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Oxford University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Early Music.
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An Introduction to the Crumhorn Repertoire
Author(s): Bernard ThomasSource: Early Music, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Jul., 1973), pp. 142-146Published by: Oxford University PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3126062Accessed: 22-11-2015 20:12 UTC
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8/19/2019 An Introduction to Crumhorn Repertoire
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/an-introduction-to-crumhorn-repertoire 2/6
n introdu tion
t t h
rumhorn
repertoire
BERNARD
THOMAS
There are
quite
a
few
people
around
today
who
have
bought
crumhorns and learnt to
play
them
to
some
sort
ofstandard,
buthave
difficulty
in
finding
suitable
music,
chiefly
because
of
the
limited
range
of the
instruments.
This article aims to
define
the
repertoire
of
the crumhorn in
general
terms,
and to
try
and sort
out
what
types
of music
actually
might
have
been
played
on these instruments.
It is
worth
pointing
out, however,
two
important
differencesbetween the crumhorn of the Renaissance
and
the
reproductions
we use
today,
inasmuch
as
they
affect
the
repertoire.
The
first of these
is
the
actual
sound of the instrument.
All
modern
repro-
ductions
(with
the
possible exception
of those
by
Rainer
Weber,
which
I am
told are more
authentic,
though
I
have
unfortunately
been
unable
to
get
hold
of
any,myself)
tend
to
produce
a
rather
thin
buzzing
sound
with
little
resonance;
this
is
probably
due to
(a)
plastic
reeds,
(b)
very
small bell
flare
compared
to
the
originals,
(c)
very
small
finger
holes,
and
(d)
a
bore that
is
slightly
too
narrow
all the
way
down.
The
originals
that
I
have
played
(in
Berlin and
Vienna)
produce
a much
clearer,
stronger
and
more
resonant
sound,
with
much
less
buzzing
about
it
-
in
short,
they
sound
like musical
instruments,
rather
than the
failing
buzzers of
a
sick
intercom
system.
Thus
the
in-
adequacies
of modern instruments
combined with
the
inability
of
many
players
to
tongue
smoothly
when
required
has led
to the
concept
of the
crum-
horn as
a
'funny'
instrument
(I
have
never been able
to
see
the
joke myself).
Consequently
many
'early
musicians'
(musicians
with
alarm
clocks?)
regard
the
crumhorn as only suitable for dance music and what
one
might
call
16th
century patter-songs
like
Janequin's
'I1
estoit
une fillette'
(which
in fact could
not have been
played
on crumhorns without
several
alterations).
An
analysis
of
the
few
surviving
pieces
that
do
specify
crumhorns
shows
this
picture
to
be
anachronistic
to
say
the
least:
these
works
range
from a
fairly complicated
instrumental
piece
in
basse
danse
style
to
German
Tenorlied
nd sacred
works. So
it
is
clear
that
the
crumhorn,
if less
frequently
used
than
other
instruments,
was
regarded
as
a serious
instrument
capable
of
playing
solemn
motet-like
pieces
as
well as
dance
music,
and
was
only
limited
by
its
range.
This
brings
me to the
second
important
difference
between
the
renaissance
crumhorn
and its
20th
century
counterpart
-
the
actual
pitch
of
the various
sizes,
at
least
in
relation to
each
other.
It
seems
fairly
certain that
the
alto
instrument
(or
diskant,
as
it
seems to have been called)was in g, not in f. Neither
Virdung
nor
Agricola
mentions a
higher
instrument
in the
text,
and
it seems
fairly
certain
that the
standard
ensemble
(at
least
during
the first
half of the
16th
century,
and
possibly
considerably
later)
consisted of alto in
g,
two tenors
in
c,
and bass
in
F.
Praetorius
does mention a
soprano
(exilient)
though
it
seems to have
been
fairly
rare. On the
other
end
of
the scale
extended basses
(with
sliders
allowing
one
extra
note
thathad
to be
pre-set
-
e.g.
D
or
C
on
an
F
instrument)
and
even
extended
great-basses
in C
have
survived: this
somewhat
primitive
extension
system
may
seem
strange
to
us,
but in
fact
there are
many
16th
century pieces
in
which the bass
part
has a
range
of
about an
octave
plus
one other
(lower)
note,
often
turning
up
just
at the
main
cadences.
A
predominance
of
the
lower
sizes
among
the
surviving
instruments
together
with the relative
scarcity
of a crumhorn
that
could
go
above a' would
suggest
that
some
downward
transposition
might
have
been
common
practice,
and this
is
borne
out
by
the
surviving
pieces
that do
specify
crumhorns.
Before
going
into this
question
of
transposition
it
might be as well to list all the pieces that are known
to be
associated
with
the instrument:
1
Schein
included a
pavan
'a
4 Krumhorn'
at the
end of
his
Banchetto
Musicale
of
1626.
2
A
six-part
madrigal
Guardan
almo
pastore
was
performed
as
part
of a
dramatic entertainment
with
music
by
Corteccia
in
1539:
according
to
the
surviving
description
it
was
first
sung,
then
repeated
with
crumhorns
doubling
the
voices.
3
Thomas
Stolzer
composed
a
six-part psalm
142
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setting,
Erzimrne
ich
nicht,
at
the
instruction of a
royal
patron
in
1526:
a
letter survives in
which
the
composer
mentions
that he
has
written
the
work
with
crumhorns
in
mind.
4 MS
1872
of the
Kongelige
Biblioteket in
Copenhagen
(which
was
in
fact
written
for a
royal
wind-band,
and
which
specifies
some
other
instruments as
well)
contains three
pieces
headed
'Krumbhdrner':
a)
T'Andernaken,
n
anonymous
five-
part
setting
of a
Dutch
popular
tune in
which
all the
parts
are
within
the
range
of
crumhorns,
(b)
ich klag
den
tag
und alle stund for a mixture of
crumhorns
and
trombones
(the
manuscript
does
not indicate
which
instrument
should
play
which
part),
and
(c)
Hor
largire,
probably
also
intended for a
mixture
of crum-
horns and trombones
also,
as
only
three
of
the
six
parts
are
within
the
range
(crumhorns
only
are
mentioned
in
the
manuscript).
5
MS
1873
from
the
same
library
(associated
with
the same band as 1872) contains three motets for
which
crumhorns are
specified;
unfortunately
none
of these
pieces
is
complete.
Apart
from
their
intrinsic
interest,
there
are
two
important points
about these
pieces.
One
is
that
they
cover
many
different
types
of
music
-
a
stylized
dance,
an instrumental
setting
of a
popular
tune,
a
fairly
elaborate
six-part
chanson
of
about
1540,
a
German
Tenorlied,
an
Italian
madrigal
and several
sacred
pieces.
This
alone
would
be
enough
to
dispel
the
myth
of the crumhorn
as a comic
figure.
The
other
point
is
that
in
several of
the
pieces
(for
instance Ich
klag
den
tag)
a
transposition
down a
fourth is
necessary
before crumhorns can be used.
I
would
suggest
that
transposition by
this interval
in
order to
bring
music
within the
range
of
crumhorns
must
have
been a
fairly
common
practice,
at least
during
the
first
half
of
the 16th
century.
Certainly
much
four-part
music of
around 1530
works
very
well this
way.
For a
piece
to fit
transposed
down
a
fourth
the
ranges
of
the
parts
must
be
written:
superius,
c'-d ,
tenor and
contratenor,
f-g',
bass,
B
flat
to c'
(with
occasional
optional
G
or
F).
Parts
with these
ranges
are
normally written in the follow-
ing
clefs in the
original:
superius
/
v
tenor
o
contratenor
,
bass
b,
Normally
this
transposition
will
only
work with
pieces
that
have
B flats in them:
pieces
without
flats,
but
fairly
frequent
sharps
(e.g.
in a
minor)
tend to
work better
down
a fifth.
Many
chansons
of the
so-
called 'Parisian'
type
work well this
way.
For
instance,
three of the chansons
published
as
suitable
for
recorders
or
flutes
in
1533
by
Pierre
Attaingnant
(for modern edition see bibliography) will fit,
Claudin's De vous
servir,
Vermont's Les
yeulx
bendez,
and
Jacotin's
Voyant
souffrir.
In fact a
fairly
high
proportion
of
the
chansons
of this
type
that
have the
bass
part
written
in
the baritone clef
in
the
original
(F
on the
middle
line)
will work
quite
well.
Many
of
the dances
from
the earlier
Attaingnant
collections
are
eminently
suitable
for
this treatment.
For instance
in
the
Neuf
basses
danses deux branles
.
. ,
(published
in
a
modern edition
under the
title
Pariser
Tanzbuch)
the
following
numbers
will
work
(numbering
according
to modern
edition,
different
from the original): 2, 5-7, 10, 12, 13, 18, 22, 32-35,
40, 42-49,
51.
The same
publisher's
Second
livre
(1547)
contains
the
following
numbers
to
which
the
same
applies:
3, 4, 6,
8, 12, 14-18,
20-22, 27, 32, 38,
45,
46. The
dance collection
that contains the
largest
number
of
pieces
suitable
for crumhorns is
Susato's
1551 book.
Curiously
enough
the
majority
of
the
dances in
this collection are
already
written
a
fourth
lower
than the
pitch
one
would
normally expect
to
find
them
in: for
instance the
Bergerette
D'ont
vient
cela
appears
in
d,
while
the
galliard
on
the
same
chanson in
Attaingnant's
Neuf
bassesdansesas
well
as
most
arrangements
of the chanson itself are in
g.
It is
possible
that
Susato
deliberately
printed
his
dances
down
a fourth
with
crumhorns
in
mind,
as
the fact
that
his
shop
sign
in
Antwerp
was
the crumhorn
might suggest
that
he
could
have had a
special
interest in
the instrument. Not
all
the dances are
written
in
the
low
key,
however,,
and
the
following
dances
will need the usual
transposition:
Entre
dufol,
Den
IIII.
ronde,
Den
V.
ronde.
Wo
bistu,
Den
VI.
ronde,
den
VIII
ronde.
Mille
ducas
en
vostre
bource,
Saltarelle.
Not
all the
pieces
in
Susato
are suitable for
crum-
horns
-
the following are out of range however they
are
transposed:
Reprise
C'est
une
dure
despartie,
Bergerette,
Danse du
Roy,
Lejoly
boys,
Mon
desir,
Reprise
Le cueur est
bon,
Reprise
C'est
a
grant
tort,
Den iersten
ronde.
Pourquoy,
Den
II
ronde. Mon
amy,
Den III
ronde,
Den hoboecken
dans,
Den
V
Allemaingne,
Den
VII
Allemaingne,
Recoupe,
Pavane Si
par
souffrir,
4.
Gaillarde,
Galliarde
1-15. All the
other
pieces
in
the
collection,
thirty-nine
in
all,
will work
perfectly
well
on
crumhorns as
written.
143
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Italian
dance
music
of the 16th
century
is if
any-
thing
more
suitable
for crumhorns
than
French:
much of it
is
extremely
simple
harmonically
and
melodically.
Most
of the
dances
in Bendusi's
Opera
Nova
de Balli
(1553)
work
perfectly
well
on
the
standard
ATTB
combination,
though
in most cases
they
need downward
transposition
by
a
fifth
rather
than a fourth as many of them are written out in A
rather
than
G.
A
large
proportion
of Italian
dances
in
manuscript
sources
(for
instance
those
in British
Museum,
Royal App.
59-62,
some of
which
turn
up
in
the Hessen
collections
of
1555)
are
also
eminently
suitable.
Unfortunately very
little
of this
music
is
available
in
modern
editions
at
the
moment:
nine
pieces
have been
published
in
a
somewhat
dubious
edition
for recorders
(see
bibliography).
In the later
dance
collections
the number
of
pieces
that
will
work
on crumhorns
even
if
transposed
down
a fourth
or
any
other interval
decreases:
this
is
largely
because the
top
part
tends to go
up
to higher
notes
of the basic
scale,
for
instance
f
in
the
key
of
g,
as
against
the earlier
dances
in
which
the
superius
very
often
goes
up
to the
fifth and then down
again.
In
Claude
Gervaise's
Sixi'eme
Livre,
published
by
Attaingnant
in
1555,
only
ten
pieces
work
out
of a
total
of
50,
nos.
1, 4, 5, 9,
13, 21,
31, 32,
36,
50.
In
the
same
arranger's
Troisi'eme
Livre
(1557)
only
seven
pieces
will
work,
nos.
5,
7, 9,
17, 18, 39,
41.
In
Etienne
du
Tertre's
Septi'eme
Livre
(1557)
none
of
the
dances
will
respond
to
any
transposition
scheme.
Apart
from
the difference
in
the
modal
structure
of
the melodies
that
I have
already
mentioned,
an
important
reason
why
these
later
pieces
do
not
work
as do
the
earlier
ones
lies in
a
change
in the
spacing
of
the
parts:
those
of around
1530,
like the
chansons
of that
time,
tend
to
have
two
equal
inner
parts,
while
in
the
later ones
there is
normally
a
gap
between
these two
parts
(even
if
they
are
written
in
the same
clefs).
The
question
of
whether
these
mid-
century
dances
could
have
been
played
on
crum-
horns
depends
entirely
on
exactly
when
the
soprano
crumhorn
appeared
and
on
how
much it was
used
when it did arrive. As there is a long gap in
documentation
between
Agricola
and
Praetorius
it
is
impossible
to
say
with
any pretence
at
accuracy
when
the basic
ATTB
family
was
extended
upwards
(or
downwards,
for that
matter).
It seems
likely
that
during
the second
half
of the 16th
century
the
violin
family
must have
begun
to take on an
increasingly.
important
role
in
dance
music
as an
indoor
alter-
native
to the outdoor
shawm
band.
There
is some
documentary
and
iconographic
evidence
for
this,
but
it is
also
reflected
in
the music.
A
few
of
the
branles
in
Etienne du Tertre's
Septieme
Livre
(1557)
and some
of
the
pieces
in
Giorgio
Mainerio's
II Primo
Libro
de
Balli
(1578)
show
signs
of
being
particularly
suitable
for
strings.
By
the
time
Terpsichore
1612)
appeared,
fiddlers must
have had
something
of a
monopoly
in
indoor
ensemble
dance music:
certainly
all
the
dances in Praetorius' collection sound well on
strings,
and
many
are
unsuitable
for
any
other
instruments. An
analysis
of all the
dances
in
this
volume reveals
only
a
handful that could
conceivably
be
played
on
crumhorns. No
suite of
branles
will
work
complete
at a
single
transposition,
which
does
rather
suggest
that crumhorns should not
be used
in
these dances at all.
With German music
of the
16th
century
it is
really
quite
surprising
how
little there
is
that
will work
on
a
crumhorn
consort:
in
the
whole
repertoire
of
the
Tenorlied
there are
very
few
pieces
in
which
all
parts
are within the range, however they are transposed.
The
only
ones that
do
work
are
the
very simple
homophonic
pieces
like
Senfl's
Mit
Fleiss
und
Mi?h
(Samtliche
Werken,
IV,
no.
19)
or
the same
composer's
Patientiam
muss
ich
han
(IV,
64):
such
pieces
are
very
much the
exception
in
the
repertoire
of
the
Tenorlied,
which
typically
has
fairly lively
and
wide-ranging
'free'
parts
that
set off the
simple
tune in the tenor.
The
same
problem
exists
with
German sacred music
of
the time: this
too tends to
be
fairly
elaborate
rhythmically,
with
frequent
octave
leaps
that
bring
the
range
of
most
parts
well
over a
ninth. The
specification
n the Ich
klag
den
Tag
etting
n
Copen-
hagen
1872,
'krummhirner
und
posaun',
is
extremely
interesting
in
this
context: the
three
parts
in this
piece
that are
within
the
compass
of crum-
horns
are
cantis-firmus
parts, presumably
leaving
the
more
elaborate
'free'
parts
to the trombones.
This
may
come
as
a
surprise
to
us,
as the sackbut tends
to
be associated
in our
minds
with
slow-moving
parts
rather than
busy rhythmic
writing.
However,
setting
aside
the
question
of
the
sackbuts,
the fact that
we
are
left
with
the
crumhorns
playing
the
tune
is most
interesting,
and
suggests
an
important
use
of
the
instrument. This
type
of instrumentation
need
not be
limited
to German
music
-
the
six-part
French
piece
from
the same
source,
Hor
largire,
is similar
in
that the
only parts
that will
fit
on crumhorns
are the
fairly simple
top part
and
the two inner
parts
with
what
appears
to
be
a
borrowed
melody
in imitation.
Incidentally
it
is
worth
mentioning
that we
are
once
more
up
against
the
inadequacies
of most
modern
instruments
-
the
thin
buzzing
sound of
these makes
144
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a
poor
cantus
firmus
instrument,
while the
more
resonant,
singing
sound of
the
originals
would
be
perfectly
satisfactory.
Assuming
for
the
moment
that
one
can
get
hold
of decent instruments
(or
at
least
doctor
the over-nasal
ones)
one can
usefully apply
this
sort
of instrumentation
to
many
other
pieces
that
are
similar to these
two
works,
that is to
other
Tenorliederfor example those of Senfl, Hofhaimer
and
Finck)
-
especially
those
in five or six
parts
with
more
than one
cantus-firmus
part
-
and
to
six-part
chansons of the 1540s
(for
instance,
those
by
Gombert,
Crequillon,
etc.).
The same
applies
to
sacred music of the
same
period
that is
similar
in
texture and
style.
To
go
back
,to
my
list
of
'original
crumhorn
music',
itzis
worth
noting
that
the
Italian
madrigal
Guardan almo
pastore
was
performed
with
crumhorns
doubling
voices,
partly
because
this
suggests
that
one
is
justified
in
performing
other
madrigals
this
way,
and
partly
for what it
says
about both the singing
styles
of the time
and
the actual sound of the
old
instruments:
it is
hard to
imagine
this
combination
being
effective
today.
In
fact
if
one
can
get
hold
of
crumhorns
that
sound
anything
like the old ones and
singers
who
are
capable
of
singing
in
a manner that
is
compatible
with
these
instruments,
the
combination can be most
effective.
This
can
of
course
be
applied
to
church music:
there
is
some
evidence that these
instruments
were used
in
churches,
especially
in
Germany.
In this
article
I
have
only
been
able to mention
specifically
a
small
proportion
of the
music that is
suitable for crumhorns. I
have
to
some
extent
concentrated
on
music
of the first half of
the
16th
century, partly
because
I
feel
it is in
many ways
more
suited to
the
instruments,
and
partly
because
the
translation of
Praetorius on the crumhorn
in this
issue is
fairly
detailed.
Rather
than
enlarge
on
late
16th
century
music I
think
it
might
be
more useful to
summarize
the
conditions that
make
good
crumhorn
music:
1
At
least
four
parts
-
there are
practically
no
three-part pieces (apartfrom a few Italian songs of a
popular type)
that
will
work
on
crumhorns.
2 Parts
that are
fairly
close
together:
a
large
gap
between the
top
two
parts
in
particular
usually
means
that a
work
is
unsuitable
for
crumhorns,
because the
necessary
downward
transposition
will
either
prove
impossible
anyway
or
result in a
muddy
texture from
the
lower
parts.
3 The
compass
of
the
top part,
which
normally
has
the
leading
note in
most
16th
century
music
should
have
the
tonic note somewhere
in the
middle
of its
range (e.g. g'
when the
compass
is c'-d )
other-
wise
important
leading
notes
will
be
impossible
(e.g.
C
sharp
on a
C instrument).
4 Pieces
with few
sharps
or flats
and
few
modulations.
5 Vocal music
(and
arrangements
of vocal
pieces
including dances)rather than idiomatic instrumental
music: most
instrumental
fantasies,
etc.,
have
ranges
of
considerably
more than a
ninth.
The
point
is that
a
ninth is
about
the
best
range
for
the
average
un-
trained voice.
I would like to end
by
emphasizing
that,
contrary
to what certain brochures
may
state,
the
crumhorn
was
not 'one of the most
popular
wind
instruments
of
the
Renaissance'.
It is
quite
clear from
surviving
pictures,
inventories and
descriptions
of
particular
performances
that
the main
wind
instruments
were
the
cornetts
and sackbuts
for
general
purpose
use
and the shawms for outdoor use. Even recorders
must
have
been
used
more
often
than
crumhorns.
I
hope
I
have
shown that these
instruments must have
been
used
for
a
fairly
wide
range
of
music,
but
I
would
suggest
*that
they
were
played
occasionally
only.
The fact that
the modern
instruments have
increased the
compass
to an
eleventh
is a
mixed
blessing,
as
the
extra
notes are
usually
unstable
intonationwise
and
hardly
ever
pleasant
to
listen
to.
Bibliography
MODERN EDITIONS OF MUSIC FOR
CRUMHORNS
I.
Music with
original
specification
or
crumhorns
1 Schein
Pavan in
Banchetto
Musicale
volume
9 in
the
new
complete
edition
published
by
Barenreiter
-
BA
4499)
2
Anon
(MS
Copenhagen
1872),
T'Andernaken,
or
five crumhorns
ATTBB
(London
Pro
Musica
Edition,
RB
1).
3
Thomas
Stolzer,
Erzirne dich nicht
(in
volume
VI
of Das
Chorwerk,
ublished
by
M6seler
Verlag).
4 Corteccia's
madrigal
Guardan
almo
pastore
is
found
in
Ghisi,
Feste
musicali delle
Firenze
Medicea
(1480-
1589),
1939.
II.
Modern
editions
of
music
for
crumhorns
without
original
specification
1
Moeck
publish
a
series
under
the
title Der
Blaserchor
intended
for
various
types
of
wind
instruments
including
crumhorns.
Alternatives are
provided
where notes
out of
the
range
appear,
but
145
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note that
the
range
assumed is that of an eleventh -
soprano
crumhorns
are assumed to
have
top
fu
I
have
been
unable to
get
a
complete
list
-
the follow-
ing
five
volumes
have been added to:
Volume
1
Tinze
des
16.
Jahrhundert
u
vierStimmen
(selection
from
Phalese's 1583
book),
SATB.
Volume
2 Francesco
Bendusi,
Opera
nova
de
balli
(selections),SATB.
Volume 3
Pierre
Attaingnant:
Second livre de
Danceries
selections),
SATB.
Volume
4
Pierre
Attaingnant:
Quart
&
Cinqui'esme
Livrede
Danceries
selections),
SATB.
Volume 5
Tidnze
es
16Jahrhunderts
u
vierStimmen
(selections
from
Phalkse's
157
1
book),
SATB.
2
London
Pro
Musica Edition
publish
a
series of
music
designed
for
various
early
wind
instruments
including
crumhorns.
The
range
assumed is
the
authentic
one
of
a
ninth,
though
the
modern alto in
F is
assumed. So
far,
apart
from
the
T'Andernaken
setting
mentioned
above,
two
other
volumes
have
appeared:
RB2
Seven
Double
Canons,
or
four
instruments or
voices,
SATB.
RB3
Josquin
des
Pres,
La
Spagna,
or
five
instru-
ments,
ATTBB.
3
Crumhorn-consort
nthology,
olume
1
(Musica
Rara).
The
range
assumed
in
this
collection is
a tenth
for
soprano,
alto,
and tenor
crumhorns,
but basses are
expected
to
go
up
to b
flat.
III. Volumes
f
musicmentionedn the
text as
being
uitable
for
crumhorns,
utnot
published
pecifically
or
them.
1
Pierre
Attaingnant,
Pariser
Tanzbuch,
1530
(=Neuf
bassesdances
deux branles
. .
),
for four
instruments.
Two
volumes
(Schott,
3758-9).
2 Pierre
Attaingnant,
Second ivre
de
Danceries,
1547
(volume
9 of the series
Le
Pupitre
published
by
Heugel).
3 Claude
Gervaise,
Sixi'emeLivre
de
Danceries,
1555
(London Pro Musica
Edition,
AD6).
4
Claude, Gervaise,
Troisi'eme
ivrede
Danceries,
1557
(London
Pro Musica
Edition,
AD3).
5 Etienne
du
Tertre,
Septi'eme
ivrede
Danceries,
1557
(London
Pro Musica
Edition,
AD7).
6
Tielman
Susato,
Het
derde
musyck
boexken,
1551
(Schott,
2435-6).
7 Nine Sixteenth
Century
ances
arranged
for
recorders
from
pieces
in British Museum
Royal
App.
59-62
(Schott,
Arch
1-2).
8 Six SpanishDances in fact, Italian dances from the
same source
as
above),
arranged
for
recorders
(Alfred
Lengnick).
9
Pierre
Attaingnant,
FourteenChansons
1533)
for
four voices or
recorders
(London
Pro
Musica
Edition,
PC 1).
Two
further
articles n the
crumhorn
y
David
Munrow
and MichaelMorrow
have been
promised
or
the
January
1974
issue. Theseare
planned
to
cover
surviving
original
instruments,
vidence
of
the
original
oundsand
technique,
as well as their
general
istory,
seand
technique
oday.
146
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