u l l

extent

a s

in

f i g .

117.





64 FORESHORTENING.

successful treatment of a foreshortened limb will only convey the

e f f e c t agreeably

and truly a t

one particular

point of

view, which

you now

s o

well

understand,

namely, the exact distance the

painter viewed i t from ; f o r in taking a greater distance

than

the

painter, i t will

look

too

long, and on

a nearer view, too

short

:

yet there i s a picture which, from the s k i l f u l management in the

foreshortening of a figure in i t , has obtained the t i t l e of Mi

raculous / and there i s a picture by one of the Dutch masters,

of a man presenting a gun directly t o one's eye, which excites

the idea of Beware . ' yet you

see only

the muzzle

of

the

gun.

There

i s

a l s o

a

very

pretty

Cupid,

by

Cosway,

drawing

an

arrow

to the head, pointing directly towards one,

entitled

Beware . '

The arrow

and

the barrel of the gun a r e , in the p a i n t e r ' s phrase,

foreshortened: genius and judgment must govern t h i s very

d i f f i c u l t point, because i t w i l l

sometimes be

not only unavoidable

but absolutely necessary to that v a r i e t y of character and expres

s i o n , which should naturally appear in groups, a s well of animals

a s in the human f i g u r e .

Ann.

Then

i f

I

lay

a

p r i n t ,

or

drawing,

f i a t

on

the

t a b l e ,

to

copy i t , I must view i t foreshortened, which would be an imper

f e c t representation

?

George. You are r i g h t , s i s t e r ; t h i s thoughtless or ignorant

habit,

with many who attempt t o

copy

a p r i n t ,

or

drawing, thus

l a i d

before

them, a r i s e s from copying by writing, where i t mat

t e r s

l i t t l e how

they

place

the o r i g i n a l , s o that they

c an b ut

read

i t : in the same manner they think they c an copy a

picture,

if

they

can but

obtain

a

glance,

s o

a s

t o

conceive

they

see

the

object before

them. I

say conceive

because, unless

i t i s placed,

a s

a l l

pictures should b e ,

according

t o the rules

already

explained,

students must

depend

on

a

thorough knowledge

of design, and

copy

rather what they know

t o

be in the picture, than what they

could

possibly see while viewed

in

an

i n d i r e c t

p o s i t i o n .

Now, John, t e l l me how long the 12-inch rule appears t o your

eye, a s you s e e i t endways t o you, where you s i t ? ( f i g . 106.)*

* Notwithstanding the clearness both of the

drawing and dialogue,

the student

should

make the experiment

practically—ay

a

r u l e

on a t a b l e ; and

study

the

subject

thoroughly.



FORESHORTENING

65

John.

I

think

i t

appears

twelve

inches

long.

George. And I will presently prove, that i t only appears

about

three inches

long

to

you. Come, s i t s t i l l , and shut

one

eye; now mark with the pen (carefully) the shape of the rule

on

this glass

which

I

hold up

;

—

here

you

see

i t

i s , as

I

told you,

about

three inches long.

John.

That

i s very surprising

why, I

drew the

whole length

of the rule, and you know i t i s twelve inches. Must i t be

so

short

as

I have

traced

i t

on

the

glass,

were

I

to

s i t

down

here

to paint a pi ctu re of

i t

without tracing

?

George. Most

assuredly

; because perspective requires you

to draw things as they appear ; and this tracing of the rule on

the transparent

plane

of

glass,

i s a

general

outline of i t s

appear

ance at the point you viewed i t .

Eliza. I t i s clear

to

menow, having this perspective draw

i ng of

the

12-inch rule on the glass,

that

there c an be no position

proper for me to set i t in for copying, but that wherein the

principal

visual

ray of my eye would be a perpendicular line

to

the point of sight of

this

surface, as Johns was when he

traced

i t .

John.

Why,

sister?

5



66 ANAMORPHOSIS.

Eliza. Because your perspective representation of the rule

has already reduced twelve inches to three ; and, were you to lay

i t on the t a b l e , where the rule i s , and

copy

truly what

would

then

r e a l l y

appear

t o

your eye, I suppose the

second

drawing

would only

be about

three-quarters of an

inch

long

Ann. This would be foreshortening foreshortened—am now

so

convinced o f the

absurdity

of looking

o b l i q u e l y on

a

picture

when copying i t , or on myown drawing, that I f e a r I should

shew

symptoms

of

r i d i c u l e , were

I to

see

any one

copying

a

drawing s e t

o b l i q u e l y

before them,

and

i t i s but

f a i r

to

begin

with

myself.

I

must

laugh

when

I r e c o l l e c t

how

improperly

I

have

placed

some

of

the

things

I

have attempted

to

copy.

John.

But,

s i s t e r s , how i s i t

then

that I have taken copies,

which you a l l have

praised,

from

drawings l a i d

f l a t on the

table?

George. Do not you r e c o l l e c t that

you

often took up the

o r i g i n a l ,

to have a d i r e c t view

of

i t ,

a s

you proceeded?

John. O yes I believe I d i d .

George.

I t

was

thus

that

you

learnt

what

you had

to

do;

f o r

had

you

never seen the original

in

any but the

oblique

view

you had of i t when l a i d f l a t on the

t a b l e ,

youwould never have

earned the praise you received.

John. Thank you, brother;

I now see

the necessity of

taking the same point t o

copy

a picture,

a s one ought to

take to

c r i t i c i s e i t .

Eliza. 'Twill

be

good fun to

s e e

persons twisting

and

turn

ing

pictures

about

in

a l l

d i r e c t i o n s ,

saying,

Now

I

have

i t

completely,

when the picture i s in such a position

a s

to repre

sent only an anamorphosis.

Ann.

And

to

see

the

connoisseurs

pulling one another to

various p o s i t i o n s , saying,

Do but come here,

I have i t

to

perfection

Ha ha ha

George.

This

i s the

mirth I promi sed you ;

i t i s the well-

earned joy

of

i n t e l l e c t refined

by rudimental information;

yet

we

must

not

s u f f e r

vanity

to grow up

with

our

knowledge,

but

patiently teach those who desire t o l e a r n , and s u f f e r the lazy

and will-governed ignorant to pass on in

their

e r r o r s .

John. Pray, brother, w i l l

you explain

the

meaning

of the

word

that Eliza

made

use

of just

now?





68

ON VANISHING

POINTS.

George. Only

those of

l e v e l p a r a l l e l s , such a s the chess-board,

the pavement, and the shelves ; but the converging poi nt o f the

v i s i b l e

u n l e v e l

p a r a l l e l s ,

which

are called

inclined

planes

(see

the

roof of f i g . 107, a s explained below), must f a l l above the horizon,

according

to

their obliquity : these

vanishing points

are called

accidental

p o i n t s .

Ann. Will

you shew us

an example or

two, to make us

un

derstand these distinctions?

George.

Figs.

107—10 will shew you such objects

a s

have

some of

their

s i d e s in such d i r e c t i o n s , a s to have

their

p a r a l l e l s

converging

t o

vanishing

p o i n t s ,

not

on

the

horizontal

l i n e .

The

roof

of

f i g . 107 i s

formed of

two

i n c l i n e d

planes, and the

vanishing

point of

the s i d e s a

and b

must

ascend

f a r

above

the

horizontal

l i n e , and would unite perpendicularly over the

point

of

s i g h t , which

i s the

vanishing

point of the l e v e l planes in this

perspective view ; and were there

f i f t y

(more

or

l e s s ) such

houses adjoining the example, and seen in the same direction

on

the receding l i n e , the v i s i b l e

s i d e s

of their roofs

( i f a l l

of

the

same

obliquity)

would

converge

t o

the

same

V.

P.

a s

the

two

l i n e s

a

and

b ;

because a l l

r e t i r i n g planes, that are parallel

t o one

another, converge

t o one and

t h e same

V.

P . ,

further explanation

of which will be given in the figures on Shadows : but I s h a l l (in

t h i s

stage of our study) produce the inclination of the s i d e s a

and b , without finding the

vanishing

p o i n t .

Ann. I s the method you now propose, better than the

one

you

allude

to?

George.

I find i t a s s c i e n t i f i c , and much e a s i e r t o beginners

;

and, producing the same e f f e c t , I consider i t , f o r the present,

preferable; f o r many of the methods already extant, appear to

be

more d i f f i c u l t , being

s c i e n t i f i c confirmations

of t r u t h , rather

than the readiest

means

of attaining i t : yet

you

should learn

them

a l l .

Eliza.

Come,

then,

shew

us how t o

draw

the roof of f i g . 107.

George.

Now

attend,

and

apply

t o

the

figure

a t

every

refer

ence, while I

teach

youhow t o draw i t : a s i t i s chiefly

t o

i l l u s t r a t e

the method of

finding

the points of

t h e

r o o f , I have not

made

any

s c a l e of dimensions. First ( a f t e r having drawn the parallelogram

a s a boundary

l i n e

t o

your

picture) draw the horizontal

l i n e ,



ON VANISHING

POINTS.

G9

,%JVP

and mark the

point of

sight

near the centre;

then draw the

l i n e

c

d

a

con

venient

length,

t o

form

a

figure

on,

l e v e l , and

near

the base

l i n e

of the pic

ture;

l e t

i t

be

s u f f i c i e n t l y t o

the

l e f t hand

of

the

point

of

s i g h t , t o

shew the inclination of the roof a t the

end d .—This end,

and

i t s opposite, and a l l such, are called

by builders

gable

ends )

—

ow r a i s e perpendiculars from

c

and d , of equal length, and a c on veni ent height above the

horizon; then draw the

l i n e

e , which forms the bottom of the

roof;

next

draw

the four

rays,

from

the

four

angles

of

the

figure you have drawn, to the point of sight; then draw the

l e v e l l i n e , which forms the farthermost s i d e of the figure from

g t o

/ ,

a t a convenient

distance

( a s no

particular depth from c d

i s

here

r e q u i s i t e ) ; from g and / r a i s e perpendiculars, t i l l they

touch the two top r a y s , and there draw the l e v e l l i n e , which

forms the opposite s i d e of the

bottom

of the roof: thus

you

have the

perspective

l i n e s of a c u b e , t o which we only require

a

r o o f .

Now

draw

l i n e s from

c to/, and from

d

t o g ,

an d whe re

they

cross i s the central perspective point of the figure ; draw a l e v e l

l i n e

a c r o s s t h i s point t i l l i t

touches

the

two

bottom

r a y s ,

which

go from

c

and d

t o

the point of sight ; from

each

end of which,

erect

perpendiculars, to a proper height,

f o r

your r o o f ; draw

then the inclined l i n e

b , t o any

angle you

please

;

then where

i t

c r o s s e s the central perpendicular, draw the ridge l e v e l , a s i :

t h i s

produces

the

termination

f o r

the

l i n e

a ,

and

i t s

opposites,

k and I—nd the figure i s done. The V. P. of k and / would

be

below the horizon, perpendicularly under the P.

S . ,

a s the

V. P. of a

and

b i s above i t .



70

PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE.

Eliza. What are those two dotted l i n e s which ascend from

the l i n e s a and b of the

roof ?

George.

Were

they to ascend t i l l they met, they would form

the

vanishing

point

of

the

v i s i b l e s i d e

of

the

r o o f ,

which

i s

an

i n c l i n e d plane, of which the l i n e s a and b are the two

edges:

t h i s

point always

f a l l s

on that perpendicular

l i n e

which would a r i s e

from that

original

vanishing

point on the

horizon, towards

which

the side of the figure converges;

but you

prove, by the

manner we have found the true inclination

of

the r o o f , that i t s

V. P. can be dispensed with.

Ann. This i s very s a t i s f a c t o r y , brother:

now

shew us how

to draw

f i g .

tt». / Oj

.

George.

You will produce the whole (below the

roof)

exactly

by the process

used

in drawing f i g . 107 (which you may take

a s

a general

rule f o r drawing

the perspective

view of

a cube,

when viewed in the

l i k e

position, and when

you

are not

confined

to any

particular s c a l e of

measurement):

now

divide the top

l i n e

of

the

hithermost

side

of

the

cube

in

h a l f ,

and

r a i s e

there

a

perpendicular, a s high

a s

you

intend

the roof

t o

be; from the

bottom

and

top of which, draw rays to the po int of sight; and

by

raising

another perpendicular, on the furthermost side of the

top

of the c u b e , a t c

(which divides i t

in h a l f ) , t i l l

i t touches

that ray which forms the

ridge

of the f i g u r e , you will

have

found the points where the inclined planes, which form the r o o f ,

terminate^

and their ascending

s i d e s will be p a r a l l e l .

Fig.

lw

shows

you

how

to

draw

a

cube

seen

on

one

angle

where the vanishing points are not the same length

from

the

point of s i g h t , a s the distance of the

eye from

the

picture ; and

t o

make the

point of

a r o o f , or s p i r e—

ind

the centre, according







FIGUKE 109

EXPLAINED

73

v p * . i i ; , : :

t o the

method

used i n f i g . 107,

and page 69,

l i n e 27, and

r a i s e a

perpen

dicular

the

height you r e

q u i r e ,

and

draw

l i n e s t o the top

from the

three

apparent

an

g l e s ,

and

the

1 0 B , s i d e s

of

the

s p i r e are i n c l i n e d p l a n e s .

John. I

think you

should

have shewn us these

things

before

you

taught

us to draw

cottages and roofed buildings, f o r

I begin

to think a l l I have

drawn

must

be

very much out of perspective.

George.

That

l i e s

a t the door of

yo u r e x amples

hitherto

;

a s

your

practice

has

been

rather

to

bring

you t o

the

right

method

of using a p e n c i l , and to learn to distinguish a perpendi cular

from a l e v e l , and a c i r c l e from an o v a l , or a right angle from an

acute or obtuse one, by the means of

sight and

practice; in order

t o

obtain

a correct eye and hand from the

study

of others;

but

now, a s

you

are improving, i t i s proper

you

should know the

cause

of the

e f f e c t you produce,

and form a c r i t i c a l judgment

of

whatever you

take

in hand.

Eliza.

What

are

we

t o

learn

from

f i g .

110?

George. As

these

f i g u r e s

are

on the subject of inclined

planes, and

the converging

or

vanishing points of t h e i r

p a r a l l e l

s i d e s ,

I

have

thought

i t

proper t o

give you one

example of

an

inclination of the plane, receding downwards,

directly before

you,

a s a down-hill e f f e c t , towards the arched entrances.

The vanishing point in the declining planes of t h i s f i g u r e , a s in

the roof o f f i g . 107, i s produced bythe

meeting

of the

l i n e s

of

i t s

two

s i d e s ;

and

consequently

a r i s e s

out

of the

process

in

draw

ing the

f i g u r e ,

which saves the trouble of searching f o r t h i s

point, a s a necessary means of

performing

the

work.

Eliza. And will i t be quite s u f f i c i e n t t o enable u s to draw

any inclined figure?





PERSPECTIVE

OP A CIRCLE.

75

describe the perspective l i n e s

of

the two c i r c l e s , by the process

laid down in your example.

Eliza. I

perceive

I

must

draw a

half c i r c l e under each

square,

and divide these

into

eight equal

p a r t s :

and then draw perpen

dicular l i n e s from each division t i l l they touch the l i n e A B,

and from

the point E.

I find

the same

divisions

are

repeated

across those

I

have drawn

t o

the

point

of sight; in

which

I am

governed by the

diagonal

ray

PDR

which I f i r s t drew from

the point of distance to find the depth of the whole square, pre

c i s e l y a s the horizontal l i n e s of the chess-board

were drawn.

Now

I

have

only

the

c i r c l e s

t o

draw,

which I

see

pass

through

those

angles which you

have

marked abed, &c. ; t h i s will

e a s i l y

direct me to the end of the operation

;

a s I understand I have

only

to repeat

the same on the other

square, which i s

marked

H.

George. I hope

your

suc cess i n t h i s will encourage

you ;

—

f o r i f

you

attend to the directions which must of course accom

pany such drawings, the vast

number

of l i n e s ,

which

a t a general

v i e w appear confusing, will l o s e that e f f e c t a s you

proceed

; and

the

principles will

be

unfolded

to

your

mind more forcibly

than

when you

have

a master

by

your side to

help

you over every

d i f f i c u l t y .

John.

But t h i s only teaches us to draw the perspective

of

c i r c l e s on a f l o o r or a table : how are we to describe the circular







78

PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. ■

just

remind you of our

general

r u l e , to

draw considerably

larger

than the

example

—nd l e t me a l s o impress upon you that (by

due application to

your

s c a l e ) the rule

you

will

receive for

drawing t h i s problem, will serve to guide you in taking a per

spective view of a l l such geometrical objects a s are perpendicular,

l e v e l , and p a r a l l e l ; a s s t r e e t s , squares, walks, roads, rooms, &c,

by applying their geometrical dimensions properly. For,

sup

pose

a l l

the

posts

were immense obelisks or towers, and

their

distances asunder bearing the same

proportion to

their

height

as

they

do

in the example, the drawing might

be

precisely what

i t

i s

;

they

would

however

in

such

case

most

probably

r i s e

f a r

above

the

horizontal

l i n e . And whenwe come

to f i g . 1 1

7

, and

youhave

made yourselves thoroughly acquainted with i t

(which will re

quire practical study ) , i t will only be necessary f o r

you

to draw

a

few

different s u b j e c t s , such a s come

properly

under the laws

ofour present problem, and the whole

of f i g .

117, and

you

will

find

yourselves able t o draw geometrical

objects

in any

similar

direc

t i o n .

Ann.

I

w i l l draw

i t

on

t h i s

half

sheet

of

f o o l s c a p .

I

shall

f i r s t draw the

s i z e

of the

picture, not

more than

two-thirds the

length of

the paper, that

I

mayhave room

t o

mark the

point of d i s

tance a t the proper place on the horizontal l i n e ;

then

divide the

he ight of

my

drawing into three, and

give

the one-third

from

the base l i n e f o r the height of the horizontal l i n e , which I shall

thus draw. This space I see you have divided into f i v e equal

parts :

I

understand each

division

i s to be considered a s one f o o t ,

which

forms

a

s c a l e f o r

the

measurement

of

the

r e s t

of

the

work.

Eliza. Why

do you determine the horizontal l i n e to be five

f e e t

high, brother?

George. Because t h i s prospect i s considered a s a l e v e l one,

viewed by

a

person

standing;

whose

eye would be nearly that

height

:

and f i v e f e e t being a whole number,

i s better

adapted a s

a

r u l e , than

f i v e

f e e t ,

s i x

inches, which

might be

rather nearer the

height

of the

eye

of

a

t a l l man.

Ann.

I

now

draw

the

horizontal

l i n e

t h e

whole

length

of

my

paper,

and

mark the p oi nt of

sight

on the centre o f the picture

;

then,

with

the

dividers

opened to the length

of t h e

p i c t u r e , placing

one foot on the

point

of

s i g h t ,

and touching the horizontal line

with

the other,

I find and

mark the

point of

d i s t a n c e ,

a s

P

D.



PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE.

7 )

John.

Why

do you

draw

the

horizontal line

so much longer

than the picture?

Ann.

That I

P

D

. . . . . . . . . .

. . .

- -'.iS f^-

^v^ifT^..

-

. . * - , . . . . .

[w~~ LL^r

. . ~ \ [ ]

L

^

J«»

~ - ~ ~ -~0\

r-

may

mark

the

point

of

distance

on

i t

:

have

you

forgotten

how

we

found

the

f i r s t squares of

the pavement?

(See

f i g .

100.)

George. Very good, indeed —roceed.

Ann. I

believe I must

next draw a perpendicular

l i n e

from

the point

of

sight to the

base

l i n e ,

and

then

mark s i x feet accord

ing to my

s c a l e

on each

side of the centre on the base l i n e , f o r

the width of the walk.

Eliza. Pray,

s i s t e r , how will

you

determine t h i s measure?

Ann. From

the height

of the horizon

;

which

i s determined to

be f i v e f e e t .

I

take

s i x

of those divisions ; i s that c o r r e c t , George ?

George.

Certainly.

Eliza. I f e e l I must hav e b ee n forgetful of what

you

explained

respecting

the l i t t l e

s c a l e

r u l e , in the case of

instruments ; but I

am

very glad I have inquired, a s i t helps t o

confirm

the know

ledge o f drawing

proportionately

to a r e a l o b j e c t .—x c u s e the

interruption.

Ann.

I s h a l l

now

decide

the width

of

the r e s t

of

the walk,

by drawing

l i n e s from the

point of sight

to the width marked

out on the base l i n e ; then, a s there are to be s i x p o s t s , there

w i l l of course

be

f i v e intermediate spaces of

four

yards each

(except the nine

inches f o r

the s i z e of

the p o s t ) ,

which

are

found

exactly a s we did the squares of the pavement

(fig.100);

and by

repeating t h i s f i v e times from the base, towards the horizon, I

s h a l l

produce

the

perspective

length of

twenty

yards,

with

the

addition only of

nine

inches beyond the

farthermost

p o s t .

John. And how will

you

draw the p o s t s ,

s i s t e r ?

Ann.

I

s h a l l f i r s t mark the space o f ni ne inches a t the base,

on the

outsides of

the walk, and

draw l i n e s

from those

marks



80 PRACTICAL PERSPECT1VE.

to t he p oi nt of

sight :

this

gives

me

the

width of

the

posts, their

depth inward

being

exactly the same as

the ir wi dt h.

The

ground plan of each post

I find

as

I

did that

of

the large

square

:

as you

may

see

by

the

l e f t

hand

post

at

the

base line

:

from

which I draw a l l the v i s i b l e perpendiculars,

or

angles of the

post. Their heights

are determined

by

drawing

the first

two

posts

which are on the

base

line,

three

feet in height (by

my

scale) ; and from

these I

rule

lines to

t he p oi nt of sight, which

will mark the pro p er he ight of the r e s t .

George.

Your

progress

delights me

Eliza.

As

this drawing has proceeded, i t has.

struck

me

that objects must invariably diminish in appearance, according

to thei r

distance from

the eye ; and yet

I

find, that

when

a row of

columns or posts, & c.

i s

drawn fronting

the eye,

with the bases

parallel t o the

base l i n e , they

appear in many

pictures

to

be

given a l l of

one

dimension,

whatever

may be their various

di s

tances

from the eye.—ill you

explain

this matter to u s?

George. Were you

to

trace a

direct

front view of a

portico,

or

row

of columns,

exactly

as

viewed

from

a fixed

short

point

of distance (see f i g . 114), you would find those nearest the

centre

would

mark

the

narrowest, and those to the ri ght

and

l e f t , although

farther from the

eye, would

(from

their

oblique

point of

view) mark broader

than

their diameters, i f viewed

through, and traced

on a glass directly

fronting the portico.

This has raised some objection t o a s t r i c t adherence t o the laws

of

perspective, when such an object of imitation

f a l l s under

so

great

an

angle ;

because,

notwithstanding

the

true

effect

would

be obtained

by following

the

real

situation

of

the outlines

of

the columns on the transparent plane, when

viewed

from a pin

hole

point

of distance,

such

as the sight hole in the eye-post

of

the

Tripod,

they

would

appear disproportionate when viewed

from any

other point;

therefore, to accommodate the

subject to

ou r

conceptions,

and

adapt

the picture to a l l points

of

v iew ,

experience and sound reasoning have determined us to draw the

perspective

views

of

such

subjects (when

viewed

in front)

at

the greatest possible point

of

distance consistent with a

good

effect; by

which

a l l apparent

distortion

and disproportion i s

avoided without deviating from

the

laws or perspec

tive.



ON DOUBTFUL

SUBJECTS.

81

£1

S

Ann.

I

had a question similar to E l i z a ' s

t o a s k ,

respecting our

view

of

l e v e l

l i n e s ; such

a s

the

p a r a l l e l joints

of

brick or

stone

walls, when viewed i n

front—u st they

be

drawn l e v e l

and

parallel?

George. Straight l i n e s , which are l e v e l and parallel with one

another, and with t h e

base

l i n e , w i l l

always

r e t a i n t h o s e properties

in

the respective representati ons in a picture, when taken a t

such

a proper

distance

a s that the whole subject may be

com

prehended within a convenient angle

and

distance in a

d i r e c t

front view; which, I believe, you a l l understand

t o be

when

t h e

6



82 SATISFACTORY

CONCLUSION.

principal

ray of

your eye forms a perpendicular

t o

the

picture

and

the surfaces of the objects of your examination.

Eliza. But, surely, i f I stood opposite a long wall, and

directed

my

eye

by

a

perpendicular

ray

to

i t s side,

I

could

not

turn my eye

right

or

l e f t

along the

joints

of

brick

work, without

seeming

to

see

the

consequent

diminution

of

their size regularly

converging to a

point,

as much

as

in any perspective view I

c an imagine?

George. Your qu e st i on gi v es me

an

opportunity of clearing

a point which has c onfu sed many

through

an

imperfect

con

struction, or

a deviation

from

an original

position.

The

pro

position you have put

does

not admit o f yo ur turning your eye either

right

or

l e f t ,

beyond the

limits prescribed by

t he t rans paren t

plane

o r p ic tu re through which either really or in imagination

you view i t ; w hi c h plane must be kept

or

considered

as

immoveable

as the objec t of you r study, throughout the whole process of su ch

drawing,

—

ecause a direct

view was

proposed ; that i s , as much

as

c an

be comprehended by the

eye

within the boundary line, or

picture

frame, when

placed

at

a

proper

distance

—

ay

40

or 50

de gree s of

a

circle

from

l e f t to

right,

of

which

your

eye

would

be the centre or

angular

point. Now,

suppose

that from this

centre

you

could form

one

cont in ued sheet

of

sight rays along

the

whole visible

length

of any one

joint of the b ri ck

wall,

you

would find this triangular sheet of rays to be a perfectly straight

surface (admitting the wall to be well built), and so i t would

be to every joint of the wall, which, being parallel, and so seen,

must

be

so

drawn.

Eliza. That which a minute ago seemed a very reasonable

question,

ha s now changed i t s character to that of absurdity.

Who, with a grai n of tho ught , would p ro po se lo oki ng to the

right or to the l e f t , for a demonstration of a question on a

direct view?

George.

And yet

some

who

have

imagined themselves

greatly your superiors in

this science,

have maintained the

f i r s t

idea

with

great

obstinacy.

Ann.

Upon

what g ro u nd s, b ro the r?

George. By departing from the accepted and general

practice

of

us ing a

straight section line as

the edge of the

transparent

plane,

and

inventing a

curved one.







TO

PRODUCE

OBJECTS PROPORTIONABLY. 85

life-guardsman

on

the

base l i n e appears

the

head t a l l e r than f i v e

f e e t , because

i t i s a l l

above the horizontal l i n e . The next figure

i s

e v i d e n t l y s h o r t e r ,

because

his

eyes

only

reach

the horizon,

and

the f l a g i s found

to

be

about

four f e e t deep

by

t h i s s c a l e .

The

third

must

be t a l l e r , a s his chin i s above the

horizon

;

and

the

horse's back r i s i n g just t o the horizon, assures us he i s f u l l

f i f

teen

hands high.

John.

Four inches make a hand's breadth, 1

think?

George. And the

exact

distances of a l l the

figures

from the

base

l i n e ,

and from each other, may

be

e a s i l y found bythe rule

given

i n

f i g .

113,

by

which

the

distances

of

the

posts

were

de

termined ; and

i t i s

proper f o r you t o observe, that the horizontal

l i n e i s

not

required to be any particular height on t h i s occasion ;

f o r in

the

example just

quoted, the

horizon

i s

much higher than

the posts

:

yet

their exact heights, s i z e , and various d i s t a n c e s ,

are a s well determined a s the figures i n f i g . 115,

our

present

study.

Eliza.

I

perceive t h a t , t o find the distances of the

o b j e c t s ,

the

horizontal

l i n e

must

be

lengthened,

and

the

point of

distance

marked properly : from which,

rays

should be

drawn across

the

points whereon

the

figures

appear

to stand,

t i l l

they

touch the

base l i n e : and the space between each mark thus produ ced on

the base l i n e

would,

with the

help

of a s c a l e ,

shew

us the

r e a l

distance between each f i g u r e , a s well a s their distance from the

base

l i n e .

John. And pray, s i s t e r , how

would

you measure that space,

so

a s t o t e l l how many f e e t they were

asunder?

Eliza. By

the

s c a l e

of

f i v e f e e t , which

i s

agreed t o be

the

height

of horizon

from the base l i n e ,

to be

sure

:

do

you not

r e

c o l l e c t how Ann determined

the

height

of

the posts i n f i g . 113?

George. I have

traced level l i n e s from the f e e t

of

each

figure

t o the converging s c a l e l i n e , f o r the purpose of ascertaining the

heights of any f i g u r e ,

in

any part of the picture, a t the same

d i s t a n c e .

For

example

:

Suppose

a

ladder,

placed

a s

f a r

back

in

the

scene

a s the

third l i n e

; a

man's height, on

the top of that

ladder, would be found by the

height

ofthe

third

perpendicular

on our

converging s c a l e : i t would answer the same purpose, i f

the figures

were required

t o be

represented above

or

below

the

l e v e l

surface they are on. This i s evinced

in

the s c a l e of birds









FIGURE 117 CONTINUED.

89

h

. ,

*

V

. . - ' j r

\—

— * *

. , . . - .

i \

~T~-A

'

. - ;

~r

^

i f - \

*

. . . -

* . .

. , , .

, . . ' . — - —

i * :

i

I \

. -

' . , . .

vp^£--''

HORIZON

I

i -

—

*

\ _

I V

r : - ^ ^ :

- - - ' ; ' .

...^^r^

.

i L

\

A

—

Base

l i n o .

.'..-h^z^z:

. s * ^ : :

\

117.

The s e c t i o n l i n e represents the s u r f a c e of the p i c t u r e—he l i n e marked

PVR i n

t h i s

ground plan i s

the p r i n c i p a l

v i s u a l

r a y ,

an d i s always

a t a r i g h t

angle

with the s u r f a c e o f the p i c t u r e .

example will do. Now draw

rays

from

the

other three

corners

of

the ground

plan to

the point marked

eye and number

them

1 ,

2 ,

3,4; then

divide the v i s i b l e

end

of the

plan 2 , 3 ,

a t

h ,

and

draw

a

ray to

the eye-point.

You have

now only

to find

the two vanishing p o i n t s , which i s always done bydrawing l i n e s ,

.



90 FIGURE 117 CONTINUED.

or r a y s , from the point or s t a t i o n of the e y e , parallel t o t h e two

v i s i b l e and hithermost s i d e s of t h e plan, t i l l

they

c r o s s or touch

the

section

l i n e ,

and

thus

such

vanishing

points

are

always

found.

This completes

the

preparation

o f the

plan

f o r

our perspective

elevation.

Ann.

Pray, brother, t e l l me why the vanishing poi nts are

thus determined?

George. Because they t a l l y with

their

r e t i r i n g guides,

the

v i s i b l e s i d e s of t h e f i g u r e ; and you have

a

rule already that de

termines a l l r e t i r i n g p a r a l l e l s t o converge in one point, and

i f

that

point

i s

l e v e l ,

i t

must

be

in

the

horizontal

l i n e .

Now

consider attentively what

the change

would be, were you to

direct

your eye

along

either

of t h e s e

two

l i n e s

which

are drawn

from the word e y e , p a r a l l e l t o the v i s i b l e s i d e s of the plan;

either

V.

P. in

the perspective drawing

would

then become

the point of s i g h t , and the

s i d e s

of the

building

would

s t i l l c on

verge t o the same : because such l i n e would thus become the

principal v i s u a l r a y , and eveiy l i n e

that i s geometrically

p a r a l l e l

t o

i t

must

converge

t o

the

point of

s i g h t . Now

suppose

one

of the v i s i b l e s i d e s of the bu ildi ng t o form a

part

of a s t r e e t ,

you know

t h a t , when looking

directly along

the centre

of

a

s t r e e t ,

the

s i d e s converge to

the centre

or

point opposite your

eye, exactly a s the posts ( f i g .

113);

and

admitting

the station

to be a s we have determined, i t would only require you to

change the position of the section l i n e

to

make the V. P .

ray

(that

i t

would

c r o s s a t right

angles)

the principal v i s u a l ray;

but then

the

distance

of the

eye

would

be

too small

from

t h i s

removed s e c t i o n

l i n e ,

which

by t h i s

time you would know how

t o remedy, namely, by taking a

greater d i s t a n c e .

Eliza. I should l i k e t o draw that perspective elevation, i f

John w i l l give

i t

up?

John. If you p l e a s e , s i s t e r .

Eliza. Where s h a l l I begin?

George. Draw a base l i n e , just clear above the plan we have

finished; then a horizontal

l i n e ,

f i v e f e e t (by

the

s c a l e ) above

the base; and ( f o r the sake

of

convenience) make the hither-

most

perpendicular r i s i n g

from the base l i n e , a

continuance of

the

principal visual

ray

of

the

plan below, and

number i t

2 at





92 PROCESS OF INKING IN PERSPECTIVE.

from the section of the ground plan t o the horizontal l i n e on

the

elevation (or p i c t u r e ) , according t o

the

methods given in

the

outline before you

;

and

their

various h e i g h t s , on

the

h i t h e r -

most perpendicular a n g l e , when i t touches the base l i n e , a s in the

present example ;

—

nd a s you

found the

height

of the

wall

to

be

twelve

f e e t , and the

height

of the

roof to

be four f e e t more,

a l l other measures

of heights

must

be bythese

determined.

But

when

the

hithermost

angle

of

a

building

does

not come t o the

base

l i n e , a perpendicular section

erected

on the b ase

l i n e must

be resorted

t o

f o r

the

perpendicular measures

;

which you will

see

i s

done

t o

find

the

perspective

height

of

the

c h a i r .

You may

turn forward t o

i t

( f i g . 119), that you

may

clearly

understand

me.

To avoid the

intricacy

of too many pencil

l i n e s

and

rays on

your drawing a t once, i t i s advisable to secure them ( i n pale

Indian Ink) by

degrees or c l a s s e s , descending from general to

p a r t i c u l a r , methodically: rubbing away

the

pencil l i n e s of

what you have

secured,

to

make clear

f o r

the

next

c l a s s .

The

f i r s t

c l a s s

should

comprehend

the general

outline

of

a l l

e x t e r i o r

angles;

thereby

securing those points whi ch mu st govern the

i n t e r i o r o n e s , which in du e order become the next c l a s s t o be

inked

i n .

The reason

f o r making

the outlines of your

object

with a pale t i n t

must

be obvious, since the v i s i b l e evidence

of

a l l

angles i s the

meeting

of

two

masses, the

one whole

mass

darker than

the

other, and not merely blacker a t

the

edge, as

too black an

outline would

make

i t .

This

can

instantly be

proved

by

observation

on

any

architectural

o b j e c t ,

and

i s

one

of the elegant accomplishments of a draftsman, because i t

imitates a natural

e f f e c t .

ACCIDENTAL

SURFACES AND POINTS.

Ann. The folding doors that divide the two parlours, some

times stand open promiscuously,

one

more

than

the other ; will

you teach us how t o draw

them properly ?

John.

All

the doors are open sometimes ; t h i s w i l l be a good

lesson f o r u s .





94

OPEN DOORS

EXPLAINED.

Eliza.

I s e e the ground

plan

must f i r s t be

completely

drawn,

and the s t a t i o n of the eye determined, for

from

thence, of course,

a l l the rays of

sight

must be drawn,

one

to

each

terminal point

of the

plan

: indeed the whole of the plain part of both

plan

and perspective view, i s c l e a r t o me by

f i g .

117;

but I

doubt

my

being able to proceed t o the additional matter.

Ann. Then, s i s t e r , do a s much a s you understand ; copy

the

plan

e n t i r e l y ,

and draw the plain walls and the

spaces

f o r

the

elevation

;

and then ink

them

i n , and I w i l l try my s k i l l

with

the doors and

c i r c l e s ,

i f you w i l l

permit

me .

George.

I

s h a l l

be

very

proud

of

my

p u p i l s ,

i f

you

complete

the work between you.

John. What are these half c i r c l e s f o r

?

and

why

are

they put

in perspective a s you drew the perspective of the o v a l , instead of

by the

method in which you have taught us t o draw

c i r c l e s

in

perspective?

( f i g .

111.)

George. The d i f f e r e n t

manner

of putting them

in

perspective

i s only

t o

show

you that e i t h e r mode produces

the e f f e c t .

I hope

your

s i s t e r

w i l l

answer

your

question

clearly

a s

she

proceeds.

Ann. I

observe by the ground

plan

that each

door converges

t o a

different

vanishing p o i n t .

These

I must mark on the hori

zontal

l i n e

of the

picture, according

t o the method

f o r

setting

off

the

principal vanishing points

;

which

i s

c l e a r l y provided for

in

the ground plan, because the l i n e s that are

drawn

p a r a l l e l

to

each door, a s a l s o t o the

s i d e s

of the

room on

the ground

plan, furnish the V.

P.

of each on the section

l i n e ,

where each

of

those

p a r a l l e l s

touch

or

c r o s s

i t

;

according

to

our

general

r u l e . *

The geometrical

semicircles

a t the base l i n e , must be drawn

a s guides

t o

the perspective ones in the picture-

Nowyou w i l l

s e e ,

John, that the

plan

shews

very

plainly that these semicircles are

supposed

t o be produced on the f l o o r by the track of the

outer

edges of the doors, a s they move on their centres (the hinges) ; so

i f I take the width of a

door

f o r a radius, and s e t

one foot

of

the

compasses

on

the point over which

the

centre

of

the hinges

i s ,

and

* Page 89, second l i n e from bottom.

fThe respective V.P.s of the

doors determine

the perspective

l i n e s

for the

t o p s , bottoms, and panels

of them

; and t h e i r apparent widths are found on

the

section

l i n e

; i t

i s ,

t h e r e f o r e , not a b s o l u t e l y necessary

t o

draw the circular track

of

the doors

i n

perspective,

although a proper rudiment i n

the a r t .



OPEN DOORS

EXPLAINED.

95

describe

a half c i r c l e ( a s on the plan),

I

may mark the proper

width

of the

door a t any

degree of opening.

John.

But

how

do

you

determine

the

right

s i z e

of

those

c i r c l e s

at the base l i n e ? they are

much

larger than those on the plan.

Ann. I draw l i n e s

from the V.

P .

of the

s i d e B, one

through

each point of the s i d e A, where the doors hang, t i l l they touch

the

base l i n e

;

and a s

the

space between

them

on

the base

l i n e

represents the

whole

opening

proportionately,

I

divide

t h i s

space

in

h a l f ,

according t o my

example,

and

take i t a s

a

width

of a door, or radius f o r the geometrical half c i r c l e s below the

base

l i n e

;

and

the quarter

of

a

c i r c l e

a t

the

beginning

of

the

side A, d i r e c t s us t o the perspective width of each door, by the

ordinates O, O,

fixing

the perspective extent from the s i d e A,

of the

c i r c l e s

on which the

outer

edges of the doors must move.

Now,

George, I must beg you

t o

explain

the

l i n e s and angles

that

are in and

about these

s e m i c i r c l e s .

George. You are t o observe, that the geometrical semicircles

on

the base l i n e are t o lead you t o a correct formation of the per

spective

ones

on

the

f l o o r

in

the

picture

;

we

therefore

thus

produce some few correct

points

( a s

ordinates) t o

guide

us

; you

did i t ( f i g .

112) f o r

the

o v a l s .

Ann.

Thank

you, brother ;

I

s e e that

I can

complete i t

now.

I must draw the straight

l i n e

that touches the lower extent of

the

s e m i c i r c l e s ,

then the

perpendiculars a t

the

centres and

out

side

points of each of

them, then

the diagonals from the

centres to

the right angles,

crossing the s e m i c i r c l e ,

and whe re

these cross

I

have

points

t o

draw

the other

l e v e l

l i n e

and

a l l

the

remaining

perpendiculars ; and where those

in

the two half c i r c l e s

touch

the

base l i n e

I

draw

l i n e s t o the

V. P.

of the side

B

; and

where the

two perpendiculars in

the quarter of the

c i r c l e touch

the base

line a t O, O, I draw l i n e s

to

the V.

P.

of A, obtaining a per

spective representation of the

oblong

square

which

the original

semicircles produced

; and by

the guidance of the points

which

correspond

with those on the original half c i r c l e I am enabled to

draw the perspective semicircles ; and from these I

draw

the per

pendicular l i n e s

that represent the outer

edges

of the doors,

and draw the bottoms and top extremes of the doors to their

proper

V. P . s , a s marked on the

horizontal l i n e

of the example.



96

^

/

/



97

THE CHAIR. (FIGURE 119).

This

i s

drawn

on

the

principle

of

Figure

1 1 7 ,

only

with

more

l i n e s

and

p o i n t s .

John. Now, brother, as we have learned to

set

the doors open,

we

shall

want some furniture

for

the

rooms.

George.

Achair,

well

understood,

will give you a u ni vers al

rule, i t being

an

irregular figure.

The

example ( f i g . 119), with

what youought to know of the principles of f i g . 1 17,

will

s u f f i c i

ently

e xp lai n t he process of drawing i t . Come, s i s t e r Ann, you

will

begin

this

drawing,

and

explain

what you

do .

Ann. I

think I must

f i r s t

draw the

ground

plan

according

to a scale properly calculated, to admit the whole drawing

within the compass of my

paper.

John.

And

what rule

will you calculate by?

Ann. As I perceive the station of the eye i s c ut o f f ' in this

drawing, I

must find i t by c ontinu ing

the

rays

tending

towards

i t

until

they

meet

in

that

point

which

will shew the

length

of

the

example

to

be about

eighteen

f e e t ,

and

the

width

four

teen feet ;

now as mypaper

i s much larger

than the

print,

I may

make myscale so that one foot

maybe

somewhat l e s s

than

one

eighteenth part of the length of my paper.

George.

I hope,

John,

you will remember this

very

essential

point,

of calculating the

extent

of the

space

you are drawing

on

;

and

make

i t

a general

rule

to do a s .

your s i s t e r

has done.

Ann. I shall f i r s t

draw

the section

line,

and the

principal

visual ray, and

then

determine

the

P. D.

:

then

begin

the

ground

plan of the chair

by

drawing the lines that form i t s front

and

back, marking their lengths

by

the

scale

; but as the back part

i s

not

so wide as the front, the

central line c c

must

be

made to

mark

the width at the back

part equal,

which

enables

me to

draw

the

two

sides, a and b ,

and completes

t he ge ome tri cal

outline

of the

s e a t .

Now

I

must

find

the place of the

back

f e e t ,

and the top r a i l of the back over them, beyond the back line of

the s e a t .

George. Which you may observe, you might as easi ly do

by measurement

from a real chair, as

from

the problem

before

vou.

.

7





THE CHAIR EXPLAINED. 99

repeat them on the s i d e b t o the proper V. P.s of s e a t and f e e t ;

next I

take the

space on

the section

l i n e from P. V.

R.

to

the

ray

that

goes

t o

the

back

corner

of

the

s e a t ,

s i d e

b ,

and

mark

i t

on

the

elevation from

the central perpendicular

t o

the right

on

the

retiring s e a t and f e e t l i n e s

: from the

points

thus

obtained

I draw

the

two

back l i n e s of the s e a t

and

f e e t e , e ,

(that

corre

spond with

the

front)

t o the

V.

P. of front

;

then

I

apply t o the

section l i n e f o r the width of the front of the s e a t ,

mark

i t from

the central

perpendicular,

and

draw

the

outside

angle of the l e f t

front l e g ,

from

d 3 ,

to d 1 ; then I repeat

the

l i n e s

of the 3

d

e ,

back

to

the

V.

P.

of

the

s i d e

a

f o r

the

l e f t

side

of

the

c h a i r .

To

obtain the

height

of the chair-back,

I continue

the

lower

l i n e e down t o the base l i n e , and there s e t u p a perpendicular

the measured height of the s i d e s of the back, when a l i n e t o

V. P. of front

determines

the

perspective

height.—he width I

gain by

2 ,

2 , on the section; then

I sketch

the

l i n e

of the top

and

the middle p a r t ,

t o complete

the skeleton

of

the

e l e

vation.

George.

When

you draw

the

two

r a i l s

under

the

s e a t

on

the

s i d e s

a and b ,

you

will find that they must not converge t o

either the

V. P.

of the

s e a t or

f e e t ,

but

t o an

intermediate point,

because

they

l i e

between a greater and l e s s e r angle. To

be

ex

tremely n i c e , their

V.

P.s should be

given.

Eliza. I think, brother, that

would

be clipping the wings of

genius too c l o s e ; f o r surely

i f many

will try

to draw

a whole

chair without any other rule than

their eyes, we may

venture t o

draw one intermediate l i n e

by the guidance of a s c i e n t i f i c

one

on each side of i t .

John. Oh, any body

that

can draw could e a s i l y f i n i s h the

chair

now, without

any

more perspective

r u l e s . I

never

thought

of the

learning whi c h was requisite t o

produce the

o r i g i n a l s from

which I

used

t o copy.

George. Now, John, you may furnish the rooms we have

drawn

to

your

own

t a s t e ,

a s

soon

a s

you

p l e a s e .

Ann. Only l e t me have

the

pleasure

of finishing the f i r s t

c h a i r ,

a s

I have

begun

i t .



100

THE DOUBLE CROSS.—

FIGURE 120.)

Eliza. This

lesson

f a l l s

to my

l o t .

John. I think i t i s

l i k e

f i g . 117.

George.

Not

entirely, John.

The

p lan o f the cross i s equi-angular

to

the

base line, and

the

point of

i ;

sight i s

to the right of the figure.

John.

I

did not perceive a l l

this

difference, at f i r s t sight

—

ome, be

gin, s i s t e r .

Eliza.

I f i r s t

draw the ground

plan to touch the base

line at

the

uppermost

angle; but I suppose

I am not confined to the very

same

distance from the P. S .

?

George.

Not

if you can gi ve

a

good

reason

for

deviating.

Eliza. I only think the per-

>.



THE DOUBLE CROSS. 101

s p e c t i v e r u l e s of t h i s problem would not require one

particular

s i t u a t i o n of

the

o b j e c t .

George.

You

are

so

f a r

right

;

but

you

must

bear

in

mind

the

rule you have

received

f o r viewing objects

under a

convenient

a n g l e , s o a s t o avoid the appearance of d i s t o r t i o n , and t o produce

the most

agreeable

view.

Suppose

you

do

take a

d i f f e r e n t

angle,—hich would you choose, a greater or a l e s s ?—hat i s ,

would you place

the

plan nearer,

or fu rther from the

point

of

sight ?

Eliza. I have not

considered t h a t ,

so I w i l l follow

the ex

ample,

i f

you p l e a s e .

As

soon a s I have made the two perpendiculars from the

right

and l e f t angles of the plan to touch the base l i n e , I draw the

horizontal l i n e , and

mark

the P. S . in the centre, between the

two

V.

P . s ; and

a s

these are equidistant from

the centre

P. S .

of

the

p i c t u r e ,

each V.

P.

represents the

distance

of the

eye

from

the

surface of

the

drawing ( s e e

f i g . 104).

Now I

continue the

three

points of

the

plan

that

touch

the base

l i n e ,

up

to

the

P.S.

:

then

I

carry

on

the

l i n e s

1 ,

2 , 3 ,

4 ,

5 ,

of

the

plan, up

t o

the base

l i n e , and from thence up to the l e f t V. P. ; the sixth l i n e i s done

from

the

uppermost

angle of the

plan. I perceive

i t i s

t h a t

hori

zontal l i n e

which

c r o s s e s the centre of the perspective plan, that

gives

me the points

from

which I draw the remaining perspective

l i n e s

of i t

to

the right hand V. P.—ow I s e t up the central post

on i t s

proper

central square

on

the

perspective plan, and

the

arms

of the c r o s s over

their respective

squares,

according

t o the example.

George.

You will

find that the

perpendicular which

i s

raised

on the base l i n e a t 2 , will enable you

to mark

the top and bot

tom l i n e s , 2,2, of

the cross

arms equal to their

width, by

taking

their absolute wi dt h f ro m the di agonal of the centre of the plan

with the

d i v i d e r s , and marking both

points a s high upon the

perpendicular

a s

in

the example, according t o the proportion of

your drawing.

/



102

A DIRECT

VIEW,

INTERIOR.

. *:SE0T1QN :

?LINB . ' / / - ' ;

/. '

i : - I ; ' / , . ' / . * ' *

. '

\

- v ' .

\

-(figure 121.)

JoAn. I wantto know,

brother,

whether I

might draw a d i r e c t view

of the drawing

room

by

any other means than

those we

used whenwe

drew the perspective

view

of the p o s t s , f i g .

113?

because

I l i k e

the

way you

taught us to

describe

the

angular

view

of the

room with

t h e open doors bygiving

an

absolute

groundplan,

a s

a l s o with the

chair,

f i g . 119, a s well a s the

angular

view

of the

house, f i g . 117.

George. I was

in

hopes that the several

instancesyou have men

tioned would be s u f f i

cient

assurance to

you

that

you not

only

might

but

must

draw

the

geometrical plan

when

youwant

the per-

spectiveof awhole room

according

t o the method

you have required.

Ann. What

must

we draw such a plan as

an

architect

does to ex

plain a

building?





104 THE PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A ROOM.

each s i d e , t o give the width of the ground plan, and, a t the

same

time,

that of the

elevation,

or view

to be

drawn.

Nowmeasure

the width o f the two doors and the remaining spaces on the

right

side

of

the

room,

and

mark

each

correctly

on your

ground

plan

according t o

your s c a l e , and

the same

on

the other

s i d e f o r

the win

dows, a s in your example ; s o a l s o you will proceed with projec

tions of the f i r e - p l a c e ,

which

w i l l s t r i c t l y correspond with the

ex

ample

;

wherein I

have

given you the fewest angles p o s s i b l e , that

you may

not

b e b urthened with a multiplicity of r a y s , while

learning the p r i n c i p l e s .

Ann. Thank you, brother; I think we

can

f i n i s h the r e s t

without

giving

you

the

trouble

of

drawing

a l l

the

r a y s ,

and

of

referring their marks from the section l i n e to the horizontal line

of

the perspective

view.

John.

But you must draw

the

horizontal l i n e

f i r s t

—hat

height must

i t

be?

George.

Draw

the horizontal l i n e on the elevation, f i v e f e e t

above the

base

l i n e ;

and

when

you

have

drawn rays from a l l

the v i s i b l e angles of the ground

plan to

the point of v iew, you

may

mark them

o f f

from

the section l i n e , on the

horizontal

l i n e ,

very correctly and expeditiously, byfolding the plan outward on

the section l i n e ; and carry t h i s edge

up

t o the horizontal l i n e ,

placing them correctly together, and touch the end

of

eac h ray

o f f

on

the horizontal l i n e a t once.

Eliza. But I f e a r

the c r e a s e , or f o l d ,

would hurt

the

surface of

the paper.

George.

That

i s

not

ofmuch consequence,

because

a r t i s t s

only

draw the

ground plan

a s a

means

or material

towards

their

o b j e c t ,

which

i s the perspective of the

room;

but,

to avoid

the

f o l d ,

take the straight edge of a s l i p of drawing paper, and lay i t to

the section l i n e , and mark a l l the rays on the edge of the paper,

which you

c an the n

carry

up

t o the

horizontal

l i n e and repeat a s

before proposed.

Ann. This i s a much more expeditious way of working than

doing

i t

with

the

d i v i d e r s ,

a

ray

a t

a time,

a s

we did

in

the

other

drawings.

George. But expedition t o o e a r l y , weakens both roots and

f r u i t . Now mark

the

heights

of the doors

and of

the

plinth on

the perpendicular

marginal

or section l i n e ,

and rule

towards





106

ON

THE

VANISHING

POINT.

the front s i d e s of the plinths are

parallel to

the base

l i n e of

the

p i c t u r e .

George. Yet

there

i s a certain c l a s s of great geniuses (whose

meritorious

beginnings

f i l l

them

with

great

commissions

before

they are s c i e n t i f i c a l l y qualified) who succeed just well enough

t o sustain their popularity, and

increase

the number of their

employers to their disadvantage as a r t i s t s . Gainsborough was

of t h i s c l a s s : his genius was g r e a t , and his works evince a f i n e

conception

of the

truly

picturesque,

chiefly i n his land

scapes; but

the

instance

before us

i s an

evidence

that

he

had

not

a

mathematical knowledge

of perspective;

or was unpar-

donably negligent, where one

should

suppose he would have

put

forth

a l l

his diligence

and

knowledge : and

had

he only

been

s o f a r attentive t o the

architectural part

of

the

picture, as

to have evinced any point of sight f o r the whole, I should have

t r i e d t o apologise f o r

the digression, by

allowing him to f i x the

point of sight out of the picture, with an

ingenious

intention

of

holding

the spectators

to one s i d e ,

that

His Majesty might ap

pear

to

have

room

to

pass

on

out of the

picture,

without

coming

into d i r e c t contact w ith them.

Ann. Yes,

that

indeed would have

been

a t l e a s t

aiming

a t

a grace,

beyond

the

rules

of a r t .

George. Few, very

few, succeed

in

the attempt,

s i s t e r , f o r I

believe science t o be s o extensive that no f l i g h t of

mere

genius

can

go

beyond

i t ; the f a c t i s

that the mathematical intricacy

which has enveloped the beautiful handmaid of truth (per

s p e c t i v e )

hitherto,

has obtained

her

but

t o o

few

sincere votaries

;

s t i l l , many have gained very distinguished fame f o r their works,

who

appear

t o

have

been

either

indifferent

t o , or

ignorant

o f ,

the integrity of perspective, and I know

not

what reasons they

could advance f o r

the

e r r o r .

Eliza. Are

we

quite certain that their digressions are

errors ? May we

not

admit that what we find contradictory

to

the

knowledge we have attained'might possibly be

proved

to

be

preferable

t o

i t ?

George. I admire the l i b e r a l i t y of your

query;

but i f a

whole subject

i s

t o be

described,

a s

one

eye

conveys i t

t o per

ception a l l

a t

o n c e ,

there

cannot possibly be two points of sight



OF ARCHITECTURAL

BACK

GROUNDS.

107

for what i s fully and entirely comprehended under one; and

as for allowing that point to

be

so

stationed

as to make all

the

visual rays f a l l obliquely on the

surface

of the picture, whatever

may

have

induced

the

practice, we

must

decide

that

i t i s

not

within the mathematical

bounds

of

perspective

as

a practical

art ; and i t has not appeared

quite certain to

me

that

any real

advantage

c an

arise through

a

departure from

i t s

established

laws.

John.

I really believe

that the print of the Duke

of

York

by

Jones,

after

the

original by

Sir JOSHUA

Eetnolds, i s liable

to

the same considerations

as Gainsborough's

King

George the

Third

;

for the

point of sight to the archi

tectural

part, must be far

to

the

l e f t

of

the

spectator,

when viewing the picture

perpendicularly (see f i g .

123).

George.

Your

remark

i s just; and such an in

stance

of deviation from

rule,

by

so eminent a

master,

c an

only

be

ac

counted

f o r , by

me,

ac

cording

to

what I have

already

explained, which,

I fear, i s not sound enough

to

legalise i t into a scientific

form

; because the very same sort

of deviation

i s

in the back ground

of Si r Joshua's

fine picture

of the Infant Academy, as you

have

remarked in the two

preceding

instances,

the licence for which

i s beyond

the bounds

of

mathematical

integrity.







110

EXAMPLES

ON REFLECTION.

examples before

you

are

very

unlike t o

each

other,

from

the

single

circumstance of

being

viewed

from various

heights.

John. I am very impatient t o hear the

explanation of

figure 128.

George. That i s contrary to a piece of advice I gave you

a t

the

commencement

of

our studies

;

but I am ready, i f

you

clearly understand figures 124

—

27.

George. Figure 128

i s a

p r o f i l e

intended

to shew

you

geometrically the

precise

situation

of

the

colours

of the sky,

when

reflected

on

smooth water. You are

to admit that the

curved l i n e

i s t o represent the sky,

apparently meeting

the water ;

i t i s

divided into

three

equal

portions of

colour

—

ellow,

green,

and blue, according t o the

example.

Agreeably

to

t h i s , the

figure on

the

opposite s i d e would s e e blue on

the water,

in the

space 1 ,

green in

space

2 , and

yellow from space 2 t o the bottom

of the curved l i n e of colours,

which

i s marked 3 , and t o the

f i g u r e ,

appears

( I presume) to be

the

horizon. Although

these

three

spaces

are s o unequal

to

us

when

viewing the p r o f i l e ,

they

must appear equal t o the eye of the observer. In the lower

part of the

figure I have shewn t h i s a s your v i ew

of the

scene.



EXAMPLES

ON

REFLECTION. Ill

The

Rule, That

the

ray

of

r e f l e c t i o n , and

the

ray of incidence,

always form

equal angles

from the

surface

reflected

on, has

been

found invariable.

Eliza. Will you please, brother, to favour us with some

further explanation of this rule ?

George. If

you will

pay

due attention to f i g . 129, you can

not f a i l

of

comprehending the

rule.

Imagine a l l the shaded part

129.

to be

the

ground

plan of a

wall or

side of a

room, against which

i s a looking-glass (A B), and a l l the

rest of

the space

i s consi

dered the floor of the room; the small circles are stations,

marked 1

a ,

2

a ,

and

1

e ,

2

e ,

where

you are

to

place yourselves

according to your i n i t i a l s , that

I may

explain this matter.

Ann. 1 a signifies my

f i r s t position,

so

I shall

go and stand

directly opposite the glass.

George. And pray what do you see in the glass?

Ann. Myself, , t o

be sure, brother.

George.

And

you

think,

I

presume,

that

the

reflection

of

your

person i s as

far

beyond or

within

the surface of the glass, as

your

distance

from it?

Ann. I t appears s o .

George. Now

consider,

the

glass

i s about one-eighth

part of

an inch i n thi cknes s, on which

i s

an opaque body of quicksilver,

through which nothing can

be

seen; and i f i t were not s o , the

glass hangs close to a solid wall : but this we need not endeavour to

penetrate,

as

I

see

you

are

already

convinced

that

the

subject

of

our inquiry i s

to

be found on the surface of the glass.

Eliza.

Pray,

brother, i s

i t the

inner

or outer surface

of

the

glass

that reflects t he o bje ct ?



112 REFLECTION CONTINUED.

George. Waiving

(in our

present

pursuit)

the

laws

of refrac

t i o n , you are to

understand that i t i s

the inner surface which,

forming

a

perfect polish

to

the

coat

of

quicksilver,

makes

that,

rather than the glass, perform the

office

of a mirror, the glass

only serving as a

proper

surface or varnish

to

the

metallic

body.

John.

Then i t i s in

the

glass we

see

ourselves? Pray i s

i t

proper to

say,

reflections in the water ?

George. No: reflection i s returned or conveyed to

the

eye

from the surface of the water; you must therefore say, reflections

on the water.

Eliza.

What

i s

Ann

standing

opposite

the

glass

for

?

George. In

order

to be

convinced how the ray of

reflection

and

that

of

incidence always form equal angles from the

surface

on which the object

i s reflected. You

must

observe, Ann, that

while

you are viewing yourself in the glass the ray of

incidence

and that of reflection are one and the same ray, passing f i r s t

from

your eye

to

the mirror,

and

back

again

to your eye by the

self-same ray : therefore, both are at equal angles, that of ninety

degrees

from

the

surface

of

the

glass.

Ann. Then this

corresponds

with the

central

or

principal

visual ray in perspective ?

George. Prec isely the same in this particular

instance.

Now,

Ann, take a station, so far

to

the

l e f t

as not to see your own

re

flection on the glass, as at 2 a ; and Eliza, take a similar opposite

station

as

at

1

e ;

now

direct your sight towards the glass,

and

you wi ll see each other's reflection on t he p oi nt A,

and

your rays

will

be at

equal

angles

from

the

plate

or

surface

of

the

glass.

—

Now, Eliza,

change

your station

to any

other

part of

the room,

so that you

can

s t i l l see Ann's reflection. Suppose

you

move

to

2 e ,

you will then

find the

point

of mutual reflection removed

on

to B ;

but

the

angles

of the visual

rays are

as

equal to

each

other as when you stood at equal distances from the glass, as you

may

prove with

the protractor.

Ann. I

clearly

perceive,

and

doubt not, when we have made

more

experiments, we shall find i t a general rule.

John. Now,

brother,

you have

certainly

explained the laws

of reflection on f l a t surfaces, but c an you shew us how to find

the glittering

points

of waves ?



REFLECTION

CONTINUED.

113

George. I

am prepared

here with a gentle uniform wave, for

the convenience of making the diagram as intelligible as possible ;

and

l e t

us

presume

that

every

wave

i s

a

segment

of

some

circle

;

which admitted, you have only to

study

the profile

( f i g .

130).

Eliza. I think I c an explain i t .

George. Please to proceed,

then,

s i s t e r .

Eliza.

The

level line i s to represent the medium of the

surface

when

perfectly

calm,

above

and

below

which

you

pro

duce the curved

lines

as the waves, and form complete

circles

ou t of the two extreme waves.

John.

I know

how to do the r e s t .

Ann. Come, shew us.

John.

In our

Fifteenth

Problem of

Practical

Geometry, we

learn

how to bisect an angle.

—

ut I interrupt you, Eliza;

go

on.

Eliza. Then you draw rays from the centre of the

circles

to

the eye of the figure, and also towards the luminary. These

rays form certain angles, which are bisected, and where the bi

section crosses the

wave,

i s the

glittering

point of each wave, as

supposed to be

seen by

the

figure

on the

bank.

Ann. And would that certainly be the glittering point to

nature ?

George. Yes, as a general rule; but there are exceptions

which,

to demonstrate exactly, would (as regards perspective)

give

us more trouble than benefit. You may

prove

the cer

tainty of my scheme by a very simple experiment with a

8



114 PERSPECTIVE OF SHADOWS.

shining cylinder, a lighted candle, and a square t a b l e .

John's

l i t t l e mug there will serve

f o r

the cylinder.

Draw a pencil l i n e correctly across i t s centre a t bottom, and

mark

each

end

of the

l i n e up

the s i d e s , a s a

guide t o place

i t

diametrically

even on a l i n e

which

you

must

make precisely

across

the middle of the

t a b l e ,

by

chalking

a

strong thread, and

snapping i t

to

leave a mark. Place the marks of the mug on

t h i s l i n e ,

and l e t some one

hold a candle

to one

corner of

the

table whilst you place your eye t o the other on the same s i d e ,

which must be

that

which

would

have one end of

the

chalk

l i n e

between

the

two

corners

thus occupied;

then

direct

your

eye to the mug or shining cylinder, and you will find the g l i t

tering point

exactly

over

the

l i n e

i t i s

placed

on;

then move

the mug

to

any part of the l i n e , making a greater or

a

l e s s

angle between

the

eye and

the

candle, and you w i l l s t i l l find

the glittering point directly over the

l i n e .

Ann. Oh, t h i s

i s

very

s a t i s f a c t o r y :

you s e e , E l i z a , i f rays

were drawn

from the

two corners of

the table

to meet

in

any

part

of

the

chalked

l i n e ,

they

must

form

equal

angles,

and

we

have

proved

that the

glittering

point

was always

on the

l i n e—

nothing can

be c l e a r e r .

Eliza. And, a s a confirmation, we

find

that t h i s central line

of chalk i s the bisecting l i n e of

a l l

the angles that the shining

part

of the mug

formed,

with the

two

corners of the t a b l e ,

as

we moved the centre

of

the mug along that

l i n e .

John. Would

not

t h i s give a rule f o r painting the shining

parts

of

columns?

George.

Yes.

THE

PERSPECTIVE OP SHADOWS

EXPLAINED.

John.

What

are the rules

f o r drawing shadows?

George.

The

rays that determine

the

forms of such shadows

a s are

produced

by the

obstruction of

c a n d l e , lamp,

or t o r c h - l i g h t ,

diverge in right l i n e s

from the luminary.

But

shadows

that

are produced by

the

interception

of

SUN RAYS are

treated

as

parallel.







TREATMENT

OF SUN

SHADOWS.

117

draw the furthest shadow line parallel to

E

G S,

and

you will

find

that the second or under ray r , by

passing

parallel

to

the

f i r s t

r

ray,

and

touching

the

fu rthermost corner of

the

top

of

the

panel, will terminate at the second

S,

and

complete

the work according to the presumed position of the sun, which

i s vertical in the direction of E G S, as perpendicular to E :

yet the

sun i t s e l f i s

not

absolutely vert ical to E, but

at i t s proper

distance to the l e f t hand,

and

at the height

to

which the ray r

would

ascend,

were i t continued in i t s present

direction

t i l l i t

reached

the

sun

;

and

because a l l

perpendiculars

that

could

drop

from

the

ray

r

would

f a l l

on

the base

line

E

G

S,

a l l

forming

right-angled triangles with the base

E

G S

and

the original

ray r ,

proportionate to each other,

we shall find our

work correct,

by

considering the sun perpendicular to E.

Ann. Why

must

the

end

of the

shadow

tend to the

point

of sight ?

, George. Because the top of the

panel

being level and par

a l l e l with the surface on which i t s shadow f a l l s , they must both

converge

to

one

V.

P.

(according

to

the

rule

you

have

already

received), which V. P. i s

here

the P. S .

John. Next comes

C, f i g .

131.

Shall I draw the post in per

spective, for you to explain the shadow ?

George. Follow the example, and then observe that the sun

i s

here

apparently

perpendicular to the P. S .

We have nothing to do with that part of the perpendicular

that f a l l s from

P.

S .

to

E,

in

t h i s

lesson.

Eliza. And

i s not

the sun

in

the example really perpen

dicular

to

the P. S . ,

brother

?

George. If

i t were, the sun woul4 appear to

be

directly

over

the spectator's head, or the station of view ; for the distance

between that and a

v i s i b l e

horizon would

be

too

small

to

make

any deviation

from such

conclusion

when we c onsi der the

immense

height of the

sun

;

and, besides, then there could be

no

shadow

to

the

post,

whereas

the

length

of

shadow

exhibited

by

the example, proves the

sun

to be but few degrees

above

the horizon.

John. Then what i s the u se of the perpendicular line from

the su n to the P. S . ?





CANDLe, TOUCH,

OB

LAMP SHADOWS.

119

L<

, ,

/ /

WVsv

.

//'

\

i h ' |

^

'

c

v ' r

1 f l l

'

y j i f - ' . .

George. Yes

—nd,

a s I

explained before, a t i t s

proper

distance. This, I think,

completes our

present remarks on

sun

shadows

of

single o b j e c t s , and

we

will next proceed t o

CANDLE

shadows, a s

in

A

BC, f i g .

132, which are represented a s

receiving

their light from

a

candle

a t L.

From t h i s candle

flame

l e t f a l l

a perpendicular t o F, which

i s

termed the foot of the luminary;

then

draw

rays

from the

point

L through

a l l

the

uppermost

angles of the

three

panels, continuing them f a r enough t o meet

the corresponding

rays

that are drawn

from

F, through a l l the

lower angles of the panels, a s a t m m, in each example ; then

l i n e s drawn from

m

t o

m,

form the

ends

of the shadows.

Ann.

How

did

you

determine

F

(the

foot

of

the

luminary)

t o

be exactly where you placed i t ?

George. In order to bring one

edge

of the shadow of A

p a r a l l e l with the horizon, a s F a m, the more conveniently

t o compare

the

difference between

i t

and

the

sun

shadow,

f i g .

131,

B; and F

being

thus

s e t t l e d ,

B and C become subject t o

i t .

Now,

I

believe, we may go on

t o f i g . 133.

Eliza.

This appears

to

be very

i n t r i c a t e .

George.

I t

w i l l

not

be found

d i f f i c u l t

i f

you

proceed

methodi

c a l l y , e s p e c i a l l y

i f

you have thoroughly understood a l l

that has

been previously explained.

The perspective

of the whole f i g u r e ,

which i s t o be completed before we give any consideration t o





PROCESS OF

DRAWING. 121

Then settle their proper lengths above and below t he ho ri zo n

by t r i p l e measures; f i r s t the line L W, from which draw the

rays retiring to their respective V. P.s, which will produce the

bottom

and

top

lines

of

the

wall,

and

height

of

shed L 7 ,

and

you

will

find

the poi nt

r for

the angular line of the

house

L r

on the

ground line;

from

r draw

the

retiring line r v s , and at

the L, which i s over r , draw the line L L, both toward the l e f t

hand

V. P. ; this gives

L S

i t s proper length.

Now find the he ight o f the hithermost angle of the shed

( a l l

below the horizon), and mark / ; from which draw the retiring

lines /

3 and

/

A

2

Z ,

then

take

the height, and draw the

per

pendiculars of the right-hand wall at El, draw the top R T

and the bottom I Z to their proper V. P. ; next draw the per

pendicular v L i t s proper length.

Now raise a perpendicular line over the l e f t V. P., and draw

the

front

slope of the roof

La L/on t i l l

t he p oi nt

c

i s

produced

on the perpendicular V. P. c ; then c wi ll be the V.

P.

of the

other

end of

the roof, and

of

the diagonally ascending sides of the

chimney,

as

well

as

a l l

other

ascending

lines

that

would

be

par

a l l e l to

the

surface of

the

roof;

such

as rows of

pantiles, and

the

ascending

sides

of slates

or t i l e s ,

and

the visible sides of

other

roofs similar

to the example.

In

like

manner find the V. P. of the shed,

by drawing

the

line

L

5,

from the top of the hithermost c orner of the s hed, o n,

t i l l

i t touches the perpendicular

over

the l e f t V.

P., which (as

in

the roof above)

will be

the

V. P.

of the o ther

end

of the roof

of

the

shed ;

now

draw

the

ridge

of

the hou se,

and

the

lower

edge of the roof, in the direction of the right-hand V. P., and

the top as well as the bottom end of the

right-hand

wall in the

same

direction, and

pencil the

arch

of the

door according

to the

example, and

the perspective

of

the whole may

be inked in,

e xcept the ridge.

John. Ay, that i s l e f t that the chimney may be drawn f i r s t .

George. Yes. Now to draw a chimney, we must f i r s t de

scribe

the

line

a b

from

a ,

towards

the

right-hand

V.

P.,

and on

this

l i n e , at

d and 8,

erect the two perpendicular

lines

of the

chimney, and

mark the

height

of the d

line

at g ; and from g

in

the retiring

direc ti on, to

the right

V. P., draw

the top line

S





PROCESS

OF DRAWING SHADOWS. 123

diculars form. The top of the sloping pole has the base of i t s

perpendicular a t

Z,

from which draw a horizontal l i n e t i l l i t

meets

that L

l i n e which

passes

down to y

from the top

end of

the pole,

which

would make

y

the terminal point of the

shadow

of the pole, were

i t

not f o r the interception of the s h e d , which,

in t h i s instance, stops the shadow a t B. But of t h i s l a t t e r point

we s h a l l

t r e a t in

i t s

p l a c e ,

a s the triangle Z y L t o

find y

i s the

object of

t h i s

proposition.

Eliza. I think I may begin t o draw

the shadow

l i n e s now;

but you must

direct

me.

George. You

s e e

that the

explanatory marks c o n s i s t of num

bers and l e t t e r s , and

i t i s

very reasonable to conclude, that

the

authors of such

drawings

begin with

1 ,

2 , 3 ,

or a , b , c , &c,

or

the

i n i t i a l of

the

proper

name of the

point,

a s

P.

S .

f o r

point of

s i g h t , &c. ;

and i f

the

work

i s

s o f u l l

a s

to

exhaust the

small

alphabet, recourse i s generally had t o c a p i t a l s . Will t h i s general

information enable you t o

proceed?

Eliza. I

will t r y :

here

i s the horizontal

l i n e 1 ,

2 , 3 ,

I

f i r s t

draw

that;

then

2 ,

4;

and

next

3 ,

5;

and

then

a

l i n e

from

4 to 5 .

George. Now ink

in

the

l i n e s

you have drawn, and

observe

they cut off a s

much

of the shed a s the

shadow

of the wall

would i f

i t

were

high

enough

;

but you

perceive that the shadow

of the top corner

of

the

wall reaches

no

further

up the

l i n e 4,

5 ,

than the point

6 , which

i s found by—

Eliza.

Drawing the

L

l i n e

t i l l

i t

touches

the

l i n e 4

5

a t

6 ,

draw

T

x ,

x

6 ,

and

T

7 ,

according

t o

the

example,

t h i s marks

the

shadow

on the top of the

w a l l .

George. And completes

the whole o u t l i n e

of

i t s

shadow;

which you may render more evident by washing, according t o

the finished example, a t i n t over the space that i s bounded by

1 2 4

6 7

T and E. Now proceed to draw

the

outline of

the

shadow

a t the

end

of the

shed.

Eliza.

This

begins a t

I , and

horizontally

on to m

the L

l i n e

f i n d s

the

point

m

;

now

I draw

from

o t o

n

horizontally,

—

i s

found by drawing the L l i n e ,

which

descends from the top of

that perpendicular of which o i s the bottom t i l l i t meets the

horizontal l i n e from o a t n ,

then

the l i n e from m to n i s the





THE

SHADOWS CONTINUED.

125

the

ground

draw horizontal

lines

to the l e f t ,

and

from every

point on the arc h draw L

l i n e s ,

and where each pair of lines

would meet, would be points through which the curve of the

shadow must be traced.

Eliza. Now the lines for the shade at the left-hand end of

the

house

may

be

easily

done:

f i r s t , the

three

horizontals

r t , v V, and * u,

and their correspondent diagonals from the

three angles of the roof

L

t , LV, and L u , uniting at t , V, and

u , form the

terminal points of

the

shadow,

and the line that

retires from u towards the right-band V. P., marks the shadow

of t he

furthermost

eaves

of

the

house.

John.

Now

you must draw the shadow

lines to

the chimney,

s i s t e r .

Eliza.

I shall

f i r s t draw the ray from a

by e

to the l e f t -

hand V. P. ; then the horizontal line from d to e ,

and

from e I

raise the perpendicular e f; then the line

df

will

be

the shadow

line of d g, therefore lines drawn parallel to df from those

angles

of

the chimney

that touch

the

roof, will give

the

proper

width

of

the

shadow

of

the

chimney.

Now

having

these

three

shadow lines

of the chimney in their

proper

directions, the

three L

l i n e s , g,

h ,

and i , will meet

them at the

proper points

to determine the length

and

shape of the shadow of the

chimney-top.

To draw the pole that leans against the corner of the wall,

and

i t s

shadow, I

must

f i r s t draw the ground fine

F 1 z

to the

bottom of the wall, and

in

the same direction, that i s , towards

the

left-hand

V.

P., and then

mark

the space

from

1

to

F

for

the foot of

the pole :

I then draw the

pole

(to u ching 1 1 )

i t s

proper length, this completes the pole. Now I proceed

to

the

shadow.

Let f a l l a

perpendicular

from the top

of

the

pole

to z , from which draw a level

line

to the l e f t , long enough to

receive the L line from the top of the pole down to

y,

which

would be the termi nal poi nt of the shadow of the pole, were

i t not for the interception of the shed roof, which receives the

shadow

at

B. To

find

B, I must draw the line D parallel

to

the L 6 ray;

and from

i t s lower

point,

on the shadow line

6 7, draw a line parallel to 5 6 , t i l l the point B i s found on

the

ray

L

y

;

now

I draw so much of the shade

of

the pole

as

f a l l s on the

roof

of the

shed

from B,

through

6 to the edge,



126 THE SHADOWS CONCLUDED.

which gives

G

;

then

the shadow on the ground from F toward

y

t i l l i t

touches

the

s i d e of

the

shed a t A, and

the

shadow from

A

to G,

f i n i s h e s .

Ann.

And will these

specimens

teach us how

t o

draw

the

shadows of

a l l

objects?

George.

They

comprehend

principles f o r a l l : and

i f you

will practise accordingly, you w i l l be convinced of their com

prehensiveness.

Should

you

require

more

examples,

the au

thors I hav e me nt io ne d abound in d e t a i l ; bu t I have learnt,

that endeavour, upon true p r i n c i p l e s , invigorates genius, whilst

an

example

f o r

every

circumstance

weakens

i t .

Yet

because

l i f e i s s o d e f i n i t e , and a r t without any apparent conclusion,

we must make the most judicious use of those discoveries

which

time

and

genius

have provided f o r u s ,

avoiding the

prodigal and vain conceit of i nv enti ng our own eminence.

For

although the kind

dispenses of

benefits may

hav e c on

ferred

on us

f a c u l t i e s

of the highest order, we

must

be

as

much beholden t o those who have gone

before

us f o r

any

permanent

height,

a s

the

upper

s t r a t a

of

a

building

are to

the

preceding

courses or foundation; and s o sensible are great

and

l i b e r a l geniuses of t h i s ,

that

they gratefully and justly acknow

ledge the grounds and b a s i n of whatev er emi n en c e they arrive

a t , t o have

been the

learning of

their predecessors

;

and,

gra

t i f i e d a s our Father was, when he discovered

the

ultimate

diagram

of colours ( s e e Letter XVI.),

he acknowledged

that

he

believed

he

s ho uld n ev er have

brought i t

to

i t s

high

t i t l e

had

not

the

b e a u t i f u l

antique

datum,

t h e

t h r e e

e q u i l a t e r a l

t i n -

a n g l e s , l a i d the foundation f o r him.

CONCLUDING DIALOGUE.

Ann. Permit

me,

brother, t o

c a l l your

attention

once

more

to

the evident variations of the

s i z e

of separate

o b j e c t s , accord

ing to

their distances from the eye ;

which

inclines

me to think

that

a

s i n g l e

figure

would

be

affected by

the

rule

you

have

given v i s , i f one part of

i t

were t o be much nearer my eye than

another;

please to help me

c l e a r l y through t h i s

i d e a .

George. Inconsiderate

a r t i s t s , before they have

learned

the



IMPORTANCE OF

PERSPECTIVE.

127

great importance and usefulness of perspective, f a l l into great

errors f o r want of the

thought

you

have given

the subject,

and

t h i s

most

frequently

in

portrait

painting.

Although

many

take a real measure of the

f a c e and f e a t u r e s , which may an

swer a

good

purpose

when

a head only i s

to

be painted, yet

in half

lengths,

or

more, where some

variety of

attitude

should

be an

object of

equal

importance with the

resemblance,

the

perspective

or

apparent

s i z e

of each

p a r t , must

supersede the

absolute measurement.

Attend to

the

position

of the

lady,

f i g . 134, s i t t i n g opposite the eye

which

i s represented a s view-

134.

ing he r through

the aperture

of

the

frame

F

F, which

i s

to

contain the picture when

f i n i s h e d . Suppose

the surface t o be

glass instead of

canvass,

and that a

r e a l figure s a t

behind i t ,

as

the drawing represents,—he rays from the eye to her head

must

pass

through

the

g l a s s

a t a

and

s ,

which would give

the

proper

s i z e

the

head

should

be

drawn.

The

same

rule

will

de

termine

the

s i z e

the hands should be

in

the

p i c t u r e .

Elisa.

But the right hand i s s o near the sectional plane or

supposed g l a s s , and

the

l e f t

a t equal distance

with

the

head,

that there must

be

considerable difference

in their

s i z e , when

painted by

the

rule you have given.

John. And would

not

that make the right-hand look too

large f o r the head and the left-hand?

George.

This

question

passes

a s a

reasonable

one,

with older

a r t i s t s than you, John. Perhaps you have

not

observed that

the

man on horseback, including both ( f i g .

115),

are

not higher

than the

elbow

of the military figure in front; and

in

the

chess



128 IMPORTANCE

OF PERSPECTIVE.

board

( f i g .

101), the

furthermost row

of

squares i s

not

one-third

the width of the

front row. You must look back to our

con

versations

on the subject of fore-shortening and proper point of

distance, which, with the other

explanations I have given

you,

will make you the best answer possible: you should a l l ob

serve, that one perfection in a

picture

demands the society

of

others. The truth

of

perspective

alone

would not establish the

excellence of the picture—i t i s of so eminent a c l a s s , that a l l the

perfections of art must unite

therewith

to evince i t s import

ance, and confirm their own.—hat would a scientific

general

be

without

an

i n t e l l i g e n t ,

as

well

as

a

brave

staff?

and

what

either, without as brave an army,

a l l

subordinate

members

of

one

body?

Ann. Then we are to consider

perspective as the

gene

ralissimo

of painting, I presume?

George.

Whether

our comparisons

be

strictly parallel or

not, t h i s I may repeat, THAT EVERY MOTION OF THE pencil

must be liable TO

error,

unless

directed by

the eye ; and

the

art

of

perspective

i s

absolutely

necessary

to

convey

to

a

fiat

surface

a

true

description

of

what

i s

seen on t he v ar ie gat ed

surface

of

nature.

Faulty perspective

in

pictures,

bears an

exact

comparison with faulty grammar in language;

and

a s t r i c t

grammarian may

prove

the

insufficiency

of mere

grammar, by

writing grammatical nonsense,

as a correct perspective

may

be

found in a very nonsensical picture; but the fault would not

be

owing to

the perspective

truth

; therefore,

as

the ingenious

and

learned

Du

Fresnoy,

in

hi s

Verse

on

Perspective

could

never intend to e x c u s e a

painter for

hi s

ignorance

of as

abso

lute an

essential

throughout every

part

of a

picture

as cor

rect grammar i s throughout

every

part of language, I would

seriously advise

those who have advanced in the practice

of

painting,

under

the flattering

and

deceiving impulse of intui

t i v e i n f a l l i b i l i t y , to relinquish the delusion; and learn, from

the

knowledge

of perspective, and her attendant elements,

how

TO BEGIN,

PROCEED,

AND

FINISH

A PICTURE.

END

OF INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE.











^

\

- . . 5

x

\

LETTERS

ON

DRAWING

AND PAINTING.

f i l l

283

LETTER I .

epistolary instruction proposed.

Madam,

When

I proposed a s s i s t i n g you

by

l i t e r a r y

correspond

ence

in

the

Art

of

Drawing

and

Painting,

with

the

best instruc

tion I could possibly convey, I

di d not

expect you would have

been so very d i f f i d e n t , a s to make your f i r s t question s o general and

comprehensive. Your humility

in

professing to know

nothing,

not

even

what t o ask, and your desire

t o know a l l I

can

teach you, have involved me in an undertaking in which my

success can only be comparative. The pleasure

to

be

derived

from the practice of t h i s most rational and delightful

a r t , must

be

proportionate

to

the refi ne men t of

that

t a s t e

and

judgment

which i s founded,

or

a t l e a s t

matured,

by a

knowledge

of what

i s good. To possess s o

great

an enjoyment,

i s

well worthy the

most earnest and arduous application,—

a

work of

merit

must

always

be

a d i f f i c u l t work ;

but

i t i s that s o r t of d i f f i c u l t y

which

i s a s opposite to

t r o u b l e ,

a s pleasure i s

to

pain.

The d i f f i c u l t y

of the work in which I have volunteered my a s s i s t a n c e , i s

greatly increased by your demand f o r all I can t e l l you,

because

i t

comprehends

a

d e s i r e t o

be

informed

of

a l l

that

i s

necessary t o

be

known

on t h e

s u b j e c t

. - to qualify

t h i s ,

w i l l only

require

du e candour

on

both

s i d e s . What

I cannot

teach

you

from my

own acquired

s t o c k ,

s h a l l

be given

by r e f e r e n c e s , on

9







132 AIDS ENUMERATED.

prehends the produ cti on of every variety o f f orm, may very

fairly be termed the

a r t i s t ' s

mechanical alphabet), you are in

capable of drawing or proving the truth of the parallelogram or

oval, which i s

generally

the

boundary

l i n e of a

picture

; and as

for perspective, I have

t he hi ghe st authority,

as well as my

own positive

conviction,

to

assure you,

that the grammatical

rules of

language are not

more

essential to

writing and speaking

correctly, than the rules of perspective are to painting : f o r , as

the elegant

language

from the tongue of

a

scholar conveys clear

and simple ideas

to

the mind of the

uneducated, by

the natural

power

of

the

ear,

yet,

while

he

hears,

understands,

and

wonders,

he cannot

repeat

what he has

heard, for want

of a

rudimental

acquaintance with the mechanism of the language which con

veyed i t ;

so

the various objects of nature and art are conveyed

to the mind,

through

the organ

of

sight,

but cannot

be scienti

fically described, without

the

mechanism of

perspective, without

which,

you are

liable

to make as many errors as touches: as

much so (although not always so perceivable) when the subject

of

study

i s

an

animal,

or a

group

of

flowers,

as

when

i t i s

from

geometrical forms.

Next, how c an you sketch

any

design, where architecture i s

required, unless you know

i t s

general characters at

least?

And

if your subject should be landscape, sketch you may, but i t

will

be impossible to

finish

without a thorough

acquaintance with

the detail of natural scenery, by study of i t s characters. Now,

Madam, we come

to the actors, or animated part of the picture,

which

(do not

think

me

severe)

must

a l l

be

crippled

and

di s

proportionate, by

the

best aid

of

mere

genius, unassisted by

practical knowledge of proportion

and

anatomy ; and without

that

expression

and

character, which can only

be

acquired

by

studying

the

physiognomy

of the

passions,

nothing

worth

the

labour can

be expected.

Costume, well

attended

t o ,

strengthens

the

great

end

of historic painting,

and i s

indispensable. These

a l l will require the embodying powers of LIGHT, SHADe,

and

reflection

;

and

the

art of mixing paints

consonant

with

the

arbitrary

power of light, will

demand

a knowledge of optics

and the science of COLOURS, to determinate into pictures.

Now, to

prevent

delay in s pe aki ng o f the merits of these pro



PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE INDISPENSABLE. 133

posed

a u x i l i a r i e s ,

or elementary help-mates,

l e t

us suppose you

to

obtain a tracing from

some

masterly picture,

whereby

you

would

become

possessed of

a

perfect

outline:

then

l e t

us

s e t

aside

the

o r i g i n a l p i c t u r e , and see what you will

make

of

the

outline thus obtained, proceeding entirely on your own s k i l l ,

in the department

of l i g h t , shade,

r e f l e c t i o n ,

and

colour; even

aided

by a recollection of

what

you saw of t h i s

in

the

original

:

and from a l l I have ever seen of the genu ine produ cti ons of

unelementary

amateurs,

I should expect

the picture

when

f i n i s h e d , notwithstanding

i t s f i n e correct o u t l i n e , t o be, in

a l l

other

r e s p e c t s ,

one

e n t i r e

mass

of

e r r o r s

I t

may

(by

a s u p e r f i c i a l

glance a t

the

subject) appear to

be a

want

of t a s t e

in

me, when I assure you that an inexperienced

a r t i s f s reliance on

what i s t o be acquired by frequenting exhi

bitions of painting and sculpture, can only be reckoned on a

p a r a l l e l with the knowledge that i s to

be obtained

by

thus

viewing other

pieces

of

elegant workmanship, while unac

quainted with the mechanical means by which such works were

produced.

The

a r t of making a

good picture

depends

on

a mechanical

knowledge of the formation or

( s h a l l I

say)

anatomy of a l l

the

objects in such

picture;

and of an

experimental

process f o r

the whole operation:

—

herefore, the

f i r s t

necessary knowledge

of a student must be how to perform the work, leaving the

choice of what i s t o be performed t o a judicious and s k i l f u l

director;

should natural

genius

not

supply that

desideratum.

Any

lady

or

gentleman

of

good t a s t e

and

judgment

might

decide on the

most elegant carriage

in

Long-acre, or

the

most

elegant piece of furniture or apparel, by inspecting

the

numer

ous marts

f o r

such

commodities—s a l s o the most interesting

and (perhaps) meritorious picture in an exhibition; but t h i s

s o r t of

accomplishment in them would not advance

them

one

step in

the

manufacturing

part

of

the

a r t or t r a d e , by which

such object of their choice was produced. The only advantage,

therefore, to be gained

by

viewing finished

works, i s

(according

to

their

goodness), to improve

your t a s t e

and

choice,

which,

a s

f a r a s that may be accomplished with purity, may be a very

necessary

part of a

student's general

attention,

a s teaching

what





ADVANTAGES OF INQUIRY. 135

clue

w i l l never

tighten

t i l l

you

wander

into

the wild regions of

absurdity.

Were you t o

content

yourself with copying only, which, i n

a

moral point of

view,

i s blameless;

and must

certainly be

con

sidered a s an amiable and elegant, a s well a s rational occupation,

when chosen

a s a

means o f i nno cent

amusement, or honest

livelihood, in

humble preference

t o any

other

trade or c a l l i n g ;

a correct

eye,

and practical command of hand i n the use of the

materials,

would

be almost a l l

that

a copyist could

require;

because

forms,

characters,

l i g h t s , shades, and

c o l o u r s , would be

a l l

before

him,

demanding

only

attentive

imitation.

And

I

am

not

backward t o allow, that a

very

correct copyist must be con

sidered a s

a

genius

of

a

certain c l a s s , and, by s u f f i c i e n t applica

t i o n ,

may

seem to ascend a s t e p higher on the s c a l e of merit.

For

i f such an a r t i s t has a

good memory, and some t a s t e ,

he

w i l l draw or

paint

what he b e l i e v e s to be o r i g i n a l ;

taking

a new

subject,

and treating

i t according t o

what he

has copied from,

or observed in others:—obtaining thus a s o r t of relationship

with

the

great

names

of

those

whose

works

had

furnished

him

with

a l l the

science and t a s t e that such productions

generally

p o s s e s s :

a s we

find in many catalogues

of

s a l e s—School

of

Rubens,

e t c . e t c ) .—t

i s surely

to such a r t i s t s

the

proverbial

conclusion i s

applicable,

that

t h o s e

who

follow must go

behind;

taking example upon

t r u s t , and rather

shunning

than seeking

the reasons

and causes of

e f f e c t s . Or, i f by

misconstruction

they are alarmed a t the above predicament of

t h o s e

who

follow,

they

blunder

on

in

t h e i r

own uncultivated

c o n c e i t s ,

a s

i f

hasten

ing

to the summit of perfection, dreading alike precept, system,

and

example;

and fondly hope, that by the

vehemence

of an

e f f o r t ,

the

palm

of originality and of

fame

must certainly

be

secured.

Too

many

young

masters

are content

with

t h i s

degree

of

originality

; but

i t

can

only obtain that s o r t

of rank

a s a r t i s t s

that

musical

geniuses

acquire by ear; who, f o r want

of s c i e n t i f i c

knowledge,

must

ever

remain

ignorant of the

a r t f o r which

nature

particularly

qualified

them.

You w i l l

plainly

perceive the course I think you should

adopt, that o f s tu dyi ng to qualify

your

mind with c l e a r and

decisive reasons f o r your

proceedings;

observing always, that

s



136 ADVANTAGES OF INQUIRY.

although

bad examples may be blamed a s the cause of

your

e r r o r s , they are never to b e admi tt ed a s valid excuses : and you

w i l l make but slow advances

in

what i s r e q u i s i t e

to

be known

by those

who

are ambi ti ou s of improving

the f i n e

a r t s , while

you

s i t

down contented with an example s e t before you (how

ever

highly esteemed),

without

investigating

the

primitive

c a u s e s , which must

have directed the

mind

and hand

of i t s

author. For

r a r e l y , very rarely

indeed, has i t

happened,

that

genius

has

been

so

great a s

to

arrive

a t

eminence,

without

s c i e n t i f i c

aid;

or become able

to

perform a work, according

with

r u l e s ,

without

an

acquired

knowledge

of

them.

Sir

Joshua

Reynolds has

s a i d ,

that rules are

not

the f e t t e r s of

genius, but fetters only to those who have no genius: admit

t i n g , therefore, that there have been such geniuses a s f i r s t

bisected

the

angle,

found

the

centre and two diameters of

an e l l i p s i s , and discov ered the trammel, e t c . e t c . ; yet i t i s

s t i l l uncertain

whether

t h e s e , and

such

l i k e s t e p s

in science,

were the g i f t s of accident

to i n t u i t i v e

genius, or the regular

f r u i t s

of

s c i e n t i f i c

application.

Be

t h i s

a s

i t

may,

we

are

now,

by

various means,

in

possession

of such

perfect rules f o r

most

of

the

mechanical

parts

of

the

f i n e a r t s ,

that instead

of

a

genius,

he mu st be a blockhead, who will not try to

avail

himself of

them. I

hope

you

w i l l , therefore,

agree

with the conclusion

whi ch mu st follow,

that

s c i e n t i f i c

rules

are

the

only

sure

and

easy, though

deliberate conductors

of true

genius to

the

TEMPLE

OF FAME.

LETTER I I .

materials

and position.

Madam,

It

gives

me

great s a t i s f a c t i o n

to

find that you are r e

solved to follow the s t r i c t e s t d i s c i p l i n e of

rudimental inquiry,

a s by

such

means alone

can

your genius receive a f a i r t r i a l .

Let

perseverance

be your motto, and you s h a l l have success f o r

your

c r e s t .

Having required

the

whole

of the

system, you w i l l of course







ATTEND

STRICTLY TO THIS PAGE. 139

which, i f you have not ingenuity enough to contrive, and that

in

a

c o mp le t ely c o nv e ni e nt manner, you may assure

yourself

that

you

have

not

yet

equalled

Archimedes as

a

contriver.

Indeed,

i t

i s a l l

contrived

to your

hands

in a

frame

called an

easel, to

be

had

at

any of

the

colour-shops (see

f i g . 140).

But the contrivance

I

alluded to was, that the desk might

be

very conveniently

raised

to a p ro pe r he ight by a b o x , or the

like, when you have no e a s e l . There cannot be a greater proof

of unfitness for the fine a r t s , than aspiring to the

end,

without

due

attention

to

the means ; I

therefore

seriously advise you

never

to

begin

t i l l

you are

well provided,

and

prepared

with

SUITABLE

MATERIALS

IN ALL

RESPECTS.

Here observe,

that a d ull- e dg ed knife will

waste

both time

and

pencil,

and

i s

a certain proof of great laziness, or

some equally improper

di s

position for the pursuit of excellence. If you pay due attention

to

prehminaries, you

will

study

with much

greater chance of

improvement, than

by

any irregular mode ;

and

by practice

you

will almost forget

that any system ha s

been

required.

The

proper

manual

of the

art

will become

natural

to

you

;

and

you

will f e e l the

benefit

of that l i b e r t y , which some shallow

thinkers

imagine should be granted from the f i r s t : but, perhaps,

I

c an

convince

you of their

mistake

by

the

following

observation :—

Suppose two natural geniuses o f e qu al capacities were to com

mence

the study

of instrumental

music at the

same time;

one

having

the

best theoretic

explanation

of

the science

that could

be written,

and

I would also

grant

full

and

clear

methods for

the application of the music to t he i n st ru me nt ,

—ut

no

master.

To the other genius, I would allow

and recommend,

a l l the

above, under the government and tuition of a judiciousperformer,

who should strictly enforce and explain a l l the nice

punctilios

of time,

a i r , chords, tones,

half-tones,

e t c . ,

e t c . Can i t be

a

question which would become

the

best

performer ?

It may

not be irrelevant to the

subject, if

I assure

you,

that

the

dexterous

art

of

rolling

on

a

drum

cannot

be

acquired

without

some weeks' hard

exercise; and

easily as

i t appears

to

be performed, i t i s

only

attainable by one

certain

method. I t

i s the same with dancing, be the taste

for

that

accomplishment

ever s o great.

And,

in de ed, rudime ntal tuition i s submitted to





EARLY EXAMPLES. 141

of your p e n c i l , paper, and example, any endeavour to amuse

your fancy, by

even the s l i g h t e s t

association of l i n e s , which

could

divert the mind

from t h i s

f i r s t object, would have

been

premature.

I

now

wish t o impress

on

your mind what I

mean by

c om

mand of hand.

When

you

can

e a s i l y

mark

the form you previously

intended,

not by

putting your pencil to

the

paper, and l e t t i n g

i t

f l y pro

miscuously,

almost where i t

might

hap pe n, b ut with a governed,

steady,

easy

hand,

obedient

in

every part of the

whole

l i n e

to

your

well-convinced

mind

a s

to

what

i s

r e q u i s i t e ,

—

o

that

you

may take off your pencil precisely where you intended, and

s l o p e , or curve, t o

the

right or

l e f t ,

whenever

the

subject dic

t a t e s

;

—imilarly to that

s o r t

of command of hand which enables

you to

write

any

word

you choose, you have attained

t h i s

c om

mand

of

hand.

You

w i l l

r e c o l l e c t the

labour

of

your f i r s t e s s a y s ,

in

forming the

writing alphabet, and consider

the

ease

with

which

you

now

express

your

thoughts in good

writing;

s o you

may

depend

on

equal

success

in

drawing

by

equal

attention;

and i t

would

be unreasonable

to expect

that

good drawing

might be acquired by l e s s

study and

application than

good

writing ; f o r

which

there are few children allowed t o be wanting

a capacity.

Do

not

make a compound l i n e by one motion of the pencil

until you have a

thorough command

of i t .

Suppose

two l i n e s

forming a figure l i k e the

l e t t e r

A or V;

draw one

s i d e , then

take

your

pencil

o f f ,

and

draw

the

o t h e r .

Take great care that a l l l i n e s

which

are perpendicular, or

l e v e l , in

the

o r i g i n a l , are s t r i c t l y s o in your

copy, a s otherwise

your

representations

of

buildings w i l l appear in danger

of

f a l l i n g

down

: t h i s

must

be

studiously observed, and no exception can

be admitted.

I

have

proved

i t

to

be a

very good

gradation

of practice f o r

young

beginners

to

make

simple

compositions

with

the

radical

l i n e s , a s

the

f i r s t

advance

towards

the

great

object; a t

the

same

time

continuing the exercise of the pencil more

than

that of the

mind.

To

s u c h , in p a r t i c u l a r ,

i t

w i l l be a pleasing and very

easy undertaking to draw two or

three

horizontal l i n e s ,





RUDIMENTAL SUBJECTS RECOMMENDED.

143

To produce the

bridge ( f i g . 143),

f i r s t

draw

the water-line

straight and

l e v e l

( l i g h t l y ) ;

then

a central perpendicular

l i n e , as

a

guide

to equality ; then

touch

on the water-line f o r the span

or width of

the

arch, and on the central perpendicular f o r i t s

height, and draw the curve of the arch;—hen sketch the l i n e s

of

the

two

banks,

and draw

the

second

curve

of

the

arch

(the

top

l i n e

of the

bridge which r i s e s

from each

bank,

must

be s e t

o f f

with

care

and

t a s t e ,

and

drawn

firm

and

f r e e ,

and

s o

uniform

a s to appear to hav e been geometrically produced) : you must

then f i n i s h the centre p o s t , and

draw

the

hand-rail

p a r a l l e l t o

the top

curve

of the

bridge—

he arcade must

be

a s

equally

divided a s i s possible t o be done without compasses, and the

s i d e s

a l l

t o point t o

the same

centre

that

would

have struck the

arch

of the

bridge.

This i s a l l

t o be done without geometrical

a i d ,

in

order

to

exercise the

eye and hand in

the accomplish

ment

of

uniformity and

composition.

You

may thus e a s i l y invent, or copy, many l e s s o n s , proper

f o r

the accomplishment

of

handling the pencil f r e e l y ,

such a s

o u t l i n e s of

a l c o v e s ,

bridges, temples, or any uniform figures

which

may tend t o produce a correct

eye, and good t a s t e , while

the hand i s f orming; taking care

not

t o enter too deeply on

very

f u l l

s u b j e c t s , t i l l your pencil w i l l

readily

o be y yo ur i d e a s ,

a s

well

in

drawing

oblique

or

curved

l i n e s ,

a s

perpendiculars

and

l e v e l s :

f o r (speaking figuratively) you must

agree that

genius should f i r s t learn to

walk before i t

takes

wing.

The curve

i s that which w i l l occur throughout the whole of

animal drawing; indeed,

i t i s

considered

the

radical source of



144

DIRECTIONS FOB

COPYING.

beauty

in general, according

t o

Hogarth's Analysis of

the

Line

of

Beauty, a work

you

should

read

with

that

attention

which i t s

importance demands.

I

would

advise

you

now

to

procure

(either

by

hire

or

pu r

chase) a few of the best rudimental specimens of

such

subjects

as you find

the particular

objects of your choice. Guided by

the judgment of a good connoisseur in t h i s matter, your

own

choice

may,

in

a

du e degree,

be

consulted, taking

care

not to

s u f f e r your enthusiasm, or

want

of judgment, t o overstep

your

tender experience; and

taking

care

to obtain

proof that

the

examples which your teacher lays before you, are a s good a s

they should b e .

If

his own

original designs

are not s o , prefer

good prints ;

—

ithography

has

produced such in

great

profusion

and p e r f e c t i o n . A

l i t t l e

p r a c t i c e , every day, w i l l give your

powers

increasing strength;

and

the

f i n e s t subject

you

can

d e s i r e , may be

either purchased

or hired, t o

put your talents

afterwards t o the

t e s t .

Pe rf orm what ev er

you undertake

with

d e l i b e r a t e

care and

peeseveeance

;

and

when

you

have

chosen

a piece

to

copy,

do not, on any s l i g h t ex cu se, leav e i t f o r a new subject until

completed. This

may

lead to a proper caution not to under

take any great work a t the f i r s t ; a simple cottage, or plain

building, with

the

l i t t l e accompaniments

natural

to them, will

be s u f f i c i e n t . Kenyon on Trees 4 t o . ,

i s a

costly book to

purchase ; but i f you can make i t your own, you w i l l be the

gainer. Nicholson and Harding's

landscapes

( t h e i r own o r i

g i n a l s ) ,

in

lithography, are

e x c e l l e n t .

Trees

will

require

study

in the d e t a i l ,

so

that you may learn the

various

touches and

forms peculiar to

their

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

d i s t i n c t i o n s ;

but rely on

i t ,

nothing

but

p r a c t i c e , and i t s consequence, e x p e r i e n c e ,

can render

these

matters easy t o you.

Those whose

t a s t e

i n c l i n e s t o the study of the human figure

and

animals,

should be aware that these must always be repre

sented on some s u i t a b l e ground; s o that i t i s absolutely requisite

f i r s t

to

learn

to

draw

landscape

and

a r c h i t e c t u r e ( e x t e r i o r

and

i n t e r i o r ) , by the s t r i c t laws of perspective,

a s the

only means of

making their work complete; unless the too frequ ent su bter

fuge

of

clouds, smoke,

broken

ground, rocks, bushes, and o t h e r .



DIRECTIONS

FOK

COPYING. 145

such indeterminate matters,

be

resorted t o , as a

s e t - o f t '

or relievo,

to the figures :

even then,

a statue, or bust, must have a . pedestal,

which

pedestal must stand

on

something, which

ought

to be

properly

represented.

LETTER V.

directions for

copying.

Madam,

It

i s

a

most

grateful

reward

of

my

endeavours

to

find

that you so fu lly approve my methods and remarks ; and I shall

detain

you no

longer in the

confined walk

of an entire

novice,

but immediately proceed to that stage of the

a r t ,

where my

observations may

be more particularly

serviceable.

Let u s suppose you seated before a clear intelligible

subject,

a print, or drawing

(landscape perhaps),

completely provided

with necessary a r t i c l e s , according

to

the instruction already

given.

You

must

f i r s t

make the

boundary

line

of

your

draw

i ng

(see f i g .

1 ) ,

and then

take

a general

and

deliberate observa

tion,

to determine the relative situations of the principal objects

of

the piece

you are about to c opy; su c h as

the

height

of the

ho ri zo n; the nearest

angle of

the most conspicuous building;

the whole width of a building; i t s hei ght; the height of the

largest trees; and their relative distance and inclination from

the

f i r s t or principal

object; as

also

from the margin of the

drawing.

Take

care

to

begin

a l l objects the right

distance

from the

base line,

which i s

the bottom line of the picture;

regarding,

f i r s t ,

the

relative situations

of a l l the conspicuous parts of your

subject: those parts touched lightly, will be sufficient to direct

your

eye

to the situations

of other subordinate

parts

of

your draw

ing,

until

the whole becomes l i g h t l y , but correctly, hinted a t .

You

will

find

i t good to

determine the situation of

those

leading

points, by

observing

whether

they are at

half, one-

third, or one-fourth part, more

or l e s s ,

of the whole length

or

breadth of the picture, or between any

two

principal points:

for example,

examine

what portion of the picture the

land

10





IMPORTANCE

OF PRECISION. 147

secure

the greater

boundaries c o r r e c t l y , and descend to such

subdivisions

or

prominent marks a s

next

enforce attention;

gradually,

and

in

the

same

order,

f i l l i n g

in

every

part

l i k e

the

example,

both

a s

to e f f e c t ,

texture,

and

true

character,

a s

well

a s to the exac t force of markings, l i g h t s , and shadows.

* Precision

can never be carried t o

too

great an

extreme,

in

the execution

of any subject worthy

the

p e n c i l . Technical

propriety

will always merit s o

much

of your attention, a s t o

secure you from the c r i t i c a l censure of the mechanic: s u f f e r

not

the cobbler

to

find f a u l t with the

shoe. Many

objects

in

landscape

are

of

fixed

dimensions,

and

should

never

be

given

contrary to their proportion; f o r instance: a brick, and i t s

stratum

of mortar, always meas u res three

inches;

t h i s must

make four c ou rses i n the height

of

one f o o t , or

twenty-eight

t o the

height

of a seven-feet

door

frame.

Pan-tiles cover about

seven inches in

width;

therefore, in a roof sixteen f e e t long,

twenty-seven

rows

of t i l e s , a t l e a s t , w i l l be

r e q u i s i t e .

Steps

are generally between the height of f i v e and

eight

inches each ;

then

three

eight-inch

steps

would

r i s e

to

the

height

of

eight

courses of b r i c k s .—heds

and out-houses are covered with

boards (called

weather boards), which

are

seldom above

ten

inches wide, from the edge of one board to the next, and

more frequently six or seven inches;

which

should have du e

attention, when f i n i s h i n g , from memory, sketches w hi c h mi ght

have been hastily outlined

from

nature, or

when

composing

from fancy. But

most inexcusable of a l l are the

absu rd su b

s t i t u t e s f o r

portions

of

what

should

be

Grecian

or

Roman

architecture,

i f any

architectural

parts

are

appropriate to

the

composition. I t would

be

tiresome to give any

further expla

nation of

particular

measurements of t h i s

familiar

kind; and

had I not v ery frequently seen instances of the iU e f f e c t arising

from a t o t a l disregard t o t r u t h , where the a r t i s t evidently

proved, by very

nice

workmanship,

that a

proper

representa

tion of the above-mentioned t r i f l e s was intended, I should

think i t

proper to apologize f o r supposing

i t

necessary t o

*

Although

the

whole

of

t h i s paragraph applies t o

original designing, yet

c o p y i s t s ,

such as

the

f i r s t

ten l e t t e r s are

addressed t o , w i l l find

the

remarks to

be of great advantage i n t h e i r f i r s t essays from incorrect prints or drawings.



148 PROCESS OF COPYING.

engage your

attention

to them at

a l l

: b ecause

a

good general

effect i s the nec essary aim of such as endeavour after the great

style

of a r t , (which

/

consider to be,

a good

association of

objects, adapted to the subject

of

the picture, and represented

as nearly as

possible

as they would really and naturally

appear,

under

the

influence

of a

well

chosen

light*);

yet the

minute proportions here insisted on are to be rendered pro

perly

subordinate by

art and attention ;

not by

sketching and

careless

imitation.

The subordination

of

those

parts and objects,

which form the

secondary

and

retiring

space

of

the

picture,

must

be

suited

to

their

station by the

finest

c ons iderati ons i n the art; by

a

scientific appeal to the governing principles

(mechanically

considered)

of

light

and vision; and

not by a neglectful

or affected degradation

of

the object, or any careless miscalcu

lation of i t s proportions and

properties. Study

WlLKlE for

this; he

i s

excellent in this

one

of

his many excellencies.

(I

might have quoted more ancient names of high

estimation,

but

am

proud

to find

many

others

of

my

own

time

and

country,

worthy

of the compliment.)

You must accustom yourself

to

touch lightly and tenderly,

that you may,

the more

conveniently, correct and

improve

your

drawing as you proceed.

As soon as

you have

marked

a l l the

general

outline, rub

the

drawing over lightly with some crumb of bread (not damp or

too

new), leaving

the whole barely visible. Having

thus

by

previous

application,

determined

everything

to

be

properly

situated,

your whole attention must now be given to correcting

and completing

the

form

of

each

part,

touching

with due spirit

on shades near the foreground of your drawing, and receding

towards

the horizon, with a

tender

hand

and

perspective

eye,

strictly observing your example.

Begin this stage of your

work

by

drawing

the

principal object

f i r s t , as at the commencement; o bs erv i ng he re the

ease

with

which you may descend to the detail,

after

having

thus

sec ured

a l l the principal points.

* Letter

XIII. w i l l enlarge

yonr

knowledge

of

my

meaning in

du e course.







THE HUMAN FIGURE. 151

l e t t e r , a s

we

have not yet had occasion to explain more on

that

head.

What

l i g h t s

and

shades

can

correct

b ad d rawi n g?

or

what

i s

the use of

colour to either?

None. First

draw correctly; then

study

l i g h t , shade,

and r e f l e c t i o n ; which,

when

you have ac

complished,

c o l o u r s

remain a vast

t e s t

of genius f o r your

future

investigation.

But,

perhaps,

you

will

be

pleased

to know,

that

when you

have acquired

proficiency in

the

f i r s t

two parts of

your progress,

and can

proceed t o finishing ( i n

o i l - c o l o u r s ) ,

you w i l l then draw

and

shade

with

your

colour,

in

a

certain

proper

degree;

per

forming the

whole,

except the f i r s t

s k e t c h ,

by and under the

comprehensive term

painting in

i t s

manual acceptation.

Before

I

c l o s e t h i s part of

our

s u b j e c t , i t w i l l be

proper to

advise you to

study a second

copy of what you have

in

hand,

especially f i g u r e s , e n t i r e l y

from

memory

: never

look a t the

original f o r t h i s , but t r u s t to your

r e c o l l e c t i o n ,

and try the

strength of your

c r i t i c a l

powers ; and you will find the utmost

advantage

from

such

practice

by

the

improvement

of every

faculty

r e q u i s i t e t o an

a r t i s t ,

and obtain

the

most genuine proof

that

he i s a s i n c e r e

amateur.

LETTER

VI.

the human figure.

Madam,

I

trust the

substance

of the forego ing

Letters

will

conduct you

through an

outline

of

any

plain Subject;

and

when practice

has

given you s u f f i c i e n t confidence, you

will

a t

tend t o the

following observations

on

copying

the forms of

animated f i g u r e s , which are a s e s s e n t i a l t o a picture, a s a c t o r s to

a stage : and, i ndeed, a f t e r the rudimental progress already

pointed

o u t ,

are

the

primary

object

of

study,

and

the

b e s t ,

a s

well a s the s h o r t e s t , road to eminence in the a r t .

I t i s the beauty and superiority of the humanfigure over a l l

other animal

forms,

which constitutes

i t the

chief object of

a

painter's

study. This

i s

because of

the

v a r i e t y of

forms,

a t t i











156

PROPORTIONS OF THE

good,

a s i s the

pocket volume

by

Tinney.

B e l l ' s Com

parative

Anatomy

of the Bones

and Muscles, and

Moses

Retszch's Outlines, are books a l s o worthy your attention.

Genius may be advantageously relieved a t i n t e r v a l s ,

from

the mechanical construction of

f i g u r e s ,

by the

graceful

out

l i n e s of Flaxman, e t c . , that truth and beauty may keep

hand

in hand, while

i mprov ing you r t a s t e by good speci

mens of heads ( s e e

page

159), hands, and f e e t ; which should

be well understood

before you

make the

whole figure

a regu lar

study. Yet I think i t proper

to

have a sketch-book always

at

hand,

and

to

accustom

yourself

to

sketch

your

own

best

ideas of h i s t o r i c a l and other s u b j e c t s . Raphael, Le Brun, and

Lavater, f o r

c h a r a c t e r , may

be

of

great

a s s i s t a n c e

in these

juve

n i l e exercises; a proportionate study of scenery, and l i v i n g

s u b j e c t s ,

i f only by sketches from nature, should share

your

early

attention, s t r i c t l y applying a l l the science

you

have

acquired.

PROPORTIONS

OP

THE

HUMAN FIGURE.

The whole height of the figure i s , f o r t a l l f i g u r e s , eight

heads.

Figures more robust

are divided by

seven

heads

and

a

half in

height,

which

i s equal

t o

ten f a c e s .

I t

will

be

worth

your

recollection

to know,

that i f the figure

of eight heads be si x f e e t high, the

figure

of ten f a c e s

will mea

sure

f i v e f e e t

seven

inches

and

a

half

i n hei ght.

Perhaps

a l l

the various characters you need design f o r proportion and ana

tomical

information, may be found between

these

two extremes :

genius and good judgment

w i l l ,

however, have

discretionary

liberty on t h i s p o i n t .

The inside l i n e of the legs and thighs of a figure to the be

ginning

of the

b ody, measu res half

i t s

height

: in t a l l f i g u r e s

t h i s i s

sometimes above

one-half,

and in shorter

not

one-half the

figure

—

ou r heads, or f i v e f a c e s .

The

quarter parts

of the height are from the top of the head

t o

the

arm-pits

—

wo

heads, or

two f a c e s and

a

h a l f .



HUMAN

FIGURE.

157





HUMAN FIGURE.

159

r- v

manner you

may

rely

on a s a

standard,

from the

book I have

recommended on antique proportions. I have here given

you s u f f i c i e n t t o

enable

you t o

practise composition,

which

i s

one

of the

best

stimulatives

to further

inquiry

and improve

ment.

We can now proceed t o the proportionate divisions of the

head and

f e a t u r e s ,

which you must

learn

to

r e c o l l e c t perfectly

before you can expect to draw

the whole

f i g u r e , even

in a

sketch. And you will presently observe that t h i s cannot be

accomplished

without separate and due

attention

to

each

part

of the

f a c e ;

f o r

i t

would

be

f o l l y

to

attempt

to

draw

a

whole

head,

until

you are

perfect

in

the

general rudimental forms

of

each

f e a t u r e .

The drawing

of the front of the human

head

i s

mechanically

begun,

by

sketching an outline nearly

resembling the shape of

an egg, or somewhat of an e l l i p t i c a l form, in the proportion of

about four in length t o

three

a t the greatest breadth. Thus

i f

you draw an egg-form

four

f u l l inches long, draw the width

nearly

three

inches,

and

l e t

the

upper

half

be

a

half

c i r c l e ,

and

the

lower

parabolic. This

figure

must

be divided in

half by a

perpendicular l i n e ; which divide into four

equal

parts hori

zontally; give one to the top of the head, one t o the forehead,

one to

the length of the nose,

and

the

lower

part divide

into

three equal

portions. The

f i r s t

p a r t , next t o

the nose, i s the

upper l i p , finishing a t the opening of the mouth—he second,

the

under l i p to

the

beginning of

the

chin—nd

the

lower

third

contains

the

chin. Touch

with

your

pencil

a

mark

f o r

the top of the

forehead,

a t the uppermost'

division ;

then sketch

a f a i n t l i n e across the oval a t the top of the nose,

a s

the b ottom

of the forehead;

another

a t the third d i v i s i o n , f o r the bottom of

the nose

; another f o r the meeting of the l i p s , and a mark f o r

the top of the

chin.

Next

di vide the

length

of the

nose into

four equal

p a r t s ;

giving one

part f o r the height of the wing of the

n o s t r i l ,

and

one

from

the top of the

nose f o r

the

l i n e

on

which

the eyes are

to be s i t u a t e d ,

and there w i l l remain two p a r t s ,

or

half

the

length

of the

nose, between

the

eye and

the top of the

n o s t r i l .

Then draw the l i n e f o r the eyes p a r a l l e l t o the centre hori









PRECAUTION

AND FORECAST.

163

tender

elegant

touch,

and

produce

nearly a s f i n e a drawing a s

with any

other

material.

Proceed

with

your

charcoal

almost

a s

cautiously

a s

though

i t

could not

be

rubbed

out

;

t h i s

must

make slow progress a t f i r s t

;

but

be

assured i f you

make a

hasty,

erroneous outline with the

charcoal,

you

will

have double

the

trouble with

the chalks:

b e s i d e s , i f a t r u e

l i n e must

be

f i n a l l y obtained, can

any material

answer the purpose s o well a s charcoal, which can be cleared

off so e a s i l y until a l l i s correct? You cannot begin your

sketch better than by attending t o the rules I have

given

you

f o r

beginning

in

general,

a s

far

as

r e s p e c t s

t h e

leading

points

of

the

figure

( s e e

Letter

IV);

observing,

f i r s t , the

i n c l i n a t i o n

of

the

head, which, being drawn

tolerably c o r r e c t , will serve a s a

point

from which a l l

the other situations may

be

e a s i l y deter

mined; taking due measure (with your eye) of the whole f i e l d

or surface

which

i s

to

contain the figure or f i g u r e s , i t

being

the

heedless f a u l t of many to

dash

away, without ever considering

where the

f e e t and

hands may extend.

As a

figure

may

be

e i g h t

heads

in

height,

nev er begi n

the

head of a standing figure larger than one-ninth or tenth part

the

length of

the paper,

and

nearly

a f u l l head from

the

t o p .

Observe a t the same

time

the extent of the

limbs,

right and

l e f t , to determine well what situation between the two s i d e s

will best bring in

a l l

the

figure

: t h i s (which may be

termed

surveying your f i e l d , and calculating your extent) w i l l save

the

unnecessary

trouble

and

disagreeable e f f e c t of pasting

and

patching, to accommodate the want of f o r e c a s t .

There are those who value themselves f o r

such

i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ,

mistakingly thi nki ng ardo ur a

sign of

genius. Permit me to

say, that genius, t r u l y s o , must be a composition of excellencies;

in which

the

e lement s o f science must unite their powers, per

forming a

work

equal t o the

thought. I

r e f e r

to

the examples

of

the

great

only,

whose patient

perseverance in the execution

of

their

works

was

equal

t o

the

greatness

of

their

conceptions.

Were the

wonderful

statues

of

the Gladiator,

Apollo, or

the

group of Laoc oon and s o n s , produced

by a

f l a s h of

thought?

Or

was S t .

Peter's a t Rome

completed

by

an accidental hit?

No:

neither

had Genius done

he r p a r t ,

when Raphael had

/







166

AVOID EXTREMES IN MARKING.

white, and should

be

l e f t c l e a r , a s f a r a s

i t s

t i n t answers

the

purpose

; thus

the hand will

obey

the truth and beauty

of your

conceptions

t o

their

utmost

extent.

The

stumps may be useful in diffusing a breadth of shade

t o gain a

speedy

e f f e c t of

back-ground,

or any other

broad

mass

;

take care that the use

of

them

does not

give

you

a

hasty

manner.

The

I t a l i a n chalk, being very compact, flows best

from

rather

a

firm l i g h t t o u c h , than by pressing too hard:

practice and attention w i l l accomplish you in the proper use of

i t .

Always cut your chalk

from

the point, directly the contrary

manner

of

cutting

a

black-lead

p e n c i l .

Crumb

of

bread

i s preferable to

India-rubber, to

clear off any

error on t h i s s o r t of paper.

I may now venture to hope that you will require no further

instructions respecting the

nature of

c h a l k s .

Good examples

may be of material service: there are

very good academy

f i g u r e s , particularly

a s specimens of

the use of the

chalks, after

the French

school,

West, Flaxman,

and other masters, to be

had

a t

the

principal

print-shops.

While studying, rudimentally, f o r a correct eye, l e t no c on

c e i t seduce you into a deviation

from

your s u b j e c t ,

which

should be

imperious, because

i t i s

not

probable that the

small

portion of c r i t i c a l determination yet

acquired, can

be s u f f i c i e n t

t o enable you

to

deviate

from your

example with advantage ;

indeed,

i f

i t be judiciously chosen,

you

will

have

attained

a

glorious height indeed,

when

you

can

deviate from

a proper

example s u c c e s s f u l l y ; l e t t h i s bind you

to

your s u b j e c t , t i l l you

have attained knowledge, and

the

right

use

of

i t ,

by p r a c t i c e .

And, while you

thus

attend s t r i c t l y

to

your example,

great

care should be taken

not

t o s u f f e r yourself

to be

led

into

a very

common e r r o r , that of overstepping extremes. A part may be

well

adapted

by a broad, square, and bold decisive marking, for

i t s

original

purpose

(perhaps

that of

a

great height,

or distance);

and

notwithstanding

the

f o r c i b l e

manner

of

t h i s

may

a f f e c t

your mind, you must be much on yo ur gu ard a s

to

the

extreme,

a t f i r s t

to avoid

destroying the whole

beauty

of your

copy,

by

seizing

( I may say) on those very prominent points

with too

bold a hand.

You

w i l l

have

great occasion f o r t h i s precaution,











INDIAN

INK. 171

drawing. You w i l l

find

i t require practice

and

study t o make

t h i s information of much s e r v i c e . One cannot write a recipe

f o r producing a fine picture, although i t i s easy

enough to

ex

plain a process: (methods

are

like keys, they

help

TO OPEN DOOKS, AND SERVE NO FURTHER). Be atten

t i v e , and have

s u f f i c i e n t

patience with yourself, and remember

your motto,

Perseverance.

LETTER X.

50 283

indian

ink,

and

rules

eor

light

and

shade.

Madam,

We have hitherto confined

our

proceeding

to

the

black-lead p e n c i l , and t o c h a l k s , but a s your studies produce

good drawings, they w i l l deserve to be finished with more per

manent materials;

therefore,

when

the stu dent

has acquired

a

competent acquaintance with

forms,

and a

thorough command

of

hand

in

expressing

them

—

here

cannot

be

a

more b e n e f i c i a l

practice than

that

of

acquiring a

perfect

acquaintance with the

use

of—

Indian ink, the most

common,

and perhaps the most u s e f u l ,

of a l l

the

water-colour c l a s s ;

being

a f i n e deep black, which can

be varied with water, through every degree of shade, t i l l i t

f a l l s imperceptibly into l i g h t : there

i s

not any composition

equal

to

i t , f o r the general purpose of shading. I t i s much

c o u n t e r f e i t e d ,

but

the

adulteration

may

be

detected.

The

t r u e

China

ink w i l l break

to

almost a polished s u r f a c e , and i s mode

r a t e l y scented with musk. The

counterfeits

generally overdo

t h i s ;

and others

neglect i t altogether. The true

ink

i s the

blackest when

brought to

a deep shade;

but

in the

f a i n t e r

shades i t

i n c l i n e s to

brown.

The counterfeits

have more

sub

stance towards the deep

shades, than

the genuine. The t r u e ,

preserves a greater

degree

of transparency than the o t h e r .

To use

Indi an i nk

conveniently,

you

should provide

yourself

with

a slab*

of earthenware,

or

marble, with several d e l l s , t o

*

MyUltimate Diagbam-Slab i s

the

only a r t i c l e

of the

kind

that has

any

other

use

besides

that of

holding

t i n t s ,

while t h i s

not

only answers that purpose





INDIAN INK. 173

You

may unite great

amusement

with

improvement

when

practising f o r f a c i l i t y in the use and management of India ink,

which,

however,

I

cannot

advise

you

t o ,

until you

can

outline

correctly

—hen,

i f you are charmed with the

whole e f f e c t

of

any

picture, or

p r i n t ,

and would copy that general e f f e c t only, s e t

your subject

a t

such

a

distance a s to render a l l

the

minute

parts

i n d i s t i n c t ,

s o

that

you

may

only

perceive the

various shapes of

the leading

masses,

l i g h t s ,

and

shades

in

the picture,

which you

had better notice

with

due

correctness by o u t l i n e s ; t h i s

done,

prepare your four degrees of various shades of India ink, and

proceed

to

use

them in

general

shape

and

depth,

a s you s e e

them

in the o r i g i n a l . The se b ro ad productions will increase your

acquaintance

with

e f f e c t

and

the u se

of

the

materials ; and when

you can accomplish

t h i s s u c c e s s f u l l y ,

you must not l e t

i t

gain

an ascendency over

that

r e q u i s i t e

attention

which

i s

du e to

a

perfect c o p y .

The following 5th, 6th,

7th,

8th, and

9th

r u l e s , will help

you in the process of

these

broad experiments, a s well a s

in

more

elaborate

s t u d i e s ,

—ut

I

cannot,

a s

an

honest

preceptor,

encourage much repetition of these s l i g h t and off-hand

e f f e c t s ,

to any but accomplished p r a c t i t i o n e r s , who

no sooner perceive

some picturesque

object

in clouds, stained

or broken

w a l l s ,

or

in

the

various

formations of the

f i r e ,

e t c . , e t c . , than

some

valuable sketch i s

added to

their

stock

; i t i s through previous

application

t o t h e rudiments of t h e i r a r t accompanied with genius

r a r e , that t h i s s o r t of sket chi ng i s availably resorted t o . A

young

and

i ne xperienced gen iu s

might

f e e l

impressed

with

ideas

of

a s

beautiful

imagery a s the

accomplished one—ut

i t

could be only in idea,

he

could

not give

a

l o c a l form

t o

h i s conceptions; therefore, you must not, a s yet, be seduced

from

the attention

due

t o

p r a c t i c a l

knowledge by the

f a s c i

nating

ease

with

which

general e f f e c t s may

be produced,

f o r

be

assured,

that

a f t e r you have

gained f u l l acquaintance

with

the manner of

u si ng Indi an

ink, your best application of i t

will

be

in the

studying

the individual

productions

of

nature,

thereby acquiring a

s u f f i c i e n t

fund, or

stock of

materials,

t o

form

into any picture

that

thought or

accident may

present t o

your imagination.





RULES

FOR SHADING. 175

shaped drawing ;

always

securing

t h i s natural concave

e f f e c t ,

before you

commence

your work on the d e t a i l of the absolute

scenery; a f t e r which you may proceed

in

the same manner you

would have done, had you not

been

aware of t h i s o p t i c a l pre

paration.

This I learn from

Claude

and a l l

thorough

masters ; i t i s the a e r i a l perspective of the f i r s t

r u l e .

6 .

Always begin the sky and distant masses of shade with the

pale t i n t ; and, a s you

approach

the foreground, increase the

depth

of

the

t i n t ,

observing

to

be

light

enough

a t

f i r s t .

7 .

When the shade requires additional depth, do not

take

a

darker t i n t f o r that purpose, but repeat the use of the original

t i n t ; deepening the shades

of a l l

the

various

degrees

of

distance

with

i t s

own t i n t , or

the

object

will

press too

forward.

Make

a l l

the

instruction given

in t h i s l e t t e r f a m i l i a r , previously t o

the

study

of

the following

r u l e s .

8 .

When f i r s t laying

on

t h e

broad masses

of shade, pay

no

atten

tion

to

the

r e f l e c t e d l i g h t s , which always f a l l

on such parts

a s

are out of the influence of the

principal

l i g h t , a s the

f i r s t

lays

should

not

be darker than those r e f l e c t i o n s : i f t h i s i s properly

observed, you

will produce

a l l your

reflected

l i g h t s by your

next

process;

that

of

increasing the

shade

of

those

parts

which

are more

remote

from the

influence

of both light and r e f l e c t i o n

(in

a l l their

various degrees of

distance) ;

recollecting that

although

no

light

f a l l s on

them,

they

must not be made darker

than

s u i t s

the

distance in which

they l i e

; because

the

law

of the

f i r s t rule given, remains

in

f o r c e .

I t i s the property of light (when considered only a s the

means

of illumining objects)

to

continue s o a t

a l l

d i s t a n c e s , and

in

appearance

to

prevail

over

a l l

such

shades

a s

are

occasioned

by

unevenness of s u r f a c e s ,

in

proportion to

the distance of such

surfaces

from the

eye ; so that

the

c a v i t i e s , or various causes

of

shades,

l o s e

their f o r c e ,

while

the

smooth and

projecting parts



176

RULES

FOR SHADING.

continue

their

l o c a l l i g h t n e s s ,

and

are (in e f f e c t ) united by d i s

tance into one mass, or

(apparently) smooth

surface ; and, inas

much a s

such mass i s

composed

of

shining materials, will the

r e f l e c t i o n of sky, a t i t s

proper

angle of r e f l e c t i o n , be

apparent

(whatever

i t s

t i n c t u r e ) , instead

of the

known and l o c a l

colour

of the

mass. This with

the

intermediate atmospheric matter,

and

the

decreasing power of

s i g h t ,

according to distance, pre

vents your seeing the dark parts a s dark a s in the foreground,

and accounts f o r

the colour

of distant

land.

(See

an

extract

of

a

l e t t e r t o my

son George,

in my twenty-second l e t t e r . )

9 .

Your next

regard must be

to

those shades

where

l i g h t and

particular r e f l e c t i o n are absent;

but

where

some

general r e f l e c t

ing power

has

influence

enough

to

render the

part

lighter than

those e n t i r e l y

void

of l i g h t . This, with Rule 8 , produces

the

re

f l e c t i o n s

by leaving

them.

1 0 .

Parts which are strongly

reflected on

are very

deceiving

to

young copyists ; they generally mistake su ch r e f l e c t i o n s for

l i g h t s , and leave them much too strong; f o r there i s a great

d i f f e r e n c e

between such

parts a s receive

the

pure l i g h t , and

those

which

are only reflected

on

by a surface which receives

i t s light from the f i r s t c a u s e .

To

prove t h i s—

Make

a cylinder

of white

card,

or paper,

and

lay

one

s i d e

towards

the l i g h t , on a

4 .

I

sheet

of

white

paper;

then i^PW'

wl

\f^>

r a i s e

the sheet

of paper on

Mp«k

yjft

-\%

the shaded s i d e of the

c y l i n -

^ a m

der t i l l i t

makes

the strong-

i « -

e s t r e f l e c t i o n possible ( f i x the

sheet of paper

up by

a book, or the l i k e , while you proceed on

your

experiment),

according

t o

the

annexed

f i g u r e ,

144

:

you

must

then take a card, or

piece

of smooth paper, the colour

of

the cylinder,

and hold

i t s surface f a i r

to

the l i g h t ,

in

a l i n e with

the l i g h t e s t part

of

one end

of

the cylinder, and you will find





17 8

TRANSPARENCY.

s u r f a c e , must always govern in true degree, and w i l l always

contain a much superior l i g h t ,

except

when the cylinder or

globe

be

of

colourless

g l a s s ,

containing

colourless

matter,

such

a s s p i r i t s or pure water.

I can only r e f e r you to the general, but unvarying prin

c i p l e s o f the

influence which

l i g h t i n s i s t s on, in the department

of

FLOWER painting,

a s

much a s in

the

proper treatment of

any

other object of imitation. I have

never

practised

this

branch of the a r t ;

but

the observations

I have

made on some

of

the

water-colour specimens of f r u i t and

flowers

emboldens

me

to

o f f e r

a

positive rule

—

here

l i g h t

i s

absent,

colour

will

be

absent in equal degree.

When

you mean

to

leave a

white

background, s e t

up

one behi nd

the

object

of your study, in

such an

aspect

a s to appear

white, and,

with

du e consideration

of

transparency

of

o b j e c t s , weigh deliberately

the

advantage of

searching out and expressing, a l l that must b e s hado w ; before

you

s e e , or

rather reckon

on colour

;

t h i s

successfully under

stood, will

give

every part

i t s

proper substance, and r e l i e f ;

approaching

the

e f f e c t

of

r e a l i t y ,

when

properly

finished by

colouring.*

1 2 .

Shadows

of s o l i d objects on level planes, when the light

f a l l s

in

the direction of about

f o r t y - f i v e degrees,

are generally about

the

same degre e o f dep th wi th

the

shaded

side

of

the

object,

except varied by

some

accidental r e f l e c t i o n (or difference of

the

l o c a l

colour

between

the

object

and

the

surface

i t s

shadow

f a l l s

on); but

t h i s l a t t e r part of the

exception must not be

admitted under

the

head to which

the

rule

i s applicable,

namely, l i g h t and shadow independent of colour; but

i t

being

a necessary point of consideration, in distinguishing between

shadow and

colour, i t may be of

due service t o

have made

the

remark.

1 3 .

Respecting

objects a s

they

appear in the

open

a i r ,

without,

*

One of the

very

best

f r u i t and flower painters

of the present

day, who had

learned of Hewlet, assured me that t h i s eleventh

rule

was the best piece of

instruction he

had ever received.











DISTINCTION OF SHADOWS. 183

one

another, precisely a s the untinted p a r t s ,

having

more the

e f f e c t of

the dirty parts

of

a

half-cleaned

specimen,

such a s

pic

ture-cleaners

exhibit,

than

of the

truth; which cannot be pro

duced

by

such

a

t r i c k

s o a s

to

show

the

t r u e

e f f e c t ,

on

any

part

of a drawing, or picture, whi c h had been previously finished t o

an

unintercepted

l i g h t .

If

you would proceed according t o

the

t r u t h , you

must

over

shadow

such part of

your

s u b j e c t a t the

commencement

of

your

study,

a s

you d e s i r e to be

in shade, and

copy a l l

the

changes

of

the e f f e c t thus produced.

You

w i l l

do well

t o

study

the

d i f f e r

ence of such e f f e c t s , by experimental p r o o f s . Set up some plain

o b j e c t , or a f i g u r e , f a i r t o the l i g h t ;

and

copy

i t

completely a s

you s e e i t , according to the f i r s t directions: then shade over

part of t h i s copy with one t i n t , or according t o what I s h a l l

henceforth

term the false shade : then, without moving the

original

object of

your study, s e t

up

something which

will

c a s t a s much r e a l shadow on i t , a s your false shade pretends t o

hav e done on your f i r s t

drawing.

Copy t h i s

c o r r e c t l y ,

and

then compare

the

overshadowed

parts of

both

drawings

with

t h i s

l a s t e f f e c t produced

by

your model, and you

will

have s a

t i s f a c t o r y proof

why

I

termed the

f i r s t a false

shade ; and,

inas

much a s you become convinced

of the

error of such

thoughtless

dispatch, will your c r i t i c a l judgment be improved. You will

then see one of

the great

causes

of

deficiency in

the works

of

many of our contemporaries, whose eminence, in many other

parts of painting, might vie with the painters of any age.

The

subjugating

or quali fyi ng

impalpable

shading,

taught

by

Rule

5 ,

Letter

X., w i l l always be required f o r

the

whole

picture.

I

will

venture to a f f i r m , that

the

term false shade would not

be improperly applied t o

much

of the

work

that i s done

to

an

o i l picture under

the term glazing. All the e f f e c t

you

wish

to

produce by glazing, should be

r e a l l y

produced on t h e o b j e c t

of your

s t u d y ,

by appropriate overshadowing and reflecting ma

t e r i a l s

previously

s e t

f o r

the purpose.

—

speak

t h i s

to

young

e s s a y i s t s in h i s t o r i c composition c h i e f l y , but the principle must

be s t r i c t l y understood and

observed

by a l l who are ambitious of







186 THE

ARBITRARY

bine

one

great

and pleasing

e f f e c t without the mechanical

drudgery of

inquiring f o r

the integrity

of

CAUSe,

through

too great a c onc ei t of competency. This pernicious

s o r t

of s e l f -

s u f f i c i e n c y ,

being

the

offspring

of pride,

l a z i n e s s ,

or

impatience,

i f not of a v a r i c e , should

be combated

with

the

most

impartial

self-examination;

f o r although perhaps

a

genius, s t i l l some,

or

a l l ,

of these f r a i l t i e s

may

conspire to mar the success of a picture,

and

destroy the truth

of

half

with

the beauty of the

whole, by

thus substituting f a c t s with unskilful ideas and unharmonising

f a l l a c i e s ,

f o r

which

even poverty dares

not

apologise.

Genius, imagination,

and

s c i e n c e ,

with

thorough

comprehension

of

a l l

that i s r e q u i s i t e t o a whole composition, may express the

i d e a of

a picture

most f o r c i b l y , and

perhaps

beautifully,

in

what i s termed the sketch of the design,

which

( I think) may

be

compared with a

well-digested

architectural design f o r

an

intended e d i f i c e ,

the

a b s o l u t e work

of

whi c h mu st

be the

result

of the

accomplished

mechanic. And t o t h i s s o r t of mechanical

accuracy must

that

a r t i s t submit who proposes to advance

in

painting

beyond

the

reputation

to

be

gained

by

a

good

sketch

of a

s u b j e c t .

LETTER X I I I .

on the arbitrary power op

light.

Madam,

With regard

t o the l i c e n c e s

to be

allowed in paint

ing,

I

s h a l l

give

you

my

opinion

a s

an

adventurer

on high

ground, l i a b l e

to the investigation of

others; but i f

such are

only s p e c u l a t i v e critics,*my

opinion

w i l l remain unanswered.

Should philosophical demonstration prove me

to

be either

e n t i r e l y

mistaken,

or

too confined in

my observations, I

shall

not regret the r e s u l t , because

truth

ought always to triumph

over

e r r o r ;

and I s h a l l have t h i s apology f o r what I advance,

that

my remarks a r i s e from

cool

and

deliberate

experiment,

amounting

to

the conclusion that

l i f e

i s too

short

f o r one to

spend

time in a systematical endeavour

to

make wings, because

of t h e c e r t a i n t y t h e r e i s of t h e i n u t i l i t y of such a r t i f i c i a l

invasions

of n a t u r e . And a s Archimedes saw the l i m i t s t o

mechanical









190

THE

ARBITRARY

on, and derived from t r u t h , were they not supported by the

more SUCCESSFUL examples of the very same masters; i nso

much

a s

to

embolden

me

to assure

you,

that

much

a s

the

s p i r i t of such e n t e r p r i s e may f a s c i n a t e ; a truly su ccessful

r e s u l t can never be

accomplished,

while the powers of a

painter are confined within the humble l i m i t s of WHITE and

BLACK pigments.

Yet the works I have alluded t o are charming —hey are

captivating

Cool

judgment i s arrested by the glo wi ng har

mony of Claude, the vigour of Eembrandt, and the surprising

e f f e c t s

produced

by

many

other

masters

on

similar s u b j e c t s .

Should

i t be asked,

Are

these

e f f e c t s t r u e ?

i t may

be

answered

by a question,—ho c an ex ceed them? The

answer

to this

may s a f e l y be—No

one can

surpass what

has been

produced

by several great masters in t h i s department ;

but a l l

this

does not overcome my

dogma, It

i s only a b a l l o o n i s t ' s flight

towards the moon.

I t

requires but l i t t l e science to

prove

that

white

i s not

l i g h t ,

but

i t i s

an

e f f e c t

produced

on

a

colourless

object

by light;

and, i f

you

go to the

other extreme of

the p a i n t e r ' s

gamut,

you w i l l

find

that black

i s not the u tmo st de pt h

of darkness,

but

only

the greatest possible opposite to whiteness that can

be

produced on any substance,

when

exposed

to

the light;

and

between

the l i m i t s of these MODERATE EXTREMES a

sincere a r t i s t will confine his e f f o r t s , and

never

use the

seduc

t i v e a r t of gaining

fame

by a

splendid

error*

The

licence

necessary

f o r

allegory,

or

symbolic

painting,

may

be

submitted

to : some

intimation of

l i g h t s may

often be fou nd

proper

to

the

theme,

and

answer the

p a i n t e r ' s purpose

completely

a s

to the

point

of i l l u s t r a t i o n ,

but very l i t t l e

f u r t h e r .

There i s another great licence taken, which, in

my opinion,

i s practised through a preference f o r gaiety rather than truth,

which i s the introducing two

o p p o s i t e

e f f e c t s in one

p i c t u r e .

There

are pictures

representing the sun

s e t t i n g , or near

that

p o s i t i o n ,

generally

and

judiciously

kept

by

rich

tinted

clouds

* Shining

draperies,

such

as white

s i l k s

and

s a t i n s , have t h e i r

r e a l and natural

l i g h t

parts

much above white

paint,

the imitation of which

must sometimes be

affected ;

but

never

can be e f f e c t e d but i n a

comparative degree.























HINTS ON COMPOSITION. 201

not remain a

secret

to

you,

provided

you

apply the adv ic e of

Pope

properly—

Trust not yourself; b u t ,

your

defects t o

know,

Make use of every friend and every f o e .

Experience has

informed

me

why

I advise

young painters to

deliberate

t o

some decision,

before they begin

to

sketch

the su b

ject—t

i s

this: The minds of those who have not been fur

nished with

an

ample

stock

of

knowledge

and p rac ti ce s ui te d

to so important

an

undertaking as the

painting

a subject

worthily, are

too

soon

exhausted.

The

very

f i r s t

essay

of

the

pencil conveys the forms

to

the

corporeal

eye, with that sort

of

self-applause, which too often bli nds the

critical eye

of the

mind; and (what ' . ' . y o u n g hope eager for the

end,

and too

regardless of the gradual means, i s , in general, to o fond o f ) ,

di smi sses that further consideration,

which

might

be

amply

rewarded with success. And

when

you have determined to

sketch a subject, you will find your genius carried on with a

degree

of

certainty,

i f

you

arrange

the

process

methodically,

as

follows :

—

First,—onsider the place, or scene of the circumstance;

whether

proper

to

be composed of landscape,

architecture,

or

any

other

object

s ui table to

the

story; as also,

how light may

be obeyed, to the most picturesque advantage; for i t must be

obeyed;

therefore,

Secondly,—

he climate,

season,

and

time

o f day,

should

have

due

consideration.

Thirdly,—he costume of the whole, as strictly as possible,

agreeing with the

date

of the c irc umstance , in

a l l

respects.

Fourthly,

—

he

dramatis persona.

Fifthly,—heir characters arid proper situations with regard

to

judicious*

grouping, so

as

to make the principal

appear acci

dentally, and naturally s o , rather than

designedly,

or by palpable

contrivance, like a group of comedians in the l a s t scene of a

play. S t i l l a judicious eye may see t h e s e , and much of the

scenery, to

some

advantage, in

the

present improving

state of

the histrionic a r t , especially by some of the

principal characters

that

now undertake

to illustrate the drama; or you may at





203

THE COMPENDIUM 0¥ COLOURS.

LETTER XVI.

on colours.

Madam,

The very word

c o l o u r s

enlivens one's i d e a s . All

admire

the various e f f e c t s of their beauties

; but

those who will

attempt t o imitate them, should

study

the best means t o render









207

AXIOMS.

First.—hat yellow, red, and blue, are entire colours of

themselves, and cannot be

produced

by the mixture < 5 f any

other colours.—ee plate I . , f i g s . 1 , 2, 3, page 208.

Secondly.—

ellow,

red, and blue,

contain

the

sole

properties

of

producing a l l

other

colours whatsoever,

as to

colour,

by

mix

t ures ari si ng

entirely among

themselves, without the

aid

of

a

fourth ;—

Thirdly.

—

ecause,

by

mixing

proper

portions

of

the three

primitives together,

Black i s

obtained, providing for

every

pos

sible degree of shadow.

Fourthly.—nd every practical degree of

light i s

obtained by

diluting any of the colours, as above producible ; or in o i l paint

ing, by mixture of white paint.

Fifthly.—

ll transient

or p ri smati c effects can be

imitated

with

such

coloured

materials

as are of the t hre e p ri mi ti v e

colours,

but

only

in

the

same

degree

of

comparison

as

white

bears

to

light.

Sixthly.—here are no other

materials,

in which colour i s

found, t hat are

possessed

of

any

of the

foregoing

perfections.

These axioms form the basis

of

the following explanations,

establishing

a

simple, clear, and permanent system, according

to the

nature

and powers of the materials.

It i s

worthy of

consideration, that, inasmuch

as a gamut

i s

not

any distinct

tune

of

i t s e l f ,

so

a

chromatic

display

of

the

formation of colours i s not any distinguishable picture; yet so

perfectly

do

each

develop that s ys te mat ic al order

by

which

n at ur e has determined harmony, that, without them, painting

with regard to colours, as well as music with regard to sounds,

would remain to a l l , as they s t i l l do to a l l those who are un

acquainted with

them.

The stu dent o f t he f ollo wi n g diagrams

should consequently

wait

patiently,

and attentively,

for the

fruits which thei r roots will certainly produce, i f duly culti

vated.















212

LETTER XVIII.

PLATE I I .

Madam,

The three primitive colours here form the central

datum of the f i r s t c ompass, ac c ording with Root 1 , Plate I . ,

which i s the governing principle;

and

without which, the

c om

pletion of the compass must dep end on the consequence of pro

ceeding,

a s in

Harris's

Treatise ; while the root

a s

here

given,

determines,

and

d i r e c t s , the arrangement of every colour in the

c i r c l e ; leaving

nothing

to chance or conventional contrivance

a s each a r i s e s

in

i t s own and only

proper

s t a t i o n ,

dictated

by

their parent r o o t .

The number of c i r c u l a r divisions may be considered a s

a l l u s i v e t o i n f i n i t e , by imperceptible gradation between f u l l

colour and

i t s

t o t a l

evaporation

into

l i g h t ; which

I presume

i s

s u f f i c i e n t l y

intimated

by

the

systematical

gradation

of three*

distinguishable

variations

of

strength

a s t o

colour,

a s I have

offered them in t h i s diagram by the t h r e e c i r c u l a r s p a c e s .

THE SECOND COMPASS.

According t o Root 2 , t h i s diagram holds orange, green,

and purple, a s

principal;

having o l i v e , brown, and s l a t e , as

their natural intermediates. The

principles and intention

of

the

three

c i r c u l a r

gradations,

and

of

the

r a d i a l

d i v i s i o n s ,

hav ing been already explained, I have here

considered one

space

between

each colour, enough to show the sytematical

order of their circular communion, clearly intimating the

*

I t

was my

f i r s t

intention

t o

i l l u s t r a t e my

proposition by

six

large coloured

p l a t e s , u n t i l I found that the expence would have been inconveniently high

f o r many of those f o r whose particular instruction i t

was

designed. I have

therefore only reduced t h e

s i z e s of the

diagrams so as to comprehend

the

whole

work

;

and

that

only

(materially)

in

the

compasses,

by

giving

three

circular

gradations instead of

f i v e

; but I

would

advise the practising student to express

the gradations from colour t o l i g h t by many

more circular degrees,

increasing

the

number

of r a d i i a t pleasure,

and on

as large a scale

as

p o s s i b l e ,

according to

my system, which I t r u s t i s clearly

explained.







TME

ffAMTlRMS C0JMDRAS8

U'ARM KFI'KCT.

Snb)ect4.

Expansion of Colours according tv'Rootl.

Subject

% .

While

Yellow

Orange

Keel

Purple

InribLqc

Black

According to Root

Z

(OLD ESPBCT.

Subject,

6 ,

LoiuLon-. Bagsber & , Sons .

BlacTt

Indigo

Blue

Ove^n

Yellow

Pule

Yellow

While













THE

PAINTER'S

COMPASS.

213

means f o r

more

subtle gradations

by

the preceding compass;

a s the equal mixture of the colours of

any two

adjoining sub

divisions

w i l l

produce

the

colour

that

should

l i e

between

them,

excepting the

parent colours

of the compass, which c an nev er

be produced by t h e i r i n f e r i o r s .

THE THIRD COMPASS.

Here, according

t o

Root

3 , o l i v e ,

brown,

and

s l a t e colours,

form the central

datum,

and, l i k e their

predecessors, become

the c h i e f s of t h e i r region. The compounds which are pro

duced

by

their c i r c u l a r

communion,

are

not


d i s

tinguishable

from

their humble progenitors, to require, or

indeed admit o f , more subdivisional

r a d i i ;

nor

of descending

by any intermediate t i n t

between

them and

t o t a l

shade. For

were we t o make the compounds

which

are produced by Root

3 between

the three colours of t h i s

compass, the principals

of a fou rth compass, the whole would blend

into

i n d i s t i n c t

dark

neutrality

; which, f i n a l l y united, r e s u l t s i n Blackness,

as

already

appears

in

the

centres

of

either

root

of

the

com

p a s s e s . And that

nature

might d i c t a t e the progress of s c i e n c e ,

and

prove

i t

always t o be consistent with

i t s e l f , t h i s f i n a l

compound becomes a

most important

material : i t i s the l e g i t i

mate

shading c o l o u r ,

the want

of which

in

Fig. 12, Plate I . ,

i s the cause of

my

excluding i t from the system : and

/

con

sider black

to

be a s

deserving

the name of colour among

colours

( a s

painting

m a t e r i a l s ) , a s any in

the system ;

and

to a l l

intents

and

purposes of

painting,

a s r e q u i s i t e ;

possessing

the

properties

of

i n f i n i t e variety

on

the descent

of c o l o u r s ,

a s light

governs their a s c e n t . The next Plate exhibits the

simple

e f f e c t s of

i t s u s e f u l n e s s , by

s i x gradations of

shade

on each

of the nine c o l o u r s ,

and

i s explained

in

i t s p l a c e .

The rule which S i r

Joshua

Eeynolds has given,

in

h i s 41st

note

on

Du

Fresnoy's

Art of Painting,

i s a s

follows:

—

The

predominant

colours

of

the

picture

ought

t o

be

of

a

warm, mellow kind, red or yellow,

and

no more c old c olou r

should be introduced, than will be just enough t o serve a s a

ground,

or f o i l ,

to

s e t o f f and gi ve v alu e

to

the mellow

c o l o u r s ,

and should never of i t s e l f be

p r i n c i p a l .



214 THE PAINTER'S COMPASS.

Whether he

arrived at

this

knowledge

by

a

scientific

in

vestigation of the operations of

light

on matter

as

found in

NATUKE, or

by

studying the

works

of her most successful

imitators, i s not

a subject

of my

inquiry. He

WAS

EIGHT;

and

I cannot withhold the suggestion, that i t surely would

have been a weighty

confirmation

of his conclusions, to have

accompanied them with

the mathematical demonstration which

i s

conveyed

by

the natural

combination

of the three primitive

colours

in this Plate, as the infallible

consequence

of

their

triple

union,

by shewing

their harmony, sympathy,

and anti

pathies,

a l l

in

incontrovertible

order;

and

although

blue

has

such a powerful influence in i t s communion with the yellow

and red, as to determine the character of cold on that half

of the compass in

which i t i s

placed, s t i l l the mellifluent

influence

of yellow into

green

on one side,

and

the red into

purple on the other,

preserves

the

equilateral balance strictly

consonant with Si r

Joshua's

annotation.

Picture,

properly so termed, combines a natural proportion

of

light,

shade,

and

reflection,

on

judiciously

chosen

local

colours, which, i f properly proportioned in each requisite, and

in

natural order,

gives

harmony,

and conveys so true an effect

of

the subject,

that

nature will appear to have adopted the

work

as

her

own.

None but the genius who i s

refined by

a

scientific acquaintance

with the

system

which governs

so

meritorious a work, can comprehend,

nor

i s even aware of the

art

required to unite enough of a l l the component parts

for

a

naturally

whole

effect;

s t r i c t l y

conformable

t o

the

light

adopted.

It should be understood,

that

natu re, i n a l l her formations

and e f f e c t s ,

exhibits

nothing else but colour ; at l e a s t , inasmuch

as the effects of light,

shade, reflection, and

local

colours, on

the various objects of imitation, are considered; for then

a l l these

come

under

the denomination of colour or colouring,

every conceivable

and

perceivable tint

or

gradat io n o f which

may be

obtained by

proper application of the

means

offered

by

the

system

comprehended

in

these

explanations,

showing

the stu dent how to p ro vi de p ro pe r materials

for

the possible

representation

of a l l effects of

colour,

governed by the

Fifth

Axiom (see page 207).



1

i



i h i b j e c t

H

Lcnd/'n .Beta

s t e l ' & . ? « / ( . ' .







EFFECTS OF SHADE ON COLOURS. 215

And,

although

appearances are rendered such, by that

incomprehensible and

inimitable

power, LIGHT, s t i l l , such i s

i t s ascendancy over the appearance of a l l

matter

in i t s

extreme

e f f e c t s ,

as

to

annihilate

a l l

idea

of

colour

by

i t s

overpowering

influence ; while the total absence of i t s power, i s

productive

of

the

like

effect

by

the opposite

extreme,

enveloping in

invisible

darkness

a l l that,

which,

in the vivifying medium

of

LIGHT,

diversifies a

scene

with a l l the variety and beauty that colours

c an display.

LETTER XIX.

flate i i i .

Madam,

Figure

1 of this Plate will show you how three

degrees of each of the nine

colours

of the

system,

would

be

affected

by

various

degrees of shade;

—

x pre ss in g t he

simple

effect of the absence

of

light, and

proving

that the

increase of

s hade , u n af fe c te d

by

reflections, does not increase the local

colour. In these examples, the three top spaces of each are

to

be pure

colour, of three

different

degrees of

strength,

which

are each to

be

carried

down

without alteration of

colour

through the two rows below; the

whole

variety of appearance

being obtained by the different degrees of darkness, as printed

on

the

Plate.

If you

colour a

circle

according to

the

example

in

the

diagram

Plate III.,

and

contrive

to fi x i t on the top

of

a

whipping-top, or any thing

that

will give i t very rapid motion

on

i t s

centre,

the effect

will

be white:

this impalpable

mix

ture of the three primitive colours, i s one

of

the proofs

of

their

peculiar powers.

(See

the

Axioms,

page

207).

According to

the

proposition on

which I

have

herein offered

a

rudimental

system,

I

consider

the

nine

colours,

and

their

final compound,

in

comparison with the NINE

fundamental

characters

and

the cipher,

in arithmetic;

each

being fully

com

petent to

the

almost infinite purposes required

within

their



216

EXPLANATIONS OF

THE RAINBOW.

systems: because, whatever i s calculable within the powers of

the nine figures and the c ipher; so whatever i s imii able by colour

i s within the powers of the nine

material colours and

their

united

compound;

and

as

the

knowledge

of

arithmetic

must

precede the

study

of

calculation, I

have thought

i t

equally

reasonable

to make the kn owle dg e o f

colours as painting

material,

precede the stu dy of their

applications.

LETTER XX.

PLATE

IV.

Madam,

Although

my first proposition exonerates mefrom

assuming

any explanations which

properly

belong

to the prac

tice

of

transient colouring,

I have confidently

taken

the

su b

divisions

and

colours

of the rainbow

for

granted,

according

to

Si r Isaac Newton's distribution of them, as in the whole above

A, in Fig. 2, qualified by the fifth Axiom; which

may

induce

you to make

yourself

more particularly

acquainted

with that

beautiful phenomenon; which i s never visible when the sun's

height i s above

forty

degrees.

It

ought to be mathematically

understood by a r t i s t s , that the rainbow can

only

appear to be

nearly half a

c i r c l e ,

at the instant of sun-setting, and that at a l l

o the r t i me s of the bow's appearance i t will

be e l l i p t i c a l , with

i t s

longest

diameter parallel to

the horizon ; most

s o ,

when

the

sun

i s farthest from the horizon: to

be geometrically

ascer

tained, by

finding

how far below the horizon the

centre of

the

bow

i s

when seen,

which

i s the same number of degrees

as

the sun

i s

above

i t ; thus,

as

i t

were, throwing the

bow back

from

the

perpendicular.

The example given

(Fig.

2, above the line A,) proposes

to

show, that in the space appointed

for

red, a l l that can come

properly

under

that denomination, must graduate from deep

crimson

to

the

deepest

tint

o f o range

:

then

carry

off

the

orange

colour t i l l i t meets the deepest

tint of

yellow,

with which

i t

must unite imperceptibly ; then soften off the yellow

t i l l

i t meets

and unites

with

the palest tint of green. At t h i s point

of

the







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THE ARTIFICIAL RAINBOW. 217

bow, colour i s scarcely perceivable,

through

the delicate light

which

must there be affected : the

green

must tenderly increase

in colour and blueness (but not blue), t i l l i t

finishes at

the palest

tint of

b l u e . Blue

will go on

in

the

same

way increasing

in

colour

to Indigo,

and

from that

to the

v i o l e t , uniting

with

i t ,

and finishing violet with t he d ee pe st of that colour.

The width

of the

bow,

see Fig.

3, i s

governed by the

arch

i t

forms,

being somewhat

l e s s

in width than four degrees

of

i t s

arch. The distance of the se cond bow, above the princ ipal or

rainbow, i s not

quite nine

degrees, and

the

colours

are reverse

of

those

in

the

f i r s t

bow ;

this

i s

not

intimated

in

the diagram.

The

converging scale of

Fig. 2, from A

down to

E,

will

direct to the

drawing

of a

rainbow proportionable

to any size

landscape. First

mark

on the

edge

of a card the width of your

intended bow; then apply

i t ,

parallel to the line A, to that

part

of the scale that

t a l l i e s with

the len gth o f your measure, as

at

A, B, C,

or

D, or any intermediate space

between those

given measures ;

and

mark on the

card

a l l the

intermediate

divisions

of

the

colours.

Should

a

wider

bow

be

required

than

the measure

at

A, continue the

divisional

line

that

diverges

from E upwards, to obtain any width required ; then applyyour

marked card

to

the

foot

of the proposed

bow in your

picture,

and

set

off

the marks carefully.

TO

PRODUCE AN

ARTIFICIAL RAINBOW.

FIGURE

I .

PLATE

IV.

This figure proves the super-eminent powers

of

the three

primitive colours, by the

experiment proposed

by i t ,

which,

for

this

example,

being confined to the size of the Plate,

cannot

strictly

correspond with the proportion s taught

by Fig. 3 (that

of making the

width of

the rainbow about four degrees of i t s

arch); because

a

whole circle

i s

here

required, that a sufficient

breadth of each

colour may be displayed to illustrate the ex

periment

:

i t i s

therefore

f u l l

forty

degrees

from

the

inner

to

the

outer circles of this example, to bring i t within compass; but

the three c olo urs will nevertheless

blend

to the perfect elucida

tion of

the problem, by observing the

rule

which i t s figure



218 LAWS

OF

LIGHT,

d i r e c t s .

F i r s t ,

draw the largest

c i r c l e

that your t a b l e t will

take,

and a

smaller one within i t :

the space within these

two

c i r c l e s

i s

t o

exhibit the width

and colours

of the rainbow, by

rapid c i r c u l a r motion,

when

the t h r e e c o l o u r s are properly dis

posed on i t , which, by p r a c t i c a l application to your s c a l e in

Fig. 2 , and i t s explanation, you w i l l subdivide

proportionably,

and

s t r i k e c i r c l e s a t

each subdivision,

a s

a t 1 ,

2 ,

3 , 4 ,

5 ,

6:

then repeat the l i n e s o f the radius by

any smaller

number

than

the twenty-four

equal

parts of the c i r c l e in t h i s example, and

then draw the

zigzag

l i n e s a l l

round, according t o

the

example.

Colour

each

partition

which

they

form

with an

even

lay

of

the

colour,

f i l l i n g the outermost partitions with

r e d , and

the whole

space a l l round that l i e s

between

the red ; and the next zig-T&g

boundary l i n e i s

to be one

uniform y e l l o w ,

—

he next quite

home

t o

the

inner

c i r c l e ,

and

from the

inner

l i n e

of yellow, i s

t o

be an even lay

of b l u e

a l l round—he n

colour

the remaining

narrow parts home to the

inner

c i r c l e with r e d . The whole

should be drawn with s o f t p e n c i l , that a l l the

l i n e s

may be

rubbed

out

a f t e r

i t i s

coloured;

then

cut

a l l

the

extra

paper

away from the painting, and paste i t (the bow) on a neutral

grey paste-board, leaving i t larger than the bow, and make

the

experiment proposed,

that of putting

i t into rapid

circular

motion,

according

t o

your

own

ingenuity

and

convenience.

There has appeared

to me,

sometimes

(perhaps

by i l l u s i o n , or

pressure

on

the r e t i n a ) , a beautiful gradation of arches under

the true bow, with a tender repetition of i t s c o l o u r s , retiring in

perspective

l i k e

several

bows

one

beyond

the

other,

exciting

the

idea of

an architectural

i n t e r i o r .

LAWS OP

LIGHT,

SHADOW,

AND

REFLECTIONS.

The following

p r a c t i c a l

r u l e s may serve the student of tran

s i e n t e f f e c t s a s a bunch of k e y s , with which

he

may obtain

ad

mission

into

the

principal

paths

that

lead

t h e

way

towards

the

s u c c e s s f u l

application

of the

colours found.

1 .

Reflecting

surfaces tincture the objects r e f l e c t e d on

with

t h e i r colour, proportionately with t h e i r distance from each other,



SHADOW, AND

REFLECTIONS.

219

the

angle

under which

light

operates,

and

the

textures

of

both

surfaces.

2 .

The

general

prevailing

colour of

light

tinctures

every

object

within i t s

influence: for instance, observe the whole

hemisphere at clear mid-day, or the time of a warm

sun-setting,

or

the grey effects of a cloudy sky,

or

a fog.

3 . The power of light, particularly sunshine, increases the

warmth, and weakens the local colours, of a l l the cold class of

colours, which arc blue, green, and purple ;

for

instance, grass,

which in shade appears a cool refreshing green, will appear

ahnost

yellow

in

sunshine.

4. The warmth of parts, or

breadths, which

l i e

under

a par

t i a l

degree of shade,

but

where the power of lights from sur

rounding

matter prevails,

i s

accounted

for

by the quantity of

such secondary light, and

their local

colours.

5.

When a

white

surface r e f l e c t s on the shadowy part of any

colour,

i t

looks paler than the lighted

parts

of such colour; but

the power of the shadow holds i t

inferior with

regard to light.

6 .

Glossy

surfaces

receive

the

form

and

colour

of

a l l

objects

locally,

according

to thei r purity,

and reflect

them

accordingly,

being in

such degree

mirrors.

7 . Every colour that i s reflected on by i t s own colour, i s

enriched

thereby; according to the

strength

of

light

on the

reflector.

8 .

Every

colour that i s reflected on by i t s directly opposite

colour, will

be

neutralized thereby ; such a s , green against red,

blue

against

orange,

or

purple

against

yellow,

in

an

equivalent

degree

w7ith the

power

of

light.

9 .

If

any

two

approximate colours reflect the

one on

the

other, i t s

tincture will approach the appearance of that com

pound which the

two

colours

would

make by mixing them

(see

Painter's Compass, Plate I I . ) .

10. The direct opposite to

any

one of the primitive colours,

i s an equal

compound

of the o the r

two.

11.

The middle

colour, or medium,

in

a warm e f f e c t ,

i s red

(see Plate I I . ) .

12. The middle

colour,

or medium, between

light

and darkness

in the gradations of a

cold

e f f e c t ,

i s

green (see Plate I I . ) .



220 LAWS OF LIGHT, SHADOW, AND REFLECTIONS.

13. Whatever

be

the c olou r of a

f l a t surface when

viewed

directly perpendicular by the visual

ray,

and fairly l i t must

be

painted

of

that colour,

when unaffected

by

glittering

or

reflec

tion, regarding

duly

the influence of distance and aerial medium.

14.

The

certain

colours

of a l l

visible

matter must gi ve plac e

to their

appearances, owing to the

compounding influence of

l i g h t , shade, r e f l e c t i o n , various distance, clearness,

density,

and

prevailing

hue or colour

o f t he medium under which any

colour

i s seen.

15 . Every gradation of shade i s a gradat io n from the purity

of

colour,

because

of

the

prevailing

power

of

darkness

over

the

ev idence of colour.

By t he f ore go i ng

explanations, i t i s

to

be

hoped that

the

student

of

colours

will

find

such

leading

rudiments as must be

considered essential

materials for

entering on the study

of so

subtle, so

sublime, and

important

an

art as that of Painting ;

and,

I trust,

will f e e l the advantage of myhumble endeavours,

in having disengaged the art of mixing colours from that

of

using

them,

which

must

depend

on

a

knowledge

of

the

SCIENCE OF

TRANSIENT

COLOURS; the Study of

which

I

most earnestly recommend to every one who presumes to at

tempt

i mi tat in g t he v ari ou s effects of

nature

according to the

unerring,

yet e ve r- varyi ng decrees of

LIGHT.

And

I

have

cause to believe, that the investigation necessary to insure a

familiar acquaintance

with

the beautiful i r i s , will be found to

be a very instructive introduction to the study of a l l other

effects

producible

by

colours.

It now, surely, appears reasonable to conclude, that those

who use

colours without

a scientific

conformity t o , or even

apprehension o f ,

a system, must

depend

solely on

harmony of

sight;

knowing and feeling when they

are

right,

but

unac

quainted with that which would ensure

them against

the risk

of the contrary,

and

that

waste of

time

which must

oc c ur on

every

new

experiment.

I t

may be asked,

i f

such i s the extensive

power of

three

colours only,

why are

we

furnished with s u c h a great variety

of

paints?

The answer to this question,

satisfactorily, would

give the

inquirer

some considerable study. There are books



COLOURING

THE

DIAGRAMS. 221

which e xplain the natu re of substances used i n painting, to be

obtained by application to a

bookseller.

I t

may

s u f f i c e i f I

give

the general

information

on

the

sub

ject

a s a

general

answer.

The three substances (except

ultramarine) which

produce the

primitive c o l o u r s ,

and

mix

s o

variously

t o

a l l t i n t s

whatsoever,

are not

s o strong and durable (when mixed),

a s

many natural

and a r t i f i c i a l productions

of

d i f f e r e n t

colours; t h e s e , t h e r e f o r e ,

are preferred both a s to their strength,

and

a s they

save

the

trouble

of compounding. Another great reason i s , the i n f e r i o r

colours

are

cheaper

than

the

primitive.

I t will

be worth

the study, i f you inquire attentively

into

the

nature of your materials,

by the

means above

referred

t o ,

or a s

much

deeper into

the

a r t

of chemistry a s may

s u i t

your t a s t e

f o r such

study;

a s the compass of my undertaking w i l l not

admit

of room t o launch into a l l the information necessary f o r

an

accomplished a r t i s t . Besides,

where

a book i s already

extant, equal t o t h e purpose, I

f u l f i l my engagement by d i r e c t

ing

you how

t o

obtain

i t ;

f o r

i t would

require

a

complete

Encyclopedia of

Art,

t o bring a l l that i s r e q u i s i t e on the sub

ject into

one

book.

LETTER

XXI.

some

considerations

on colouring the diagrams.

Madam,

As

you are desirous

of

attai ni ng a

p r a c t i c a l know

ledge

of

the foregoi ng system, you

should

draw

t h e

diagrams

l a r g e r , and colour them

with

studious attention;

and

notwith

standing my confidence in having explained the whole to a

common capacity, I should

be wanting in

candour t o you a s a

student of c o l o u r s , were

I

to hold out the

delusion

—hat to

read i t

and

understand i t , would be

s u f f i c i e n t ,

except

you aspire

only t o the accomplishment of an amateur.

The landscape painter

in water-colours, who

i s not

properly

accomplished in determining on the direct means of producing

any particular

e f f e c t , w i l l

be richly rewarded

f o r h i s labour,

by



222 COLOURING THE DIAGRAMS.

colouring the

whole of

this system according to the c olou rs

named in each part of every diagram, in the progressive order

of their development ; whereby he will

ascertain

t he i nv ari able

relationship of the

gradations suited

to circumstances; along

with the simple and certain

art

of producing any tint or colour

he may require.

Practice i s

one of

the great means of perfection;

for

when

we find

ourselves earnestly

engaged

in the performance

of

a

work,

the faculties are awakened

to a l l

that

appertains to i t :

thoughts and

conclusions

a r i s e , which perhaps

would

never

have

occurred

;

some

of

which

may

lead

on

to

others

of

infinite

value

to the object of study.

It

will instantly

appear,

that the

following

directions

are for such as are

unaware

of

mathema

t i c a l

demonstrations on this subject,

which i s

evidently the case

with many

great geniuses—ecidedly so with a l l mannerists,

who accidentally hi t on a

method

of

giving

one tolerable e f f e c t ,

and then abide by

i t ,

to save self-examination.

But as there are few of that class who will

be

anything the

better

for

general

instruction,

I

will

not

invade

their

egotistical

f e l i c i t y , but

proceed with my instructions

to

more pliant s p i r i t s ,

who will find i t most advisable to

learn,

from the proposed

practical study of the diagrams, a l l that they teach,

before

or

along

with the philosophy of Optics.

This should be attained

by the ai d and

instruction of

proper

authors (if

not masters), to

prevent the

mortification

of that v ani ty of self-applause, which

may

rack the brains of would be

original discoverers with

dreams

of

great

outdoings,

for

want

of

a

l i t t l e

humble

and

judi

cious reading, when they would find that Newton, e t c . e t c . , had

completely i ns ure d t he prize

for

which

they

had so fondly

and

so vainly laboured.

COLOURING

OF

THE DIAGRAMS.

The Three Primitive Colours determine for themselves, being

each

of their proper colour

without any

mixture. But as

they

may

be varied in the depth of their colours, according to the

quantity used on a given space, you must take care to avoid

both paleness and darkness, so as to satisfy your eye that each



COLOURING

THE DIAGRAMS.

223

i s

perfectly

t he c olo ur

i t i s

named

to

be. Yellow must

be

neither

more

nor l e s s than

perfectly yellow; which,

in

using

gamboge,

will require

care, because i t s full depth tends to

orange

colour

;

and

wherever

i t i s

to

mix

with

any

other

colour,

i t

i s advisable

to

use i t alone,

by

laying i t on the c olou r

you

would mix with i t , as i t i s rather an unsociable material, and

acts best by i t s e l f ; but some mixture of i t with other colours

i s

unavoidable.

The

red lake

requires

enough o f y ello wn es s to

be

added to

overcome i t s

pink e f f e c t ,

so as to produce a

scarlet

t i n t ,

which

i s the

true

red;

and i t s

proper depth of colour

must be feelingly

attended to;

and

so

of a l l colours,

when

considered

as

the

standard colour

of

i t s name, which i s when they are the true

medium between the lightest and darkest tint of each colour.

The proper

depth

of

the

P ru s si an blu e i s a l l

the

attention

the

Blue requires: thus

you are

provided with the f i r s t

three

colours

of

Plate I . , which are there, to be

u sed

invariably

of

the same

depth,

as also

throughout

the

work,

wherever they

are

named

independently

of

gradations.

The

second row of Figure 1 , Plate 1 . ,

i s

the

clearest

and

most simple ev i denc e of the means by which the third row (or

second

of

colours) i s produced that I could devise—he inter

sections by couplets bringing orange, green, and purple, in

their proper colours, as

they are

t o be in

.

their respective places

of

t he s ys te m, forming the second class of colours as they

stand

in

the

third

row.

Although each

of

these are

made

by

mixture

of

other

colours,

they

must

be

so

perfectly

balanced

by

the

eye,

as to produce no idea of either of the two colours by

which

they are made. So that green, orange,

and

purple, must

appear

so en ti rely independent

of

those which

produced

them,

that

yellowness,

redness, and blueness,

must no

more be excited

by them, than they were before

you knew

the

mechanical

origin of

these compounds. The couplets which

are to

be

formed

by them,

according to

the fourth row, produce by

simple

intersection

the

third

class

of

colours,

as

they

are

set

up

in the

fifth

row, and are olive, brown, and slate colours. Here

we have the nine rudimental materials for pain ting, or

colouring,

NOT ONLY

THESE RUDIMENTAL LESSONS,

BUT THEY ARE



224 COLOURING THE DIAGRAMS.

THE MOST

AMPLE

MATERIALS

FOR THE

GENERAL

PUR

POSES

OF the

palette; their truth and

utility

depends on

your keeping strictly to the colours, both in tincture

and

depth.

The

second

subject of Plate

I . will only

require the nicest

observation of the foregoi ng directions, with regard to each

colour, both in tincture and depth. The same i s a l l that need

be

said

o f c o lo u ri n g Figs. 3, 4, and 5 .

Plate I I . The centres of the three

compasses are repetitions

of Fig. 10,

Plate I , and

are named roots, from

their situations

and o f f i c e s , and must

be

coloured e xac tly to the originals (as i t

i s

from

these that

the i nner

spaces

of the

circles

are

to

be

coloured), and most carefully matched.

Then,

as the

f i r s t

com

pass contains eighteen radial

divisions,

and the root dictates

only six of the

colours,

there will consequently

be

two

radii

between each to

be

coloured by the harmonising

communion

of the

two colours which

such spaces

l i e

between; i . e . , the two

spaces

between

yellow

and orange must

graduate

ou t of one

into the other, by just proportions of each,

according

to their

local

influence

:

—

he

same

between

orange

and red, and from

red to purple; then on to blue, which

will

graduate towards

and into green, as the green must up to the yellow. This will

f i l l the inner circle scientifically

true,

and each

of

the outer

circles will be only the one paler than the

other

by three

distinct gradations, from f u l l colour in the

inner circle

to pale

on the outer circle of eac h example.

A

good way of pro

ceeding

will

be

to

mix a l l

the

colours

to the

palest

t i n t , colour

i ng

each

whole

ray

( a l l

three

divisions)

at

once

:

then

leave

the

outer

space,

and

repeat the colours

again

on the

remaining

two

radii to

the

proper

depth

; when you

will

only

have the inner

circle

to

repeat the same colour on to a full

depth, which,

if

well calculated, will

finish

the compass. The more care you take

in preparing the original colours, the easier will the work be.

The

se cond compass

leaves

but one clear space between the

six c olo urs di c tate d by i t s c entral ro ot : those spaces must be

coloured by an

equal

mixture of the

two

colours which l i e on

each

side of i t , so as to make a harmonious association with

both.—The

third

compass

having but

six

radii,

the colours

are a l l dictated by i t s central root. Subjects 4 and 5 must



ON

COLOURING LANDSCAPES.

225

be worked according to the manner of the directions given f o r

colouring the rainbow, page 216;

and

the

directions

f o r colour

ing

Fig.

1 , Plate

I I I . , are

given under

the

proper

head, in

Letter XIX.

The

centres of

each

of

the

three

r o o t s , Plate I . , Fig.

2 ,

will be equally

of

one

tincture;

that of colourless shade,

nearly

black, notwithstanding the v arious colours of

their

causes:—

and

i t

w i l l

be one t e s t of the

truth

of the

colours of

their

compound

c a u s e s , namely, the three colours which, by i n t e r -

sectional

mixture, form each of the c e n t r e s .

LETTER XXII.

introductory

considerations on

colouring

landscapes.

Madam,

Theory can

only

shew the entrance to that

vast

and

varied

f i e l d

of

the

a r t

whi ch c omes

under

the

dominion

of

colour; or

perhaps

point

out some few of the

main

roads

which are most l i k e l y

t o forward

the

student

on his way

towards the

attainment of

a

rational

system.

To paint in

water-colours, you

must begin by shading,

or

(in e f f e c t ) modelling* the

whole

with a neutral t i n t , composed

of

indigo

and

Indian

red, which produce

a charming

cool

retiring colour;

more

generally adapted

t o

receive the various

appearances

of

l o c a l

colours

than

any

other,

particularly

in

landscape.

Whatever

you

can

conceive t o be,

in

any degree, shadow,

may

be done with

t h i s t i n t ,

not

regarding

the colour

of

the

object,

and

using t h i s

neutral t i n t only, a s

the

proper

repre

s e n t a t i v e of shade; which, you understand, means a l l the

v arious degrees of

the absence

of

l i g h t ,

independent of

the

additional force or depth

which

the l o c a l colour

must

give

* Which, I presume,

you now

understand to be the producing an appearance

of the substances, supposing your whole subject t o be composed of white o b j e c t s ,

entirely

disregarding colours ;

you

w i l l not lose time

i f you

re-peruse Letters

X., XI.,

and

XII.

15



226 ON

COLOURING

LANDSCAPES.

when added.

This

will

be sufficient caution to

you

against

doing

too

much

of the

picture

with this tint; f o r ,

when the

effect of a

colourless

object

i s

produced, with a l l i t s proper

force

of

light and shade (s u ch

as a finished

white

marble

statue,

or

any other white objec t) , thi s neutral tint has

com

pleted i t s part; except as a local t i n t ,

i t may often

suit the

colour as well as the

form

; as

in

clouds,

water, and

distance,

(in

cloudy scenes) which

makes

i t superior to

Indian ink for

the

purpose

of

dead colouring,

as this

f i r s t

lay may

be

termed.

Observe, a l l the transparent colours, in some instances, shade

themselves.

The

method of

preparing and

u s ing this neutral tint

i s pre

cisely according to the direction

given

you for shading

with

Indian

i nk (see Letter

X.),

calculating on a

sufficient

quantity

of

eac h degree

to be mixed

in

separate

saucers,

before you

besri n to

colour.

Now, as the

instruction for

adding the

true effects of

the

various colours of each

object

in the

picture,

and also the

general

hue

or

tone

of

i t ,

must

depend

on

circumstances,

I

c an only proceed to give

general

information,

which,

i f

pro

perly digested by practice and observation,

will,

I hope, intro

duce you to a good system of reflection, and lead you towards

a

true

imitation

of nature.

The f i r s t

general distinction of

colours, i s by

dividing

the

circular

diagram

(Painter's Compass, as explained in

the

XVIIIth l e t t e r , Plate I I . ) into

two

equal parts, horizontally.

And you will

find a l l the warm

colours on

the red and

yellow

half of the Compass, and the cold on the other, through the

influence of yellow and red on the

one half,

and the

power

of

blue on the

other.

The warm colours are adapted

to

advance, and the cold are

considered as retiring colours, when viewed with the light;

yet they a l l

will

suit a forward position,

when pure, and

pro

perly

supported

(according

to

the

illustration

of the

above

diagram);

but will

retire in

various

degrees towards the

distant

ground,

when

used

pale on the neutral t i n t , suited to the

intended distance; and (in o i l ) ,

by mixing

white

and

neutral

enough

to carry the

colour

o f f . This will

be

confined to

f l a t



ON

COLOURING LANDSCAPES. 227

surfaces

only,

in

a due degree

of

light, without glittering

or

reflection;—

roducing

this general rule,

—

hat the greatest

warmth will always be found on the i llu mi nat ed

side of

the

object; and, as far as a general rule can accompany genius,

in views

of

natural scenery, you will find

that,

when

looking

towards

the

light

(as for instance, a

sun-setting

e f f e c t ) , the

distance and

sky

will

possess

most of the gai ety and warmth

of

your

palette,

with

a l l the light

possible; and

the foreground

will be cool and sedate, and advance with increase of shade,

owing to the shady side of a l l objects being towards you; and

in

a l l

broad

masses,

which

l i e

entirely

ou t

of

the

immediate

influence of the principal light,

this

will be strictly the

case

on

account of their sole dependence on the cool, secondary

light of the opposi te part of the hemisphere, excepting from

local reflections ;

blades

of grass, and leaves of some

trees,

being transparent, must be treated accordingly. See Letter X.,

Rule

12.

It

will

be impossible

to t e l l you what gradat io n o f

tints

will

best

accomplish

sun-setting

effects;

they

must

be

seen

and

seized at the

instant,

owing to the

rapid changes

of the

cause: the whole

effect

will

change

gradually, so that i t i s

impossible

to copy

i t on the spot. This i t i s which renders a

previous s c i e n t i f i c knowledge of the varying degrees

of

light,

and i t s effects on various scenes necessary : for yellow changes

quickly

to

orange, and

will

become pink; and then purple,

in a short space

of time

deepening into indigo, on to

the

total

absence

of

a l l idea

of

colour. This

gradation will

be found on

the

edges of clouds,

according

to

their apparent

distance

from,

and strength of the cause of the

light

on them; and the

plain atmosphere, or space seen behind such clouds, will

graduate

from

colourless brightness

near

the

horizon, to

yellow,

then pale

green,

on

to blu e,

t i l l

i t f a l l s in with

the

indigo;

and,

like

the

gradation

just

mentioned, will

at l a s t retire upwards

into colourless shade, as night advances. So that the mass

of

space,

or

plain

sky, will derive

i t s colours and

gradations of

them, from the horizon to the zenith, according to the arrange

ment found in the

blue

(or cold) half of the rainbow; and the

clouds will

be

illuminated

with

the c olours of the (warm or)



228

ON COLOURING

LANDSCAPES.

red

h a l f , including

half the centre, or yellow portion in

both

instances; b egi nn in g wi th the l i g h t e s t yellow possible on the

horizon,

and ascending

gradually to the deepest colour of each

extreme

of

the

bow:

the one

f o r

sky,

the other

clouds,

as

follows :—

Purple,

I Red, I Orange, \ Yellow,

|

Green,

\

Blue, \

Indigo.

Colours of the lighted parts of

clouds, as correspondent with

the warm half of the bow.

Gradation of the

colours

on the

space

or clear atmosphere,

the

c o o l half of the bow.

A SUN-SETTING EFFECT.

Colours of the l i g h t s on

the undermost edges of

clouds, as correspondent

with the warm half of

the i r i s .

Z enith, or

Top

of t h e Picture

Indigo,

Blue,

Purple,

I R e d ,

I Orange,

YeUow.

Green,

Yellow.

I Gradations of the colour

^ of the sky, as corres-

( pondent

with

the cold

I half of the i r i s .

Horizon.

Let i t

be r e c o l l e c t e d ,

that t h i s

systematic association of

c o l o u r s , can only

be

found under one

particular

circumstance of

l i g h t

and

a e r i a l medium combined; and i s

given

a s a theme

of

study

in

the

department

of

rudimental

research,

under

the

f u l l

conviction, that the more

causes

can be ascertained by such

as are possessed of adequate t a l e n t , the more f r e e l y

and

power

f u l l y will their e f f e c t s be displayed.

I s h a l l , t h e r e f o r e , advance some further observations on sys

tematic e f f e c t s of l i g h t ,

a s p e c t , and consequent colour, a s

they

appear t o r e s t on any practical b a s i s ; from which genius

may

take f l i g h t

upwards

with

some

increase

of c e r t a i n t y ,

that there

i s

a

way

towards

the radiant

realms

of

perfection,

without

groping through chaos

Permit me now t o c a l l

your

attention to the e f f e c t which

would present i t s e l f t o your study, by turning your back t o



ON COLOURING

LANDSCAPES.

229

wards the western horizon, when the sun i s

i n

that part

of

the

sky. You

w i l l then

find

the greatest distance

to

be the

c o o l e s t ,

and

every

object

will

brighten

a s

they

approach

the

foreground,

and w i l l

have

their

l o c a l

colours heightened

by

the

power

of

the light

directly

on

them

;

exhibiting

a l l the s p i r i t

and warmth

of

colour,

a s

well

a s

strength

of s h a d e , on the nearest o b j e c t s ,

according s t r i c t l y

with

the

rule just

before gi ven.

You

must r e c o l l e c t what has been said on the subject of l i g h t , shade,

and


a s

they are general r u l e s , and must bear

their

parts a s much in a painting a s in a mere drawing without

colour.

They are

the

keys

to

T i t i a n ' s

c a b i n e t .

You

must

a l s o

conclude i t reasonable,

and

w i l l prove i t in nature, that a s the

two contrary e f f e c t s I have noticed, a r i s e

from

a direct con

trariety of cause,

namely,

the

warmest

and the c o l d e s t light pos

s i b l e in one hemisphere, any

view,

therefore, to the right

or

l e f t of either the

one

or the other, will

have

their warm and

bright parts towards t h e l i g h t ,

and

the s h a d e s , in quantity

and

tone, will be

proportionate t o

the degrees

of

i t s a b s e n c e ,

and

the

angle under which they are viewed

and

lighted.

With

regard

to the

particular colours

proper to

each

part of

your

scene

under

those a s p e c t s , the circumstances alone

can

d i c t a t e :

i f the

objects

are

f r e e from

moisture, you

will have

much more of their l o c a l colour than when wet with

dew

or

r a i n , because

moisture gives a glassy s u r f a c e ,

which

returns

r e f l e c t i o n s of the sky, e t c . t o your eye, instead of the colour of

the

o b j e c t .

Let

i t

be

s t r i c t l y

observed,

that

experimental

ev i

dence of what the certain

or

general colour of any object i s

—u st

have no influence over the painter s eye, no more than

absolute forms have over their perspective appearances; he must

resign a l l previous acquaintance with the colours of o b j e c t s ,

especially

distant

ones, and c o n f i n e

himself purely

t o

o p t i c a l

con

v i c t i o n , which i s

a e r i a l p e r s p e c t i v e , or

the perspective

of

colours,

and endeavour, by s c i e n t i f i c inquiry,

t o

discover whythe known

colour

of

an

object

must

give

place

(in

painting)

t o

i t s

apparent

one

—o a s

to enable himself f a i t h f u l l y

t o

anticipate the princi

ples

of those natural e f f e c t s

which

light, in

i t s various

de

g r e e s , produces

on

the vast and wonderful variety of

o b j e c t s ,

s u r f a c e s , textures, and d i s t a n c e s , which present

themselves, each



230

ON

COLOURING LANDSCAPES.

in as

great

a v ari ety of appearances as there may be

changes

of

position, and degrees of

light—

that (like the accomplished

scholar)

he

may

be thoroughly

acquainted

with

the grammar

and

dictionary of the language in which he undertakes to com

municate

his ideas ;

for

i t i s on the utility of learning and ele

mentary knowledge

that genius

must

s t i l l

chiefly depend

for

the

successful results of

hi s labours.

*

All substantial

bodies

resign

their

local appearances

ac

cording

to

the proporti on of their distance ; and their evidences

of

unevenness soften,

through the

perspective

diminution of

the

parts,

into

apparent

smoothness,

and

consequent

glossiness

on

their light sides ; until, finally, in the extreme distance, a moun

tain

would

assume the

apparent substance

of a cloud, as

well as

i t s

colour,

according to the degree of

glossiness

on i t s surface:

which glossiness i s not solely to be attributed

to

the

smoothness

and moisture of the snow as

found

on the continental moun

tains, but to that effect of smoothness which i s produced by

distance; becoming thereby an effectual mirror,

and

convey

i ng the colour

of

the

sky,

or clouds,

to

the

eye

of a

spectator

by

r e f l e c t i o n . (The

softening e f f e c t ,

produced

by

density

of atmo

sphere,

must

be

considered

according to

i t s

degree, along

with,

and not in opposition t o , this radical cause of distant colours.)

According to the above

conclusion,

the extreme blueness,

and

various

other aerial effects of colour on the distant moun

tains

seen

on the continent,

may be clearly

accounted

f o r .

Suppose

the

general

slope

of

the si de

of a

mountain

lay

at

an

angle of 45

degrees

from the level

( f i g . 148),

the

spectator

of

this would find

i t

reflected on by that colour which would be

in the sky or clouds perpendicularly over i t ,

at

a right angle to

his visual ray; and the same sort of calculation will in a l l

cases

confirm the

conclusion

(see Dialogue on

Reflection)

; the whole

effect

heightened,

of course, according to the

general

moisture

of surface.

Therefore, in an effect looking towards

sun-setting

with

a

wet

landscape,

you will

find

the

colours

of

the

sky

reflected strongly on the v ari ou s

distances, according

with the

angle under which they come. The most distant would in

* Extract of a l e t t e r to my e l d e s t son, during h i s f i r s t journey to Rome.



ON COLOURING

LANDSCAPES. 231

some

certain medium

of atmospheric matter

almost assume

the

colours of the

sky

nearest the

horizon

; and as your

eye

would

advance nearer objects to your attention, the reflection of

clouds

or

sky,

at

an

equal

angle

with

that

which

your

ray

of

sight

would make on the surface of

them,

would gi ve their

colour instead

of the local, and consequently would increase

in depth of

cool

shadows, s t i l l preserving the

ev idenc e of

local

colours, and effects of transparent bodies, until arriving at

the base line

of

the picture; the absolute glitterings of wet

excepted.

The effect

you would have, when viewing

the opposite as

pect, under the same

circumstances

of wetness, would

(as

I

have

observed)

render the

distance

much

lighter

than

in a

dry

landscape;

which

I conclude

i s

owing to the power of

light

returned by glittering : and although the colouring would ad

vance

towards the foreground, with a duo degree of

general

warmth and increase

of

local discrimination, yet the

moisture

would have that

general c o oli ng

influence which the incidental

clouds

would

convey

at

their

proper

angle of

reflection

;

pro

ducing that mys te ri ou s p lay of various tints over the whole

scene; which none

can

attempt

without

scientific

experience

after nature; and in imitating which, even the copyist

of

a

good

picture of this description c an seldom avoid gaudiness.



232

ON COLOURING-

LANDSCAPES.

I t

i s

almost

impossible

to

carry instruction

beyond the basis

laid

down

by

the se sugge st ions , without a risk of

confining

a

d i f f i d e n t

student

too

much within system;

but

as some

general

instances

may

awaken the right mode of

application,

I shall

advance them

thus:

—

Either of the three principal colours will stand forward in a

picture, by

being opposed with compounds of the

other

two,

agreeably to the order they are found in Plate I . f i g s . 11, 12 ,

and 13;

and

consonant with the tenth article of the laws for

light, shade, and reflection, page

219,

and when either black

or

white

i s

required

to

form

the

principal

mass

in a

picture

(s u ch

as the

black

or

white

drapery of a single figure), they

maybe supported or held conspicuous, by subordinate masses

of

a l l the thre e

colours, ingeniously

and naturally arranged ;—

either

pure and separate,

or

compounded, agreeably

to the

light,

shade,

reflection,

and distance, of the

objects

on

which they

may

be adopted. And as another eminent example, suppose you have

occasion to paint a group

of figures a l l uniformly dressed

in

white,

or pale

buff

colour

(as

in

the

picture

of

S t .

Romaldo,

of

Andrea Sacchi),—

ay quite white:—

he

greatest

success

of such

a p ic tu re

must rest on judicious composition, character, and

di s

position of figures

and draperi es, so

as to secure

an agreeable

b alanc e o f light, shade, and reflection,

c h i e f l y , of

course, with

proper expression of the subject.

The

next consideration must

be

upon that scientific balance of colouring, which would

pro

duce a natural

and

harmonious picture, according with the na

tural powers and properties of the three colours. Thus,in the

ex

ample

quoted, white, which i s

the absence of the three primitive

colours

(when

considered

palpable),

being

the

object

of

fore-

standing or principal, will

be successfully

brought forward by the

presence of the

three

primitive colours, judiciously harmonised by

light and shade.

It

i s a

common

question with amateurs,

to

ask

what

colour

i s

proper

for

the

shading

of

another. The

plain

and

direct

an

swer to such inquiry,

i s

—o colour

:

for shadow,

in

i t s

greatest

degree,

i s

entire

darkness

; and every gradat io n of colour ou t

of

darkness towards

light,

will

in the

same

degree

regain

i t s

original

hue;

which

effect

may be

very fairly proved

only by



ON

COLOURING

LANDSCAPES.

233

colouring on Indian

ink

shading

;

when the

mere

light

and

shadow of an uneven

surface (of any

c o l o u r )

i s

considered. But

when

shadows

are

reflected on by

any strong

colour, the sim

p l i c i t y of the shadow i s

overpowered

by

such


and

must

be treated accordingly; f o r instance—

he

r e f l e c t i o n

and

counter-reflection of red r o s e - l e a v e s ,

when

f u l l blown,

continues

and

contains

the colour, even in deep shades, to a greater

degree than the radical principle just advanced would seem

to

allow,

which

i s owing

to

their

transparency.—ee

my

Xth Letter, Eule 1 1 .—aint some plain s t r i p e s of various

colours

on

a s l i p of drawing paper, leaving

some

uncoloured

space between

each, and you

w i l l f i n d , by bending or rumpling

the paper, that the

shade

produced by the

bending

i s no colour,

but

precisely the same t i n c t u r e of shadow

on

the coloured parts

a s

on the p l a i n ,

f o r

colour

(truly s o

c a l l e d ) i s

never

increased

by

shadow.

The

remarks I

have

made

are rather to

lead you into

a

proper

train

of

observation

when

studying

nature,

than

a

pre

sumption

t o

give

a

law

f o r

colouring

without. To

become

an

accomplished imitator of the

beauty

and harmony of the natural

e f f e c t s

of

colour,

you w i l l find

i t proper to apply, frequently

and

s t u d i o u s l y , to every picturesque circumstance which may tend

to the improvement of your

powers,

seizing

whole e f f e c t s ,

prac

t i c a l l y from nature;

and

subdividing your

masses into a s

few

gradations a s p o s s i b l e , when

colour

i s the main object of in

quiry. The

various seasons of t h e

year, and times

of t h e

day—

the

storm,

and

calm

—

l l

have

their

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

beauties

and

p e c u l i a r i t i e s , of equal importance in the choi ce of a subject.*

Those who

make

landscape the

chief

object of their study,

would find

great advantage

in

getting correct outlines

drawn

of the

most

picturesque

subjects

that o f f e r

themselves

t o their

frequent observation; these should be in their p ocket sketch

book,

and

such a r t i s t s

should

never be without the po cket

*

Howard

on

Clouds,

i s

an

ingenious

and

very

useful

book

to

landscape

p a i n t e r s , but

more particularly as to the

s k i e s

of h i s t o r i c a l

pictures;

because

a r t i s t s ,

professedly i n

t h i s department, may

not hare

drawn these general

con

clusions

from nature,

which are

indispensably necessary

to the u ni ty of circum

s t a n t i a l h i s t o r y .



234 ON OUTLINE

AND PROFILE.

water-colour box, e t c . ; then, when any interesting effect of

colouring happened to oc c ur opportunely on revisiting any

scene

which had

been

previously

outlined,

they

would

be pre

pared

to arrange

t he v ari ou s tints

on

the

outline,

without loss

of that very precious time which the stu dy of aerial

colour

offers,

and on which a whole

picture

most

materially depends for that

unity

of

e f f e c t ,

which no theory

can

explain, beyond

the

general scientific principles that ev ince the correspondence

between causes

and their

e f f e c t s , enabling the

a r t i s t

to be hi s

own interpreter. I

cannot finish

this letter

without

calling your

attention

to two

writing-copies,

which

I

have

remembered

ever

since I

wrote

them

at school— r

OPPORTUNITY LOST CAN NEVER BE RECALLED;

and,

He that defers a

thing from day

t o

day,

Doth

on a r i v e r ' s bank expectant s t a y ,

' T i l l that f u l l stream which stops him s h a l l be gone,

Which

runs,

and

s t i l l for ever w i l l run on.

LETTER

XXIII.

on outline, profile, and

the

painting-room.

Madam,

I have hitherto

treated

of drawing (or

outline),

light,

shade,

reflection, and

colour,

separately,

for

the sake

of

progression, that you

may

be the better enabled to collect the

whole under one

idea

—hat

of

a

complete

picture.

The outside l i n e , correctly understood,

i s

a most important

preliminary to accomplish : while light,

shade, and

reflection,

are

only the ge ne ra l c o nt i nu at i on o f

i t .

What the outside

line

i s to the apparent

extreme

edge of the

object, lights and shades are to a l l the parts which l i e between

them;

evincing,

by their differently arranged de gre es o f force

or tenderness, a l l the p ro jec ti ons or rec edi ngs , as perfectly as

the outside l i n e . Insomuch, that a sc ulptor might make a

per

fect model therefrom ; thereby proving, that the outline

of

the



ON

OUTLINE AND

PROFILE.

235

whole of every part i s as necessary to be con ce ived and ex

pressed

as the outside l i n e . And i f this

be

perfectly accom

plished

by

a

successful

combination

of

the

means,

a

universal

outline

will

be as

evident

as

in that

complete statue,

or

model,

which i t ought t o be correct enough t o produce to a

sculptor.

And

the local

colour must

so

unite with a l l

other circumstances

of shade, reflection, e t c . , in

t h i s ,

as

rather

to i mp ro ve t he

effect

than confuse i t , as good music does poetry.

This,

i t

i s , which makes the greatest distinction between the

practical

means of

sculpture and painting.

What

the sculptor

accomplishes

with

the

chisel

on

absolute substance,

must,

in

a

du e degree of exactness, be effected on

a

flat surface by the

painter.

The late

eminent

sculptor,

Mr.

Bacon,

told

me

that,

If a correct copy of

sculpture (a

group especially) did not

produce as

good

an effect

as a

print

would

i f truly copied from

a

good

p ai nt in g o f the

same

subject, granting fairly that variation

and depth which

coloured

draperies, e t c . , e t c . ,

must

give to

such print, the

sculptor had

not done a l l

that

sculpture might

accomplish.

This

idea

(said

he)

ha s

governed

my

compo

sitions,

and

Roubilliac

i s

a

great example of i t s advantage.

I

may surely venture to

hope, that what

I

have communi

cated

of

each part

in

i t s

place

will

a s s i s t you

in the

pursuit

of

your studies, and lead you

to

seek a

good

reason

for

a l l the

effects

you would

attempt.

When

I

say good

reason, I

wish

you to understand that the name only of the greatest master

may

not

be

sufficient

reason

for you to copy him.

If

you are

asked

whyyou oppose purple to yellow, e t c . ,

e t c . ,

I

hope

you

will

now have a

much

more sufficient

answer than

saying,

Because

Vandyke did

so.

Although

i t

will

be

proper to

caution

you against doubting, while

you

do not possess the

science requisite; but I must hope that enough has been ad

vanced to

direct

your

i nqu iry Whythey did

so

or so? and

to

have

given

you the same

good reason

for copying them, which

they

had

for

copying

nature

to

that perfection

which

some

few

have attained.

To say more on the combination of

a l l

the separate parts,

or

means

by which the whole may be

best

produced, would

be binding

you to

that systemati c f o un dation,

on,

and from



236 ON

OUTLINE

AND PROFILE.

which,

genius

should r i s e

with c e r t a i n t y .

Look to Nature

with the

eye

of Art, or you

can

never hope t o imitate her

b e a u t i e s .

P. S . In answer

t o

your

query respecting

p r o f i l e s ,

or

out

side

l i n e s :—must

f i r s t remind you, that

i t i s n ot wi thi n the

province of my

undertaking

to t r e a t on

matters

that depend on

t a s t e ; and i t i s with

some diffidence that

I range

out

of

my

sphere. Persons who think their p r o f i l e o u t l i n e t o be irregular,

or overmarked, have a great objection

to

having their portraits

thus

painted; thinking

that a

front view may

give a more

favourable

picture

:

which

you

must

perceive

cannot

be

a

true

one, i f the

p r o f i l e projections

are

not

made quite

a s

evident by

true and judicious light and

shade in the

front v iew, a s when

drawn in

a d i r e c t p r o f i l e .

To

prove

t h i s ,

study the bu st of

the

Duke of

Wellington

—hat point

of view

could

soften or

take o f f the

evidence

of h i s having strongly-marked

f e a t u r e s ,

i f

a l l the

parts and articulations

of the

other forms

of the

f a c e ,

a s

seen

in the

model, were s t r i c t l y

attended to?

You may

take

i t

f o r

granted,

that

the

above

prejudice

against

p r o f i l e

o r i g i n a t e s , and belongs t o

black-shade p r o f i l e s only ;

f o r without

the

preference du e

to the antiques, the beautiful p r o f i l e models

of the present time w i l l hardly allow one t o imagine that

any

other view of the subject could

have

been a more advantageous

representation.

For my

own judgment, I must declare, I

conceive

that strongly-marked f e a t u r e s , viewed,

and

closely

imitated i n f r o n t , especially under a high l i g h t ,

would

produce

a

l e s s

pleasing

e f f e c t

than

p r o f i l e ; particularly i n

female

f a c e s ,

in consequence of the bold shadows of their projections : while

the

p r o f i l e

may

be so

placed broad

t o

t h e

l i g h t ,

a s t o

ren de r the

e f f e c t a s agreeable a s the form could

possibly

admit. However,

I only

o f f e r my particular

opinion

on t h i s a s a theme rather

than a s

a

law :

and i f that captivating

expression which

charms

the soul could be a s instantaneously portrayed a s i t i s given

when

directed t o the sympathising feelings of

love

or friendship,

I should gi ve up

my

arguments f o r p r o f i l e s , and a l l distinguish

ing remarks

on

f e a t u r e s , and decidedly recommend a

preference

t o taking t h e whole soul full i n front ; which conclusion leaves

you to

cultivate acquaintance with those ideas which

will



ON OUTLINE AND

PROFILE. 237

qualify you t o judge f o r yourself on the

most

advantageous

representation of a s u b j e c t .

Those

involuntary

expressions of

a f f e c t i o n

which

flow

from

the s o u l , and

convey

so much i n t e l l i g i b l e f e l i c i t y t o the fond

parent, the sympathising f r i e n d , and the f a i t h f u l

lover;

that

energetic vehemence which characterises valorous actions—hat

firm and

deliberate

mind

which

s u s t a i n s

the

arduous

senator,

the s o l i d look of j u s t i c e , the depraved hardiness of unconscion

able

villany, the timorousness of

f e a r ,

the

awkward

expression

of bashfulness, the

lovely and unconscious

triumph of innocence,

and

the

various

expressions

of

joy

and

of

sorrow,

—

l l

w i l l

impress

t h e

f e e l i n g s

of

an

acute observer, with a decided and

very

powerful

e f f e c t . But a s most of

the

characterising expres

sions of the passions are

t r a n s i e n t ,

the most happy and

well

cultivated genius can

only s e i z e t h e

i d e a s of

what

i s

required

to

be conveyed t o the canvass, or

wrought

out on the marble, and

digest them

in

his

mind according t o

t h e rudimental information

he has a c q u i r e d . The gradual progress of performing a

work

of

such

importance, requires

the

mutual

attention,

s p i r i t ,

and

patient perseverance of both subject and a r t i s t , wherever those

extraordinary

f e l i c i t i e s

are expected

from

that e f f e c t , which i s

erroneously imagined

to

be

within

the miraculous powers of the

a r t i s t , by means of a happy glance, or a fortunate t o u c h .

What danger of

error

must the self-endeavouring tyro be i n ,

when a friendly adviser (who i s fond

enough

of works of a r t ,

and the endeavours of

genius,

to i n s i s t on the t i t l e of a con

noisseur

)

who

will

t e l l

him

one

happy

touch

will

perfect

the

work,

and

that

he

has been s o

fortunate

a s to

point

out such

s i n g l e

touch,

t o the completion of a p o r t r a i t , which had NO

RESEMBLANCE BEFORE

A

p o r t r a i t - p a i n t e r ' s great dependence i s on the Graces,

most particularly s o , when painting

handsome females;

wherein

the

utmost

e f f o r t s of a r t require extraordinary genius to do

justice

t o h i s

subject;

and

even

t o

improve

on the plain t r u t h ,

by selecting the

most

pleasing

and

interesting t r a i t s of expres

s i o n , a s well a s

of forms;

aiming a t that nice c r i t e r i o n , which

distinguishes the very c r i t i c a l l i n e which divides f l a t t e r y from

complaisance,

s t i l l preserving indisputable i d e n t i t y ofresemblance.



238

THE PAINTING BOOM.

Many ask a portrait painter, why he paints with so high

and confined a light,

and

that only from one window or aper

ture?

Its

height i s intended to gi ve a sufficient quantity of

shadow,

to

produce not

only

a more practical,

but powerful

effect

on the

object of

study. And

why

but one window?

Because the integrity of light and shade i s not

only

more sub

stantial in e f f e c t ,

but

much

l e s s

difficult

to i mi tate.

For an

experimental proof, set a decanter of water on the table, and

study i t

from a painter's l i g h t ,

and

the

operation

would be as

simple, and as perfect, as the

nature

of the object

would admit.

Then

open

two

or

more

windows

in

addition

to

the

painting

window,

and try another study

from

the decanter,

and

you

will find

such a

multiplication of lights, shades, and

reflections,

as to increase the labour proportionate to the number of win

dows; and after a l l , i t would only be the picture of the decanter,

with perhaps no

improvement

of

effect

for your trouble.

Here

observe, as a lesson that will be of material importance

in

our next subjects of

inquiry,

that the

depth

of shadow so

necessary

to

the

best

e f f e c t ,

must

be

studied

with

the

nicest

attention

t o nature, as

(perhaps I

may say) f i f t y ou t of a

hundred

f a i l

in the advantage offered them by an

appropriate situation

of their model, through incorrectness of imitation, both of

shade,

reflection,

and colour : and that

which

should appear one

of the greatest merits of their work, becomes the ridicule of the

vulgar, as

well

as

a

just object

of

criticism to the connoisseur,

who, expressing

his

condemnation in a sarcastical vein, com

pares

the

dark

shadow

under

a

nose

to

the

stain

of

black

rappee

:

this sort of severity

may

be some punishment to a careless

a r t i s t , and points ou t the necessity of attention.

I

am now fully prepared to commence my

communications

on miniature

painting, and hope

you are quite convinced of

the

absolute necessity

of the

preparatory

instruction which you

have so attentively

waited f o r , although the following letters

were wri tt en wi tho ut any previous teaching

to

the

young

lady

to whom they were

originally

addressed.



239

LETTEE

XXIV.

on miniature painting.

Madam,

I shall now give you the copies I promised of

the two letters I

wrote

to a young lady, on the subject of

miniature painting; in which you must submit to

some

re

petition

of

many points, with

which

my

foregoing commu

nication

must

have

made

you

thoroughly

acquainted.

I

have

sometimes thoiight

of abri dgi ng

them

of what they con

tain of

matters

previously explained ; but have

concluded

that

i t would be more to the purpose to repeat the

whole

as

originally written, with a design of gi v ing my system as

com

pletely as

possible.

Avery tolerable painting in mi ni atu re has been produced

by an amateur (from an attentive application

to

the

following

l e t t e r s )

who

had

never

before

used

a

colour,

and

in

the

specimen

alluded

t o ,

had no

other guide than a black and white print;

and

since the

first

publication of them, I have received many

other ev idences of the success

of my communications

on the

subject.

LETTER XXV.

INSTRUCTIONS

ON

PAINTING

IN

MINIATURE,

Containing

much Rndimental Information necessary to

General Accomplish

ment i n the

other

Departments

of

the Art,

IN LETTERS TO A YOUNG LADY.

Madam,

I

consider i t due

to your great

attention and the

honour you have done

me

by your improvement,

to

give you

the

following general

memorandum

of the

whole

process,

that

you may not be at a loss in any material point, when you will

have finished your course of lessons on miniature painting, and

can

practise without a master.

The sheet ivory

for

miniature painting i s to be

had

finely



240 MINIATURE PAINTING.

prepared a t most of the water-colour shops,

and

of ivory

turners:

the

best f o r

the

purpose

i s

c l e a r ,

f r e e from

those seams

and

white marks which sometimes occur.

They

can be

had

any

s i z e

which

the diameter

of an elephant's tooth will admit

o f . It

i s best to bleach the sheets

gradually f o r

a month in the sun ;

some b o i l them. They

may

be brought to

a

good

s t a t e

to

paint

on

in half an

hour, by

placing them

a t a small

distance from

the

f i r e . When

a sheet of ivory i s s u f f i c i e n t l y white, i t will

be

come in a

certain

degree opaque, losing that o i l y transparency

which i s i t s natural property.

You

must then

scrape

i t with

a

sharp smooth-edged

knife

or

scraper,

t i l l

the

saw

marks

are

cleared o f f , and the surface perfectly smooth. Rub i t with

c u t t l e - f i s h , or very.finely-sifted pumice-stone powder, t i l l the

polish produced by scraping i s f l a t t e n e d , and with a large pen-

' c i l

f u l l of c l e a r

water wash the s u r f a c e ,

and

wipe i t off

quickly

with a very clean piece of linen

or c otton

;

or

rubbing i t with

very clean India-rubber will answer the same

purpose;

i t i s

then f i t to paint on. Take great care not t o touch the

surface

afterwards

with

your

f i n g e r s ,

a s

i t

w i l l

render

i t

unfit

t o

receive

the water

colour

f r e e l y . Even the

imperceptible

perspiration of

the

cleanest hand

must

come

under t h i s

character

;

and

the

caution

must

be s t r i c t l y observed, f o r no other

reason than the

one given.

When

your

ivory

i s pre

pared, cut a card about

one

inch longer

and wider,

t o put

i t

on,

which

you

may

f i x

in

a temporary manner thus:—

Lay the ivory

even

on the

card; make a pencil mark

at

each end of

i t ;

and

then

cut

four t e e t h ,

or

angular points,

in the form

of

a V, a t the

corners near t h e

ends

of

t h i s

pencil

mark

quite

through

the card, pointing inwards,

and

finishing a t the

pencil

l i n e .

Slide the ivory under these fou r poi nts

of

the

card,

and that

w i l l hold i t secure t i l l you have

made

your drawing, which

Card.

V

V

The IVORY

placed properly

on the

Card.

A

A

Card.



MINIATURE

PAINTING. 241

should be done on a piece

of

wove paper the size of the ivory.

I generally lay i t over the ivory by sliding i t under the same teeth

which

hold

i t

to

the

card;

i t

i s

thus

secure

enough to

sketch

on.

If

you only wish to draw a bust

or

head,

divide

the length

of the ivory into three equal parts, and l e t the length of the

head be one

of

those parts ; and, to a person of

middling

stature,

place

the chin

or

bottom of the

face

in the

centre

: this gives

half a

head

clear above the head,

and

the length of a head

and

one-half below,

which

you

will find

to f i l l your ivory very

pro

portionately, being careful

to place the

chin

higher or lower on

the

drawing,

according

to

the

stature

of

your

subject,

observing

that i t

i s always wrong to have the face too low

down.

One-

eighth part of the le ngt h o f the head,

either above

or

below

the

centre, i s

nearly sufficient for the t a l l e s t or shortest

person;

that

i s , one 24th part of your ivory : discretionary liberty must be *

granted in t h i s . And when you paint a pair of miniatures, a

gentleman and lady,

to

match as

to

s i z e ,

you

may

have

to

cal

culate the

he ight o f female

head dresses, so that the rule will

require

consideration, that

the

two

faces

may

be

of

right

pro

portion, the one

to

the other.

When you have made a correct drawing on the paper, and

completely

settled your composition

in

pencil

(marked

strongly),

raise

the corners of the

card, and

place the drawing

under

the

ivory,

which

will

serve as an

outline

for

your painting,

as

the

ivory

will

be

transparent enough for that

purpose.

Here you

will have

an advantage

you would not have had, i f your

f i r s t

sketch

had been made on the ivory—

hat

of moving the paper

drawing to

that

part

of

the

ivory

you may wish.

To

obtain

the proper handling in miniature,

i t will be

good

practice

to

copy,

in

Indian

ink,

a few of the very best engrav

ings

(after

such

noble and reputable

characters as

may be

worthy a place in your portfolio), that you may not

be

per

plexed with colours t i l l you can f e e l your ivory ground; and

as soon as that

i s

acquired,

you may begin

painting

in

miniature

but I should not advise studying from the l i f e , until you have

made some copies after good l i f e - s i z e paintings. For

copying

miniatures

will

give

you

a

l i t t l e

style, especially as there are

very

few of

much value except as to

identity

o f r es emblan c e,

16




but

what

are too highly esteemed by their owners to admit of

their

being

copied.

And as to the

manner

of putting

on

the

paint,

i t i s

only

worthy your

attention

to

know, that

i t

should

be

done with great care

and

delicacy, which practice

and con

viction of what

you

have t o do will best produce.

It may be proper

here

to assure you, that there should

be

bu t one distinction between large and small pictures, namely,

the difference of

their

s i z e . To

prove

t h i s ,

I

have

only to

refer

you to Mr. Bone's enamels,

and other

well painted miniature

copies,

after large

pictures, which

are

generally superior to

any

originals

of

their

dimensions.

And

as

far

as

regards

the

size

of

a

picture, I

will ask, what small original pictures,

generally

considered, are

to

be compared with the engravings after

some

of the largest pictures in the world by Si r E. Strange,

Barto-

' l o z z i , W oo lle tt , Sha rp ,

Heath,

Cardon, e t c . , e t c . ,

which en

gra v i ng s f o r size must be classed with miniatures ?

Teniers,

Ostade, Wouvermann, Rottenhammer,

Wilkie,

e t c . ,

prove that the

small

dimensions of a work ought not to lessen

i t s

importance

:

for

a

good

miniature

must

contain

a l l

that a

good

l i f e - s i z e picture

should,

ex cept quantity. This,

I hope,

will

s e t t l e your mind as to s t y l e ,

that

you may proceed to the

manner

by which a good miniature may be produced—f

you

c an com

pose

and

draw equal t o

such an undertaking

; for

which I

hope

myeight f i r s t Letters have prepared you.

For

i t

would

be

un-

candid in me to proceed, without assuring you that a l l I can

teach you respecting the progres s of miniature painting, will

not

enable

you

to

produce

a

good

picture,

in

any

degree

beyond

your a b i l i t i e s for correct drawing. There i s no power in colours

that

can

compensate the defects of bad drawing ;

i t

must not

only be well drawn, but well characterised; which cannot be

accomplished

without a

competent

knowledge of

forms, and the

reasons for

light,

shades,

and reflection, united with a happy

taste to arrange the whole to the greatest advantage.

It i s not

expected that these accomplishments will

shine ou t

in perfect splendour in

your

f i r s t essays, but they must ever be

the

ruling principles

of your progress.

The mind

must be

bent

on perfection ;

and

you must not

turn

your beginnings off with

disgust,

continually

entering on

something new ; but studiously



MINIATURE PAINTING.

243

and

patiently

correct

and

complete

whatever

you

begin,

to the

very best of

your

a b i l i t i e s

: which

must

not

depend

on

your BEST

wishes

for

a

lucky

hit

;

bu t

acquired

a b i l i t y ,

through

elementary

application, whereon alo ne c o nv i c ti o n of certainty depends.

Please

to understand, my

objection to

your

making many

beginnings, does

not extend to

your

sketch-book,

which may not

improperly be classed with the accountant's

waste

book, wherein

you

should

not

neglect

to

sketch any thought,

or circumstance,

worthy a se cond consideration. Your sketch-book will be the

sincerest

c r i t i c ,

i f you make candid reflections

and

observations

on

i t s

contents

;

shewing

what you

c an

do,

and

proving

wherein

you are deficient, thereby directing you in the clearest manner, to

which of the

elements

you should

apply for

improvement.

Now, admitting you qualified,

—se

fresh soft water,

and

the gum water

should

also be fresh ; about one-eighth part

gum, and

seven-eighths of

soft water, i s

as strong as

i t can ever

be required ; but i t may be made

much weaker for general

use

with advantage

to

the picture : some

good

painters u se nothing

but

clear

soft

water.

The

finest

water-colour

cakes you

can purchase

may

be

much

improved by re-grinding,

for

which

you

should be pro

vided

with a glass,

or,

rather,

porphyry

slab,

and muller, or

levigator. Rub the cake on the slab with very thin gum water,

t i l l you have discharged as

much colour

from

i t

as you choose ;

then grind i t with the

muller for

ten minutes (the strong-

bodied paints will require more grinding than the lakes) ; take

the

colours

off the slab with a palette-knife, and place them on

your

palette

in

the

following order,

or

any other

you

may

choose to

adopt

with

better

reason.*

Brown mad

der l a k e .

Pink d i t t o .

Carmine-

l a k e .

Vermilion.

Venetian

r e d .

Indian

r e d .

Sippia.

Vandyke

brown.

Burnt

terra

de Sienna.

Raw d i t t o . Gamboge.

Yellow

ochre.

Black. White.

Nap.

Y e l l .

Ultrama

r i n e .

Pruss. b l u e .

Indigo.

* This p a l e t t e represents the

s l i d i n g l i d

of a box of

water

colour cakes, which

I advise

as

a very convenient i mp ro v eme nt o n t h e i r

present l i d s .




Begin your painting on the ivory with the utmost atten

tion to correctness o f r es embla nc e , not entirely relying on the

sketch

you

have behind;

but

reviewing and improving the

whole to a perfect likeness in this new outline, by tender

touches

and

masses

of shadow: do not work

too

wet, but

bring the

whole

forward by

hatching, which

i s making light

clear strokes with the pencil, somewhat in the manner of line

engraving ; and stippling, which i s dotting,

and

i s generally

practised most towards the finish of the work. You must

never l e t the

pencil stop

on the

ivory,

unless

you

would leave

a

solid

spot

of

paint, which

i s

seldom

required,

because

a l l

the colour should be more like a tincture, or dye, than

an evidence of substantial

paint.

This f i r s t part i s to

be

done with a neutral t i n t ,

mixed

of Indi an red and

indigo;

but

for flesh, ultramarine blue, and

the

madder

lakes, will

be f i n e r .

You

may

draw

and

paint with this t i n t ,

t i l l

the whole

of

that

which

you c an

consider

shade

i s

completed, paying very

l i t t l e

attention

to

the

local

colour or

complexion

of

any

part,

but aim at

the

likeness with

the

effect

of a plaster-of-Paris

bust;

observing,

as you proceed, that the reflected parts may

have a

thin warm

tint of yellowish

hue : raw terra de sienna i s

a

good

general

colour

for t h i s .

This

must

be done with an

eye

to nature, and

a hand of caution;

and a l l

retiring parts,

or

those surfaces

which

are seen

in an

oblique direction, will be

colder (except when influenced by

reflections)

than the other

parts

of

the

shading;

that

i s to say,

bluer,

when

you have

the

light

side of your subject toward you,

which

i s generally the

case

in portraiture.

The neutral tint i s a retiring colour;- take care to u se i t

sparingly

and tenderly, recollecting

that

the

local colour,

or

proper

complexion of the part,

when

added, will decrease the

li ght i n

a

considerable degree.

In

marking the forms of

features

and muscles, the neutral

tint should have more of red than blue, especially the lips;

f o r , if

you model

them too much with

a

cold t i n t ,

you would

not

recover

the coral of the l i p s . Indeed

i t

will

be absolutely

necessary

to observe when effecting the modelling, that i s ,



MINIATURE PAINTING. 245

when

you endeavour to express any part of t he f orma ti on ,

with a

colour foreign

to the real purpose, however s trong the

likeness

may

become in expression through

correctness

of

form, the colouring must

be

s t i l l

imperfect. The

greatest

geniuses for tru e o utli ne in portraiture,

being

such through a

sort of

impulsive

sympathy, are most liable to the

effects of

this

error : while

young

i n o bs erv ati on , dashing on

at

the

expressions, just when

i t

strikes them,

without

due regard to

the

colour

they are going to use.

It i s

this

class

of picture

that appears

better

in

print than

in the original; and the

observation

here

required,

i s

for

painters

in

o i l

or

crayons,

as

well

as miniature. The nose and ears, being transparent,

will,

in some points

of l i g h t ,

have

their shadows of

a deep red : this

depends

on

the

circumstances of

light and reflection, by which

you must also

be governed

in the hue of your retiring

t i n t s , by

the effect on your subject.

As

soon as you have produced a good likeness, as to the

model or

dead colouring,

begin

to

cover

the whole

with

the

complexion,

both

lights and

shades,

proceeding

in

a

careful

tender manner to produce that

delicate

smoothness,

and

uniting e f f e c t ,

which

are requisite in such minute

attempts.

This may

be

facilitated

by

taking care to have the tint you

are using, pale

enough

to

prevent

your

touch

from

appearing

a dark

speck. You

will

find light red (which i s yellow ochre

bu rnt); or

Venetian red,

pink madder, well-ground good ver

milion, and raw terra

de

Sienna, equal to almost a l l the local

complexion

you

c an

conceive,

when

variously

applied

as

your

subject dictates.

In

very f a i r complexions the ultramarine will be

found

necessary

near

the i nner corners of the eyes, on the sides

of

the

nose, on t he t emp le s, and about the mouth, and in a l l retiring

parts

that are not

under

the

influence

of reflection,

which

will have been attended to in the modelling, or f i r s t

process, i f

my

previous directions have been

rightly

given

and

received.

Indian red

(when

fine) i s a very useful and durable colour,

but, like vermilion, requires a delicate touch, i t being an

embodied heavy colour, and should be used with

very

l i t t l e



246

MINIATURE PAINTING.

gum ; because a l l body

colours

will remain as a substance on the

surface of the ivory, and too much gum would form any mass

of such colour into a cake,

which

would

be liable

to

shrink

and

scale

off from

the

ivory.

Now begin to find your

deeper

shades with a mixture of

Indian

red,

lake, and Indian ink,

attending at the same

time

to

brown

or warm

shade, and

increase

the local colour, especially

the darke st o r

deepest,

and settle a l l your high lights

by

deli

cate

touches

of

'

fine

white,'

as

prepared

by

Newman,

of

Soho

Square, and

to

be had

at

most

of

the colour shops, ready

for

u se, like

the other c akes

of

colour.

Observe

to

keep

and

u se

this

colour very clean,

and,

indeed, a l l of

them:

use the purest

water

you

c an obtain, and have a l i t t l e thin clear gum water,

using i t rather

sparingly,

as i t i s liable

to

injury

from

damp.

I

have

habituated myself

to

forward the background and draperies

immediately after this f i r s t stage of the likeness, or subject, i s

in a satisfactory

s t a t e ,

which you will understand to

be

when

the

whole appears t olerably corre ct as to design, light,

and

shade,

but f a i n t ,

like

a

very

pale

impression

of

a

slightly

coloured print.

Backgrounds, to any portrait

which

includes the

hands

or

more

than

the mere bust (as in lockets), should not be inde

finite breadths of colour, with no other effect on one's mind

than that of background ;

for

a portrait

will

not

only

appear

lonesome,

but unnatural, when

the background i s not

some

intelligible description

of

a place or

space,

suitable, and pro

perly subordinate,

to

the

principal

object

of

the

picture

;

which,

when expressing more than the bust,

will

require suitable

but

subordinate accompaniments. Much consideration i s always

due

to

this point, but i t

would

carry me ou t of the

sphere

within which I

presume to

be useful, were I t o ant ic ip at e the

prov i nc e of genius, t a s t e ,

and

judicious observation, by ad

vancing any

further

information on ' t h i s point.

I have seen

a

very

natural

effect

of

flesh colour in a

min iat ure , declared (by the painter) to be

entirely painted

with

Indian

red,

yellow ochre,

and

indigo

only; but yellow

ochre

does

not work

pleasantly

unless

very finely

prepared

(which

now i s pretty well done

by

the water colour manufacturers; I



MINIATURE

PAINTING.

247

have found none

better

than Newman's, Soho-square) ; yet

I

have experienced that much may be done with those colours,

enough

indeed

to

secure

a

durable

vivacity

of

colour,

when

the more delicate tints

have

faded ; and for the whole of the

backgrounds

of

portraits,

these

three materials, mixed agree

ably

to the system of making the nine

principal

colours (see

Letter XVI.), are most suitable to t he fo re standi ng of the

higher

order of the three primi t i v e colours, which you will u se

on

the portrait.

When you have completed your design, the ivory

may be

easily

c ut

to

a

proper

size

and

shape

with s c i s s o r s , beginning

at

the sides, and cutting

with

the grain towards the

ends;

then gum the back near enough the edge to prevent i t from

running

under

the

f l e s h ,

as that would give a

cold

tinge.

Place i t on a clean card the instant i t i s gummed, and put i t

between two very smooth f l a t surfaces, in c lean p ap er,

under

a

sufficient

weight to

press

i t

until i t

i s

dry,

unless

you have a

small screw

press

for the

purpose. When

your painting

i s

completed,

you

should

fasten

i t

to

the

glass

with

goldbeater's

skin, or court-plaister, c ut in long s l i p s : the goldbeater's skin

must be used as soon as i t i s

wet,

f o r , when dry

again,

i t s

adhesive quality i s gone. You must lay the skin on a table

to wet i t ,

and l e t i t

l i e just while you place the picture and

glass together quite even, and holding them close between

your thumb and

finger,

place the edges on the middle of the

slip of wet skin,

and

i t will stick to the glass

by

rolling :

make

i t

adhere

closely

to

the

glass

and

picture,

and

leave

i t

to

dry,

when the s up erf lu ou s s ki n on the

glass can be

easily

scraped

away. The

glass should always

be

a t r i f l e

larger than

the

picture,

that

i t s edge may take the

skin.

Take care,

when

painting from the

life, or any

absolute

model,

to have some

surface,

of a p ro pe r de gre e of shade

and

colour,

placed

behind

as a background, to

give

the best

relief

possi ble to your subject; some compound t i n t ,

approaching

to

neutral, i s

(in my opinion) most

suitable;

but on this

point,

genius takes a free commission,

only

observing,

that

i f

you paint

a background

to

your

picture

darker than that

which i s

really

opposed to your view, and then study the flesh ti nt from the



248 MINIATUKE PAINTING.

l i f e , while sitting as f i r s t proposed,

you

are

liable

to colour and

shade

i t as

much darker than

nature,

as your

painted back

ground i s

darker

than

the one

set

up.

Now,

consider

how l i t t l e of any round object presents

itself

f u l l to the

light

and to your

eye

at the same time ; that space i s

a l l

which

will

require

the pure local

colour;

and the extreme

points of

projection

in these, will shine in some degree, and

approach to whiteness : this i s easily produced by scraping the

colour

o f f .

The

true

and

peculiar

form

of

these

lights must

be

as nicely observed as the shape of any of the features or

shadows

—

nder

this

consideration,

that

perhaps

after

t he p ic tu re

i s

finished, a

sculptor

may

be

employed

to

make a model of

the

same

subject; and your

picture

may

happen

to be the only

means he c an obtain for

that

purpose ; but a greater reason for

correctness should govern your study—ruth and excellence

demand your best on a l l occasions.

The

true brilliancy,

or

natural

effect

of

colours, depends

much on a judicious subordination

to that

light which illumi

nates

your

subject.

Every gradation to shade i s a gradation from the purity of

colour, because

of

t he p re vai li ng

power

of

darkness over

the

ev i denc e of colour: this

may

intimate to you, that carmine,

and red

or

yellow lakes, will not be

found

necessary in those

parts; which

enables

you

to

ensure a

greater certainty

of

durability

in

the c olo uri ng of

your

picture, ' because the

l e s s

,

brilliant colours arc much more permanent than those of the

lake

kind,'

and

often

form

the

tint

required.

A

great

degree

of

critical

judgment, the most correct

t a s t e ,

and much

experience, are requ ired,

to

determine

on

natural colouring,

in true

distinction from the showy

compo

sition

of paints with which some (not ill-drawn) pictures are

emblazoned. For, as a finely engraven portrait, i f happy in

the

expression

of character, with a tone nicely

correspondent

with flesh

colour,

does convey so

much

satisfaction as some do

with

only

the

simple

material,

black

on

white ; a painter,

with

the engraver s eye, might produce a l l

the

engraver's

effect

with

any colour, for

we see red prints,

or brown, blue,

or green,

convey the same character, expression, and

force,

as engravings



MINIATURE

PAINTING. 241)

printed

i n blac k,

therefore

some approach to the general tints

of

flesh, with

good drawing, would

produce

a

very

satisfactory

performance to the general judgment, while those who have

been so happy as to

learn

the cause of Titian's superiority in

colouring,

would

f e e l a very contrary opinion, with a conviction

that could only

be

communicated to their equals in the know

ledge

of the means. Those tyros who are too sanguine,

and

dislike investigation, depending on

mere ocular proof,

and

(according

to

the

v u lg ar p ro v er b)

they

find

their object ' ready

cut and d r i e d , ' thus

saving

themselves the trouble of thinking,

and relying on (perhaps) a tolerable taste for

unity

and

har

mony,

with regard

to

composition, and expression; they will

copy, and look for a l l the tints

they

.want, in a work perhaps

very imperfect in that particular, thus establishing the error of

their leaders

into

habit.

A

speedy way of laying a

colour for

a

dark cloth

coat i s ,

to mix white enough with the c olo ur you would use, to make

i t

dry to the lightest part of that

colour;

as

thus,

for dark blue

mix

Prussian

blue

and

Indian

red,

with

white,

t i l l

i t

will

flow

like cream (there must

not be any

gum

in the water with

which you dilute those

mixtures,

there being sufficient in the

prepared c akes of the colour): lay this over the space you

intend for

cloth,

and i t will

dry

light

enough to

shade on,

with indigo, lake, and Indi an i nk : the Indi an red which i s

used in the f i r s t mixture, i s

requ isi te to counteract

the coldness

of

the blue. Blue and white

mixed

will make a good body

colour

for

blue

cloth,

i f

enriched

afterwards

with

a

wash

of

red lake,

which

must

be

done

with

nice

dexterity, touching

broad, and

but once

in

every

part,

joining each course of the

pencil

so as to make

but

one uniform t i n t . Indigo, Indian

red,

and

yellow ochre, will

mix to

a good black, which will

take some shadow

by

Indian

ink, used without

gum-water,

and afterwards

deepened

with

gum-water

only. But the most

genuine way

i s

to

paint

the

whole

in

the

transparent

manner as

in

painting

f l e s h ,

for

the

very

important

advantage

o f gi v i ng

the

lightest parts with truth. Yet

many good inferior

tints

may be

produced proper for

backgrounds,

with indigo, Indian

red, and

yellow ochre, by mixing

them

as a

body

colour, and floating




them

on

the

ivory, when

laid f l a t , which

should remain so

t i l l

the colour

i s

dry: and, as

a l l

body colours dry differently to

their wet

appearance,

i t i s

a good precaution to try the

tint

f i r s t ,

on a

piece

of spare ivory,

and dry i t by the

f i r e . Un

avoidable haste must be the apology for floated backgrounds.

Some

painters

put silver f o i l behind the ivory

to

force a

brightness, but the

f o i l

i s liable

to tarnish,

and

to

hurt the

e f f e c t . Perhaps great c are might avoid the tarnishing of the

f o i l :

i t adds

much to the brightness of the colours

under

which

i t i s placed. Newman's white,

laid

thick on the back of

the

ivory,

over the

space o c c u p i e d by

flesh colour, will give

great

warmth and

brightness to

the colours, especially

i f

the ivory

be

thin. Some tint the ivory, behind the parts where white

drapery i s to appear, with a neutral t i n t , in order to take o f f *

the ye llo wn es s o f the

ivory;

but this

i s

not practised by the

best painters.

Their reason

i s , that the ivory becomes

opaque

by time, and shuts ou t the effect of the colour pu t

behind,

leaving the front, in the same degree, meagre

for want

of i t .

Fine

ivory,

properly

bleached,

will

admit

of

a l l

the

perfection

of

colouring

without

any of

THESE

contrivances. There must

not be any b i t s * of paint seen on a miniature ; a l l must be

delicate, and as impalpable as p os si ble, enduring the magnify

i ng glass, and improving by the t r i a l ; and i f you c an touch so

fine as to make the working imperceptible, so

much

the better,

provided you pay due attention to the greater requisites of the

work; as smoothness, merely,

i s

not a perfection, unless accom

panied

with

the

r e s t .

A

Birmingham tea-tray

has

smoothness

in the highest degree, produced by varnishing and polishing;

yet what pictures do

they

exhibit

Their

manufacturing expe

dition will not admit of the

time requisite to

paint a

good

picture : a dexterous u se of the

materials

does not (alone) con

stitute the proper u se of

them,

while ' both' are equally

essen

t i a l ;

so

that

the one

cannot

supply the want of the other.

*

If

you

fi nd spots

of colour too

d i s t i n c t l y

seen,

moi sten a

f i n e

s t i f f

hair

pencil with

gum-water, and

they may

be

thus e a s i l y diffused or

taken o f f ; and

i f

an accidental

b i t

of dust

or f l u e

i s to be

cleared o f f ,

touch

i t

with a wet

pencil c a r e f u l l y , and in

about

ten seconds you may

take i t

cleanly off with the

point of the scraper, which i s better than scraping i t o f f without wetting.




How

often have we

seen

works of the

highest estimation

a s to

subject, and e f f e c t , when seen a t such a distance a s t o preclude

the appearance of i t s rough

indexterous

handling,

or

the

coarse

granulated surface

on

which

some

smooth s k i e s , e t c .

have

been

pretended in

small

water

colour drawings of l a t e ; a s

to

force

one t o say on c l o s e r view, ' What a pity i t was, that s o great a

genius did not learn that e s s e n t i a l

in

the

a r t ,

which i s indis

pensable, even in painting a t e a - t r a y : '

and I

s h a l l

venture

t o

object

t o that dexterity of hand (except in sketching), which

throws t o o t h i c k a lump of paint

on

the high l i g h t s of clouds,

because such

lumps

will

have

under

shadows;

i t

i s

not

s o

in

NATURE.

Always

determine

that your present work

s h a l l

be

your

very

b e s t ,

and

wait patiently

and attentively f o r the

completion

of your p i c t u r e ,

before you indulge

your

f l a t t e r e r s

with the

opportunity of praising you. I t i s an intoxicating

t r i b u t e ,

and

should be received with great caution. When

application

and

experience

have rendered your essays worthy a genuine compli

ment,

your

constitution

f o r

praise

w i l l

be

proof

against

many

of i t s

bad e f f e c t s .

In the early stage of your picture,

do

not be

over

eager t o

make

i t look

pretty

with colour; but

proceed

patiently

with

your

neutral,

or modelling t i n t . This

w i l l look c o l d ,

t i l l you

begin

the complexion;

but

when that i s properly added,

you

will find the neutral t i n t vanish, and the

whole

w i l l appear

f l e s h :

take care to preserve a coolness in the r e t i r i n g

p a r t s ,

unless

reflected

on

by

a

warm

colour

:

and

even

then,

the

e f f e c t

of

retiring can

only

be produced by the c o o l t i n t .

You may touch broadly and generally in the f i r s t

shading,

to

gain

your

masses

speedily; but

rather

lean to

the c a r e f u l

s t y l e ,

and freedom w i l l a r r i v e , in i t s proper time, a s f a r a s i t

i s possible in t h i s

minute

s o r t of work; f o r you must never

expect t o

perform

a highly-finished picture

s p e e d i l y .

The

only possible

means

of gaining time,

i s

t o learn what

you

have

t o

do

:

with

t h i s s o r t

of

f o r e c a s t

much

time

may

be

gained.

Breadths of colour, of any considerable degree of depth, may

be l a i d on ivory, in the same broad manner that you would

observe in laying the various

shades i n

an

Indian-ink drawing



252 MINIATURE

PAINTING.

on

paper;

but you must never retouch a wet part, for that

would draw off the

colour, and

give you much unnecessary

labour

in the finishing;

but

when

you

can decide on the

general effect with

some

certainty, you

may

obtain i t

(I

may

say) rapidly

by

a

judicious

observation of method;

this

i t

i s

that

enables an accomplished a r t i s t

to surprise,

by those rich

and instantaneous effects which impatient amateurs wish to di s

play

without submitting

t o

the study of

a l l that supports such

effects; namely, GOOD drawing; with true t a s t e , which,

however innate, c an

never

be displayed to advantage without

thorough accomplishment

by practice.

Many miniature paint

e r s , especially those who confine their practice to miniature

solely,

are self-taught

as

to

practical

methods,

and seldom ac

quire the facility which may be practised, even on ivory, with

out any detriment to the final beauty of what i s termed high-

finishing

; a course

of

study in landscape under some

of

the

accomplished exhibitors in the water-colour gallery, will be of

the

utmost

advantage to most self-taught practitioners.

Habituate

yourself

to

look

enough at

your

subject,

to

learn

to

a certainty

that

your

next

touch

will

improve

your

work ;

and

draw what you s e e ,

and as

you see i t ,

o r ,

what you

know to be,

may deceive you.

For instance, you

know

the

top

of a

wine-glass

to be a circle; yet i t generally stands in a

point of view to appear an oval; t h i s i s enough to prove the

absolute

necessity

of le arn in g t he

art of

drawing objec ts as

you

see

them, which art

i s

Perspective —and

i t i s

the

basis of

success

to

that

portion

of

a

picture

which

may

be

termed

descriptive. When

you have

made yourself thoroughly ac

quainted with the methods I have given, and c an practise

accordingly, I shall

see

by

your

performance wherein

either

the tutor or pupil i s deficient, and will make my remarks

thereon

the

subject

of

another

letter; and

remain,

Madam,

Your obedient Servant.



253

LETTER

XXVI.

miniature painting concluded.

Madam,

I

expected the

neutral

tint would not meet your

entire

approval

at

f i r s t ,

as

i t

i s

very

difficult

for

a

young

prac

titioner to look on a fine complexion, e t c .

without

being drawn

off

from

the

consideration of

a colourless

form

:

but if you c an

persevere

in preserving the three distinct

properties

in

your

subject

separately (i f

only in

idea),

your work will proceed

systematically; perfectly comprehending,

f i r s t ,

that a

true

outline

must be

obtained; and, secondly, that

mere

lights and shades are

not local colours;

and, thirdly,

that the

local colour,

with

due

observation of

shining

and

reflections,

must be

general

in

both

light and shade. I have no objection to your carrying a l l

on

together,

when you know that you are both practically

and

s c i e n t i f i c a l l y qualified;

but, in

my

humble opinion,

a

young a r t i s t

i s

to be compared with a young musician, who

attempts

to play three

parts

at

once,

before he c an play one

part well.

The

most perfect

method

of

o i l

p ai nti ng, o r u s ing

colours

embodied to

their

various

tints

with

white,

i s

to

determine

as

nearly as possible

that

each touch of

the

pencil shall

give the

full

e f f e c t of the part i t covers, with no more blending than ju st t o

unite them t o a natural e f f e c t , a l l

rather

lighter

than the

finishing depth; which finishing i s most usually performed

with transparent tinctures

of

the

various

colours, without

white, which, in o i l painting, i s termed ' ' g l a z i n g . ' Now

this ' glazing,' or transparent system, i s almost the whole

system

of

miniature

painting,

and so

well

admits

of

pro

gression, that form, shade, and colour, may

best

be learned

and

done

separately,

t i l l their

united

effects c an be

compre

hended under one process.



254 MINIATURE

PAINTING.

Your queries about the c olou rs of reflections on f l e s h , are

very pleasing proofs to me, that you think on what you

do;

and the vast

variety,

on which the truth of reflection

depends,

admits

only of a

general

conclusion

in answer. You have

already

been

told

that

reflected parts

of white objects, are,

in

general, warm o r ye llo wi s h; and that their retiring parts are

generally c old or

blueish, when

unaffected by other local

re

flection; these two, when united,

would

produce a tint of a

greenish hue, but that they will compound with the complexion

or

local

colour,

and with the shade, when appealed to in paint

ing

;

which,

like

a l l

other

triple

compounds,

become

to

a c ertai n

degree

neutralized;

therefore,

from

the many circumstances

which may

oc c ur to vary any given

rule,—eason, practice,

and

observation o f n at u re must

be

your

guide.

These

are

the parts of

a pi cture which depend much on the

harmonizing power of the eye. Genius must here find proof

from

reason and v i s i b l e

evidence

(as

no

effect can be

relied on,

where

the

cause i s not

clearly understood to exist), and

rest

on

a

better

origin

than

either

fanc y, or

(uninvestigated)

examples

:

yet

rather

follow

well-recommended

example, than

doubt or

ob

ject,

while

your own judgment i s

immature;

and,

with

study,

the knowledge of the causes may u n fo ld t he ms elv e s to

your

satisfaction as you

proceed.

That kind of faculty i s necessary to

success,

in the depart

ment of fine

and

harmonious colouring of

shadows reflected

on,

which

i s either natural or acquired in a musician, who i s

master

of t he

violin;

taste

and

practice

enable

him

to

stop

or

finger

the strings,

in

tune

—

hereas,

on a keyed instrument,

that

faculty

i s

fully provided by the maker

and tuner

of the

instrument:

and although

that

shaded colour, which

i s

accompanied with

any

reflection,

cannot

be faithfully repre

sented, without the

assistance

of the three primitive

colours,

the whole consideration of

natural colouring might be lost by

mixing them, although the ' engravers

e f f e c t s ' might s t i l l

be

preserved.

Look at

nature,

and you never c oncei ve black, ex cept

as

a

local

colour:

study shade, abstractedly, and no thought of

colour will

impress your

ideas.



MINIATURE PAINTING.

255

Now,

t o unite

these d i s t i n c t conclusions

t o

p r a c t i c a l -

advan

tage, you

have

only t o consider the property of each colour, a s

regards c o l o u r ,

s o

a s to apply

them separately and

produce

a

natural e f f e c t

;

a s

i s

perfectly exemplified

in

the

works

of Rubens

and Titian. Even a study from white marble, or

any

other

white o b j e c t , requires the above considerations,

where

natural

e f f e c t

of colouring i s

presumed ; because

the r e f l e c t i o n of colours

from surrounding

o b j e c t s , compounds with

the

simplicity

of the

white o b j e c t , s o that the plain light and shade,

which,

t o a

s u p e r f i c i a l observer,

seems

a l l

that

can

be required,

would

only

produce a print e f f e c t ,

and

not unite with surrounding e f f e c t s .

I observe that

you

leave the shading of the globe of the

eye, or

that part which i s

white,

too much s o , and unfinished :

you must

consider

how small a

portion

of absolute

white

would

be

found

on

any

white

globe; and when you attend

to

the

overshadowed situation

of an

eye,

by

the

thickness

of the

e y e - l i d ,

and the additional

shadow

caused by the eye-lash, you

will find i t

impossible t o

have

any

r e a l white in

a well-painted

eye,

except

the

glittering

r e f l e c t i o n

o f the

l i g h t ,

which

w i l l

s e l

dom

be

more

than

one speck, which

must

be placed

with the

utmost attention t o the o r i g i n a l .

In answer to your

question,

How must

I paint

white

drapery? I can

assure

you there w i l l be a very small portion

of

pure

white paint : you must form the whole by tender, d e l i

cate

shading,

with a cool neutral t i n t ; and the whiter you

bleach

your

i vory the b e t t e r , both f o r

t h i s ,

a s well a s

a l l

other

c o l o u r s .

The

r e f l e c t i o n

t i n t ,

and

a l s o

the

r e t i r i n g ,

must

be

used in white drapery;

and when

a l l

i s nearly formed,

touch

the

edges

of

a hem,

or the points

of l a c e ,

the

highest l i g h t s on

the shoulders and

b r e a s t s ,

with f i n e white

;

which, i f

done

ac

cording

to your model, will produce a white

drapery.

Need

I

s a y ,

Heighten

the l i g h t s on p e a r l s ,

and

the glittering of dia

monds, gold,

s i l v e r ,

or s a t i n , with

one speck

each,

of the f i n e

white;

tinting

them afterwards t o

their

peculiar ke ep i ng w ith

a

thin

touch

of

suitable

transparent

colour

?

Even

the

compara

t i v e

e f f e c t of

glittering

(such a s i s

found

on polished metals,

and

jewellery, or

any

glossy

matter),

can only be produced in




those parts that arc a t l e a s t s o f a r i n shade a s may be called

half s h a d e .

To

paint

HAIR

well i s very e a s y ,

when

compared with the

judgment

r e q u i s i t e in

the drawing and composition of

i t .

This

i s one of the great t e s t s of true t a s t e . The colours t o be used

in hair can only

be

dictated by i t s

l o c a l

colour;

but

I find

the various degrees of brown hair can be given by tempering

Vandyke brown, Indian ink,

and

red

l a k e , t o

the

colour

required, observing that hair i s ' transparent '

and

' glossy ; ' a l l

the masses of light will

be

coldest; the

absolute

shades will

be

tempered

with

the

colour

of

the

hair

i n

a

very

small

degree; the l e s s absolute shades will have more hair colour;

and

the

parts

which

neither

shine nor are in shadow, will be

the

colour

of the h a i r .

It

i s the

transparent

property of h a i r ,

t o present more of

i t s

colour

when loose

and

relieved by some light-coloured

surface

behind

i t ,

while

l i g h t e d

on

the s i d e i t

i s

viewed,

than

when plaited c l o s e

or l a i d smooth t o

the

head; f o r

then the

l i g h t s w i l l

be

cold

and

g l o s s y .

These

are

the

best

directions

I

can o f f e r f o r a general r u l e ; but you must study these matters

according t o the circumstances of l i g h t ,

shade,


and

t h e i r own p e c u l i a r i t i e s . The l o c a l colours which commonly

occur in

h a i r ,

a r e , burnt

umber,

Vandyke

brown,

and s e p i a ,

with various

gradations of

Indian ink,

brown

madder, red

l a k e , and indigo, a s shade; but r e f l e c t i o n w i l l s o a f f e c t any

glossy

matter,

that a l l must be ascertained by the accom

panying

circumstances.

Whenever

you find

the united

e f f e c t

of form, substance,

and colour, too much f o r

your practical

comprehension

at

once, return

t o

your

systematic

c l u e , sec uring the forms

f i r s t ,

then

the substantial appearance

by

shading,

and

f i n a l l y the

colours

and r e f l e c t i o n s

; each separately,

according

to the

directions

in

Letter V., and

in

Letters

X.

and XXII.

It i s not very good practice

f o r a young student

to

work

on the f l e s h in the absence of the subject; particularly when

the

picture

i s

a portrait

; not only on account of the necessity

of s t r i c t

adherence t o

the

peculiarity of

form, but a l s o to the




colouring:

but

this

must be

regulated

by

your

own confidence

in what you

know

may

be safely and truly done

to forward

the

picture.

For

instance,

where

time

i s

an

object, you

may

have attained

a l l your drawing

and shading by

a bold, broad,

and

open touch. In

such

a case, an

experienced

a r t i s t

would

proceed to

blend

and f i l l up a l l the spaces, uniting a l l to

one agreeable s t a t e , with the c olou r or shading suited to each

part, preparing

hi s

p ic tu re we ll

for

the next v i s i t , and

so

far

advance the

finishing.

You wish to

know

how long a good

miniature ought

to

be

in

hand

—

cannot

give

you

any

direct

answer;

but

must

say,

i t i s

a question that no

painter ought

to consider,

or be

asked, ex cept with a view to the arrangement of other

engage

ments. I may here fairly remark on the hurry, i n c o nv en i en c e ,

and

frequent disappointment

of

both

employer

and painter,

by those ladies

and gentlemen

who

determine

to

s i t before

leaving

town, bu t

postpone

i t

from time to time,

t i l l perhaps

within a week of their intended

departure

: ' I t must be done,'

i s

the

word,

without

glancing

a

thought

( t i l l

too

l a t e ,

i f

ever)

that an a r t i s t i s not

like

a

master

t a i l o r , or other mechanic,

with forty

pair

of hands, or as many more at

command,

according

to the

exigencies

of trade. Such perplexing miscal

culations

unfit a

painter

for the delicate work

required

of

him.

All

i s

anxiety and endeavour in the art i t s e l f at

best;

and when the hurry and impatience of

his

employer are added

to t h i s , i t may very probably overthrow the success of the

work. I t i s advisable

to

employ an

approved

a r t i s t ,

and

( whi le the

object

of hi s s tu dy) gi v e

up

as

much command

to

him as possible; the

ultimate

res ult will always answer this

proceeding. P at ie nce, persev eran ce ,

and sufficient

ability,

will

complete

a

picture

in

proper

time. You

must make up

your mind to this f a c t , that painting well, as

i t i s

one of the

most

rational

and

delightful

amusements,

WILL

always

remain

ONE

OF

the

MOST

DIFFICULT

;

totally

independent

of the

mechanical

view which I am endeavouring to

give

you

of practical modes, but c on sidering always, that

'painting well'

implies the producing faithful representations. And, when

nature i s broiight under the MICROSCOPIC size of A minia

17



258 CRAYONS,

OILS,

ture picture, ' t i s most

certain that

a l l the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the

a r t are

increased in the same degree

that truth

i s f a i t h f u l l y

appealed

t o :

and

necessarily

require

extraordinary exertion

both t o a t t a i n and practise with s u c c e s s . Ambition of e x c e l l e n c e ,

n e c e s s i t y , or a natural impulse,

must

be the stimulus. I

hope the f i r s t

and

l a s t of these you p o s s e s s . Had

I

been

writing to a

gentleman, I might

have observed,

that they

are two excellent

spurs

t o Pegasus, and should conclude that a

bridle would a l s o be r e q u i s i t e

t o

r e s t r a i n the

Muse

to

a

regular

pace. If what has been communicated may be the

means

of

rendering

your

journey

towards

Parnassus

more

easy

and

certain than i t otherwise

would

have been, i t w i l l give me the

utmost

s a t i s f a c t i o n , and I s h a l l

ever

remain,

Madam,

Your

obliged,

obedient Servant.

P.

S .

—

have

had

ample

proof

that

continual

p r a c t i c e ,

along with a thorough comprehension

of

the p r a c t i c a l

rules I

have advanced, w i l l not f a i l t o ensure

you

equivalent s u c c e s s .

on crayons, oils, and other materials.

Madam,

I

should

endeavour

t o

comply

with

your demand

on

the a r t of painting

in

crayons, had not the l a t e

Mr.

Russell

superseded

the best I could say

on

that s u b j e c t ,

by

his publica

tion of a complete t r e a t i s e , not only of the a r t of using,

but

a l s o of making crayons; to which

I

should

think

i t

best

to

r e f e r you, but I f e a r i t i s out of p r i n t .

My

practice

in

crayons

has been

chiefly

on very

small

por

t r a i t s ,

and

various

e f f e c t s

of

landscape,

generally

on

vellum.

I

s h a l l

not

withhold from you the

methods

I

have found to

answer, a s f a r

a s

my

experience i n t h i s mode?

of pai nting has

qualified mc ;

but

by no me an s w ou ld I be understood

to

o f f e r

i t in

l i e u

of the work t o which I

have

referred you.



AND OTHER

MATERIALS.

259

My f i r s t care i s to get good materials. The Swiss crayons

are (in

general) the most

pure.

The vellum

must have a

soft

velvet-like

nap,

or

smooth

roughness,

on

the

outside

the

skin,

sufficient to hold the colour. Mr. Russell, in his excellent

essay on

crayons, raises an

objection to vellum,

which

my

practice of forty years' proof enables me to consider ground

l e s s ,

for

I know of none of my earliest paintings which owe

any

part of their defectiveness to the vellum on which I did

them;

although, t i l l

within

the

l a s t

four years,

I

bought the

usual drawing

vellum ; since

which,

I

have turned my thoughts

to

the

preparation

o f v ellu m,

with

a

view to

dispossess

i t

of

the animal o i l ,

which

Mr. Russell objected t o .

I considered

that

vellum

for

pictures,

after

being

once

secure on the

straining frame,

i s

no more

liable

to the wear of

rolling

and

u nro lli ng, o r folding, e t c . , e t c . , as writings are; and by con

sulting

t he man uf ac tu re rs , I found

that

vellum might be

rendered as calcareous as required. This has been most

successfully done

for

me, by Messrs. Starkey and Cripps,

of

Newgate Street, and afforded an advantage which I

had

not

calculated on, by making the vellum require more

crayon to

f i l l i t ,

and

retaining

i t

much more

firmly

than on common

drawing

vellum.

Continual

dampness i s

known to

be

injurious

to a l l painting. The vellum must be strained tight, by tacking

i t on a straining frame, on which

should previously

be pasted a

piece

of

stout

white

drawing-paper. If i t be possible, strain

the

vellum

in

damp weather,

or lay

i t

cleanly

covered

in

a

damp place

the

night

before you strain, then the surface will

always

be smooth ; for vellum strained in a

very

dry

s t a t e ,

as

in summer, will relax in damp weather and become uneven.

When the vellum

i s

strained,

set

i t in the sun, or at a di stanc e

from the

f i r e ,

to harden;

then,

with

an

clastic cane, or

rather

a piece of dry linen, flap i t well, to discharge a l l the whitening

which the manufacturers leave in i t : this makes i t take the

colours

more

plentifully,

and

gives

the

dark

ones

their

f u l l

force.

Stout, but f i n e , wove-drawing paper, tightly

strained

on a

frame,

or

drawing-board, rubbed

with a

fine pumice-stone, will

take crayons well

for large

subjects.

Care must be

taken to



260

CRAYONS,

OILS,

discharge a l l the powder of the pumice-stone from the paper;

after

which,

sponge

i t well with

a very

clean

damp

sponge,

and

l e t

i t

dry

for

use.

First

draw

your subject as correctly as possible with charcoal ;

touching very tenderly : for i f used too freely, vellum will retain

too

much of i t .

When the

drawing

i s sufficiently marked,

flap off as much of t he c harc o al as you can ; and there

will s t i l l

remain a very visible

sketch:

then begin the painting, by

covering a l l t he d arke st masses with t he darke st

tints;

using

as

l i t t l e

of

the

crayon as possible, and

driving

or spreading i t with

a leather

stump,

leaving

no

more

paint

on

the

part

than

s u f f i

cient

to stain

or tint i t (nearly)

to

the proper depth and colour ;

bearing in mind a l l my elementary laws, respecting the proper

effect as to light, shade, and colouring ; and covering the

whole

vellum in this manner, as quickly as the

nature of

the study

will allow,

to

obtain

a

general idea

of what the

picture i s to

be.

Thus,

having

overcome the whiteness of the vellum,

proceed

to

study the portrait, using a neat-pointed,

hard-rolled

paper

stump in those minute parts where the leather stump i s too

large ;

preserving the lights broad and untouched, and

marking

the shades

deep, but

very spare of crayon: thu s proceed t i l l

a l l i s tinctured, rather

than

embodied with paint; taking care

to keep the

shades

as deep as

can

be required at the f i n i s h , and

the lights as bright and pure as possible ; never suffering a light

tint to

cover

a

part

which must ultimately be a shade, as

that

would

produce

a

chalky

e f f e c t .

In

these

small

pictures,

you

can

mark much

of the

drawing (with

a

passable

effect of truth as

to

colour, because of shade) with the

hard

native black and red

chalks.

There i s

a

good

deep black

composition,

called Conti

chalk, very u sef ul i n i t s proper place.

Now begin to touch with the crayons, sufficiently with

regard

to

quantity,

to

cover the whole of the

flesh

as

near

to

nature

as you

can,

carefully blending or softening them

together

with

the

finger,

pressing

a

l i t t l e ,

to

fi x

the

c o lo u r f irmly

in

the

vellum

: the

leather stump

must now

be laid aside

; but a piece

of

good sound

cork, cut to a smooth

blunted point, i s s t i l l

useful

as a

substitute

for the

finger,

in the minute parts o f the work.

Take care that the

whole surface

of

your picture i s fully



AND

OTHER MATERIALS. 261

covered with

paint

in the l i g h t s , and as sparingly

as

will cover

in the shade : as i t i s a great accomplishment in crayon paint

ing,

to

arrive

at

the

true

effect

without

a

superabundance

of

colour.

Therefore,

when your vellum

i s

uniformly

f i l l e d with

paint, no more should

be

pu t on,

but

a l l corrections of colour

ing, particularly the

darker

t i n t s , must be made by scraping off

the wrong colour

before you

give the improving

one,

which

may be done

safely

without injuring the vellum. Paper

grounds

need not

be scraped, but

a hole

may be

cut

in

a piece

of writing

paper,

the shape of the place you would clean;

laying

i t

correctly

over

the

part,

whether on

paper

or

vellum,

and,

by rubbing i t with crumb

of bread,

dry

sponge, or

cotton,

enough

of

the colour will

be discharged.

When blending crayons, observe, that the dark tints will

r i s e

through

the light

ones; and,

on the contrary, the light

tints will

weaken, and

always render deep

c olo urs chalky ;

but

this may be a l l turned

to advantage by

sufficient practice and

reflection,

as both may

be

required,

under some

circumstances,

to produce a natural e f f e c t .

Ared t i n t of the pink class will

clear

any dirty part

of

flesh

that i s not of the red class ; a

tint

of a light-greenish

cast

will

take

down

red in

reflected

parts, but must

seldom

touch the

full

lights

of flesh (the best way i s ,

to

discharge the

wrong

colour,

and

use a

right

one in

i t s

stead).

If

you regard the

durability of your picture, paint with such colours as

are

strongest in their

original natural state:

ochres, umbers,

and

earths, both raw and

burnt,

are of this description, and agree

best with the whitening

with which

the gradations of

tints

should be made up. Fine genuine lamp-black

i s

the only black

that should be used in crayons, and that only when unavoidably

requisite;

o r , should

you

not

f e e l

confident in

your lamp black,

a

good

black may be made by mixture

of

indigo, brown

madder

lake,

and

burnt

terra de Sienna;

a

l i t t l e

India

yellow may be

added,

i f

too

purple

a

tint

rises

from

the

above mixture

:

t h i s

will not mildew.

The best white for the ge ne ral

mixture

with

a l l

the colours,

i s

the

flake,

or uppermost stratum of the whitening,

when

i t i s

in

pulp, in large

quantities, at

the manufactory,

ready for



26'2

CRAYONS,

OILS,

ETC.

moulding, because a l l the gross and

heavy matter

has preci

pitated towards

the bottom.

Some

think t he y p ro c u re

this

flake by

di ss olv i ng a

few

lumps

of whitening: but i t i s inferior; because, after a l l , i t i s only

the flake of an inferior stratum. 77*6 pure first flake of

the

whole i s worthy

the trouble of applying for at the

manufactory.

Newmans white

might

be

used

for

entire

white, and some of the

finest tints

of the

three principal colours

may

be

embodied

with i t .

The late

Mr. Morland (father to

the

great genius of that

name)

made

the

very

best

crayons

I

ever

possessed.

Sufficient grinding

of a l l

the

colours i s an important

object.

They may

be

made up with

various

glutinous liquids,

diluted.

Skim milk, small beer-wort, and gin, are the three generally

used;

the clearness of gi n suits the light

t i n t s . Mr. Morland

used gin,

as

the

best

of the three,

for

the pu rp ose. Beer-wort

will

do well enough

for

a l l

the darker

tints (I u se skim

milk

only).

Practice and experiment

are

wanting in this de

partment,

which

I

leave

to

the

ingenious

and

industrious,

under

the

assistance

of the treatise recommended ;

but

practice

and proper thought will qualify any one to make crayons.

Provided you make no more u se of the f ollo wi ng expedient

than just to ascertain the best manner of

f i r s t laying

on

the

crayons, you may depend on i t s great efficacy.

I

find this

caution,

as ap olo gy , p ro pe r; because the examples I shall pro

pose, although (manufactured)

from

the

works

of eminent

a r t i s t s , are far below that

perfection,

as pictures,

which

i s

wisely

recommended for

the

proper formation of the

best

style,

and are as

much inferior

to ultimate excellence, as the rough

foundation stones

of a pedestal are to that

ou t

of which

the

statue should be formed; from

which I argue,

that the proposed

subject for imitation being intended as a sort

of

foundation

only, on which future excellence may find a

certain

support, I

shall

forthwith

venture

to

shock

the

lofty

taste

of

those

who

scorn progression, and,

i f

I

may so

describe my

ideas,

are

always jumping at the pinnacle.

Paper

printed

in

colours, e t c . ,

for

the hanging or ornament

of

rooms,

i s printed with a sufficient number

of

blocks,

so

inge



PAINTING IN OIL. 263

niously

matched,

as to complete a certain good effect; each

block performing i t s part by an impression of one of the

several colours required

in

the pattern: by

which means

as

perfect a representation as this ingenious association of the

several

separate tints can produce, i s obtained. (Look at some

good paper-hangings attentively, and

you

will the better com

prehend

the instruction.)

There are some

productions

of

this

sort, particularly of ripe fruit, flowers, e t c . (broad

bordering)

of

so

good

an e f f e c t ,

that I

have

proved them to

be an excellent

first

key

to

using

crayons; because each t i n t , in

such specimens,

has

i t s

distinct

shape,

and

can

be

easily

matched

in

a

full

set

;

which, with the softening property

of crayons,

may be

finely

blended together with the finger, so as to produce at least a

very finished and

pleasing

e f f e c t ,

even more

like the

original

design than the paper-hanging, which you may study a f t e r .

Bycopying some

of these with tolerable

mechanical precision,

and having learnt

therefrom

how

to

arrange the f i r s t lays of

colour, you will have finished the foundation,

and must

proceed

to

the

finest

specimens

of

painting,

and

of

nature,

to

complete

your system.

With regard to painting IN OIL, I shall say l i t t l e more

than refer you to

the

best

works published on the

subject.

The

Art

o f P ai n ti n g in Oi l Colours,

by

Bardwell, will

give any

one

a

verypure and

proper method,

who begins with i t s

instruction.

I

know

systems of this

sort

are

under

t he p re ju di c e of those

who have

previously habituated

themselves to other modes;

but

so

far

as

the

choice

of

materials,

the

preparation

and

arrangement of

them

for the palette,

and

the application of

them to the canvass, i t may be safely adopted in

preference

to

the practice of those

whose

works would have been a lasting

ornament of the a r t , had their methods and materials been

better

understood. I shall offer

you

the best system of

practice

that I know o f , with the palette set according t o

the

book above

recommended.

As i t

will

be

most likely, as

well

as

most

proper, that you

should begin the u se of o i l paint, by copying, f i r s t draw with

white chalk, or a p ip ec lay c rayo n, as

perfect

an outline

of

every part of the original picture as

you can,

according to the



264 PAINTING IN OIL.

system you have learned

i n

my Eighth

Letter of

t h i s

book,

f o r your

f i r s t

sketched outline with charcoal; then go over

again with

a correcting eye

and hand, with

a s o f t black-lead

crayon or p e n c i l ,

and

wipe away the white outline; i t w i l l be

proper

to

notice much

of the shadowing

( e s p e c i a l l y

of

the

e x t r e m i t i e s of

f i g u r e s )

by p e n c i l l i n g .

This,

i f well done, will

s e t t l e character and expression.

Then

begin with

Vandyke

brown,

t o

secure

the

whole

by a firm outline and careful atten

tion

t o s uch shadi ng

a s

conveys a

modelling

e f f e c t , and

touch a l l

the high l i g h t s wi th pu re whi te

;

and a s t h i s stage of your work

i s

t o

render

a l l

the

drawing

p e r f e c t , you

should

attend

tenaciously

t o the

form

and

depth

of

a l l

the

shades,

s o t h a t , when f i n i s h e d ,

a s preparatory f o r colouring, i t should look l i k e a tolerably well-

finished drawing

in

Vandyke brown, leav ing the canv as s f o r

a

t i n t , wherever i t will answer the purpose. Nowbegin with your

c o l o u r s

t o

lay an

equal t h i c k n e s s

of

paint over

every part of

your study, s o that the c anvass may be f u l l y covered with

embodied paint,

that

i s ,

colour

mixed

with white,

f i l l i n g up

each

portion

of

the

whole

with

a

t i n t

a s

nearly

like

the

o r i

ginal a s

p o s s i b l e ,

but not

t o

the

f u l l

depth of i t s

dark parts:

the whole should be paler

than

the o r i g i n a l ,

because

no

finished

part of

a picture should

have

a

darker

t i n t under i t ,

e s p e c i a l l y

of t h e shade c l a s s such a s

have

black in

them;

bu t

you may put

a lighter t i n t on a deeper of the red c l a s s , a s in

f l e s h ,

and i t w i l l

have

the e f f e c t of the skin over the natural

blood. Let a l l your

f i r s t

painting of the f l e s h have a

rose

t i n t ,

rather

than

that

of

a

c r o c u s , a s

there

w i l l

be

o i l

enough

worked into the picture i n the c ou rse of your labour

to

pro

duce the

warm hue

in

a

very

short

time,

which I

do not

advise

you t o consider a s any

r e q u i s i t e

t o the

p i c t u r e . The

substance of your picture, a s necessary

f o r

i t s durability and

power to abide the ravages of picture c l e a n e r s , depends

materially on the f u l l body

of

paint with which the canv ass i s

f i r s t covered,

and

eminently s o , with regard t o the t r u e colour

of

each

p a r t , because,

s o

much

of

your picture

w i l l

stand the

t e s t

of

time and the picture

c l e a n e r ,

with the l e a s t possible

injury. When you have

completed

your f i r s t

lay

in

t h i s

p l e n t i f u l

manner,

y o \ i may use a

softening brush

t o

smooth



PAINTING IN OIL. 265

and

blend

the

surface

preparatory

f o r further

study. As

you

w i l l

not be able

t o

perform the whole of t h i s very

important

stage

of

your

work

a t once, you

w i l l of c ourse u se the softener

on

the

parts

you

cover,

while

the pai nt

i s

moist

;

f o r

i t

w i l l

be

too l a t e when the colours begin to harden.

Should

you succeed in the work thus f a r ,

your

copy will be

in a f i n e s t a t e f o r yo ur mi nu te attention t o the forms and e f f e c t s

of each o b j e c t , by sec uri ng the depths and colours of a l l the

gradations of shades

and colours

from the darkest f i r s t ,

t o

the

l i g h t e r , until

you are driven, a s I may

express

i t , t o the prin

cipal apparent projections, or l i g h t s , which you w i l l

most

l i k e l y

find about the chief point of i n t e r e s t

in

the o r i g i n a l . And

whenyou

have

produced the general e f f e c t

on

your copy,

when

compared a t a distance,

begin to

work up every part tenaciously

to the o r i g i n a l , until you can discover no difference

whatever,

except

in

a certain freshness

in your

work, which time w i l l too

soon divest i t o f . Take c are that a l l the

t i n t s

on your palette

be

of

an equal

s t a t e

of moisture,

so

that

a l l

should

flow

under

the

pencil

a l i k e .

Do

not

dwell

on

the

light

parts

of

the

picture

in

i t s

early stage

; but bring on

the

whole

general force and

e f f e c t

by

securing,

f i r s t , a l l

absolute and

t o t a l

shades throughout

your picture

in their proper c l a s s , a s

nearly

a s

possible

(never

losing

the drawing which was

your

previous consideration);

then the next c l a s s of

depths

and their colours

in

the same

order; then the t h i r d , with a l l their tender and s u b t i l e ascend-

ings

into

l i g h t , where, i f

you

successfully a r r i v e , your study

will

only

want

that

refinement

of

attention

which i s

always

required on the

broad

l i g h t s ,

because

the model

of

every form

must be expressed a s perfectly t h e r e , a s in the more e a s i l y de

terminable shaded p a r t s .

Your f i r s t observation on the general hu e of an old picture

you

would

copy,

should be

t o

search out a part which you are

certain

was

touched

o r i g i n a l l y with

pure

white,

then

take a

piece

of

p ure whi te

on the palette k n i f e ,

and compare

i t

with

the

o r i g i n a l .

You

will

thus

find

what

degree

of

lowering

the

whole picture

has sustained

by

time;

and

i f

you begin

the

painting of your

copy

by

securing

t h i s

point,

or mass of pure

white, and l e t i t remain unaltered, a s the key-note t o your



266 TRANSPARENCIES.

copy, i f

you

possess due harmony of

eye,

the

whole

copy

w i l l , by t hi s r u l e , become what the original was when f i r s t

painted.

An

old

experienced

a r t i s t

(whose

works

are

s u f f i c i e n t

evi

denc es of

the truth of

h i s

testimony) assured

me,

that

s p i r i t s

of

turpentine, mixed with a very small portion of good nut o i l ,

was

the only vehicle he

had

made use of in painting; which,

when f i n i s h e d , had a

dry

calcareous appearance; but when

varnished with

mastic

varnish, a l l came

forth

with excellent

e f f e c t ,

and would n e i t h e r crack

nor change c o l o u r ,

except

from

the

slow

but certain power of t i m e , on a l l similar

materials.

If a gallon of

raw l i n s e e d

o i l be buried in a

hot-bed, or

the

earth, f o r three months, the greasy matter s e t t l e s a t the bottom

of the v e s s e l ,

and

nearly

half

a

gallon

of f i n e

c l e a r

vehicle i s

obtained, which dries

w e l l , and

does not change

the colour.

But

numerous other vehicles can now be procured which

may have t h e i r peculiar advantages.

TO FAINT TRANSPARENCIES.

The material f o r working on, i s f i n e

cambric

muslin, which

must

be well covered with any f i n e c l e a r

s i z e

—hose

made

of

white

l e a t h e r ,

or parchment

cuttings,

are

the b e s t . While

wet, the

cambric muslin must

be

strained

very

tightly

on

a

frame, and when dry should be 'passed over lightly with a

pumice

s t o n e ,

which

will

very

much

improve

the

surface

for

working on.

The

colours t o use a r e , any or

a l l of

those of

a

transparent

quality

; the

vehicle,

s p i r i t s of

turpentine mixed

with

japanner's

gold size—the t o o l s , camel-hair p e n c i l s ,

plenty

of clean linen r a g s , and a penknife with a point of t h i s shape—

Having sketched the

subject

with a s o f t

lead

pencil l i g h t l y , outline the

principal

objects

with

either

water

or

o i l

colours:

water

colour

will

dry

almost

immediately;

proceed then to lay in the sky, the t i n t s f o r which should be

mixed separately

in

s a u c e r s , and rubbed in lightly with the

linen rag; then the water or distance, and l a s t l y the f o l i a g e ,



TRANSPARENCIES. 267

rocks, e t c . ,

e t c . , ; l i t t l e or none of the japanner's gold s i z e

should

be used

with

the

light

t i n t s , a s i t d r i e s too

f a s t ;

—

n

the

dark parts of the subjects where c r i s p l i g h t s are required, or

indeed

in

any

other

part

where

they

are

r e q u i s i t e ,

a

mass

of

dark

c olo ur of a warmish t i n t , may be l a i d over the ground colour,

and a f t e r being allowed to dry a

l i t t l e ,

they may be

scraped

out

to the greatest nicety with the before-mentioned penknife:

when

t h i s i s a l l dry, the t i n t s may be

strengthened and mel

lowed by

additional

colour,

and

where great depth i s required,

i t

may be

obtained qu i ckly by

colouring the other

s i d e

of the

blind. All the work

should

be done with the subject between

the painter

and

the

l i g h t .

A composition f o r painting, in imitation of the anc ient

Grecian manner, i s explained

by

additional

communications in

the

25th v o l . (1817)

of the

Society f o r encouraging

Arts,

Manufactures,

and

Commerce;

a s

discovered

and

successfully

practised by

Mrs. Hooker, of

Rottingdean,

near

Brighton, and

f i r s t published in the 10th

v o l .

of the

Society's

Transactions,

f o r

the year 1792. This

method

precludes the use of

o i l s

and t u r

pentine varnishes; and i s therefore

( i f

only in t h i s particular)

f i n e l y adapted

f o r

amateurs of delicate

c o n s t i t u t i o n s .

The pro

c e s s i s simple

and wholesome, and

appears

t o possess

a l l the

fineness of

o i l

p a i n t s .—

.

H.

**

The notes t o Eastlake's

translation

of

Goethe's

Theory

of Colours, are t o be highly prized; and should be carefully

studied by the

more

finished

student

in the

a r t

of o i l

painting.



268

PAPER IN POLITE ARTS.

The

Thanks

of the

Society

were t h i s

Session

voted

to Mrs.

Hooker, of

Rottingdean, near Brighton,

formerly

Miss Emma Jane Greenland; for

Additional

Eemarks t o her

Method

of making a Composition f o r Painting

in Imitation

of

the Ancient Grecian Manner, as published i n the 10th

Volume of

the Society's

Transactions, f o r

the Year 1792.

A Specimen of t h i s Mode of Painting i s preserved in the Society's House.

Sir,

—had the

pleasure

to communicate to the Society for

the

Encouragement

of

Arts,

Manufactures,

and

Commerce,

in

1786,

when

Miss E. J.

Greenland,

my method of pai nti ng in

imitation

of

the

ancient

Grecian

manner, or incaustic

painting,

and

in

consequence,

they di d me the honour to adjudge to me

the Gold Palette, and also afterwards to approve my account of

the result of above f i f t y experiments per day,

which

I made

during more than four months in 1792, in the hope of di s

covering some means of making wax, gum-mastic,

and

water

unite

like

a

cream,

in

order

to

expedite

the

formation

of

the

composition for

imitating

the

incaustic painting, which

was

published the same

year

by the

Society

of Arts.

I

now take

the

liberty

of sending them

another

copy,

but

with

some altera

tions and

many

additions, which I trust

will

be found

calculated

to

facilitate

and

improve that method of painting, as

they

have

arisen from much observation and reflection on several pictures

I have

painted

since

I had

l a s t the honour

of

addressing the

Society.

In consequence

of the

application

of

several

gentlemen

of the profession, I

have

drawn up this

paper,

which, consider

i ng the

former attentions

of the Society,

I

thought

i t

would be

proper

for

me to offer

f i r s t

to them

for

their acceptance ; bu t i f

they

should not think i t worthy of

communication, I hope they

will pardon the

intrusion,

and attribute i t only to the sense of

gratitude

I feel for the honour already

conferred

on,

Sir,

Your

most obedient

Servant,

EMMAJANE HOOKER.

Bottingdean, Brighton, March 1 6 , 1807.

To

Charles

Taylor, M.D., Sec.



269

METHOD OF PREPARING AND APPLYING A COMPOSITION

FOR PAINTING IN IMITATIONOF THE ANCIENT GRECIAN

MANNER.

Put into a glazed earthen

vessel,

four ounces and a

half

of

gum Arabic, and eight ounces, or half a pint (wine measure)

of

c old s pri ng water :

when

the

gum

i s dissolved,

s t i r

in seven

ounces

of

gum mastic,

which has been

washed, dried,

picked,

and beaten

f i n e . Set the

earthen

vessel

containing

the

gum

water

and gum-mastic

over a slow f i r e , continually stirring

and

beating

them

hard

with

a

spoon,

in

order

to di ss olv e

the

gum-mastic: when sufficiently boiled, i t will no

longer

ap

pear transparent, but will become opaque and s t i f f , like a

paste. As

soon

as this i s the case,

and that

the gum water

and mastic are quite

boiling,

without taking them off the

f i r e , add

five ounces

of white wax, broken

into

small

pieces,

stirring and

beating

the different ingredients together, t i l l the

wax

i s perfectly

melted

and has

boiled. Then take the com

position

off

the

f i r e ,

as

boiling

i t

longer

than

necessary

would

only

harden the wax,

and

prevent i t s mixing so well after

wards

with water.

When

the

composition i s

taken off the

f i r e , and in the

glazed

earthen vessel, i t

should

be

beaten

hard,

and

whilst

hot (but not

boiling)

mix

with

i t by

degrees

a

pint

(wine measure) or sixteen oun ces more of

cold spring

water, then strain

the

composition,

as

some

dirt will boil

ou t

of the

gum-mastic,

and

put

i t into bottles: t he c omp os it i on ,

if

properly made, should

be

like a cream,

and

the colours,

when

mixed with

i t , as

smooth as with

o i l .

The method of

using

i t ,

i s

to

mix

with the

composition

upon ah earthen pa

l e t t e ,

such

colours in powder as are

used

in painting with o i l ,

and

s u c h a qu an ti ty o f the composit ion to be mixed with the

colours as to render them of the usual

consistency

of o i l

colours :

then

paint with f a i r water. The colours when mixed

with the composition maybe laid on either thick or thin, as

may

best suit your

subject,

on which

account,

this

composi

tion

i s very advantageous, where any

particular

transparency

of colour

i s required:

but

in

most cases,

i t

answers best

if

the colours be

laid

on thick,

and

they require the

same

u se



270

MRS.

HOOKER'S PArER

of the

brush,

a s i f painting

with

body c o l o u r s ,

and

the same

brushes a s used

in o i l

painting. The

c o l o u r s ,

i f

grown

dry,

when mixed

with

the composition, may be used by putting a

l i t t l e f a i r water over them; but i t i s l e s s trouble t o put some

water when the c olours are

observed

t o be growing

dry.

In

painting with t h i s composition the colours blend witho ut di f

f i c u l t y when wet, and even

when dry

the t i n t s may e a s i l y

be united by means of a brush and a very small quantity of

f a i r

water.

When

the painting i s

f i n i s h e d ,

put some white wax

into a

glazed earthen v e s s e l over

a slow f i r e

;

and when

melted,

but

not

boiling,

with

a

hard

brush

cover

the

painting

with

the

wax; and when c o l d , take a moderately

ho t i r o n ,

such a s i s used

f o r ironing

l i n e n ,

and s o cold a s

not to

h i s s , i f

touched with

anything wet, and draw i t l i g h t l y over the wax. The painting

will

appear

a s i f

under

a

cloud

t i l l

the

wax

i s

perfectly

cold, as

a l s o , whatever the picture i s painted upon i s quite cold; but i f ,

when s o , the painting should not appear s u f f i c i e n t l y

c l e a r ,

i t

may

be

held before the f i r e , s o f a r

from

i t a s to melt the wax

but

slowly;

or

the

wax

may

be

melted

by

holding

a

ho t

poker

a t such a distance a s t o melt i t gently, especially such parts of

the picture a s should not appear s u f f i c i e n t l y transparent or b r i l

l i a n t ; f o r the oftener heat i s applied t o the picture, the greater

will be the transparency and brilliancy of colouring; but the

contrary

e f f e c t s

would be produced

i f

too sudden

or

too

great

a

degree of heat were

applied, or f o r too long a

time, a s i t would

draw the

wax

too

much t o

the

s u r f a c e , and

might likewise

crack

the

p a i n t .

Should

the

coat

of

wax

put

over

the painting

when

f i n i s h e d , appear i n any part uneven, i t may be remedied

by drawing a

moderately hot iron over i t

again, a s before-men

tioned, or even by scraping the wax with a knife : and should

the

wax

by too great

or

too long an

application of

heat form

into bubbles a t particular p l a c e s , by applying a poker heated,

or

even a

tobacco-pipe made

hot, the bubbles would

subside

;

or such defects

may be removed

by drawing anything hard

over the wax, which

would

c l o s e any small c a v i t i e s .

When the

picture

i s c o l d , rub i t

with a f i n e linen c l o t h .

Paintings may be executed

in

t h i s m,anner

upon

wood (having

f i r s t pieces of wood l e t i n behind, across the grain of the



IN

POLITE ARTS.

271

wood, to

prevent

i t s warping,) canvass, card, or

p l a s t e r

of

P a r i s . The

p l a s t e r

of

Paris

would require no

other

prepara

tion

than

mixing

some

f i n e

p l a s t e r

of

Paris

i n powder

with

cold

water the thickness of a

cream ;

then

put

i t on a looking-glass,

having f i r s t

made a frame

of beeswax on the

looking-glass

the

form and

thickness you would

wish the p l a s t e r of Paris t o

be

o f , and when dry take i t o f f , and there w i l l be a very smooth

surface t o

paint upon. AVood

and canvass

are

best

covered

with some

grey

t i n t mixed

with

the same

composition

of gum

Arabic, gum-mastic, and wax , and of the same s o r t of

colours

a s

before-mentioned,

before

the

design

i s

begun,

in

order

t o

cover the grain of the wood or the threads of the canvass.

Paintings may a l s o be done in the same manner with only

gum-water

and gum-mastic,

prepared

the same way a s the

mastic and wax ; but instead of putting se ve n o unc es of mastic,

and

when

boiling,

adding f i v e

ounces

of wax, mix

twelve

ounces of gum-mastic with the gum-water, prepared a s men

tioned in the f i r s t part of t h i s receipt: before i t i s put

on

the

f i r e ,

and

when


boiled

and

beaten,

and

i s

a

l i t t l e

cold, s t i r

in by degrees

twelve

ounces, or

three

quarters

of

a

pint

of

cold spring

water, and afterwards s t r a i n i t .

I t

would

be equally practicable,

painting with wax

alone,

dissolved in

gum-water

in

the

following

manner:

—

ake twelve ounces or

three

quarters

of a pint of

cold spring water,

and four ounces

and a half of gum Arabic : put them into a glazed earthen v e s s e l ,

and when

the gum i s dissolved, add

eight ounces

of

white

wax.

Pu t the earthen v e s s e l with the gu m- wat er an d wax upon a

slow

f i r e , and s t i r them t i l l the wax i s dissolved and has boiled

a few minutes; then take

them

o f f the f i r e and throw them

into

a bason,

a s

by remaining in the hot earthen v e s s e l the

wax

would become rather hard; beat the

g um- wa te r an d

wax t i l l

quite c o l d . As there i s but a small proportion of water in

com

parison

t o the quantity of

gum and

wax, i t would be

necessary,

in

mixing

the

composition

with

the

colours,

t o

put

a l s o

some

f a i r

water. Should the

composition

be

s o made a s

to occa

sion

the ingredients t o separate

in the

b o t t l e ,

i t

w i l l become

equally serviceable i f

shaken before

used to mix

with

the

c o l o u r s .



272

MRS.

hooker's

method

I

had

l a t e l y an opportunity of discovering that the compo

s i t i o n which had remained in

a bottle since

the

year 1792, in

which

time

i t

had grown dry and

become a s s o l i d a substance

a s

wax, returned

t o

a cream-like

consistence, and

became again

in a s proper a s t a t e to mix with c o l o u r s ,

a s

when i t

was

f i r s t

made, by

putting

a

l i t t l e

cold water upon i t ,

and

suffering i t to

remain a short

time. I

a l s o l a t e l y found some of the mixture

composed of only

gum

Arabic water,

and

gum-mastic, of which

I sent

a specimen t o the Society of Arts in 1792; i t was

become

dry, and had much

the

appearance and consistency

of

horn.

I

found,

on

l e t t i n g

some

cold

water

remain

over

i t ,

that

i t

became a s f i t f o r

painting

with,

a s when

the composition

was

f i r s t prepared.

EMMA JANE HOOKER.

Rottingdean, Brighton,

Sept. 2 4 , 1817.

Mrs.

Hooker's

best

compliments

t o

Mr.

Hayter,

and

has

the

pleasure of answering h i s questions,

which

she rec ei ved

this

morning, respecting her method of Incaustic Painting; she

has

always

prepared the vehicle (or

what

she

c a l l s

cream,

as

i t

has that appearance) h e r s e l f , in order t o be sure of the exact

proportion

of

the

d i f f e r e n t

ingredients; a s a

deficiency

in

any

one might a l t e r the e f f e c t of the

colour,

when heat should be

applied to

them.

In

general

she has not found the ingredients

t o

separate

t i l l

a

length

of

time

a f t e r

the

composition

has

been

made,

but which i s never of any consequence, i f the bottle

be shaken, or the composition

in

i t s o s t i r r e d a s t o mix

i t

thoroughly, and occasion a du e proportion of the ingredients

to

mix with the c o l o u r s . The warmed iron must

touch

the

surface of the picture, which process i s

chiefly

intended to

smooth i t ; which i s f u l l y described in the printed r e c e i p t .

She

has often smoothed the surface of the wax by scraping

with

a

very

smooth-edged

k n i f e .

She

does

not

know

that

the paint

ing can be

retouched,

a f t e r the coat

of

wax i s applied ; but she

has materially improved many pictures by

repetitions of

heat

p a r t i a l l y t o such

parts

a s required more f o r c e .



OF

INCATJSTIC PAINTING. 273

Mrs.

Hooker has

most

usually painted with the cream, com

posed of gum

Arabic,

gum-mastic, and wax ; and

begs

to

ob

s e r v e ,

that

the

d i f f e r e n t

persons

to

whom

she

has

given

the

r e c e i p t ,

never

f a i l e d in making the composition, when

they ad

hered s t r i c t l y t o

her d i r e c t i o n s . At her

l e i s u r e , she used t o

mix

the colours ( i n powder) with the cream, and

when

dry, took

the lumps

so

prepared o f f the p a l e t t e , and

put them in papers,

to keep them c l e a n ,

and

when either

was

required

f o r

u s e , she

cut a piece o f f ,

and

put i t in a l i t t l e f a i r water,

and

in a few

minutes

i t became in

a f i t s t a t e

to

u s e , and

Mrs. Hooker has

now

d i f f e r e n t

colours

so

mixed

a s

long

ago

a s

the

year 1795,

in the f i n e s t s t a t e possible f o r

u s e ,

and neither (even the flake

white) the

l e a s t

changed; i t i s a great

advantage that

there i s

no necessity f o r clearing the palette continually ; an earthen

palette i s the

most

convenient. She prefers

cutting

off the

quantity of each colour f o r immediate u s e ,

and diluting

them

a s before explained, t o l e t t i n g them remain wet any considera

ble

time,

a s that must weaken the gum Arabic, and thereby

diminish

what

the

I t a l i a n s

c a l l

the

Impastura.

Finding

the colours dry too f a s t

on

the p a l e t t e , I was much

inconvenienced a t f i r s t ; but on reconsidering my instructions

f o r using the

paints (when

mixed with the cream) with fair

water,

I diluted

each colour

( a f t e r preparing

them

with

the

c re am) w it h a s much f a i r water a s would render them usable :

t h i s

preserved

them moist much longer

than before; but s t i l l

they dry

very inconveniently

s o o n , to a novice in the use of them ;

but t h i s only proves the

want

of p r a c t i c e , both i n the depart

ment

of mi xi ng and using the materials, and does

not l e s s e n

myhigh

opinion

of Mrs.

Hooker's

discovery.

C.H.

The

regular

s i z e s of canvass,

and their

technical names,

are

a s follow ;

f o r

which the author i s

obliged t o

Mr. Brown,

18

/ .



274

SIZES OF CANVASS AND DRAWING PAPER.

Primed

Cloth Manufacturer,

and

Colourman

t o A r t i s t s ; 163,

High Holborn.

f t ,

i n .

f t .

i n .

A

whole

length measures

7 10 long xy

4

10 wide.

Abishop's half length

— 4

8 —

3 8

Common

half

length

— 4

2

—

3

4

Small half length

— 3 4 —

2 10J

Kitcat

....

— 3

0

—

2 4

Three-quarter s i z e

— 2

6 — 2 1

Head s i z e

— 2

0 — 1 8

Two smaller

s i z e s .

/I

0

—

5 1 -

1

5

1 2

Landscapes

have

no

s e t t l e d

dimensions, but

are often

painted

on

the above given s i z e s , placing them on t h e i r

s i d e s

instead

of upright, a s f o r p o r t r a i t s ; thus,

on

asking the s i z e of a land

s c a p e ,

a painter

would answer,

I t

i s

a whole-length

s i z e ,

landscape way,

which

you

are

to understand to

measure

in

length

and

width

according t o the

measure

given

under

the

head whole l e n g t h .

SIZES OF DRAWING-PAPER.

I n c h e s .

Demy 20 by 15

Medium 22 —

17

Royal

24

—

19

Super Royal 27 —19

Imperial 30

—

21

Columbia 34 —23

Atlas

33

—

26

Double

Elephant

....

40 —26

Antiquarian 5 2 —31

Extra

large

d i t t o

... 5 6 —38



27 5

COMBINATION

OF

THE THREE PRIMITIVE COLOURS.

The

multiplication of t i n t s

by various

intersections may be

made

very

i n s t r u c t i v e ,

a s

well

a s

amusing.

The

foregoing

con

trivance

exhibits the three Primitives

and

their s i x

pure

com

pounds,

with twenty-one

additional

compounds

by couplets.



276

COMBINATION OF PRIMITIVE COLOURS.

The following

List

i s intended to serve

as

a Key to the effect

of the

combination

of the

nine

colours of the

system in

the

diagram

of the

preceding

page.

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1+4

1+7

1+6

1+9

2+7

2+4

1 are

Yellow

2 „ Red

Blue

Orange

Purple

Green

Brown

Slate

Olive

YeUow

Yellow

YeUow

Yellow

Red

Red

[ J

Primitive

I 1 colours

1 /First

|

I compound

I

J

Second

[

]

compound

and Orange

Brown

Green

Olive

Brown

Orange

2+5 are

2+8

3+6

3+9

3+5

3+8

4+7

6+9

4+8

5+8

5+9

6+7

7+8

7+9

8+9

Red and

Purple

Red

, Slate

Blue ,

, Green

Blue ,

, Olive

Blue ,

,

Purple

Blue ,

,

Slate

Orange ,

, Brown

Green-

,

,

Olive

Orange ,

, Slate

Purple ,

,

Slate

Purple ,

, Olive

Green ,

,

Brown

Brown , , Slate

Brown

, , Olive

Slate ,

, Olive

Colour

the

sides

of

the

triangles

by

the

f i r s t

nine

numbers

in

rotation,—he couplets will then a l l answer

to

the names appro

priated

to them

in

the above l i s t .

J. WKRTHBIMER AND CO.,

PRINTERS,

FINSBl'RT CIRCUS.





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Documents

An Introduction to Perspective