AN INTRODUCTIONTO THE

PRINCIPLESOFMORALSANDLEGISLATION

BY

JEREMY BENTHAM

@

OXFORDAT THE CLARENDONPRESS

LONDON NEW YORK AND TORONTOHENRY FROWDE

M CM VII

No-rR--ThoFirst Editionof this workwas printedinthe year r78o; andfirstpublishedin i789. The presentEditionis a carefulreprintof 'A NewEdition, correctedbytheAuthor,'whichwaspublishedin1823.

Printedi_ Grit _tain

PREFACE.

Tlzxfollowingsheetswere,as the noteontheoppositepageexpresses,printedsolongagoas the year1780. Thedesign,in pursuanceof whichtheywerewritten,was not soextensiveas thatannouncedbythe presenttitle. Theyhadat thattimenootherdestinationthan thatof servingasanintroductiontoaplanof apenalcode in termirds,designedto followthem,inthesamevolume.

Thebodyof theworkhadreceivedits completionaccordingto the then presentextentof the author'sviews,when,in theinvestigationofsomeflawshe haddiscovered,he foundhimselfunexpectedlyentangledin an unsuspectedcornerof the meta-physicalmaze. A suspension,at firstnotapprehendedto bemorethana temporaryone, necessarilyensued: suspensionbroughton coolness,and coolness,aidedby otherconcurrentcauses,ripenedintodisgust.

Imperfectionspervadingthe wholemasshad alreadybeenpointedout bythe sincerityof severeanddiscerningfriends;andconsciencehadcertifiedthejustnessof theircensure. Theinordinatelengthof someofthechapters,theapparentinutilityof others,and the dry andmetaphysicalturnof the whole,suggestedan apprehension,that, if publishedin its presentform,the workwouldcontendundergreatdisadvantagesforanychance,it mightonotheraccountspossess,of beingread,andconsequentlyofbeingofuse.

But,thoughin thismannertheideaof completingthe pre-sentworkalidinsensiblyaside,thatwasnot byanymoanstheeasewiththeconsiderationswhichh_clledhimto engagein it.Everyopening,whichpromisedto affordthe lights hestoodinneedof,wasstillpursued: asoccasionarose,theseveraldepart-mentsconnectedwiththat in whichhe hadat firstengaged,weresuccessivelyexplored;insomuchthat, in onebranchorotherof the pursuit,his rese_rohcahavenearlyembracedthewholefieldoflegislation.

Jt 2 ,.

iv t'r¢ace.Severalcauseshaveconspired'at presenttobringto light,,

underthis newtitle,a workwhichunderitsoriginalonehadbeenimperceptibly,butas it hadseemedirrevocably,doomedtooblivion.In thecourseofeightyears,materialsforvariousworks,correspondingtothedifferentbranchesofthesubjectoflegislation,hadbeenproduced,andsomenearlyreducedtoshape:

'- '_°-' and,ineveryoncef thoseworks,theprinciplesexhibitedin theJ presentpublicationhadbeenfoundsonecessKiy_that,eitherto

transcribethempiece-meal,or toexhibitthemsomewherewheretheycouldbe referredto in the lump,wasfoundunavoidable.Theformercoursewouldhaveoccasionedrepetitionstoobulkyto beemployedwithoutnecessityin the executionof a planunavoidablysovoluminous: thelatterwasthereforeindisputablythepreterableone.

Topublishthematerialsin the formin whichtheywerealreadyprinted,ortoworkthemupintoanewone,wasthereforetheonlyalternative: thelatterhadallalongbeenhiswish,and,t,adtimeandtherequisitedegreeofalacritybeenatcommand,itwouldascertainlyhavebeenrealised.Cogentconsiderations,however,concur,withtheirksomenessofthetask,in placingtheaccomplishmentofit atpresentatanunfathomabledistance.

Anotherconsiderationis,thatthesuppressionof thepreach!work,haditbeeneversodecidedlywished,isnolongeraltogetherinhispower.Inthecourseofso longaninterval,variousinci-dentshaveintroducedcopiesintovarioushands,fromsomeofwhichtheyhavebeentransferred,bydeathsandotheraccidents,intoothersthatareunknowntohim. Detached,butconsiderableextracts,haveevenbeenpublished,withoutanydishonourable

' views,(forthenameof theauthorwasveryhonestlysubjoinedtothem,)butwithouthisprivity,andinpublicationsundertakenwithouthisknowledge.

Itmayperhapsbenecessarytoadd,tocompletehisexcuseforofferingtothepublicaworkpetTadedbyblemishes,whichhavenotescapedeventheauthor'spartialeye,thatthecensure,justlybestowedupontheform,didnotextenditselftothematter.

Insendingitthusabroadintotheworldwithall its imper-fectionsuponitsh_ad,hethinksit maybeof assistancetothefewreadershecanexpect,to receivea Bhortintimationofthe

._r_J'_C¢o V

chiefparticulars,inrespectofwhichitfedlsofcorrespondingwithhismaturerviews.Itwillthencebeobservedhowinsomerespectsitfailsofquadratingwiththedesignannouncedbyitsoriginaltitle,asinothersitdoeswiththatamlouncedbytheoneitbearsatpresent.An introductiontoa workwhichtakesforitssubjectthe

totalityofanyscience,oughttocontainallsuchmatters,andsuchsmitersonly,asbelongincommontoeveryparticularbranchofthatscience,oratleasttomorebranchesofitthanone.Comparedwithitspresenttitle,thepresentworkfailsinbothwaysofbeingconformabletothatrule.Asanintroductiontotheprinciplesofmorals,inadditionto

tileanalysisitcontainsoftheextensiveideassignifiedbythetermspleasure,pain, raotive,and di_ooition,it ought to havegivenasimilaranalysisofthenotlessextensive,thoughmuchlessdeterminate,ideasannexedtothetermsemotion,passion,al_Tetite,virtue,vice,andsomeothers,includingthenamesoftheparticular_'rtuesandvices.Butasthetrue,and,ifheconceivesright,theonlytlueground-workforthedevelopmentofthelattersetofterms,hasbeenlaidbytheexplanationoftheformer,thecom-pletionofsuchadictionary,sotostyleit,would,incomparisonofthecommencement,belittlemorethanamechanicaloperation.Again,asanintroductiontotheprinciplesoflegislatio_in

9sacral,itoughtrathertohaveincludedmattersbelongingexclusivelytothecivilbranch,thanmattersmorepaI_icularlyapplicabletothepenal:thelatterbeingbutameansofcom-passingtheendsproposedbytheformer.InpreferencethereIbre,oratleastinpriority,totheseveralchapterswlfichwillbefoundrelativeto/rum_hmem,itoughttohaveexhibitedssetofpropositionswhichhavesincepresentedthemselvestohimasaffordinga standardfortheoperationsperformedbygovern-meat,inthecreationanddistributionofproprietaryandothercivilrights.He meanscertainaxiomsofwhatmaybetermed•r_ patho!ogy,expressiveoftheconnectionhetwixtthefeelingsofthepartiesco-cernod,andtheseveralclassesofincidents,whicheithercallfor,orareproducedby,operationsofthenatureabovementioned_.

I Forexample.--It/,tvor_etolo#ethansimplytotto9oin.--Alos*falls

vi Preface.

Theconsiderationofthedivisionofoffences,andeverythingelsethatbelongsto offences,ought,besides,to haveprecededtheconsiderationofpunishment:for theideaof/n_i_ae_presupposestheideaofoffence: punishment,assuch,notbeinginflictedbutinconsiderationofoffence.

Lastly,theanalyticaldiscussionsrelativeto theclassificationofoffenceswould,accordingtohispresentviews,betransfenedtoa sepsratetreatise,inwhichthesystemof legislationiscon-sideredsolelyin respectofits form: in otherwoMs,in respectofitsmethodand_wninology.

In theserespectsthePerformancefailsofcomingup to theauthor'sownideasof whatshouldhavebeenexhibitedinawork,bearingthetitlehe hasnowgivenit. viz.thatof anIntroductiontot2wPrinciplesof MoralsandLegislation.Heknowshoweverof nootherthatwouldbelessunsuitable: norin particularwouldsoadequatean intimationof its actualcontentshavebeengiven,bya titlecorrespondingto themorelimiteddesign,withwhichit waswritten: viz.thatof servingasanin4roductiontoa 19e7_1code.

Yetmore. DlTslidtediousasa greatpartofthediscussionsit containsmusttmavoidablybefoundbythebulkofreaders,heknowsnothowtoregretthehavingwrittenthem,noreventhe havingmadethempublic.Undereveryhead,theprac_ticaluses,to whichthediscussionscontainedunderthatheadappearedapplicable,are indicated:noris there,he believes,a singlepropositionthathehasnotfoundoccasiontobuilduponi_ thepenningof somearticleor otherof thoseprovisionsofdetail,ofwhichabodyoflaw,authoritativeortmauthoritative,mustbecomposed.Hewillventuretospecifyparticularly,inthis view,theseveralchaptersshortlyeharaeterizedbythewordsSensibility,Actiora,Inte_ional_y,Con_cia_ness,Mo_iv_,Dispositions,Consignees.Evenin theenormouschapteronthelighterbybeingdi_i_k.d.--Tkesurfeit,ofaper_,n_m'tlngrat_4,cat_oaofem'4ity,i, greattrt)tantIt_gratificationprodtw,edbyt_ _arn_cause.--2_aese,anda fewotherBwhichhewillhaveoccasiontoexhibit8tthehead

- ofanotherpublit_tion_havethea_meclaimtotheappellationofa__igma,u thosegivenbymathematiciansunderthat_me; Idnos,rd'erriagtouniv_a_ml_erienae_ theirimmediateimdds,they_ i_ble _ de.gin._a'ation,andreq_ onlytobedevelopedandillustrated,inorder_ I_reo_n_da_meontest_ble.

Preface. vii

thedivisionof offences,whicb,notwithstandingtheforcedcom-pressiontheplanhasundergonein severalofitsparts,in mannertherementioned,occupiesno fewerthanonehundredand fourcloselyprintedquarto pagesz,the tou concludingonesareemployedin a Btatementof the practicaladvantagesthatmaybe reapedfrom the plan of classificationwhich it exhibits.Thosein whosesight the Defenceof Usuryhasbeenfortunateenoughto find favour,may reckonas one instanceof thoseadvantagesthediscoveryoftheprinciplesdevelopedinthatlittletreatise. In the prefaceto an anonymoustract publishedsolongagoasin z7762,he hadhintedat theutility ofa naturalclassificationof offences,in the characterof a test for distin-guishiuggenuinefromspuriousones. The easeof usuryis oneamonga numberof instancesof thetruth of that observation.A noteattheendofSect.xxxv.Chap.xw. ofthepresentpublica-tion,mayservetoshowhowtheopinions,developedinthattract,owedtheiroriginto the difficultyexperiencedin the attemptto 'findaplacein his systemfor thatimaginaryoffence. Tosome,readers,as a meansof helping them to supportthe fatigueofwadingthroughananalysisof suchenormouslength,hewouldalmostrecommendthebegi.nniugwiththosetenconcludingpages.

One goodat least mayl_sultfromthepresentpublication;viz. that the more he has trespassedon the patienceof thereaderon this occasion,the less needhe willhavesoto doonfutureones: so th_ttthis maydo to those,the otfieewhich isdone,bybooksof pure mathematics,to booksof mixedmathe-maticsand natural philosophy.The narrower the circle ofreadersis, withinwhichthe presentworkmaybe condemnedtoconfineitself,the lesslimitedmaybe thenumberof thosetowhomthefruits of his succeedinglaboursmaybe foundaoces-alble. He maythereforein this respectfindhimselfin thecon-ditionof thosephilosophersof antiquity,whoare repiesentedashavingheldtwobodiesofdoctrine,apopular andan occultone: but. with this difference,that in his instancethe occultandthepopularwill,hehopes,befoundas consistentas inthosetheywerecontxadJctory;and that in his productionwhatever

i Thefn_teditionwMpublishedin 1789,inquarto.I A Fmt_montonGovea'mnent,&o.,reprinted182a.

rift Prefo_.

thereis ofoccultnesshasbeen the pureresultof sadnecessity,andin norespectof choice.

Having,inthecourseofthisadvertisement,hadsuchfrequentoccasionto allude to differentarrangements,as havingbeensuggestedbymoreextensiveandmaturer views,it mayperhapscontributeto the satisfactionof the reader,to receivea shortintimationof their nature: therather,as,withoutsuchexplana-tion, references,made here and there to unpublishedworks,mightbe productiveof perplexityand mistake. The followingthen are the titles of the worksby the publicationofwhichhispresentdesignswouldbe completed.Theyareexhibitedin theorder whichteemedtohim bestfitted forapprehension,and inwhichthey wouldstand disposed,were the wholeassemblagereadyto comeout at once: but the order,in whichthey willeventuallyappear,mayprobablyenoughbe influencedin somedegreebycollateraland temporaryconsiderations.

Part the Ist. Principlesof legislationin matters of civil,moredistinctivelytermedpr/vate distributive,or for shortness,distributive,law.

Part the 2nd. Principlesoflegislationin mattersofpenallaw.Part the 3rd. Principlesof legislation in matters of Fro-

cedure: unitingin one view the c_'rnina/and dvil branches,betweenwhichnolinecan bedrawn,but a veryindistinctone,and that continuallyliableto variation.

Part the4th. Principlesof legislationin mattersofreward.Part the 5th. Principlesof legislationin mattersof2yblic

distribu_ircLmmore.conciselyas well as familiarlytermedconstitu-tional,law. "

Part the 6th. Principlesof legislationin mattersofpoliticaltactics: or of the art ofmaintainingorderin the proceedingsofpoliticalassemblies,so as to direct them to the end of theirinstitution: viz. bya systemof rules,whichare to the constitu-tional branch,in somerespects,whatthe lawofprocedureis tothe civiland the penal.

Part the 7th. Principlesof legislationin mattersbetwixtnationand nation,or, to use a new thoughnot inexpressiveappellation,in matters of inte,rna_io_alhtw.

Part the8th. Principleaof legislationin mattersoffinane_.

Preface. ixPart the 9th. Principlesof legislationin mattersof/w//tica_

Part the toth. Plan of a bodyof law,completein all itsbranches,consideredin respectof itsform,, in otherwords,inrespectof its methodand terminology; includinga viewof theoriginationandconnexionofthe ideasexpressedby the shortlistof terms,the expositionof whichcontair,s all that can be saidwith proprietytobelongto the headofuniversaljurisprudenc,_.

Theuse of the principleslaid downunderthe aboveseveralheadsis topreparethe wayforthe bodyof lawitself exhibitedin terminis;andwhichtobecomplete,.withreferencetoa_ypoli-tiealstat¢,mustconsequentlybecalculatedforthe meridian,and ' 'adaptedto thecircumstances,ofsomeonesuchstateinparticular.

Had he an unlimitedpowerof drawingupontime,and everyotherconditionnecessary,it wouldbe his wishto postponethspublicationof each part to the completionof the whole. Inpal_icular,the useof the ten parts, whichexhibitwhat appearto himthe dictatesofutility in everyline,being nootherthanto furnishreasonsforthe severalcorrespondingprovisions¢_on-tai-n-ed_oT law--the exact truth of the formercah-nevdr'l_ibi-e'e'ise'/y"as_eertained,till the provisions,to whichthey aredestinedtoapply,are themselvesascertained,andthatin tmvninis. But as the infirmityof humannature rendersallplans precariousin the execution,in proportionas they areextensiveinthe design,andas hehas alreadymadeconsiderableadvancesin severalbranchesof the theory,withouthavingmadecorrespondentadvancesin thepracticalapplications,hedeemsitmorethan probable,that the eventualorderof publicationwillnot correspondexactlywith that which,had it been equallypracticable,wouldhaveappearedmosteligible. Of this irregu-laritythe unavoidableresult will be,a multitudeof imperfec-tions,which,if the executionof the bodyof lawin terminishadkept pacewith the developmentof the principles,so that eachpart hadbeenadjustedandcorrectedby the other,mighthavebeenavoided. His conducthoweverwill be the lessswayedbythisinconvenience,fromhissuspectingit to beof the numberof

I Sucha_obligation,right,power,pommasion,title,exemption,immunity,franchise,privilege,nullity,vMidity,andthelike.

x _Preface.

thosein whichthepersonalvanityofthe authoris muchmoreconcerned,thanthe instructionof the public: sincewlm_veramendmentsmaybe suggestedin the detailof the principles,by the literalfixationof the provi_ionsto whichtheyarerela-tive,mayeasilybe made in a correctededitionof theformer,succeedinguponthe publicationof the latter.

In the courseofthe ensuingpages,referenceswillbe found,asah-eadyintimated,sometotheplan ofa penalcodeto whichthisworkwasmeantasan introduction,sometootherbranchesof the above-mentionedgeneralplan, undertitlessomewhatdifferentfromthose,by whichtheyhavebeenmentionedhere.Thegivingthisw_ning isallwhichit is in the author'spowertodo, toave the readerfrom the perplexityof lookingout forwhathas not as yet any existence. The recollectionof thechangeof planwill in likemanneraccountfor severalsimilarincongruitiesnot worthparticularising.

Allusionwas made,at the outsetof this advertisement,tosomeunspecifieddifficulties,as thecausesof theoriginalsuspen-sion,andunfinishedcomplexion,of thepresentwork. k,sh_medof his defeat,andunableto dissembleit, heknowsnothowtore_'uschimselfthe benefitof suchan apologyasaalightsketchof thenatureofthosedifficultiesmayafford.

Thediscoveryof themwas producedby the attemptto solvethequestionsthatwillbe foundat theconclusionofthevolume:Whereinconsiaedtheidentitya_clcompletenessofa law? Whatthe distinction,and wherethe separation,betweena penal arvla civil law? Whatthe distlnetion,and wherethe seloaration,betweenthepenalandotherbranchesof the law

Togivea completeandcorrectanswerto thesequestions,itisbut tooevidentthat the relationsanddependenciesof everypartof thelegislativesystem,withrespectto everyother,musthavebeencomprehendedandascertained. But it in0nlyupona viewofthese parts themselves,that suchan operationcouldhave beenperformed.To the accuracyof such a surveyonenecessaryconditionwouldthereforebe,thecompleteexistenceofthefabricto besm-veyed.Of theperformanceofthis condition

_.,d_ noexampleis as yet to be metwithanywhere. Commonlaw,_" 'i _ it styles itselfin England,judiciary law,as it mightmore

F

Tr_aee. xiaptlybestyledeverywhere,thatfictitiouscompositionwhichh.sno_o,,nperso_forit,._.;_r,nokno.__m_Tageofwordsforits_ubBtane_,formseverywherethemainbodyofthelegalfabric:likethatfanciedether,which,indefaultofsensiblematter,fillsup the measureof theuniverse. Shredsandscrapsof reallaw,stuckon uponthat imaginaryground,compo_ethefurnitureof ever)-nationalcode. Whatfollows_---thathewho;forthepurposejustmentionedorforanyother,wantsanexampleofacompletebodyoflawtoreferto,mustbeginwithmakingone.

Thereis, or ratherthereought to be, a logicof thewill, as _ ]well as of the understanding: the operationsof the former . ._...faculty,are neitherless sasceptible,norlessworthy,than thoseofthe latter,of beingdelineatedbyrules. Ofthesetwobranches _,_..of that reconditeart, Aristotlesawonlythelatter: succecding :logicians,treadingin thestepsoftheirgreatfounder,havecon-curredin seaingwithnoothereyes. Yet sofarasadifferencecanbeassignedbetweenbranchesso intimatelyconnected,what-everdifferencethereis, in pointof importance,is in favourofthelogicof thewill. Sinceit is onlybytheircapacityofdirect-ing the operationsof this faculty,that the operationsof the!understandingareof any consequence.

Of this logic of the will, the scienceof law,consideredinrespectof itsform, is themostconsiderablebranch,--themostimportantapplication. ]t is,.to theal_of legislation,whha/,_thescience of anatomyisto thealt of medicine: withthisdifference,thatthe'su_ of it is whatthea_ist hastowor_Hg.L_h, ins_adof beingwhathe hasto operateuteri, l_or is the bodypoliticlessin dangerfroma wantof acquaintancewith theonescience,than the body natural from ignorancein the other. Oneexample,amongsta thousandthat mightbe adducedin proofof this assertion,may be ieen in the note whichterminatesthis volume.

Suchthenwerethedifficulties: suchthe preliminaries:--anunexampledworktoachieve,andthenanew a_i_ne_to er_t,__,_anewbranchto add_ooneof the mostabstruseof sciences.

Yetmore: abodyofproposedlaw,howcompletesoever,wouldbecomparativelyuselessanduninstructive,unlessexplainedandjustified,andthat in everytittle,byacontinuedaccompaniment.

xii Preface.

a perpetualcommentaryof reasonst: whichreasons,thatthecomparativevalueof such as point in olJpositedirectionsmaybe estimated,and the conjunctforce,of suchas point in thesamedirection,maybe felt,mustbemarshalled,andput undersubordinationto suchextensiveand leadingonesas are te_ed

, trrinciTleS.There mustbe therefore,not onesystemonly,but, two parallel and connectedsystems,runningon together,theoneoflegislativeprovisions,the otherof politicalreasons,eachaffordingtothe othercorrectionandsupport.

Areenterpriseslike theseachievable? Heknowsnot. Thisonlyhe knows,that theyhave beenundertaken,proceededin,and that someprogresshasbeenmadein all of them. He willventureto add, if at all achievable,neverat least byone,towhomthe fatigueof attendingto discussions,as arid as thosewhichoccupythe ensuingpages,wouldeitherappearuseless,orfeelintolerable. I-Iswillrepeatit boldly(for it has beensaidbeforehim),truths that formthe basisof politicalandmoralsciencearenot to.bedi_pyeredbut by investigationsas severeas mathematicalones,andbeyondallcomparisonmoreintricateand extensive.Thefamiliarityof the termsis a presumption,but it is a mostfallaciousone, of the facilityof the matter.Truthsin generalhavebeencalledstubbornthings: the truthsjust mentionedare so in their own way. Theyarenot tobeforcedinto detachedand generalpropositions,unincumberedwith explanationsand exceptions. They will not compressthemselvesinto epigrams. Theyrecoilfrom the tongueandthepenof thedeclaimer.Theyflourishnot in th_ same soilwithsezltiment. Theygrow amongthorns; and are not tobe plucked,like daisies,by infantsas theyrun. Labour,theinevitablelot of humanity,is in no track moreinevitablethanhere. In vainwouldan Alexanderbespeaka peculiarroadforroyalvanity,or a Ptolemy,a smootherone,forroyalindolence.Thereis noKing's ]_oad,no Stadthold_'sGate,to legislative,anymorethantomathematicscicl_ce.

I To theaggregateofthem_ common denorn_n_tlonha8 aincebeenF,llo_ted--t_e¢'ati_e.

CONTENTS.CHAPTER I.

OFTH'_PRINCIPLEOF UTILITY.PAGE

Mankindgovernedbypain and_leasure lPrinei_,leqfutility,what 2

.4principle,what aUtility,what . 2lnt_est ofthecommunity,what 2An actionconformabletothelrrincipleofutility, what • 3.4 measttrtof governmentconformableto the pri_wipleof utility,

what 3.Lawsordictatesofutility, what 3Apartisan of theprincipleof utility, who . • 3Ought,oughtnot,roht andwronq,&c.,howto be understood 3Toprovetherectitudeof thisprinciplehiatonceunnecessaryandim-

possible 4It hasseldom,however7as yet,beenconsistentlypursued 4It canneverbeconsistentlycombated. 4Courseto be takenfor surmountingprejudicesthat mayhavebeen

entertainedagainstit 5

CHAPTER II.

. OF PRINCIPLESADVERSETOTHATOF UTILITY.

All otherprinciplesthanthatof utilitymustbe wrongWaysin whicha principlemaybe wrong 8

A_iclsm, originof theword 8Principlesofthe Monks 8

Pr/_'/p/_of as..elieis_r6what . 9A partisanof theprincipleof asceticism,who. • 9This principlehas hadin somea philo6ophical,in othersa religiotm

origin . . 9It has beencarriedfartherbythe religiouspartythanbythe philo-

sophical . xoThe philosophioalbranchof it hM hadmoat influenceamongper-

sonsof education,thereligiousamongthe vulgar. . loTheprincipleof asceticismhasneverbeensteadilyappliedbyeither

partyto thebufinegaofgovernment . nTh. principleof asceticism,in its origin,wasbut that of utility

misapplied. . xz

xlv Costent#.

PAOliIt canneverbeconsistentlypursued ]3_e l_rincipleof_mi_athyandantipathy,what . 13Thisis ratherthenegationofall principle,thanany tilingpoeitlve . ]6Sentimentsof a partisanof theprincipleofantipathy. . 16ThesystemsthathavebeenformedconcerningthestandardofriyM

andwrong,area]]reducibleto thisprinciple . 17Variousphrases,that have servedas the characteristic

marksofsomanypretendedsysteu_s !7I. M_al Sense _7_. Common8_,a 173. Understanding 174 RuleofRi_ 175. Fitnes_of Thing_. r76. I_w of Nature -- • I87.Law of Reason,RiolttReason,NaturalJustice,l_a_ral

.Equity,andGoodOrder. . [88. TT_t_ . . . z89. Dootri_,eof.Election . x8

xo.Repugna_wu to Nalure . I8Mischieftheyproduce , x8Whetherutilityis actuallytilesolegroundof alltheappro-

bationweeverbestow,is a differentconsideration z9Th|eprinciplewillfrequentlycoincidewiththat ofutility . 18Thisprincipleismostapttoerronthesideof ,ever/St/ . 2oButerrs,in someinstances,on theaideof/en/ty . a!Thet_eologicalprincipal,what--nota separateprinciple . 2z

Theprincipleoftheologyhowreducibleto oneoranotheroftheotherthreeprinciples . . 2_

Antipathy,lettheactionsit dictatesbe eversoright,inneverof itmelfa rightgroundofe_tion . . 2

CHAPTER III.

OFM FOURSANCTIONSORSOURCI_SOFPAINANDPI,JgA$UR_.

Connexionofthlmchapterwiththepreceding . a4Foursanotion*orsourcesof pleamxreandpain . 24

s. Thepays/eelmnction • _5_. Thepolitical . • 253- Themoralorpolmlo¢ . a$4- Thereligloas . . • 25

Thepleasuresandpainlwhichbelongto the r_tgious1auction,mayregardeitherthepremotlifoora future . . 25

_a_ea_s. xv

PAOE

Tho_whichregardthepreBentlife,fromwhichsoeversourcetheyflow,differenlyin the circumstanceseftheirproduction. . 26

Example . . 26Thosewhiehregarda futurelifeare notspecificallyknown . 27Thephy,icalsanctienincludedineacheftheetherthree . 27Useofthinchapter • _7

CHAPTERIV.

VALUE OF A LOT OF PLEASURE OR PAIN HOW TO BE _lgASURED.

Useofthischapter . . . 29Circumstancesto betakenintotheaccountin estimatingthevalueof

a pleasureor painconsideredwithreferenceto &singleperson,andbyitself • _9

-- consideredasconnectedwithotherpleasureserpains . a9--,consideredwithreferenceto a numberofpereeae . . 3°Precemforestimatingthe tendencyefanyacterevent • 30Useof theforegoingprocen . 3IThesameprocessapplicableto 9oedand_ilj profitandmlschief,and

all othermodificationsefpleasureandpain 3rConformityofmen'spracticeto thistheory • 3;

CHAPTERV.

PLEASURES AND PAINS_ TI:LI_IR KINDS.

PleMureened_ m-eeither,i. Simple; ora. Comple_ • 33TheebnpleFleasuresenumerated • 33Thesimplepain*enumerated. • 33

An-lyricalview,whynonegiven • 34x.Pleaam'esof_ enumerated. • 342. Ple_uree ef wea/2A,whichare eitherof ac ,u/_/on, or ef

343. Ple_urteefskill 344-Ploaaurmof amity . 355"Ple_urmofa 9eedname 356. Plcazuresofpo_ 357.Pleasur_efpiety 358. Pin, ureaof be,eve/eat#orgood.._ll 369"Pleamu_efma/eco/en_or ill-will 36

to. Flea,armof thememory 36tr. Pleaauzeaofthe_na_tnatien 36

xvi Content_.

PAGEIn. Plea.,ure_ofexpectation 36*3.Ple,_uresdependingon a_soeiafion 37I4. Pleasuresofrelief 37

_. Pairs ofprivation 37Theseinclude,x.Painsofdolre 38

a.Paineof disappointment 383.Painsof regret 38

2. Painsof thea_mses 38No positivepainscorrespondto the fleasttreof the sexual

sense 383. Painsofawkwardness . 39

No positivepainscorrespondtothe pleasureof novelty 39-- nor tothoseof wealth . 39Inthisa distinctpositivepain,or onlyapainof privationT $9

4. Painsof enmity. 395. Painsof an ill-name 39

Thepositivepainsofan ill-name,andthepainsof privation,opposedto the pleasuresof a goodname,runinto oneanother . 39

6. Palmofpiety ..... 4°No pomtivepainscorrespondto thepleasuresof power • 40The positiveImimof piety,and the pains of privation,

opposed to the pleMuresof piety, run into oneanother . 4°

7' Painsofbenevolence 4°8. Painsofmalevolence . 4°9' Painsofthemernor_ 4°_o.Painsoftheimayi_gt_on 40xi. painsof expectation 4x12.Painsofassociction 4l

Pleasuresandpainsareeitherself-re#ardincdor eztra.r_arding . 4xPleasuresandpainsof amityand enmitydistinguishedfrom

thoseofbenevolenceandmaievolenoe. . • 4iInwhatwaythelawisconcernedwiththeabovepainsandpleMurse41

ComplexpleMuresandpainsomitted,why . . 4ISpeeimen.--Pleasuresofacountryprospect. . 42

CHAPTERVI.OF CIRCUMSTANCESINFLUENCINGSENSIBFLITY.

Painandpleasurenotuniformlyproportionedtotheircauses. • 43Degreeor q_m_tumof sensibility,what • 43B/a_orqualityofsensibility,what . • 43J_zcitin9 oauawp_as_rableanddolortfie • 44

Conte_[_. xvii

PAGECireunagtsneesinflue_in9 aenst_ility,what . 44CireumJtancesin/tuendngeen_ibilityenumer&t,ed 44

Extentandintricacyofthissubjeot . 45I. H_alth 45a.Strength . . . 46

Measureof strength,the weighl;a m_ncanlift 46Weakne88,what 46

3. Hardine_ . 46Differencebetweenetrengthandha&rdineJs 47

4. Bodilyimperfeetioa . . 475- Quantityandqualityof knowledge 476. StrengthofinlelleclualFowers . 487. Firm,s of mind 488. 8teadin_s . 499"Bentof inclinations 49

Io. Moralsensibility 49xI. Moralbiases rioIa. _eligioussensibility 50n3. //*l/_ b/a_es. 50t4.8ympatAetiessn_7_ilitll. 50I5. 8_/mpatlteliebiases . 5o16,!7. Antipalhsticsensibilityand Mase, fitx8. Insanitl;. . 5tx9. Habltualoccupatione . 5zso. Pecuniarycireumatanees. 5aat. 6'onnex/omin thewa_ofsympo,tlty 53a2. Connextonsin the wayofantipath_ 55z3. Re,dicalfram¢ofbody . 55a4. l'tadicalframeofmind 56

Idiosynerar9,what , 56ThildiJtinetfromthecircumstanceof frameof body 56

Whetherthe soul be malarialor immaterialmake* nodi_erenee. S6

-- madfrom&llother_. . 57Yet there.titofthemis notseparatelydi*cernible 57Frameof bodyindieatem,but notcertainly,thatofmind ._7Eeeenda_influencingclrcumstsm_ 58

aG.Ee_ 58a6.Age 59aT. Ramk 60_8._Edue.ation 6039.Climate , 6zso. _ . 623t. _ment . 653_. llel_ prof_ffon 6_

xviii Co_¢ea_.

PAGIUseoftheprecedingobservations . 64Howfartheeireumetancminquestioncanbe t_kenintoaccount 65Towhatexcitinge_usesthereismostoccasionto applythem. . 66Analytiealviewofthecircumstancesinfluencingsensibility. 68

Anal_/tiealoiewof the constituentarl,ielesin a man'spe-cuniarycircumstances . 69

CHAPTER VII.

OFHUMANACTIONSIN"GENERAL.

The demandfor lmni*hrnentdependsin partuponthe _enden¢!loftheact . _ . . 70

Tendencyofanactdeterminedbyiracoruequence_ • 7oMater(alconsequencesonlyareto beregarded • 70Thesedependin par_upontheintention . 71Theintentiondependsaswelluponthe understandb_asthewill 71In an actionaretobeconsidered,I. Thea,et. z. The_ireemetaneea.

3"The intsntionality. 4_The oonaeiousaeas.5"The motives.6.Thedisposition. 7I

Actsl_o#itiveandne#atire . 72Actsofomi_donarestillact8 . 7_

Negativeactsmsybesorelativsljtorabsolutely . 7_Negativeactsnmybeexpressedpositively;madviceversd 7_Actsexternalandinternal 73Aet_ofdr*course,wimt. . 73Externalactsmaybe orandtiveorintrar_iJive.. 73

Dhtinctlonbetweentnmaitiveactsand iatrmaitive,recog-nisedbygrAmmtrians..... 7]

A trmamltivos,vt, ire commencerS,term/a_at/on,and intermediatepro#roe* ....... 74

An intransitiveact, itscommencement,andtern,;nLtlon • 74Actatrar_s_ntandco_i.ued .... 74Differencebetweena continuedactanda repet(tlo_ofacts • 74Differencebetween_ repelitionof actsanda tutbil . . 75Actsareindivisible,ordiddble,anddivimble,as wellwithregardto

matteras tomotion . . 75C,_utionrespectingtheambiguityoflmaguagu. 76Cireurrartoneeaaret,obeeonlidered 76Olreuaukmees.what . . . 76

Cireumsb'zase,mhetypationoftile word 77Ckenmntauces,materialandintma4erla| 77

Conte_s. xix

PAGE

A cireumetanoemay be related to an event in pointof oausa/ity,in fourwaye,vlz. r. Prodnclion. 2. Derivation. 3. CoU,de_'_lconnexion.4. Conjunvtinfluence • 77

Example. Assa_-_inationof Buckingham • • 78It isnoteveryeventthat haseireutmttaneesrelatedto it in all those

ways . • 79Useof thischapter . 80

CHAPTEI_ VIII.OF INTENTIONAIATY.

Recapitulation. 82Theintentionmayregard,L The act: or,2. Theeonsequcnce_ 8a

Ambiguityof thewordsvoluntaryandinvoluntary . 8aIt mayregaxdtheactwithoutanyof theconsequences 83-- ortheconsequenceswithoutregardingthe actin allits stages 83--butnotwithoutregardingtheflrttstage. 83

An act unintentionalin its first stage, may be so withrespectto L Quantityofmatter moved: _. Direct_n:3. Velocity ..... 83

A consequence,whenintentional,maybedirectlyso, orobliquely 84Whendlreetlypultimatelyso,or mediately . . 84Whendirectlyintentional,it maybe exclusivelyso, orin, elusively 85When inexclusiveiy_it may be co_unetively,disjunctively,or indis-

criminatelyso . 85Whendisjunctively,it maybe w/th or withontpreferen_ 8_

Differencebetweenan incident'sbeing unintentional,anddisjunctivelyinttnt£onal,whenthe electionis in favourof theother 85

Example . 85I-utentionalityof the act withrespectto its differentstages, howfar

material ..... 87Ooednessand badnessof i_lent_ondismissed . . 87

CHAPTER IX.OF CONSCIOUSNESS.

Connexionof thi_chapterwiththe foregoing. 89Act_adv/medandunadvised; consciousness,what . 89Umutvisednemmayregardeitherex/_tence,ormateriality 89Theeircumltancemay havebeenpresent,past,orfuture 89

unadvisedactmay be/usu//ess,or_ot heedless 89b misadv6_dact,what,--s minttppoeal 9°

b2

xx Co_t_M.

PAGgThe Beppo*edeimumstanee might have been nmterialin the way

eitherof prevention or of compensation . 9°It may have beensupposedpre_ent, past, orfr_ture . 9°Example,continuedfrom the last chapter 9°In what case _nsciousnessextends the intentionalityfxom theact to

the o0nsequenees. 91Examplecontinued . 9 2A misadvisedact may be rash or not rash , . 92The intention may be good or bad in i_self, Jndependentlyof the

motive aswell as the eventualconsequences 9aIt is better, whenthe intention ie meantto be spokenof _sbeing good

or bad, notto lay, the motive 93Exmnple . . 93Intention, in whatc_sesit may be innocent . 94Intentionality andconseleusness,howspokenof in the Roman law . 94Ule of _ and the precedingchapter 95

CHAPTER X.

O:F MOTIVES.

§ I, D_t'7"_'l_t _enseo of the word Motive.

Motivea,why considered . 97Purely qmwulativemotiveshave nothing to dohere 97Motives to the will . 98_ratire and enfv_urativeser_se_of the word 98Motives interior and _terior . 99Motive in Frowner--motive in ¢#se . 99Motives _rnmediab_and remote . IooMotives to the_nderst_ndin9 how they mayinfluence the will lol

§ 2. )Vo Motives either constantly 9ood or constantly bad.

Nothing canantofit4elf a_nmotive, but the idmofpl,.asureorpain IOXNo mortof motive iain itJelfa bad one . . . xoaIna_ur_y of expre_sionlin whichgood orbad are applied to motiv_ xoaAny sort of metersmay give birthto anyeortof act . . • ] o2Di_oulties whichstead in the way ofan analysisof this sort • zo3

§ 3" Catalogue of Motives coercing to #m_ of Pleama'e,sand Pain_.

2_hy_oaldedre corrupondingto plesanr_ of _e in ge_ral . Io__The motive¢ocreepondingto the pi_tuurej of the palate . Io_

I

Uonfen/s. xxl

PAOEBaztmld_-/rscorrespondingtothepleasuresof thesexualscnqe Io6Curlo*ity,&e,,correspondingtothepleasuresof curiosity zo7Nonetopleusureeofsense . . . ]o7.Peountaryintere*tto thep/ensuresofwealth j07Noneto thepleasuresofskill .... Io7Tothepleasuresof amity,the desireofingratiatingone'sself IO7Tothepleasure*ofa goodname,the lot'eofrept_tatfon 1o8Tothepleasuresofpower,thelo_o/power. xxoThemotivebelongingto thereligioussanction IIIGood-will,&e.to thepleasure*ofsFmp_t._g. I I2Ill-rain,&e.to thepleasuresofantipatAv 114Sdf-preserration,totheseveralkindsof pa6_s x15Tothe2oainsofezertlon,theloveofease . li7Motivescanonlybebadwithreferencetothemostfrequentcom.

plexionoftheireffeas . . xx8Howit istimtmotives,suchLslust,arariee,&c.,areconstantlybad. xz8UndertheM)overestrictions,motivesmaybe distinguishedinto,toed,

bad,andindifferentor_eutral , z19Jmaanve_ieneesof thisdistribution . . . IJ9It is onlyin individualinstancesthatmotivescanbegoodorbad . 120Motivesdistinguishedintosocial,d_odal, andsdf-regarding . z2o-- _ciM,into_urely-social,andsemi-social. . I2!

§ 4. O,'der of _'e-eminene,e amtmg Motives.

Thedict_tosof good-,willarethe surestofcoincidingwiththoseofutility ...... x2

l_wsanddictatesconceivedas issuingfrommotives I'_IYetdonotinaJlos,ses. xstNext'tothemcomethoseofthe lo_eofreputation . I22lqexttheseof thed_ire ofaml?9 I_4Difficultyofpl_cingthoseof religion. I_4Tendeucy_theyhp,ve toimprove . xz6Afterwardscomethe selforegardirud motives: and,lastly, that of

d6rplea_ro . i27

§ 5. Conflict amo,a9 Motives.

MotivesimpellingLndrestraining,whtt , . z27Whatere the motivesmostfrequentlyat vm-tsmce. . . I28Exampleto illustratea str_ggleamongcontondin9 motives . , I28Pr_tical useof theabovedlfquisttionsrelativeto motives . . Ia9

xxii Go_geng_.

CHAPTERXI.

OF HUMANDISPOSITIONSLNGENERAL.

PAGEDisposition,what . . I3IHowfar it belon_ tothe presentsubject . 13IA mis_ie_o_ disposition; a merito_w_sdisposition; what . 132Whataman'sdispositionis,canonlybematterofpresumption 132It dependsuponwhatthe actappearstobe to him . !3zWhichpositionis groundedon two facts: 1. The correspondencc

betweenintentionsandconsequences ]33_. Betweentheintentionsofthe samepersonat differenttimes • _33

A disposition,fromwhichproceedsahabitof doingmischief,cannotbeagoodone ]33

The di_)o_itionis tobeinferred,I. Fromtheapparentfendencyof theact : 2. Fromthe natureofthe moti_,e . I3_

CaseI. Tendency,good--motive,8elf-regaldin9 :34Case2.Tendency.bad--motive,self-re#arding 134Case3. Tendency,good---motive,9ood-will . ]34Case4. Tendency,bad--motive,good.will 135Thiscasenotan impossibleone 135ExampleI. z35ExampleII. 135ExampleIII. . . z36Ca_e5"Tendency,good--motive,/eveof reputation L_6

The bulkofmankindapt to depreciatethil motive I36Ceee6. Tendency,bad--motive,honour 137ExsmpleI. I,_7ExampleII. . . z38Ceee7-Tendency,good,--motive,lYiety 138Case8. Tendency,bad--motive,religton I38Thedispositionmaybe badin this ease 139Case9. Tendency,good--motive,male_,olence 14oExample . 140Casere. Tendency,bad--motive,maleroleacs z41Example . 141Problem_tomeuurethedeprarityin n man'sdisposition z41A man'sdispositionisconstitutedbythe sumofhisinb_ntion8 142

whichowetheirbirthto _wtices 14_A seducingorcorrttplingmotive,wh_t_atutelaryorpre_e_'ratory

motive • _4_Tutelarymotivesareeitherstandingor_asional. • _4_

Con/ea_,. xxiii

PAOE

8tandi_jtutelarymotivmare,I.Oood.wi_l. • z43a. Theloveofreputatfim . 1433"Thedesireof amitq • '444. Themotiveofreliyion . 144

Oeeadonaltutela_ motivesmaybeanywhatsoever. • z45Motivesthatarepartic,darlyapt toactin thischaracterere,L Lore

of eose. z.8elf-preservative . 145/)angersto whichself-preserrationis mostapt in this ease tohave

respect,are, I. DLngerspurelyphysical, z. Dangersdependingon detection . . . i46

Dangerdependingon detectionmayresultfrom,I. Oppositiononthespot: 2. Subsequentlm_ishment . I46

The forceof the twostandingtutelarymotivesofloveofreputatiov,anddedreof amity,depenchupondetection • ]46

Strengthofa _emptatic_b whatismeantby it • z47Indicationsaffordedbythis andothercircumstancesresl_'tingthe

deprat_t9of an offender'sdisposition . ]48Rulesfor meLsuringthe depravityof digpmitionindicatedby an

offence . ]49Use ofthischapter . t5t

CHAPTER XH.

OP THE CONSEQUENCESOF A MISCHIEVOUSACT.

I. Shapesinwhichthe_nischiefofasActmayshowitself.Recapitulation. • ]5_MischiefofLnact,thejggreg_teofitsmischievousconsequences• ]5_Themi_ohiefofan act,primer9 orsecondary. 15aPrimary--originalorderitatite . 153Theseeondary_t.Alarm: or,2.Danger • ]53Ezample .... r53The dgngertchencoit _a past offences_'ordsno directmotire

to ,,future • t55But it suggestsfec_7_ility,and weakcqsthe forceof restrai,ffny

motives ..... I55viz. t. ThomDironingfromthepoliticalsanction . I._5

z. ThoseiMuiugfromthemoral. . i56It Istoddto opemtoby theinfluenceof example . 156Thea_,m and thedanger,thoughconnected,aredlsti_gtddmMe . z57Bothmayhaverespectto the mineperson,orto others . . z57Thepc/marlyconsequencesof an act maybe mlacMerou._,and the

secondary,beneficial . xS_

xxiv Conte_.a.

PtGEAvalydsofthedifferentshap_inwhichthemischiefofanactmay

showitself. 158appliedtothe precedingeamm . . . 159to examplesofothereaseswherethemischiefis leasconspicuous 159

ExampleI An actofself-intoxication i59ExampleIf.Non-paymentofatax. x5oNoalarm,whenno'e_mignablepersonis the object . 162

§ z. How intentio,aatity, _'c. *nay influence the fai_hief ofan Act.

E_dary mischiefinfluencedby thestateof theagent'smiad 163Ca_ex. Ineoluntaeine_ • • x64Case_. Unintentionalitywithheedlessness . x64Case3. Mi_uppoealof a eompl_lejwstiflea_ion,withoutrashness x65Ca_e4. Mi_uppesalorspartialjustification,withoutrashness 165CMe5- Mi_upposal,withra_h_w,_. x6_Case6. Consequencesoompl_elyintentional, sad fe_ from mis-

e=ppoml....... 165Them_tureof_,motivetakesnotatoaythemimchiefof the secondary

consequenc_J . 165Northebenofieialness. .... . z66But it rosy ag#ramtethe miJehievommess,where they are mis.

chievot_ . . . x66Butnot themo#tin thecaseof theworstmotives . . . 166It doegthemore,themoreconsiderablethe t_denc.¢of themotive

toproducesuchacts . . ]67whichisas it_atrex_tAandoomtan_y . 167

Generale._caeqofa speciesof motive,howmeamu'md . x67A mischievousact is moreBe,wheniNulngfroms se[f-cegardin9

thanwhenfi'oma diswoialmotive . ]67-- soevenwheni_uingfromthemotiveofre'igloo . . 168Howthe secondarymischiefis influencedbydispos_io_ . 168Connexionof thiswiththesucceedingchapter . z68

CHAPTER X1-H.

cAszsU_MEZZFORPusrsa_sT.

§z.Generalviewof¢ase_unmeetfor Punishment.Theendoflaw is,to&agmenthappiness • !70But punlahmentis anevil . x70

Co.onto. x-xv

PAGIWhatconcernstheemd,andseverslothert0pleB,relativeto

punishment,dismissedtoanotherwork. rToConciseviewof theendsof punishment 17°

Thereforeoughtnotto beadmitted 17xI. Where9roundlsss. x7z_. Xme.o%a¢io_. xTI3"Unprofitable 1714. Orneedless ]7r

§ =. Caseo17_w]ffch_unishrnent i8 groundless.

i i. Wherethereha=neverbeen mischief: asintheeaseofcon_entan_/ 17I

a. Wherethe mischiefwasoutweio_ed:as in p_eoaultoaagainstl calamity, ofFowors . . . x7aandtheexe]_ci_t 3. -- orwill,fors certtinty,be_red bycompen#alion z7zi Hencethe favoursshownto the offencesof responsiblei offenders: suchsa *implemercantilefraads . . z7a

§ 3.Cases in which Pu,tishmem must be ine_adous.

i. Wherethepenalprovisioncomestoolate:as inL Anez-po_t-faetolaw. a. Anultla.le#alsentence..... :7a

a. Orisnot madeknown: as ins law_ot sufficientlypromulgated 1733. Wherethetriblca=notbedcterredfromanyaet,ssin,[s] [nfanc9 ]73

[b]Xnmnity. 173[el Intoxication . . . 173

In infsncynedintoxicationthec_e canhLrdly_ provedtocomeundertherute . • - I73

Thereasonfor notpunhhi_gin thesethreecasesis com-monlyputupons wrongfooting . • J74

4' Ornotfromthe individualactinquestion,as in, 174Is] Ueinten_ionalily i74_b] U_onsd_:_e_s 174EelMi_=l_poml .... I_'4

5"Orisactedonbyanoppositesuperiorforce as by,: ]74[=]PILysCeo,l danger. :75[b] Tl_reatenodmieeMef . . 175

Whytheinfluenceorthemoralandrdiglo_ssanctionsmnotmentionedinthestoneview 175

6. -- orthe bodilyorganscannotfollow it_determivalion: ss underphysical¢omp,hdo_orrestraint. • ]75

xxvi Contenta.

§ 4. CaseswhereP_nishme'atis _zntn'ofltable.PAGE

I. Where,in the8errof easeinquestion,thepunishmentwouldpro-ducemoreevilthantheoffencewould . !75

E*il producibleby a punishment--itsfourbranches--viz.[a] Re-straint . I_5

[b] AFFrellension 176[el Sufferance . 176[d] Deritativeevils . . . 176

Tileevilof the offence,beingdifferentaeeordingto the natureof theoffence,cannotberepresentedhere i76

2. -- Or in the iTuhvidualeaseinquestion: by reasonof 176[a] ThemultitudeofdelinqueTd_ z76[b]Thevalueof a delinff,,ent'_eelvice x77[el Thedisplea_wreofthepeot,le 177[d] Thedispleasureofforeignpowers a77

§ 5. Cases where Punish.recur is needless.L Where the mischiefis to be preventedat a ckeaperrate : asby

instruction • !77

CHAPTERXIV.OFTH'EPROPORTIONBETWEENPUNISHMENTSANDOFFENCES.

Recapitulation. . I78Fourobjeotsof punishment x78

let Object---topreventall offe'ace#. 1782ndObject---topreventthe _ord . 1783rdObject.--tokeepdownthe mischief I784thObject,--toactat the leastexpe.se 178

Rulesofproportio_betweenpunishmentsandoffences 178Thesamerulesapplicableto motivesin general x79

RuleL--Outwei#hthe profitof the offence. r79Profit maybeof any otherkind,as wellaspecuniary 179Improprietyof thenotionthat thepunisl6mentotudktnot to

increase_ith the temptation . T79The proprietyof takingthe strengthof thetemptationfor&ground

ofabatement,no objectionto thisrule . . . 18oRule 2._VentuLremoreng_inat&greatoffencethana lm¢llone . 18!

Example.--Ineendiari4rmandcoinin9 . 18IRule 3.--Causethe/cantof twooffence*to bepreferred . 18!Rule4.--PunishforeacAparticbsofthe mischief . 181

Example._IJablowsgiven,andmoneystolen . xSx

6'enterS. xxvii

PAOE

Rule5.--Punishin nodegreewithouts/_/al reason. . I82Rule6.--Attendtocircumstancesinfiuerwin#_ibility 182Compar,_tiveviewofthe aboverules. . 182]nto theaccountof the valueof a punishment,must be takenits

deficiencyinpointof c_'taint._andproximity . . 18_.Also,intothe accountof themiscMefand profitof the offence,the

mischiefandprofitofotheroffencesoftilesamel_bit . • J83Rule7.--Wantofcertaintymustbemadeup inmaguitude. . 184Rule8--_o e.leowantofproxhnity . . I84Rule 9.--For actsindicativeofa habit,punNhas forthe habit . x84Theremainingrulesareof lessimportance . I84Rule[o.--Forthesakeof quality,increusein q_ant_ty z84Rulei [.--Particularlyforachoralle_on . . . [84

A gJwaiahmentappliedbyuay of mot,1 lesson,_vhat x84Examplc.--Insimplecorporalinjuries 185Example.--Inmilitarylaws, [85

Rulex2.--Attendto circumstanceswhichmayrenderpunishmentunprofitable . . J85

Rule[3.--Forslmplleity's_ke, smLlldisproportionsmaybeneglected 185Proportionalitycarriedveryfar in the presentwork--why 185

Auxiliaryforceof thephysical,moral,and reliffioussanctions,nothereallowedfor--why . 186

Recapitulation. . . [86Thenicetyhereob6elvealvindicatedfromthechargeof inutility 187

CHAPTERXV.

OF THIgPROPERTIESTOHE GIVENTO A LOTOF PUNISHMENT.

Propertiesare tobegoveroedbyproportion. . ]89PropertyI. Irarlability . 189Propertya. Equzlbility .... r9oPtmishmentswhichareapLtobe deficientinthisrespect . 19[Property3. Uomolens_rabilityto otherpunishments. . 19tHow two lots of punishmentmaybe renderedperfectlycommen-

surable . 191Property4. Charaoteristieal_ess . . x92Themodeofpunishmentthemo_temineutlycharacteristic,isth_,tof

retaliatlon . [92Property5. Exemplarity . . . 19,aThemosteffectualwayof renderinga punishmentexemplaryis by

meansofanalogy. . 194Property6. Frugality. . 194Frugalitybeloagiin perfectiontopecuniaryp_nidtment 194

xxviii Contents.

PAGEJ_zeraplarit!¢andfrugal_lyinwhattheydifferandagree . z95Otherpropertiesofinferiorimportaneo , z95Property7.Subservienc_/toreformat_on '. z95appliedtooffa_neesoriginatinginiILw/]l. 195

--tooffencesoriginatinginindolencejoinedtopecuniaryinterest 196Property8. _ff/cacg with respecttodisablement z96--ismostconspicuousineapltalpunishment, z96Otherpunishment_inwhichitistobefound. 197Property 9' Subserviencyto carm2en_alion 197Propertyre.Popularlly . . r98

Charuet_rLsticalne_renders a punishment, r. menwrabte:3. exemplary: __.Topular I98

Misahieflr_ulting fromtheunfopularityofa punlslmaent_d/svontentamongthe people,andweakne_*in the law z98

This proper_ysupposesa prejudice whlohthele_dslatm ought to cure z99Property xI. ReTniabibility .... 199Toobtainalltheseproperties,punishmentsmustbe_i_red. . 2oIThe foregoingpropertiesreeapitalated . znzConnexionof this with the ensuing chapter . . 2o_

CHAPTERXVI.

DMSION OF OFFENCES.

§,.Classeso/Offences.Methodpursuedin the followingdivision . . . Io4

Distinction between what are offencesand whato_yht?obe zo4No act ought to be an offence but what is delrimental to the corn-

mun/a# ..... =oSTo be so.it mu._tbe detrimentalto someone or moreofit_me_ers . 2o5These maybeasdgnable ornot . ao5

:Personsa,_s/9_b_e, how . . 2o._If az_nAble, the o_e'nderhtnmelf,orother_ . . _o5ClassL pe/vat_offences . _osClam_. Be_i-pubilo offence,s ..... 2O6

JAmi_s between private, semi-public,and public offences,are,s_rictlyspewing, undlstinguieh,,ble . =o6

CI_ _. _el.f-regard_n@offences , . . :to6Cl_s 4. Public offences ...... _o7C-2amS. M_Itiform offencu,vJz,z. Offenoeebyfal_hood. _. O_enCes

against truzt ....... no7The imperfectionsof language_a oh_le to arrangement. 207Irregularityof this class . . . 2o8

-- which couldnotbe avoidedomany other plan . ao_

Conteu_. xxix

§z. D_d_onsand _b-didrRma.]FAGS

Divieionsof Cl_u r. l_Offencesagainstperson. _Propertg.$--]lep:dallon.4--Cund_tion.5--Personancl_rop_rfy.6.--Personand reputation ..... no8

In whatmannerpie&sureandl_independupontherelafio_a m,mbearstoexteriorobjects. . 209

Divhionsof Class3. I. Offeucesthroughcalamify. . 21ISub-divisionsofoffencesthroughcalamity,dismiMed. . . 21a2.0ffenceeofmeredelinq=en¢_,howtheycorr_pondwiththedivi-

sionsofprivateoffenc_ .... _12Divisionsor'.Cla_s$coincidewiththoseofClassI . 2t2DivizioneofClass4 .... 213

.Exh,au,_livemethoddepartedfrom . • 213Cohesionofthe.inefiret divibion_onewithanother . 2x4Connexionofoffencesagainstreli#io_withtheforegoingones . 2_[9Connexionofoffencesagainstthe nationalinterestingeneralwiththe

rest 2aI8ub-dirition_ofCla_s5 enumerated. . 2g1Divieioneofoffencesbyfal_e_ood . _=zOffencesbyfaJBehood,in whattheyagreewithonea_aother. . =_I

inwhattheydiffer..... zj2_ub-d_v/_/o_of offence_by/aide,codaredeterminedbythedivisions

oftheprecedingclauses. . . a2aOffencesof thisclass,in somei_stances,changetheirn_mes;in

other_,not . _23A trust,what...... za3

Pomerandr/g,_,whynocompletedefinitionisheregivenofthem ....... 224

0ffenoesafainstte_st,eo*tdition,andpropert_,whyrankedunderseparatedivisions. . az6

Offencessga_n_ttr=st--theirconnexionwitheachother . a34Prodisali_yi_ trusteesdismissedto Cla_s3 .... z4_Theeub-divido_ofoffencesagainst_ru_lareslsodeterminedby the

divisionsof theprecedingchume. . , . a4IUonnev/o_betweenoffencesbyfakeAood_d offencesagain_tru#t. a4a

§S.Oe_r,'aofCla__.A.mdy_intogenm-apursuednofartherth_nCI_sI . . _4_Offences_inst an individualr_tybe _implein theireffectsorcam-

pIez .... _430._.enoesafaim_person--theirgenera a43Off_ t_d_t r_/on 246

xxx Coulenls.

['AGEOffencesagainstproperty 247

Payment,what 248Offencesagainstpersonandreputation 253Offencesagainstpersonandproperly. 254Offencesagainstcondi(ion--Conditionsdomeslwor civil 255Domesticconditionsgroundedonnaturalrelationships 255

Relations--tworesultfromeverytwoobjeet._ _56Domesticrelationswhicharepurelyof Issal institu_im_ 258Offencestouchingthe eo_ufittonof a master . 261VariousmodssofsetdZude 263Offencestouchingthe con,titianofa servant . a64Gtmrdianship,what---Necessityofthe in_titutlon 266Durationto begiventoit a69Powersthatmay,anddutiesthatoughtto be,annexedto it 269Offencestouchingthe conditionof a guardian 27°Offeneeatouchingtheconditionofa ward 272Offencestouchingtheconditionofa paren_ . 274Offencestouchingthefilial condition. 276Conditionof ahusband.--Powers,duties,andr/yht_, that maybe an-

uexedto it . z78Offencestouchingthe conditionofa husband. . 280Offencestouchingtheconditionofa wife . 28zCivilconditions . 287

§ 4. Advantages of the present method.

Generalide_ofthemethodherepursued 296Itsadvantages. . . _99

--I. It is convenientforthe apprs_nslonandthe memory 299--2. It givesroomforg_neralpropositiona. 300--3- It pointsoutthe reasonofthe/aw 3oI--4" It is alikeapplicabletothelawsofall nation_ _ 3or

§ 5. Characters of the five classes.

Charaet_sof the elassesjhowdeduciblefromtheabovemethod 302Charactersof c/a_ I . 3o2Charactersof clast2 . 304Chin-octetsof class3 • 305Ch_-actersof class4 • Ao6Char_terlof dass 5 • 307

Con_e,_. xxxi

CHAPTER XVII.

OFTIlELIMITSOFTHEPENAl,BRANCHOFJURISPRUDENCE.

§ t. Limits bawe_ wiva_ Ethics and tt_ art of Legis_tlo'a.PA_E

Useofthischapter . . 309Eth/csiageneral,what . 3IoPri_ateethics ........ 31oTheartofgo_er_,nt: thatis,oflegtslatio_andadmlnCstralion. 3to

Intereet_of the inferiora_timalsimproperlyneglectedinlegislation . 5to

Artut"_duoa_ion . . . 51Ethicsex]alhittherulesof,I.Pr_d_#_e.2,]_robit_.3.Benefice_ce3tzProbityandbeneficencehowtheyconnectwithprudence. , 312Everyactwhichisaproperobjectofethicsisnotoflegislation. 5x2Thellmitsbetweentheprovincesofpr_vateetIticsandlegidation,

markec]outbythecasesunmeetforpunishment . 514L Neitheroughttoapplywherepunishmentisgroand_ess. . _I_2.How farprivateethicscanapplyinthecaseswherepunishment

wouldbe_neff_caciou_ . . 3_5Howfarjwhereit wouldbe_nproflta6Ze . 3x5Whichitm_ybe, I.Althoughconfinedtothe9_ilty" . 316

2.Byenvelopingtheinnocent . 318Legislationhowfaxnecessaryfor the enforcementof thedi_tateeof

_ru_le_ce. , 3_9--Apttogotoofarinthisrespect • 3:0--Particularlyinmattersofreligion.... 5_o-- Howfaxnecessaryforthe enforcementof thedictatesofprob_'t3f. 3_

ofthedictatesofbeneficence . . 52_Differencebetweenprivateethicsandtheartof legislationrecapit_-

laled • 5_3

§ Z. Juri_vM_nce, its _anclt_.Jurisprudence,ez]_osffory--cen_or_!. . . 3a3Expositoryjurisprudence,a_Owri_lit_-.-.l_r_z_thorit_tive 3_4Sourcesofthe distinctionsyet remaining 324Jurisprudence,_oc_l----ualver_aI 3_5

i_v_ev,nalandint_ernational .... 3a6Internaljurisprudence,nationaland2_rO_ncial,lanaiorparticular 3z7Jurisprudence,a#eie_C--livin9 3z8Jurisprudence,statutor]/--customary. 3z9Jurisprudence,dvil_penaL-,._imina_ 3z9Que_tlon,concerningthedistinctionbetweenthecivilbranchandthe

Imaal,_ated • _9

xxxii Co, tents.

FAGEI. Occasion,rodpurpoeeofthisconcludingnotB . 33°II.Byalawhereisnotmeantsstafi_te. . 33oIII.Everylawiseitheracommand,orarevocat/onofone . 33°IV.A declaratorylateisnot,properlyspeaking,alaw . 330V. Everyeo_'civelawcre,qesan offence . . • 350VI.A lawcrestingano_'e_ce,andoneappoinfingpsn_s_nt,

aredistinctlaws .... 33IVII. A diecoercivehawcanhavenopunitoryoneappert_ningto

itbutthroughtileinterventionofacoerciveone 35[VIII.Buts punitorylawinwflve8the_/mpl#im2Jerali_ooneit

belongsto . . . 331IX.Thesimplyimperativeonemightthereforebespared,but

foritsexpositorymatter • 35tX. Natureofsuchexpositorymatter . . . 331

XI. Thevastnemof its comparativebulkis not peculiartolegialativecommands 332

XII. The samemauof expositorymattermayservein common[orman_l_ws . . 35_

XIII.Theimperativecharacteressentialto]sw,iaapttobecon-cealedinand byexposgorym_tter . . . 333

X.IV.Theconcealmentis favouredbythe multitudeof indirectformsinwhichimperativematteriscapableofbeingcouched.... 53z

XV. NumberandnatureoftheLawsint cede,bowdetermined.335XVI.GenerMideaofthelimitsbetweenacitilandapenalcode533

XVII. Contentsofa c_mlcode • 333XVIII. Contentsofapenaleode • 333

XIX. In the CodeFredericthe imperativecharacteris almostlost in theexpositorym_tter . • 535

XX. Soin theRomanlaw . . . 334XXI. In thebarbariancodesit standscoospicuous • 334XXII.Constitulionalcode,itsconnexionwiththetwoothers• 334

XXIlI. Thus the matterof one law maybe dividedamonga/Ithreecodes . • 354

XXIV. Erpositorymatter,a great quantityof itexistseverywhere,in nootherformthanthatof commonorjndiciarylaw 354

XXV. Hence the deplorablestate of the scienceof legiMation,consideredinrespectofit_form • 335

XXVI.Oootsio_affordingan exemplificationof the difficultyuwellasimportanceof tl_ branchofscience;--attemptstolimitthepo@ersof_pr_ reprcsenlativel_islat_re_ 335

XXVIL _mple : Am_ioandeelaratlo_sqfrigh_. • 53fi

AN INTRODUCTION

TOTHX

PRINCIPLES OF MORALS AND LEGISLATION.

CHAPTERI.

OF TZi_ PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY.

J[.NATUREhasplacedmankindunderthegovernanceoftwoMankind_ eovernodsovereignmasters,pain and pleasure. It is forthemaloneto5y_n endpointoutwhatweoughtto do,as wellas to determinewhatwepte_urashalldo. Onthe onehand thestandardofrightand wrong,onthe otherthe chain of causesand effects,are fastenedto theirthrone. Theygovernus in all wedo, in all we say, in all wethink: everyeffortwecanmaketo throwoffoursubjection,willservebut to demonstrateandconfirmit. In wordsa manmaypretendto abjuretheirempire: butin realityhe willremainsubjectto it allthe while. Thepr/nc/p/eof utilityz recognises

t Noteby theAuthor,July x822.Tothisdenominationhasoflatebeenadded,orsubstituted,the_¢eat

happ/ne_sorgrea_e_/diei_yprinciple: thisforshortness,insteadofsayingat length_ pr/ncildewhichstatesthegreatesthappinessofallthosewhoseintereetisinquestion,asbeingtherightandproper,andonlyrightandproperandumverssllydesirable,endofhumanaction:ofhumanactionineverysituation,andinparticularinthatofafunctionaryorsetoffunc-tionariesexercisingthepowersofGovernment,Theword_/ty doesnotsoclearlypointtotheideasof2dea_ureandlminasthewordshapp/nessand./dieitydo: nordoesit leadustothe considerationofthenumber,oftheinterestsaffected;tothenumber,asbeingthecircumstance,whichcontri-butes,inthelargestproportion,totheformationofthestandardhereinquestion;thestandardoftightandwro_7,bywhichalonetheproprietyofhumanconduct,ineverysituation,canwithproprietybetried.Thiswantofa suffciontlymanifestconnexionbetweentheideasofhapp/nessand_e ontheonehand,andtheideaofu_//_jontheother,Ihaveeverynowandthenfoundoperating,andwithbuttoomuchefficiency,asa bartotheacceptance,thatmightotherwisehavebeen8iven,tothisprinciple.

Bmvr_.tx B

oft,teP_i_ifleof U_itity. [cn^P.thissubjection,andassumesit forthefoundationofthatsystem,theobjectofwhichisto rearthefabricoffelicityby thehandsof reasonandoflaw. Systemswhichattempt to questionit,dealinsoundsinsteadof sense,incapriceinsteadof reason,indarknessinsteadof light.

But enoughofmetaphoranddeclamation: it isnotbysuchmeansthatmoralscienceisto be improved.

II. Theprincipleof utifityis thefoundationof the presenwork: it willbe properthereforeat the outset togivean ex-plicitanddeterminateaccountofwhatismeantby it. Bythe

Principleofprinciplexofutihtyis meantthat principlewhichapprovesorutihty,wh_t. disapprovesof everyactionwhatsoever,accordingto the ten-

dencywhichit appearsto haveto augmentor diminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestisin question: or,whatisthe samething in otherwords,to promoteorto opposethathappiness.I sayofeveryactionwhatsoever; andthereforenotonlyofeveryactionofaprivateindividual,butofeverymeasureof government.

utility III. Byutilityismeantthatpropertyinanyobject,wherebywhat.it tendstoproducebenefit,advantage,pleasure,good,orhappi-ness,(all thisin the presentcasecomesto the samething)or(whatcomesagaint_)the samething)to preventthe happeningofmischief,pain,evil,or unhappinesstothe partywhoseinterestis considered: if that partybe thecommunityin general,thenthe happinessofthecommunity:if aparticularindividual,thenthehappinesso[thatindividual.

ap,t_e. _ThewordprincipleisderivedfromtheLatinprlnaipium:whichseems,_t. tobecompoundedofthetwowords_imus,first,orchief,andcip/u*a,

aterminationwhichseemstohederivedfromcapio,totake,asinma_i-p_um,mu¢iclpium;towhichareanalogous,auceps,forceps,andothers.Itisatermofveryvagueandveryextensivesignification:it isappliedtoanythingwhichisconceivedtoserveasafoundationor beginningtoanyseriesofoperations: insomeeases,ofphysicaloperations; betofmentaloperationsinthepresentcase.

Theprinciplehereinquestionmaybetakenforanactofthemind; asentiment; asentimentofapprobation;asentimentwhich,whenappliedtoanaction,approvesofitsutility,asthatqualityofit bywhichthemeasureofapprobationordisapprobationbestoweduponit oughttobegoverned.

L] oftkeP_incife¥ Vtimy. 3IV.TheinterestofthecommunityisoneofthemostgeneralInt_ otthecom_u--

expressionsthatcanoccurin thephraseologyof morals: nonity,what.wonderthat themeaningofit is oftenlost. Whenit hasameaning,it is this. Thecommunityisa fictitiousbody,com-posedof theindividualpersonswhoareconsideredasconsti-tutingasitwereitsmembers.Theinterestofthecommunitythenis,what?--thesumoftheinterestsoItheseveralmemberswhocomposeit.

V.It is invainto talkof theinterestofthecommunity,withoutunderstandingwhktis theinterestoftheindividualx.Athingissaidtopromotetheinterest,ortoberettheinterest,ofanindividual,whenit tendstoaddto thesumtotalofhispleasures: or,whatcomesto thesamething,to diminishthesumtotalofhispains.

VI.Anactionthenmaybesaidto beconformableto theAaa_o_CO_Lformableprincipleofutility,or,forshortnesssake,toutihty,(meaningto_laeprin-

• elploofut_-withrespectto thecommunityat large)whenthe tendencyitht_.what.hastoaugmentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananyithastodiminishit.

VII.A measureofgovernment(whichisbut a particularAme_ureof• . . g'overnme,atkindofactaon,performedbTal_artlcular_ersonorl_ersons)mayconformablo....... toth tin• . . . @ -be saidto beconformableto ordictatedby theprmclphof_leo_uti-

hty, what.utility,whenin likemannerthe tendencywhichithastoaug-mentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananywhichit hastodiminishit.

VIII.Whenanaction,orinparticulara measureofgovern-Lambordic-• . , _te.s ofuti.meat,is supposedbya mantobeeonformabhto theprincipleU_,wh,t.o!utility,itmaybeconvenient,forthepurposesofdiscourse,toimaginea kindof lawordictate,calleda lawor dictateofutility: andtospeakoftheactioninquestion,asbeingcon-formabletosuchlawordictate.

IX. Amanmaybesaidtobeapartizanoftheprincipleofx_-_nof-- theprinmploutility,whentheapprobationordisapprobationheannexestootu_i,y," . _ WhO,anyaction,ortoanymeasure,isdeterminedbyandproportmned

t Interest i_ one of thoeewords, which not h_vingany superior_us,cannotintheordinarywaybedefined,

B2

4 Oft_ P_iple_ U/.ility. [caxr.to thetendencywhichhe conceivesit tohaveto augmentortodiminhhthehappinessofthecommunity:orinotherwords,toitsconformityorunconformitytothe lawsordictatesofutility.

ought,. X. Ofanactionthatisconformabletotheprincipleotutihtyoughtno_mht_ onemayalwayssayeitherthat it isonethatoughttobedone,he.tobe or at leastthatit is notonethatoughtnot to bedone. Onetmderstcod.

maysayalso,thatit is rightit shouldbedone; atleastthatit"is notwrongit shouldbe done: thatit isa rightaction; atleastthat it isnotawrongaction. Whenthusinterpreted,thewordsougfit,andT/gritandwren, andothersof that stamp,haveameaning: whenotherwise,theyhavenone.

Toprovet_eXI. Hasthe rectitudeof thisprinciplebeeneverformallyreclaimdeof 2tampnnei,contested. It shouldseemthatit had,by thosewhohavenotpie_ atonce . . .unnmmsryknownwhattheyhavebeenmeamng. Is it susceptibleof anyandimp_-sible, directproof? it shouldseemnot: forthatwhichis usedto

proveeverythingelse,cannotitselfbeproved:achainofproofsmusthavetheircommencementsomewhere.Togivesuchproofisas impossibleasit isneedless.

Ithassel- XII. Not thatthereisoreverhasbeenthathumancreaturedora,how-ever.myet breathing,howeverstupidorperverse,whohasnotonmany,beencon-

_enu_ perhapson mostoccasionsof his life,deferredto it. By thenaturalconstitutionof thehumanframe,onmostoccasionsoftheirlivesmeningeneralembracethisprinciple,withoutthink-ingof it : if not fortheorderingoftheirownactions,yet forthetryingoftheirownactions,aswellasofthoseofothermen.Therehavebeen,at thesametime,notmany,perhaps,evenofthemostintelligent,whohavebeendisposedtoembraceit purelyandwithoutreserve.Thereareevenfewwhohavenot takensomeoccasionorotherto quarrelwithit, eitheronaccountoftheirnotunderstandingalwayshowto applyit,oronaccountofsomeprejudiceorotherwhichtheywereafraidto examineinto,orcouldnotbearto partwith. Forsuchis thestuffthatmanis madeof: inprincipleandinpractice,inarighttrackandinawrongone,therarestofallhumanqualitiesis consistency.

Itmrn_varXIII.Whenamanattemptstocombattheprincipleofutility,ocnsi_eut_com.it is withreasonsdrawn,withouthis beingawareof it, fromImlZd.

_.] oft/,_e,-i,_ir__ vt_uy. ._that very principle itselft. His arguments,if they prove any _thing, provenot that the principleis wren, but that, accordingto the applicationshesupposesto bemade of it, it is misapplied.Is it possible for a man to move the earth _ Yes ; but he mustfirst find out another earth to stand upon.

XIV. To disprove the propriety of it by arguments is im.Co_Wb¢take_for

1'Theprincipleofutility,(Ihaveheardit said}isa dangerousprinciple:it isdangerouson certainoccasionsto consultit.' Thisis asmuchas tosay,what? thatit is notconsonanttoutility,toconsultutility: inshort,that it is notconsultingit, to consultit.

Additionby theAuthor,July z82z.Notlongafter thepublicationof theFragmenton Government,anne

1775,inwhich,inthecharacterofanall-comprehensiveandall-cummandingprinciple,theprincipleof_///tywasbroughttoview,onepersonbywhomobservationtotheaboveeffectwasmadewasA/e.zanderWedderbura,atttrattimeAttorneyorSolicitorGeneral,afterwardssuccessivelyChiefJus-ticeoftheCommonPleas,andChancellorofEngland,underthesuccessivetitlesof LordLoughberoughandEarl of Rosslyn. It wasmade--notindeedin my hearing,but in the hearingof a personby whomit wasalmostimmediatelycommunicatedtome. Sofarfrombeingsell-contra-dictory,it wasa shrewdand pedectlytrueone. Bythat distinguishedfunctionary,thestateoftheGovernmentwasthoroughlyunderstood: bytheobscureindividual,at thattimenotsomuchassupposedtobeso : hisdisquisitionsbadnotbeenasyetapplied,withanythinglikea comprehen-siveview,tothefieldofConstitutionalLaw,northereforetothosefeaturesoftheEnglishGovernment,bywhichthegreatesthappinessoftherulingonewithorwithoutthatofafavouredfew,arenowsoplainlyseentobctheonlyendstowhichthecourseofithasatanytimebeendirected.Theprincipleof_ilitywasanappellative,atthattimeemployed--employedbyme,asithadbeenbyothera,todesignatethatwhich,inamoreperspicuousandimtructivvmanner,may,asabove,bedesignatedbythenameoftheweatestbap_ness_'ind!de.'Thisprinciple(saidWedderburn)isadan-gereusone.Sayingso,hesaidthatwhich,toacertainextent,isstrictlytrue:aprinciple,whichlaysdown,astheonlyr/ghtandjustifiableendofGovernment,thegreatesthappinesselthegreatestnumber--howcanitbedeniedtobeadangerousone? dangerousitunquestionablyis,toeverygovernmentwhichhasforitsaetutdendorobject,thegreatesthappinessofacertainone,withorwithouttheadditionofsomecomparativelysmallnumberofothers,whomitismatterofpleasureor_commodationtohimtoadmit,eachofthem,toashareintheconcern,onthefootingofsomanyjuniorpartners.Dangerousitthereforereallywas,totheinterest----thesinisterinternal,---ofallthosefunctionaries,himselfincluded,whoseinterestitw_s,tomaximizedelay,vexation,andexpense,injudicialandothermodesofprocedure,forthesakeoftheprofit,extractibleoutofthexpe_,e. InaGovernmentwhich_ foritsendinviewtheg_.stestppmessotthegrnatestnumber,AlexanderWedderburnmighthavebeen

AttorneyGeneralandthen Chancellor:but he wouldnot lmvebeenAttorneyGeneralwith£_5,oocayear,norChancellor,withapeeragewithavetouponalljustice,with£2Loooa_ye_.,andwith5oosinecuresathisdisposal,underthen_meofEcelefiasttcalBenefices,besidesetcentrals.

6 O/tke Principle_ Utility. [eaaP.

_o_t_ possible;but,fromthecausesthathavebeenmentioned,or_udl_t_y fromsomecon/nsedorpartialviewofit,a manmayhappentol'm,vebeenente_tain_lbedisposednottorelishit. Wherethisisthecase,ifhethinksagamstit,thesettlingofhisopinionsonsuchasubjectworththetrouble,

lethimtakethefollowingsteps,andatlength,perhaps,hemaycometoreconcilehimselftoit.

z. Lethimsettlewithhimself,whetherhewouldwishtodiscardthisprinciplealtogether; ifso,lethimconsiderwhatitis thatallhisreasonings(inmattersofpoliticsespecialJy)canamountto?

2. Ifhewould,lethimsettlewithhimself,whetherhewouldjudgeandactwithoutanyprinciple,orwhetherthereisanyotherliewouldjudgeandactby?

3. If therebe,lethimexamineandsatisfyhimselfwhethertheprinciplehethinkshehasfoundisreallyanyseparatein-telligibleprinciple; orwhetherit benotamereprincipleinwords,akindofphrase,whichatbottomexpressesneithermorenorlessthanthemereavermentofhisownunfoundedsenti-ments;thatis,whatinanotherpersonhemightbeapttocallcaprice?

4. Ifheisinclinedtothinkthathisownapprobationordis-approbation,annexedtotheideaofanact,withoutanyregardt_i_ consequences,isasu$cientfoundationforhimtojudgeandactupon,lethimaskhimselfwhetherhissentimentistobeastandardofrightandwrong,withrespecttoeveryotherman,orwhethereveryman'ssentimenthasthesameprivilegeofbeingastandardtoitself?

5. Inthefirstcase,lethimaskhimselfwhetherhisprincipleisnotdespotical,andhostiletoalltherestofhumanrace?

6. Inthesecondcase,whetheritisnotanarchial,andwhetherat thisratetherearenotasmanydit_erentstandardsofrightandwrongastherearemen? andwhethereventothesameman,thesamething,whichisrightto-day,maynot(withouttheleastchangeinitsnature)bewrongto-morrow? andwhetherthesamethingisnotrightandwrongin thesameplaceat the_ametime_ andineithercase,whetherallargumentisnotat

_.] of_ P,i,,oi_¥ _tlzit_. 7anend? andwhether,whentwomenhavesaid,' I likethis,'and'Idon'tlikeit,'theycan(uponsuchaprinciple)haveanythingmoretosay?7.Ifheshouldhavesaidtohimself,No:forthatthesenti-

mentwhichheproposesasastandardmustbegroundedonreflection,lethimsayonwhatparticularsthereflectionistoturn? ifonparticularshavingrelationto theutilityoftheact,thenlethimsaywhetherthisisnotdesertinghisownprinciple,andborrowingassistancefromthatveryonein oppositiontowhichhesetsit up : orif notonthoseparticulars,onwhatotherparticulars?

8. Ifheshouldbeforcompoundingthematter,andadoptinghisownprincipleinpart,andtheprincipleofutilityinpart,lethimsayhowfarhewilladoptit ?

9. Whenhehassettledwithhimselfwherehewillstop,thenlethimaskhlm.elfhowhejustifiestohimselftheadoptingitsofar?andwhyhewillnotadoptitanyfarther!

IO.Admittinganyotherprinciplethantheprincipleofutilitytobearightprinciple,a principlethatit is rightforamantopursue; admitting{whatisnottrue)thatthewordr/ghtcanhaveameaningwithoutreferencetoutility,lethimsaywhetherthereisanysuchthingasa motivethata mancanhavetopursuethedictatesofit : if thereis,lethimsaywhatthatmotiveis,andhowit is tobedistinguishedfromthosewhichenforcethedictatesofutility: if not,thenlastlylethimsaywhatit isthisotherprinciplecanbegoodfor

CHAPTER II.

OFPRINCIPLESADVERSETOTHATOFUTILITY.

Allether I. IF the principleof utihty be aright principleto be governedDnnciplest_n taLtorby, and that in all cases, it follows Item what has been justutilitymustbew,o_z, observed, that whatever principle differs from it in any case

must necessarily bea wrong one. Toproveany other principle,therefore,to be a wrong one, there needs no more than just toshow it to be what it is, a principle oI which the dictates are insome point or other different from those of the principle ofutility : to state it is to confute it.

wa_.[u II. A principle may be different from that of utility in twowhlcha_noipleways:x.By beingconstantlyopposedtoit:thisistheeasem_ybe_Tons. witha principlewhichmay betermedtheprincipleofasceti-

c/sinz 2.By beingsometimesopposedtoit,andsometimes

Asc_c_m. i Asceticisa termthatkasbeensometimesappliedtoMonks.It comesword._Sduort_efromaGreekwordwhichsignifiesex_c_c.ThepracticesbywhichMonks_o_ of soughttodistinguishthemselvesfromothermenwerecalledtheirExer-theMo_. cises. Theseexercisesconsistedin soninnycontrivancestheyhadfor

tormentingthemselves.Bythistheythoughtto ingratiatethemselveswiththe Deity. FortheDeity,saidthey,is a Beingef infinitebenevo-lence: nowa Beingof themostordinarybenevolenceis pleasedto seeothersmgkethemselvesashappyastheycan:thereforetomakeourselvesas unhappyaswecanisthe wayto pleasethe Deity.Ifanybodyaskedthem,whatmotivetheycouldfindfordoingallthis?Oh!saidthey,youarcnottoimaginethatwearepunishingourselvesfornothing: weknewverywellwhatweareabout. Youareto knew,thatforeverygrainefpainitcostsusnow.wearetohaveahundredgrainsofpleasurebyandby.Thecaseis, thatGodlovestoseeustormentourselvesatpresent: indeedhe hasas goodastoldusse. Butthisisdoneonlytotryus,inorderjusttoseehowwesheuldbehave:whichitisplainhecouldnot]mow,withoutmakingtheexperiment.Nowthen,fromthesatisfactionitgiveshimto iseeusmakeourselvesasunhappyaswecanmakeourselvesinthispresent ][i/e,wehavea sureproofof thesatisfactionit willgivehimtoseeusa_happyashecanmakeus ina lifeto come.

OfPrinciple8adverseto tkat of Utility. 9

not,asitmayhappen: thisisthecasewithanother,whichmaybetermedtheprincipleofsympathyanda_til_thy.

III. Bytheprincipleof asceticismI meanthatprinciple,P_ncivleofwhich,liketheprincipleofutility,approvesordisapprovesoIwilt.anyaction,accordingtothetendencywhichitappearstohaveto augmentordiminishthehappinessofthepartywhosein-terestisinqusstion; butinaninversemanner: approvingofactionsinasfarastheytendto diminishhishappiness; dis-approvingoftheminasfarastheytendtoaugmentit.

IV.It isevidentthatanyonewhoreprobatesanytheleastA_a_mnof_ _ _ . _ . theprmcip[eparticleofpleasure,assuch,xromwna_eversourcecLenveo,isof_ti.

Forantsa partizanoftheprincipleofasceticism.It isonlycir. who.uponthatprinciple,andnotfromtheprincipleofutility,thatthemostabominablepleasurewhichthevilestof malefactorseverreapedfromhiscrimewouldbetobereprobated,ifit stoodalone.Thecaseis,thatit neverdoesstandalone; butisneces-sarilyfollowedbysuchaquantityofpain(or,whatcomestothesamething,sucha chanceforacertainquantityofpain)thatthepleasureincomparisonofit,isasnothing: andthisisthetrueandsole,butperfectlysufficient,reasonformakingit agroundforpunishment.

V.Therearetwoclassesofmenofverydifferentcomplexions,The,Dr,n-b. W .... ciplelu_ lindV hemthepnnclpleofascetmmmappearstohavebeenera-in_e

. 1. • philosophi.braced; theoneasetofmoralists,theotherasetoIreugmn-_l,inobhers• a r_ligioumists. Differentaccordinglyhavebeenthemotiveswhichappearo_in.

tohaverecommendedittothenoticeofthesedifferentparties.Hope,thatistheprospectofpleasure,seemstohaveanimatedtheformer:hope,thealimentofphilosophicpride: thehopeofhonourandreputationat thehandsofmen.Fear,thatis theprospectofpain,thelatter: fear,theoffspringofsuperstitiousfancy: thefearoffuturepunishmentat thehandsofasplen-eticandrevengefulDeity. I sayinthiscasefear: foroftheinvisiblefuture,fearis morepowerfulthanhope. Thesecir-cumstancescharacterizethe twodifferentpartiesamongthepartizansoftheprincipleofasceticism; thepartiesandtheirmotivesdifferent,theprinciplethesame.

l

_o Of Principlesadverseto Ilealof Utility. [CHAr.

xth_been VI. Thereligiousparty,however,appeartohavecarrieditearnedfar....tilerbythefartherthanthephilosophical:theyhaveactedmoreconsistentlyreligioua . . •_ts _ha_andless_asely.Thephilosophicalpartyhavescarcelygonebythephilo- . .sopbical,fartherthantoreprobatepleasurethereligiouspartyhavefre-

quentlygonesofarastomakeitamatterofmeritandofdutytocourtpain.Thephilosophicalpartyhavehardlygonefartherthanthemakingpainamatterofindifference.Itisnoevil,theyhavesaid:theyhavenotsaid,itisagood.Theyhavenotsomuchasreprobatedallpleasureinthelump.Theyhavediscardedonlywhattheyhavecalledthegross;thatis,suchasareorganical,orofwhichtheoriginiseasilytraceduptosuchasareorganical:theyhaveevencherishedandmagnifiedtherefined.Yetthis,however,notunderthenameofpleasure:tocleanseitselffromthesortiesofitsimpureoriginal,itwasnecessaryitshouldchangeitsname:thehonourable,theglorious,thereputable,thebecoming,thehonestum,thedecorum,itwastobecalled:inshort,anythingbutpleasure.

Tttophilo- VII.Fromthesetwosourceshaveflowedthedoctrinesfromaol_hiealbranchofitwhichthesentimentsofthebulkofmankindhaveallalongre-hashadmo_tinflu-ceivedatinctureofthisprinciple; somefromthephilosophical,enc_amongpersonsor somefromthereligious,somefromboth. Menofeducationeducation,tl_ereil_ou8morefrequentlyfromthephilosophical,asmoresuitedto theamongthov_r. elevationoftheirsentiments: thevulgarmorefrequentlyfrom

thesuperstitious,dsmoresuitedtothenarrownessoftheirin-tellect,undilatedbyknowledge: andto theabjectnessoftheircondition,continuallyopentotheattacksoffear.Thetinctures,however,derivedfromthe twosources,wouldnaturallyinter-mingle,insomuchthatamanwouldnotalwaysknowbywhichofthemhewasmostinfluenced: andtheywouldoftenservetocorroborateandenlivenoneanother.It wasthisconformitythat madea kindofalliancebetweenpartiesofa complexionotherwisesodissimilar:anddisposedtheretouniteuponvarionsoccasionsagainstthecommonenemy,thepartizanoftheprin-cipleofutility,whomtheyjoinedinbrandingwiththeodiousnameofEpicurean.

_l.] Of P.rineiple8adver,e to tkat of Utility. Ix

VIII. The principleof asceticism,however,with whateverTboprinei-warmthit mayhavebeenembracedby its partizansas aruleof_l_m°fb__m°t_

nev$r beenprivateconduct,seemsnotto havebeencarriedto anyeousidet-steelyap-

phed byablelength,whenappliedto thebusinessof government. In _eitherpartyfewinstancesit hasbeencarrieda littlewaybythephilosophicalnesst°theofBUSl-party:witnesstheSpartanregimen. Thoughthen, perhaps,it ment.G°vern"maybeconsideredas havingbeena measureofsecurity:andanapplication,thoughaprecipitateandperverseapplication,oftheprincipleof utifity. Scarcelyin any instances,toanyconsider-ablelength,by thereligious: forthevariousmonasticorders,andthesocietiesoftheQuakers,Dumplers,Moravians,andotherreligionists,havebeenfreesocieties,whoseregimennomanhasbeenastrietedto withouttheinterventionof his ownconsent.Whatevermerit a man may have thought there wouldbe inmakinghimselfmiserable,nosuch notionseemsever to haveoccurredto anyof them,that it maybe a merit,muchlessaduty,tomakeothersmiserable:althoughit shouldseem,that ifacertainquantityof miserywerea thingsodesirable,it wouldnot mattermuchwhetherit werebroughtby eachmanuponhimself,orby onemanuponanother. It is true,that fromthesamesourcefromwhence,amongthereligionists,theattachmenttotheprincipleofasceticismtookitsrise,flowedotherdoctrinesandpractices,fromwhichmiseryin abundancewasproducedinonemanby theinstrumentalityof another: witnesstheholywars,and the persecutionsfor religion. But the passionforproducingmiseryin thesecasesproceededuponsomespecialground: the exerciseofit wasconfinedtopersonsof particulardescriptions: theyweretormented,notas men,but ashereticsandinfidels.To haveinflictedthesamemiserieson theirfellow-believersand fellow-sectaries,wouldhavebeenasblameableinthe eyesevenof thesereligionists,as in thoseof a partizanoftheprincipleof utility. Fora man to give himselfa certainnumberofstripeswasindeedmeritorious:but to givethe samenumberof stripesto anotherman, notconsenting,wouldhavebeenasin. We readof saints,whoforthe goodof theirsouls,andthe mortificationof theirbodies,havevoluntarilyyielded

I_ 0/Prir_ipleaadveraeto lhato/ UtiZlty. Fcs_.

themselvesapreytovermin: batthoughmanypersonsofthisclasshavewieldedthereimo£empire,wereadof nonewhohavesetthemselvestowork,andmadelawsonpurpose,withaviewofstockingthebodypoliticwiththebreedofhighwaymen,housebreakers,oriaoendiafies.Ifatanytimetheyhavesu_eredthenationtobepreyeduponbyswarmsofidlepensioners,oruselessplaeemen,it hasratherbeenfromnegligenceandim-beeility,thaufromanysettledplanforoppressingandplunderingofthepeople.If at anytimetheyhavesappedthesourcesofnationalwealth,bycrampingcommerce,anddrivingtheinhabi-tantsintoemigration,it hasbeenwithotherviews,andinpur-suitofotherends. If theyhavedeclaimedagainstthepursuitofpleasure,andtheuseofwealth,theyhavecommonlystoppedat declamation: theyhavenot,likeLycurgus,madeexpressordinancesforthepurposeofbanishingthepreciousmetals.Iftheyhaveestablishedidlenessbya law,ithasbeennotbecauseidleness,themotherofviceandmisery,isitselfa virtue,butbecauseidleness(saythey)istheroadtoholiness.Ifunderthenotionoffasting,theyhavejoinedintheplanofconfiningtheirsubjectstoadiet,thoughtbysometobeofthemostnourishingandprolificnature,ithasbeennotforthesakeofmakingthemtributariestothenationsbywhomthatdietwastobesupplied,butforthesakeofmanifestingtheirownpower,andexercisingtheobedienceofthepeople.If theyhaveestablished,orsufferedto.beestablished,punishmentsforthebreachofcelibacy,theyhavedonenomorethancomplywiththepetitionsof thosedeludedfigorists,who,dupesto theambitiousanddeep-laidpolicyoftheirrulers,firstlaidthemselvesunderthatidleobliga-tionbya vow.

Theprin. IX.Theprincipleofasceticismseemsoriginallytohavebeencipleof_uteo.ticism,initsthereverieofcertainhastyspeculators,whohavingperceived,origin,wasbutt_t ororfancied,thatcertainpleasures,whenreapedincertaintit-utilitymie-app_od,cumstances,have,atthelongrun,beenattendedwithpainsmore

thanequivalentto them,tookoccasionto quarrelwitheverythingthato_ereditselfunderthenameofpleasure.Havingthengotthusfar,andhavingforgotthepointwhichtheysetoat

If.] Of P_l_$ _o'se _ _tI__e U_{_/. 13

from,theypushedon,andwentsomuchfurtherastothinl_itmeritorioustofallin lovewithpain. Eventhis,wesee,isatbottombuttheprincipleofutilitymisapplied.

X. Theprincipleofutilityis capableofbeingconsistentlyItcannev_beconsist-pursued; andit isbut tautologytosay,that themorecon- ent|_pttr.sistentlyit ispursued,thebetterit musteverbeiorhuman-su_.kind.Theprincipleoiasceticismneverwas,norevercanbe,consistentlyp_suedbyanylivingcreature.Letbutonetenthpartoftheinhabitantsofthisearthpursueitconsistently,andinaday'stimetheywillhaveturnedit intoahell.

XI. Amongprinciplesadverse*to thatofutility,thatwhichThep_n-cipleofsym-

'ThefollowingNotewasfirstprintedinJanuary1789,It oughtratherto havebeenstyled,moreextensively,theprincipleof

caprice.Whereit appliesto thechoiceof actionsto be markedoutforinjunctionorprohibition,forrewardorpunishment,(tostand,inaword,assubjectsforob//@a_/o_tobeimposed.)it mayindeedwithproprietybereined,as inthetext, the principleof8Finny andantipa#hy.But thisappellativedoesnotsowellapplytoit, whenoccupiedin thechoiceoftheeren_whicharetoserveassouro_oft_ withrespectto¢_/_s: wheretheactionsprohibitedandallowedtheobligationsandrights,beingalreadyfixed,theonlyquestionis,underwhatcircumstancesamanistobein-vestedwiththeoneorsubjectedtotheother?fromwhatincidentsoccasionistobetakentoinvestaman,ortorefusetoinvesthim,withtheone,ortosubjecthimto theother?Inthisl_ttercaseitmaymoreappositelybecharacterizedby the nameof the _/mnta_/cpri_i1$.e. Syml_thyandantipathyareaffectionsoi the 8en_W_faculty. Butthe choiceof t/_swithrespectto_hts, especiallywithrespecttoproprietaryright_,upongroundsunconnectedwithutility,hasbeeninmanyinstancesthework,notoftheaffectionsbutoftheimaginatiomWhen,injustifica_onofanarticleelEnglishCommonLaw,calling

unclestosuooeedincertaincasesinpreferencetofathers,LordCokepro-ducedasortofPondexosityheh_ddiscoveredinrights,cRsqualifyingthemfromascendinginastraightline,itw_ notthathe_ unclesparticu-l.arl.y,or.ha_edfathers,butbecausetheanalogy,suchasitwas,waswhat.hisimap.nationpresentedhimwith,insteadofat_asun,andbecause,toajudgmentunobservantofthestandardofutility,orun_qua_ntedwiththeartofconsultingit, whereaffectionisout ofthe way,imaginationistheonlyguide.

WhenI knownotwhatingeniousgesmmarianinventedthe propositionD_ non_ de/_are_to serveas a ruleof law,it wasnotsurelythathehadanyantil_thyto delegatesofthesecondorder,orthatit wasanypleusmmto himtothinkof theruinwhich,forwantofamanagerathome,maybelaltheaffairsof atraveller,whoman unforeseenaccident

: hasdeprivedoIthe objectof hischoice:it was,thattheincongruity,ofgivingthesamelawtoobjeet8soeon_a'ssted_ attireandi_z_reare,wasnot tobesurmovmted,andthat_ ¢hime_sawe]]Mitcontrasts,with-are.

14 OfPrinciplesadveraeto tt_agof Ugibgy. [CHAr.

l_thyand atthisdayseemstohavemostinfluenceinmattersofgovern-antipathy,wbut. ment,iswhatmaybecalledtheprincipleofsympathyandan-

When thatinexorablemaxim,(ofwhichthedominionisnomoretobe

defined, than the date of its birth, orthe name of its father, is to betound,) __wasimportedfromEnglandforthegovernmentofBengal,andthewholefabric of judicature wascrushed by the thundersof ex_ost facto justice, itwa_notsurelythattheprospectofa blamelessmagistracyperishinginrison affordedany enjoyment to the unoffended authors of their misery ;ut that the music of the maxim, absorbing the whole imagination, had _

drownedthe cries of humanity along with the dictates of common sense x.Fiat Ju_titia, ruat cedum, says another maxim, as fullof extravagance as _it is of harmony: Go heavento wreck---sojustice be butdone :--and whatis the ruin of kingdoms, in comparison of the wreck of heaven?

So again, when the Prussian chancellor, inspired with the wisdom of Iknow not what Romansage, proclaimed in goodLatin, for the edificationof German ears, 8er_'tus servitu_isnon datur, [Cod. Fred. tom. if. par.2.lie. 2. tit. x. §6. p. 308.] it wasnot that he had conceived any aversion to _,the life-holder who, during the continuance of his term, should wish togratify a neighbour with a right of way or water, or to the neighbourwhoshould wish to acceptof the indulgence ; but that, to a jurisprudential ear, _:-tu_ -_/_ sound little less melodious than -a_a -are. Whether the melodyof the maxim was the real mason of the rule, is not left open be dispute :for it is ushered in by the conjunction quia, reason's appointed harbinger:quia serv_ua ser_it_is non do_r.

Neither would equal melody have been produced, nor indeed couldsimilar melody have been called for, in either of these instances, by theopposite provision : it is only when they are opposed to general rules, and '_not when by their conformity they are absorbed in them, that more specifioones can obtain a separate existence. Del_atus potestdelegate, and Ser-t,/tus serv/tutis datur, provisions already included under the general adop-tion of contracts, wouldhave been asunnecessarybethe apprehension andthe memory,as, in comparisonof their energetic negatives, they are insipidto the ear.

Were the inquiry diligently made, it would be found that the goddess of

] Adchhou&lNotebytheAuthor,Jul3i822.Add,andthatthebadsystem,of MahometanandothermttiveInww_ to beputdown

st ellevents,to ma_ewayfortheInappficableandstlUmoremischlevotmsystemofEnglishJudge.madelaw,and,bythehandofhisa_-_mpliceHastings.wastobeputlet_thepocketof Impey--Importerofthis instrumentof s_bver_onsA_8,c_oa-yem"contraryto law,inadditionto the£8,000&.yearlawheduponhim.withthecugomaryprofu_on,bythehandoflaw.---Se_theAc_tmtofthistr&oJ_ioninMIJl'tBrtt_IhIndia.

TothisGovernors etffituet.e_ectmgbya voteof EastIndiaDicectomandProprleto_:anItshouldbetnl_'ibed.--/._it b_ ptdmoneyintoOurpock_.1_,notpranny_ofla4_iotqttobetwrv_/ppedb__.

TothisstatueoftheArch-malefactor_houldbeadded,for• complminn,thatofthe long.robedaccomplice: theonelodgingthebribelnthehando/theother. Thehundredmillionsof phmderedandopprea_dHlndoosandMahomelampayforthe one: s WeCanl_terHalltubtw.rtpt/onmightp/tyfortheother,

Whattheyhavedonefo_Irelandwithher_van rallllmmofsouls,theanthorl_ldeniersandpervertersofJttetlcehavedoneforHindeetanwithherhtmdredmllUon_.Inthistberel_nothingw_nderful.Thewonderb---that,undermtehIn_titution_men,thouglaineversud_ema_number,shoudbefound,whomthe viewof theinjusticeswhich,byEngltsltJudg¢.mad_/aw,theyarecompelledtocommit,andthemi_rieetheyare thusc_mpeUedtopro-duce,depriveofhealthandr_k WitnemtheLetterofanl_-8tbhHtudveta_Jad_e,Sept.z,x_ _hichlie_beforeme. I willnotmakeencruels reqoltalforhi.honeety,i_toputhievamein print: IndeedtheHomeofCommongDocument*aJrsadypubll_edleaveattleneedofit.

_.] oft'ri,_ip_s_e_se_otha_o:_tit_s. _5fipathy. By the principleof sympathy and antipathy, 1 meanthat principle which approvesor disapprovesof certain actions,

harmony]assexercisedmoreinfluence,howeverlatent,overthedispensa-tionsofThemis,thanhermostdiligenthistoriographers,orevenhermostpassionatepanegyrists,seemto havebeenawareof. Everyoneknows,how,bytheministryofOrpheus,itwasshewhofirstcollectedthesonsofmenbeneaththeshadowofthesceptre: yet, in themidstof continualexperience,menseemyetto learn,withwhatsuccessfuldiligenceshehaslabouredtoguideit in itscourse. Everyoneknows,that measurednum-berswerethelanguageoftheinfancyoflaw: noneseemto haveobserved,withwhatimpsriousswaytheyhavegovernedhermaturerage. InEnglishjurisprudenceinparticular,the connexionbetwixtlawandmusic,howeverlessperceivedthanin Spartanlegislation,is notperhapslessrealnorlessclose. Themusicofthe Office,thoughnot of the samekind,isnot lessmusicalinitskind,thanthemusicofthe Theatre; thatwhichhardenstheheart,thanthatwhichsoftensit :--sostcnutosas long,cadencesassono-rous; andthosegovernedbyrules,thoughnotyet promulgated,not lessdeterminate.Searchindictments,pleadings,proceeding_inchancery,con-veyances:whatevertrespassesyoumayfindagainsttruthorcommonsense,youwillfindnoneagainstthe lawsof harmony. The EnglishLiturgy,justlyas thisqualityhasbeenextolledin that sacredoffice,possessesnota greatermeasureofit, thaniscommonlyto befoundinanEnghshActofParhament. Dignity,simplicity,brevity,precision,intelligibility,possi-bihtyofbeingretainedorsomuchas apprehended,everythingyieldstoHarmony. Volumesmightbe filled,shelvesloaded,with the sacrificesthataremadeto thisinsatiatepower.Expletives,herministersinGrecianpoetryarenot lessbusy,thoughin differentshapeandbulk,in Enghshlegislation: inthe former,theyaremonosyllables1: inthelatter,theyarewholelines'.

Toreturntothe 1:_r_nei_leofsympathyandantipathy: aterm preferredat first,on accountof its impartiality,to the principleof caprice.Thechoiceofanappellative,intheaboverespectstoonarrow,wasowingto mynothaving,at thattime,extendedmyviewsoverthecivilbranchof law,anyotherwisethanas I hadfoundit inseparablyinvolvedin the penal.Butwhenwecometo theformerbranch,we shallseethe ph_a_/c prin-ciplemakingat leastas greatafigurethere,as theprincipleof_ympathyandardipathyinthe latter.

In thedaysofLordCoke,thelightofutilitycanscarcelybesaidtohaveas yetshoneuponthefaceofCommonLaw.If afaintr_yofit, underthenameoftheal"gumentumab inconvenienti,is tobefoundin s listof abouttwentytopicsexhibitedby that greatlawyeras theco-ordinateleadersofthatall-perfects_tem, theadmission,socircumstanced,i_assurea proofof neglect,as,to thestatuesof Bn_tusandCassius,exclusionwasa causeofnotice.It stands,neitherinthefront,norinthe rear,norinanypostofhonour;buthuddledintowardsthemiddle,withoutthesmallestmarkofpreference.[Coke,Littleton,Ix.a.] Noris this Latini_ven_ente byanymeansthe samethingwiththe Englishone. It standsdistinguishedfrommischief: andbecauseby the vulgarit is takenfor somethinglessbad,it is givenby thelearnedassomethingworse.The/aw preferaa

' Mel,,Tot,TI, wpy,_e:C,2And be it ftt_ther_mac,ted by the authority &forc_id, that--Providedalway_ and itherebyfurtherenactedanddeclaredt_,[,.--&_ &c,

I6 Of Principleaadverseto tkat of Utility. [CHAP,

notonaccountoftheirten_ng toaugmentthe happiness,noryetonaccountoftheirtendingto diminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestis in question,butmerelybecausea man i_findshimselfdisposedtoapproveordisapproveofthem:holding

upthatapprobationordisapprobationasasufficientreasonfor _itself,anddisclaimingthenecessityoflookingoutforanyex- _trinsieground.Thusfarin the generaldepartmentof morals:andintheparticulardepartmentofpolitics,measuringouttheqnan_m(aswellasdeterminingtheground)ofpunishment,by -'thedegreeofthe disapprobation.

Th,,_ XII. It is manifest,that thisis rathera principlein name :ratherthe,,es_io,otthaninreafity:itisnotapositiveprincipleofitself,somuch _"allprinciple,ta_any asatermemployedtosignifythenegationofallprinciple.thingpoGi-tiva Whbtoneexpectstofindin a principleissomethingthatpoints

outsomeexternalconsideration,as ameansof warrantingandguidingtheinternalsentimentsofapprobationanddisapproba-tion: thisexpectationis butillfulfilledbyaproposition,which _

doesneithermorenorlessthanholdupeachofthosesentimentsasagroundand standardforitself.

Sentimeut_XIII.Inlookingoverthecatalogueofhumanactions(saysofa partumn _

ofthepro.apartizanofthisprinciple)inordertodeterminewhichofthem _ciploofanti.rJthy,aretobemarkedwiththesealofdisapprobation,youneedbut _I

totakecounselofyourownfeelings:whateveryoufindinyour- iiselfapropensityto condemn,iswrongforthat veryreason.Forthesamereasonitisalsomeetforpunishment:inwhatpro-portionit isadversetoutility,orwhetherit beadversetoutility ?_atall,isa matterthatmakesnodifference.In that samepropor- !t/or,alsois it meetforpunishment: if youhatemuch,punish"/t/_M_/eftOan inconve./ence, says an admired maxim, and the more ad- ]

J

mired, because _snothing is expmssad by it, the more is supposed to beunderstood.Notthatthervisanyavowed,muchlessaconstantopposition,between -_

theprescriptionsofutilityandtheoperationsofthecommonlaw:suchcon-stancywclmveseentobetoomuchevenforasceticfexvor.[Supra,par.• ] !Fromtimetotimeinstinctwouldunavoidablybetraythemintothepathsofreason:instinctwhich,howeveritmaybecramped,canneverbekilledbyo_uoation.Thecobwebsspunoutofthematerialsbroughttogetherby'thecornpetitionofoppositeanalogies,'canneverImveceasedbeingwarpedbythesflen_attractionofther_tio_lprinciple:thoughitshouldhavebeen,astheneedleisbythemagnet,withouttheprivityofconscience.

JI.] Of Principles adverse to that of Utility. 17

much : if you hate little, punish tittle : punish as you hate. Ifyou hate not at all, punish not at all : the fine feelings of thesoul are not to be overborne and tyrannized by the harsh andrugged dictates of political utifity.

X_IV.The varioussystems that have been formedconcerningThe_yste_sthathavethe standard of right and wrong, may all be reduced to the beentermedoon_rningprincipleof sympathy and antipathy. One account may serve thea_a_dard

• . orrightandfor all of them. They consist all of them an so many con-,n_ns,are...... allreducibletrivaneesforavoiding the obligatmnof appealingto any externaltoth_prin.standard, and for prevailing upon the reader to accept of the cip|aauthor's sentiment oropinionasa reasonforitself. The phrasesdifferent,but the principle the same I.

1It is curiousenoughto observethevarietyofinventionsmenhavehitv_o_to_v__r_edasupon,andthevarietyof phrasestheyhave broughtforward,in order _ tb.t

concealfromtheworld,and,ifpossible,fromthemselves,thisverygeneralme¢h_,¢_,,-¢_ Istl¢mLrltsofandthereforeverypardonableself-sutfieiency. B°_r p,_-

_.Onemansays,hehas a thingmadeonpurposeto tell himwhat IB'ttta_te*dedare-rightandwhatis wrong; and that it isca[leda morn/8en_e: andthenhe, Mo,_s¢_.goestoworkat hisease,andsays,suchathingisright, and sucha thingis wrong--why? ' becausemymoralsensetellsme it is.'

2. Anothermancomesandaltersthe phrase: leavingout moral,and,. co_o,_ea_t.puttingincommon,inthe roomofit. Hethentellsyou, that hiscommonsenseteacheshimwhatisrightand wrong,assurelyas the other'smoralsensechd:meaningbycommonsense,asenseotsomekindorother,which,hesays,ispossessedbyall mankind: thesenseofthese,whosesenseis notthe sameas the author's,beingstruckout of the accountas not worthtaking. Thiseoutrivancedoesbetter than theother; fura moralsense,beinga newthing,a manmayfeelabouthima goodwhilewithoutbeingableto findit out: butcommonceaseisasold as thecreation;andthereisno manbut wouldbeashamedto bethoughtnotto haveasmuchofItashisneighbours.It hasanothergreatadvantage: byappearingto sharepower,it lessensenvy: forwhena mangetsupuponthis ground,inordertoanathematizethosewhodifferfromhim,it isnotby a s/cvo_o_/¢3ubeo,but bya vd/t/sjubeat/_.

3. Anothermancom_,and says,that as to a moralsenseindeed,he, u_d_.cannotfind thathe hasany suchthing: thathoweverhehasan under-,_._d_.standing,whichwilldo quiteaswell. Thisunderstanding,he says,isthestandardof rightandwrong: it tellshimsoandso. Allgoodandwisemenunderstandashe does: ifothermen's understandingsdifferin anypointfromhis, so muchthe worsefor them : it isa suresigntheyareeitherdefectiveorcorrupt.

4. Anothermannays,that thereis an eternaland immutableRuleof, R_teofRight: that that ruleof rightdictatesso andso : andthen he beginsmgh_givingyou hissentimentsuponany thingthatcomesuppermost: andthesesenl_iments(youarctotake forgranted)aresomanybranchesof theeternalruleofright.

5. Anotherm_n:orperlmpsthesameman(it's no matter)a_ys,tlmt_s,_.r_t°mo,C

x8 Of Prineiples adverse to t_at gf Utility. [eHXP.

_h_s_n- XV. It is manifest, that the dictates of this principle willclp|e_ll -:,_'qaen_ly frequently coincide with those of utility, though perhaps with-

%.

them are cert_ practicesconformable,and othersrepugnant,to the _,FitnessofThings; andthen hetellsyou,at hisleisure,whatpmetiec_areconformableandwhatrepugnant: justashehappensto likea practiceor _dislikeit. ":

_ of 6. A greatmultitudeofpeoplearecontinuallytalkingoftheLawof ""Na_._ Nature; andthen they goon givingyoutheirsentimentsaboutwhatis ._

rightandwhatiswrong:andthesesentiments,youaretounderstand,are _:somanychaptersandsectaonsoftheLawofNature.

x_ of 7. Insteadof the phrase,Lawof Nature,you havesometimes,I_w_teas_,,_l_sLofRe, on, RightReason,NaturalJustice,NaturalEquity,GoodOrder. _-Reason.N_l Anyof them willdo equallywell. This l_ttoris mostusedm polities. .',ulllc¢,_,,,_l Thethreelast aremuchmoretolerablethanthe others,becausethey doEq,,u..G_,Znot veryexplicitlyclaimto beanythingmorethanphrases: theyinsistOrder. but feeblyuponthe beinglookeduponassomanypositivestandardsof

themselves,andseemcontentto betaken,uponoccasion,forphnmesex-pressiveoftheconformityofthe thingmquestiontothe properstandard,whateverthat maybe. Onmostoccasions,however,it willbe bettertosay utility: utility is clearer,as referringmoreexplicitlyto pain andpleasure.

T_t_. 8. Wehaveonephilosopher,whosays,thereisnoharminanythingintheworldbutintellingalie:andthatif,forexample,youweretomurderyourownfather,thiswouldonlybeaparticularwayofsaying,hcwasnotyourfather. Ofcourse,whenthis philosopherseesanythingthat hedoes _notlike,hesays,itisaparticularwayoftellingalie.Itis saying,that _"theact oughttobedone,or maybedone,when,intruth,it oughtnot tobe :(done.

Doct,_eof 9.Thefairestand openestofthemaLlis thatsortofmanwhospeaksout,_l¢_t,o,. andsays,I amof thenumberof theElect: nowGodhimselftakescareto :_informthe Electwhatisright: andthat withsogoodeffect,andlet themstriveeverso,they cannothelpnot onlyknowingit but practisingit. Ifthereforea manwantstoknowwhatisrightandwhatiswrong,hehasnothingto dobut tocometome.

Rep,_,ancytoItisupontheprincipleofantipathythatsuchandsuchactsareoft_mNa_,¢. reprobatedon thescoreof theirbeingunnatural: thepracticeofexposing _i

children,establishedamongthe.GreeksandRomans.wasan-nnaturalpractice. Unnatural,whenit meansanything,meansunfrequent: and '_thereitmeanssomething; althoughnothingtothepre_entpurpose.But qhereitmeansnosuchthing:forthefrequencyofsuchactsisperhapsthegreatcomplaint.Itthereforemeansnothing; nothing,Imean,whichthereisinthe_ctitself.Allitcanservetoexpressis,thedispositionofthepersonwhoistalkingofit: thedispositionheisintobeangryatthethoughtsofit. Doeeitmerithisanger?Veryhkelyitmay: butwhetheritdoesornoisaquestion,which,tobeansweredrightly,canonlybe _iansweredupontheprincipleofutility. .,Unnatural,isasgoodawordasmoralsense,orcommonsense; and

wouldbeasgood&foundationfora systor_ Suchanact is.nru_tural; !thatis,repugnanttonature: forI donotliketo practiseit : and, cease- ,'iqucntly,donotpractiseit. It isthereforerepugnantto whatoughttobe iithenatureofeverybodyelse.

_hsct_te__ Themischiefcommontoall_ waysoftblnki_andarguing(which,

n.] Of Principle8adveraeto thatof Utility. 19

outintendinganysuchthing. Probablymorefrequentlythan_eic_stornot: andhenceit isthatthebusinessofpenaljusticeiscarriedUtility-in tnlth,as wehaveseen,arebut eneandthe samemethod,couchedindifferentformsofwords)is theirservingasaeloke,andpretence,and ali-ment,to despotism: ifnotadespotisminpractice,adespotismhoweverindisposition: whichis buttooapt, whenpretenceandpoweroffer,to_howitselfin practice. Theconsequenceis, thatwithintentionsverycommonlyof thepurestkind,amanbecomesa tormenteitherto himselforhisfellow-creatures.If he beofthe melancholytest, hesitsinsilentgrief,bewailingtheirblindnessanddepravity: ifof theirascible,hede-claimswithfuryandvirulenceagainstallwhodifferfromhim; blowingupthecoalsoffanaticism,andbrandingwiththechargeofcorruptionandin-sincerity,everymanwhodoesnotthink,orprofessto think,ashedoes.

If sucha manhappensto possessthe advantagesef style,hisbookmaydoa considerabledealo! mischiefbeforethenothingnessof it isunderstood.

Thes_principles,if suchtheycanbe called,it is morefrequenttoseeappliedto moralsthanto politics: but theirinfluenceextendsitselftoboth. In politics,as wellasmorals,a manwillbeat leastequallygladofa pretencefordecidinganyquestmnin themannerthat be_tpleaseshim,withoutthetroubleofinquiry, If a manis an infallibleiudgeofwhatisrightand wrongin the actmnsof privateindividuals,why notin themeasurestobeobservedby publicmenin thedirectionoftheseactmns?accordingly(nottomentionotherchimeras)I havemorethanonceknownthe pretendedlawofnatureset upinlegislativedebates,inoppositiontoargumentsderivedfromthe principleofutility.

'Butis itnever,then,fromanyotherconsiderationsthanthoseofutility,wa¢tbc,.t,lity, _satluaU) thethatwederiveournotionsof rightandwrong? I do net know: I do,_c_.._ of

notcare.Whethera moralsentimentcanbeoriginallyconceivedfromany._._anth__J'L"°'¢.¢,othersourcethana viewof utility,isonequestion:whetheruponexam-b_ao..,.

• " different con.inatmnandreflectionit can,m pointoffact,beactuallyperststedmandsid¢_.o_,justifiedon anyother ground,by a personreflectingwithinhimself,isanother: whetherinpointofrightit canproperlybejustifiedonanyotherground,by apersonaddressinghimselftothecommunity,isathird. Thetwo first am questionsof speculation:it mattersnot, comparativelyspeaking,howthey aredecided, Thelast isa questionof practice: thedecisionofit is ofasmuchimportanceas that ofanycanbe.

' I feelinmyself,'(sayyou)_admpositiontoapproveofsuchorsuchanactioninamoralview: but this isnot owingtoanynotionsI haveofitsbeinga usefuloneto the community.I donotpretendto knowwhetherit bean usefulone or not: it maybe,foraughtI know,a mischievousone.' ' Butis it then,'(sayI) ' amischievousone? examine; andifyoucanmakoyoursel_sensiblethatit isso,then,ifdutymeansanything,thatis,moralduty,it isyourd_y atleastto abstainfromit : andmorethanthat,ifitiswhatliesinyourpower,andcanbedonewithouttoogreatasasrifiee,toendeavourtopreventit.Itisnotyourcherishingthenotionofitinyourbosom,andgivingitthenameofvirtue,thatwillexcuseyOU.'

'Ifeelinmyself,'(sayyouagain)'adispositiontodetestsuchorsuchanactionin amoralview; butthisisnetowingtoanynotionsI haveof lt_beinga mischievousone tothe community.I do not pretendto knowwhetheritbeamischievousoneornot:itmaybenotamischievousone:

C2

20 Oat'P'rineiioles adverse to tkat of Utility. [c_tA1,.

on upon that tolerable sort of footing upon which wesee it car-

ried on in commonat this day. For what morenatural or moregeneralground of hatred to a practice can there be, than the !.mischievousness of such practice _. What all men are exposed _to suffer by, all men will be disposed to hate. It is far yet, "_however,frombeing a constant ground : forwhen a man suffers,

it is not always that he knows what it is he suffers by. A man s"

may suffer grievously, for instance, by a new tax, without being _able to trace up the cause of his sufferings to the injustice ofsome neighbour, who has eluded the payment of an old one.

Thisprin. XVI. The principle of sympathy and antipathy is most apt tociple ssmost

ta_et _ds_ errOnorerr on the side of severity. It is for applying punishment in "_enty. man), oases which deserve none : in many caseswhich deserve _:

some, it is for applying more than they deserve. There is no ;

incident imaginable, be it ever so trivial, and so remote from imischief, from which this principle may not extract a groundof punishment. Any difference in taste: any difference inopinion : upon one subject as well as upon another. No dis- :.agreement so trifling which perseverance and altercation willnot render serious. Each becomes in the other's eyes an enemy,and, if laws permit, a criminal 1. This is one of the circum- :_"

it may be,foraughtI know,an usefulone.'--' Mayit indeed,'(sayI) 'anusefulone?but letmetellyouthen,thatunlessduty,andrightandwrong,bejustwhatyoupleasetomakethem,if itreallybenotamischievousone, ;andanybodyhasamindtodoit,itisnodutyofyours,but,onthecon-trary,it wouldbeverywrongin you,to takeupon youto preventhim :detestit withinyourselfasmuch_syouplease; that maybea verygoodreason(unlessItbealsoausefulone)foryournotdoingityourself:butif °"

yougoabout,by wordordeed,todoanythingtohinderhim,ormakeluresufferforit, it is you,andnot he,that havedonewrong: it is notyoursettingyourselftoblamehisconduct,orbrandingit withthenameofvice,that willmakehimculpable,oryoublameless.Therefore,ifyoucanmakeyourselfcontentthathe shallbe ofonemind,and youof another,aboutthatmatter,and socontinue,it is well: but if nothingwillserveyou, _butthat youandhe mustneedsbeof thesamemind,I'll tell youwhatyouhaveto do: it is foryoutoget thebetterofyourantipathy,not for ,huntotruckleto its'

KingJamestheFirstof Englandhadconceiveda violentantipathya_ainstAri_ns: twoofwhomhe burnts. Thisgratificationhe procured ("h_mselfwithoutmuchdifficulty; thenotionsofthetimeswerefsvommbleto it. HewroteafuriousbookagaimtVc_mtius,forbeingwhatwasoalled _

Hamo's_ voL$. _"_7L_3¢.

IT.] Of Prineijole_ adve'tse to that of Utility. _x

stances by which the human race is distinguished (not muchindeed to its advantage) from the brute creation.

XVII. It is not. however, by any means unexampled for this Buterrs,• S_)1_£e III"

principle to err on the side of lenity. A near and perceptible,tanoee,ontlmetdeofmischief moves antipathy. A remote and imperceptible mis-lenity.chief, though not loss real,has no effect. Instances in proof ofthis will occurin numbersin the courseof the work1. It wouldbe breakingin upon the orderof it to give them here.

XVIII. It may be wondered, perhaps, that in all this while Theth_.... logicaltin-nomention has been made of the theologwalpnnctple ; meamng c_lc,w_,t-• notasepa-that principle which professes to recurfor the standard of nght r_+ primand wrong to the will of God. But the case is, this is not in c,pJe.fact a distinct principle. It is never any thing more or less thanone or other of the three before-mentioned principles presentingitself under another shape. The will of God here meant cannotbe his revealed will, as contained in the sacred writings : forthat is asystem which nobody ever thinks of recurringto at thistime of day, for the detailsof political administration : and evenbefore it can be applied to the details of private conduct, it is

an Armini_n: for Vorstiuswasat a distance. Healsowrotea furiousbook,called'A Counterblastto Tobacco,'againstthe use of that drug,whichSirWalterRaleighhadthenlatelyintroduced. Hadthenotionsofthetimesco-operatedwithhim,he wouldhaveburnttheAnabaptistandthesmokeroftobaccointhe samefire. Howeverhe hadthe satisfactionofputtingRaleighto deathafterwards,though/oranothercrime.

Disputesconcerningthecomparativeexcellenceof FrenchandItalianmusichaveoccasionedveryseriousbiekeringsatParis. Oneofthepartieswouldnothavebeensorry(says,Mr.D'.Membert_)to havebroughtgovern-mentinto the quarrel. Pretencesweresoughtafter andurged. Longbeforethat,a disputeoflikenature,and ofatleastequalwarmth,hadbeenkindledat Londonupon the comparativemeritsof two composersatLondon;whereriotsbetweentheapproversanddisapproversofanewplayare,atthisday,notunfrequent.Thegroundofquarrelbetweenthe Big-endiansand the Little-endiansin the _ble, wasnot morefrivolousthanmanyan onewhichhaslaidempiresdesolate.In Rtmsia,it issaid,therewasatimewhensomethousandsof personslosttheir livesina quarrel,inwhichthe governmenthadtakenpart,about thenumberof fingersto beusedin makingthe signof the cress. This wasin daysof yore: thenuuistcrsofCatherineII. are betteriz_'uct.edi than to takeany otherpart insuchdisputes,thanthatofpreventingthe partiesconcernedfromdoingone anothera mischief.

Seech.xvi.[Division],par.42,44.I Melanges_ mr laLibart_ delaMtmlque. z Itlstruct. art. 474,475,476-

_ Of Pri_cil_leaadverseto i_}atof Ulility. [c_IAr.

universallyallowed,by themosteminentdivinesof allpersua- isiena,tostandin needofprettyampleinterpretations; elsetowhatuseare theworksofthosedivines? Andfortheguidanceof theseinterpretations,itisalsoallowed,that someotherstun- i/dard mustbe assumed.Thewillthenwhichis meanton thisoccasion,isthatwhichmaybecalledthe .presumptivewill: thatis to say,that whichis presumedto be hiswillonaccountofthe conformityofits dictatesto thoseofsomeotherprinciple.Whatthenmaybethisotherprinciple?it mustbeoneorotherof the three mentionedabove: for therecannot,aswehaveseen,be anymore.It isplain,therefore,that,settingrevelationout of the question,no light can ever be thrownuponthestandardofrightandwrong,byanythingthat canbesaidupon L=

the question,whatis God'swill. Wemay be perfectlysure,indeed,that whateverisright isconformabletothe willofGod:but so faris that fromansweringthe purposeof showinguswhatisright,that it isnecessaryto knowfirstwhethera thingisright,inorderto knowfromthencewhetherit beconformable !tothe willofGod1 _:

A,tivathy. XIX. Thereare two thingswhicharevery apt to be con- _lettheac-t_o,_itsic-founded,butwhichit importsuscarefullytodistinguish:--the ,_t_tesbeever . ,¢son_ht_is motiveor cause,which,byoperatingon the mindof an indi- rnsver or it. ,.

arightvidual,isproductiveofanyact:andthe groundor reasonwhich

TheprmcipltITheprincipleoftheologyreferseverythinggoGod'spleemure.But _"of theolo_ _he,,_ed_ewhatisGod'spleasure?Goddoesnot,heconfessedlyduosnotnow,eithertoo,_o,_, speakorwritetous. Howthenaxewetoknowwhatishispleasure?By _rother or theoth_tl,_ observingwhatisourownple_ure,andpronouncingittobehis. Accord-pr.ncff,les. ingly,whatiscalledthepleasureofGod,isandmustnccessaxilybe(reveh-

tionapart)neithermorenorlessthanthegoodpleasureoftheperson, !,whoeverhebe,whoispronouncingwhathebelieves,orpretends,tobeGod'spleasure.HowknowyouittobeGod'spleasurethatsuchorsuch _"anactshouldbeabstainedfrom? whencecomeyoueventosupposeas ,_much? 'Becausetheengaginginitwould,I imagine,beprejudicialupon :.thewholetothehappinessofmankind;' saysthepartizanofthepnneiple ._ofutility: ' Becausethecommissionofit isattend_withagrossandsensual,oratleastwithatriflingandtransientsatisfaction;' saysthepartizanoftheprincipleofasceticism: ' BecauseI detestthethoughtsofit; -_.andI cannot,neitheroughtI tobecalledupontotellwhy;' sayshewho _proceedsupontheprincipleofantipathy.Inthewordsofoneoro_herof :_thesemu_tthatpersonnecessarilyanswer(revelationapart)whoprofessestotakeforhisstandardthewillofGod.

x_.] Of Prind_le8adverseto t_t of Utility. 23

warrantsalegislator,orotherby-s_nder,inregardingthatact_,,-dofaction.withaneyeofapprobation.Whentheacthappens,inthepar-ticularinstanceinquestion,tobeproductiveofe_tcctswhichweapproveof,muchmoreifwehappentoobservethatthesamemotivemayfrequentlybeproductive,inotherinstances,ofthe]ikeeffects,weareapttotransferourapprobahontothemotiveitself,andtoassume,astheinstgroundfortheapprobationwebestowontheact,thecircumstanceofitsoriginatingfromthatmotive.It isin thiswaythatthesentimentofantipathyhasoftenbeenconsideredasajustgroundo[action.Antipathy,forinstance,insuchorsuchacase,isthecauseofanactionwhichisattendedwithgoodeffects: butthisdoesnotmakeitarightgroundofactioninthatcase,anymorethaninanyother.Stilltarther.Notonlytheeffectsaregood,buttheagentseesbefore-handthattheywillbeso. Thismaymaketheactionindeedaperfectlyrightaction: butitdoesnotmakeantipathyarightgroundofaction.Forthesamesentimentofantipathy,ifim-plicitlydeferredto,maybe,andveryfrecluentlyis,productiveoftheveryworsteffects.Antipathy,therefore,canneverbearightgroundofaction.Nomore,therefore,canresentment,which,aswillbeseenmoreparticularlyhereafter,isbutamodi-ficationofantipathy.Theonlyrightgroundofaction,thatcan _'possiblysubsist,is,afterall,theconsiderationofutility,which, _"ifitisa rightprincipleofaction,andofapprobation,inanyoneease,issoineveryother. Otherprinciplesinabundance,that ,_is,othermotives,maybethereasonswhysuchandsuchanacthasbeendone: thatis,thereasonsorcausesofitsbeingdon_e: _'butit isthisalonethatcanbethereasonwhyit mightoroughttohavebeendone. Antipathyorresentmentrequiresalways i_toberegulated,topreventitsdoingmischie{: toberegulated _i:bywhat? alwaysbytheprincipleofutifity. TheprincipleofutilityneitherrequiresnoradmitsofanyotherreguJator !i

thanitself. _1

il

CHAPTERIII.

OF THE FOUR SANCTIONSOR SOURCESOFPAIN AND PLEASURE.

Connexion I. IThasbeenshownthatthehappinessoftheindividuals,ofofth,s . .chapterwithwhomacommumtviscomposed,thatistheirpleasuresandtheirthepro-cedi,,_,security,is theendandthesoleendwhichthelegislatorought

tohaveinview: thesolestandard,inconformitytowhicheachindividualought,as farasdependsuponthe legislator,tobemadeto fashionhisbehaviour.Butwhetheritbethisoranythingelsethatis tobedone,thereisnothingbywhichamancanultimatelybemadetodoit, but eitherpainorpleasure.Havingtakena generalviewofthesetwograndobjects(v/z.pleasure,andwhatcomesto thesamething,immunityfrompain)in thecharacterofflnalcauses; it willbenecessarytotakea viewof pleasureandpainitself,in thecharacterofe_ie'ientcausesormeans.

l_Lr,a,c. II. Therearefourdistinguishablesourcesfromwhichplea-ftonsor_umesot sureandpainareinusetoflow: consideredseparately,theypleasure_dpa_n.maybetermedthephysical,thepolitical,thernoral,andthere-

liqious: andinasmuchasthepleasuresandpainsbelongingtoeachofthemarecapableofgivinga bindingforceto anylaworruleofconduct,theymayallofthembetermedsana/o_z.

Sanctio, in Latin, was used to signify the act of bindlnq, and, by scommongrammatical t_ansition, any thin17whichaer_ _obind a man : towit, to the observanceof such orsuch a mode of conduct. According to sLatingrammarianx,the import ofthe word is derived byrat,herafar-letchedprocess(such as those commonly are, and in a great measure indeed mustbe, by which intellectual ideas are derived from sensible ones) from thewordsangu/J, blood: because,among the Romane,with a view to inculcateinto the peoplea pereu_ion that such orsuch s mode of conductwould be

i Ser'duaS_Aln_worlh'lDiet_dverbum_n.._,

Of OieFour8anetionoor8aurae#of Pain and Pleasure. 25

III. If it be in thepresentlife,andfromtheordinarycourse_'h_lOfnature,not purposelymodifiedby the interpositionof the_ction.willofanyhumanbeing,norby anyextraordinaryinterposition- _.of any superiorinvisiblebeing,that the pleasureor the paintakesplaceoris expected,it maybe saidto issuefromor tobelongtothe physicalsanction.

IV If at thehandsof aparticularpersonorsetof personsin_.The• . pohtioal.the commumty,who undernames correspondentto that ofjudge,are chosenfor the particularpurposeof dispensingit, : ":accordingto the willof thesovereignor supremerulingpower - Jin thestate,it maybe saidto issuefromthe 1_oliticalsanction.

V. If at thehandsof suchchancepersonsin thecommunitys.Themor_las thepartyin questionmayhappenin thecourseofhis life_or popu_r.haveconcernswith,accordingtoeachman'sspontaneousdispo-sition,andnotaccordingto anysettledorconcertedrule,it may :'_ .....be saidto issuefromthe moralor popularsanctionx.

VI. If fromthe immediatehandof asuueriorinvisiblebeing,*.The.... _ . . r_hglo_.eitherm thepresentfife,orm a future,it maybe sa_dto Issuefromthe reliqioussanaion.

VII. Pleasuresorpainswhichmaybe expectedtoissuekernThe#e_.sure_andthe physical,political,or moralsanctions,mustall of them bepai__h_ehhelen toexpectedto be experienced,if ever, in the presentlife: thosethe_ious

Bait1etiola,

whichmaybe expectedto issuefromthereligioussanction,maymayreg_either thebe expectedto be experiencedeither in the presentlife or in apr_ntlire

f't/2ure, or afutm_

renderedobfigatory upon a man by the force of what I call the religionssanction (that is, that he would be made to suffer by the extraordinaYyinterposition of some superior being, if he failed to observe the mode ofconduct in question) certain ceremonies were contrived by the priests :anthe courseof which ceremonies the bloodof viotims was made use of.

A Sanctionthen is a source of obligatory powersor raotivea: that is, of2_ainaand p/carafes ; which, accordingas they areconneoted with suchorsuch modes of coaduct, operate, and are indeed the only things which canoperate,a8motives. See Chap. x. [Motives].

t Better termed po,pu/a_,as more directly indicative of its constituentcause; as likewiae of itsrelation tothemore commonphrase yublicopinion,in French opinion _d, liclue,,the name there given to tlmt tutelary power,of which of late somuch is said, and by which somuch is done. The latterappellationis howeverunhappy andinexpressive; since if o,p/n/onis mate-rial, it is only in virtue of the influence it exercises over action, throughthe medium of the sffectinns and the will.

_6 Of g_ Four8a_s or [c_r.

l'h0_wkiehVIII.Thosewhichcanbe experiencedin thepresentlife,regardthepresenthf_canofcoursebenoothersthansuchashumannatureinthefromwhichsosver courseofthepresentlifeis susceptibleof: andfromeachofSOurcethe_flow,diffelthesesourcesmayflowallthepleasuresorpainsofwhich,inonlyinthoczrcum-thecourseofthepresentlife,humannatureissusceptible.Withstancesoftheirregardtothesethen(withwhichalonewehaveinthisplaceproduction.anyconcern)thoseofthemwhichbelongtoanyoneofthose

sanctions,di_ernotultimatelyinkindfromthosewhichbelongtoanyoneoftheotherthree:theonlydifferencethereisamongthemliesinthecircumstancesthatsccompanytheirproduction.Asufferingwhichbefallsamaninthenaturalandspontaneouscourseofthings,shallbestyled,forinstance,acalamity;inwhichcase,ifitbesupposedtobefallhimthroughanyimpru-denceofhis,itmaybestyledapunishmentissuingfromthephysicalsanction.Nowthissamesuffering,if inflictedbythelaw,willbewhatiscommonlycalleda punishment; ifincurredforwantofanyfriendlyassistance,whichthemisconduct,orsupposedmisconduct,ofthesuJhrerhasoccasionedtobewith-holden,apunishmentissuingfromthemoralsanction;ifthroughtheimmediateinterpositionofaparticularprovidence,apunish-mentissuingfromthereligionssanction.

p,_pl_ IX. Aman'sgoods,orhisperson,areconsumedbyfire. Ifthishappenedto himbywhatis calledan accident,it wasacalamity:ifbyreasonofhisownimprudence(forinstance,fromhisneglectingtoputhiscandleout)it maybestyledapunish-mentofthephysicalsanction: if it happenedtohimbythesentenceofthepoliticalmagistrate,apunishmentbelongingtothepoliticalsanction;thatis,whatiscommonlycalledapunish-ment: ifforwantofanyassistancewhichhisne/ghbourwith-heldfromhimoutof somedisliketo hismoralcharacter,apunishmentofthemoralsanction: if byan immediateactoiGod'sdispleasure,manifestedonaccountofsomesincommittedbyhim_orthroughanydistractionofmind,occasionedbythedreadofsuchdispleasure,apunishmentoftherdiqioussanction1.

i Asufferingconceivedtobefalla man bytheimmediateactofGod,asabove,is often,forshortness'sake,calledajud_nent: insteadof saying,a

III.] Source8of Pain and Plea_re. _7

X. As to suchof the pleasuresand pains belongingto theTl_o_whichr_ardareligionssanction,as regarda futurelife, of whatkind thesefuture_oarenotmaybewecannotknow. Theselienotopento ourobservation,s_cmca_l_Duringthepresentlifetheyarematteronlyofexpectation:and,known.whetherthat expectationbe derivedfromnaturalorrevealedreligion,theparticularkindofpleasureorpain,if it bedifferentfromallthosewhichlieopento ourobservation,is whatwecanhavenoideaof. Thebestideaswecanobtainof suchpainsandpleasuresarealtogetherunliquidatedin pointof quality. Inwhatotherrespectsourideasofthemmaybe liquidatedwillbeconsideredin anotherplace1.

XI. Ofthesefoursanctionsthephysiealisaltogether,wemayThoph_aJ• R_nctlonobserve,the ground-workofthe politicalandthe moral: sominclud_tiu• eachof theit alsoof thereligious,in as farasthe latterbearsrelationto otherthree.the presentlife. It is includedin eachof those otherthree.Thismayoperateinanycase,(that is,anyofthe painsorplea-suresbelongingtoit mayoperate)independentlyof them:noneofthemcanoperatebutbymeansof this. In aword,thepowersofnaturemayoperateofthemselves;butneitherthemagistrate,normenat large,ea,_operate,noris Godin the casein ques-tionsupposedto operate,but throughthepowersof nature.

XII. Forthese four objects,whichin theirnaturehave souseoft_muchin common,it seemedof useto finda commonname.chap_.It seemedof use, in the first place, for the convenienceof giving a nameto certainpleasuresand pains, tor whichanameequallycharacteristiccouldhardlyotherwisehavebeenfound:in thesecondplace,forthe sakeof holdingup the effi-cacyof ce_in moralforces,theinfluenceof whichis apt nottobesufficientlyattendedto. Doesthepoliticalsanctionexertan influenceoverthe conductof mankind? The moral,thereligioussanctionsdo so too. In everyinchof his careeraretheoperationsof the politicalmagistrateliableto beaidedorimpededby these two foreignpowers: who,oneor other of

suffcringinflictedonhiminconsequenceofaspecialjudgmenttormed,andre_olutionthereupontaken,bytheDeity.

Seech.xiii.[Ca_sunmeet]par.2. note.

_8 Oftke Four 8aneli_8 or8oureesof Pafn andPleo_ure.

them,orboth,aresureto beeitherhisrivalsor hisalfies. Doesit happentohimto leavethemoutin hiscalculations? he willbe sure almostto findhimselfmistakenin the result. Ofallthiswe shallfindabundantproofsin the seque]of thiswork.It behoveshim,therefore,to havethemcontinuallybeforehiseyes; andthatundersuchanameasexhibitstherelationtheybearto hisownpurposesanddesigns.

CHAPTERIV.

VALUE OF A LOT OF PLEASURE OR PAIN, HOW TO

BE MEASURED.

I. PLEASURESthen,andtheavoidanceofpains,aretheendsuBeortbi,whichthelegislatorhasinview: it behoveshimthereforetoc_ptor.understandtheirvalue.Pleasuresandpainsaretheinstrumentshehastoworkwith: it behoveshimthereforeto understandtheirforce,whichisagain,in otherwords,theirvalue.

II. Toapersonconsideredbyhimself,thevalueofapleasurecircum-stancestob6orpainconsideredbyitself,willbegreateror less,accordingtotake.intotho_ountthefourfollowingcircumstances1: in e_t,mat.ing the

I. Its intensity. ,_lueofaple_ure or2. Itsduration. [Jamcon-siderealwith

3. Its certaintyor uncertainty. _fe_ncetos single4. Itspropinquityorremoteness, par_n.--dIII. Thesearethecircumstanceswhicharetobe consideredbyit_r.-- eorl-

inestimatinga pleasureora painconsideredeachofthembysidemdconnecteditself.Butwhenthevalueofanypleasureorpainisconsideredw,,hother

• pleamareaforthepurposeofestimatingthe tendencyofanyactbywhichorm_.it isproduced,therearetwoothercircum,qtancesto be takenintotheaccount; theseare,

These circumstances have since becn denominated dements or dimen-sionsof ra]u.ein a pleasureor a pain.

ot long after the publication of the first edition, the following memo-riter verses wereframed, in the view of lodging more effectually, in thememory, these point_, onwhich the whole fabricof moralsand legishttionmay be seen to rest.

Inlen_e, l.a_, certain, speedy,f_.f_, _'e--Such marks in ideas_rea and in _ai_ endure.Such pleasures seek if l_/t_e be thy end :If it be _m_b/iv,wide let themSuch _aiaa avoid, whichever be thy view :Ifpainsmu_ come, let them a_nd to few.

3° Valueof a Logof Pleaeureor Pain, [CHAp.

5. Its fecundity,orthe chanceit ha of beingfollowedbysensationsofthesamekind: thatis,pleasures,ifit beaplea-sure: pains,ifit beapain.

6. Its purity,or thechanceit hasofnotbeingfollowedbysensationsoftheoppositekind:thatis,pains,ifitbeapleasure:plea_ures,ifit beapain.

Thesetwolast,however,areinstrictnessscarcelytobedeemedpropertiesofthepleasureorthepainitself;theyarenot,there-fore,instrictnesstobetakeninto theaccountofthevalueofthatpleasureorthatpain.Theyareinstrictnesstobedeemedpropertiesonlyoftheact,orotherevent,bywhichsuchples-sureorpainhasbeenproduced; andaccordinglyareonly.tobetakenintotheaccountofthe.tendencyofsuchactorsuchevent.

- con- IV. Toanumberofpersons,withreferencetoeachofwhomsader_ withraerenc_t_thevalueofapleasureorapainisconsidered,itwillbegreateranumberofpemo_orless,accordingtosevencircumstances:towit,thesixpre-

cedingones;viz.I.Itsi_c_ity.2. Itsduration.3. Its certaintyoruncertai_ty.4. Itspropinquityorremoteness.5. Its fecundity.6. Its purity.Andoneother; towit:7. Its extem; that is, thenumberofpersonsto whomit

extend,; or(inotherwords)whoareaffectedbyit._ for V. Totakeanexactaccounttllenofthegeneraltendencyofestimatingthe_n- anyact, bywhichtheinterestsofa communityareaffected,doncyofa_sy " i "e 11notorevent,proeeectaslouows.Beginwithanyonepersonofthosewhose

interestsseemmostimmediatelytobeaffectedbyit:andtakeanaccount,

I. OfthevMueofeachdistinguishablep/easurewhichappears .tobeproducedbyit inthefirstinstsnce.

2. Ofthevalueofeachpainwhichappearstobeproducedby "it in thefirstinstance.

3. Ofthevalueofeschpleasurewhlchappearstobeproduced

Iv.] kowto beMetw_red. 3t

byitafterthefirst. Thisconstitutesthefecundityof thefirstpleasureandtheimpurityofthefirstpain.

4. Ofthevalueofeachpainwhichappearstobe producedbyit afterthefirst. Thisconstitutesthefecund/tyofthefirstpain,andtheimpurityofthefirstpleasure.

5"Sumupallthevaluesofallthepleasuresontheoneside,andthoseofallthepainsontheother.Thebalance,ifit beonthesideofpleasure,willgivethegoodtendencyoftheactuponthewhole,withrespecttotheinterestsofthatindi_idualperson;ifonthesideofpain,thebadtendencyofit uponthewhole,

6. Takeanaccountofthenumberofpersonswhoseinterestsappeartobeconcerned; andrepeattheaboveprocesswithre-specttoeach. Sumup thenumbersexpressiveofthedegreesofgoodtendency,whichtheacthas,withrespecttoeachindi-vidual,in regardtowhomthe tendencyofit isgooduponthewhole: dothisagainwithrespecttoeachindividual,in regardtowhomthe tendencyofit is gooduponthewhole: do thisagainwithrespecttoeachindividual,in regardto whomthetendencyofit isbaduponthewhole•Takethebalance;which,ifonthesideofpleasure,willgivethegeneralgoodtendencyoftheact,withrespectt_ thetotalnumberorcommunityofindi-vidualsconcerned;ifonthesideofpain,thegenerafeviltendency,withrespectto thesamecommunity.

VI.It isnottobeexpectedthatthisprocessshouldbestrictlyuseoftheortoeverylegas-p_.pursuedpreviouslytoeverymoraljudgment, ' f°reg°ins

lativeorjudicialoperation.It may,however,bealwayskeptinview: andasnearastheprocessactuallypursuedontheseoccasionsapproachesto it, sonearwillsuchprocessapproachto thecharacterofanexactone.

VII. Thesameprocessis alikeapplicableto pleasureandThe_ame_ _ procelmap-pain,inwhatevershapetheyappear: and_ywhateveraenom-plicableto

inationtheyaredistinguished:topleasure,whetherit becalteae_0pro_tand mis-.qo_d(whichisproperlythecauseorinstrumentofpleasure)orchief,sudan• . . . othermodi-prof_(whichisdistantpleasure,orthecauseorms_rumen_oxfl_tionsofdistantpleasure,)or conwn/ence,or advantage,benefit,emo_u-"_a_.Plwureandmeat,ha/r_/_zs,andsoforth: topain,whetheritbecalledevil,

32 ralue @a Lot of 2_lea_reor Pain,howlo beMecuured.

(whichcorrespondsto good)or miechief,,orinconvenience,ordisadvantage,or loss,orunhappiness,andso forth.

conformityVIII. Noristhis a noveland unwarranted,anymorethan itOr_erl'_praet,zeto is a uselesstheory. In all this thereis nothingbut whatthethistheory,practiceofmankind,wheresoevertheyhavea clearviewoftheir

owninterest,isperfectlyconformableto. Anarticleofproperty,an estatein land,forinstance,is valuable,on whataccount?On accountof thepleasuresofall kindswhichit enablesa mantoproduce,and what comesto the samethingthe painsof allkindswhichit enableshimto avert. But the valueofsuchanarticleof propertyis universallyunderstoodto riseor fall ac-cordingto thelengthor shortnessof the timewhicha manhasinit: thecertaintyor uncertaintyofits cominginto possession"and the nearnessorremotenessofthe timeat which,if at all,itis to comeintopossession.As to the intensityofthe pleasureswhicha man may derivefromit, this is neverthoughtof, be-causeit dependsuponthe usewhicheachparticularpersonmaycome to make of it ; whichcannotbe estimatedtillthe par-ticularpleasureshemaycometoderivefromit,or theparticularpains he may cometo excludeby meansofit, are broughttoview. Forthe samereason,neitherdoeshe think of the fe-cundityor purityof thosepleasures.

Thusmuchforpleasureandpain,happinessandunhappiness,in general. Wecomenow to considerthe severalparticularkindsof pain andpleasure.

CHAPTERV.

PLEASURES AND PAINS, THEIR KINDS.

I. HAVINGrepresentedwhatbelongsto allsortsofpleasuresPl_u_andpainsandpainsalike,wecomenowto exhibit,eachby itself,thearee_er• . I. Suaaple:severalsortsofpainsandpleasures.Parosandpleasuresmayor._com-becalledbyonegeneralword,interestingperceptions.Interest-pe.ingperceptionsareeithersimpleorcomplex.Thesimpleonesarethosewhichcannotanyoneofthemberesolvedintomore:complexarethosewhichareresolvableinto diverssimpleones. A complexinterestingperceptionmayaccordinglybecomposedeither, I. Ofpleasuresalone: 2. Ofpainsalone:or, 3, Ofa pleasureor pleasures,anda painor painsto-gether.Wb_tdeterminesalotofpleasure,forexample,toberegardedasonecomplexpleasure,ratherthanasdiverssimpleones,is thenatureof theexcitingcause. Whateverpleasuresareexcitedallatoncebytheactionofthesamecause,areapttobelookeduponasconstitutingalltogetherbutonepleasure.

II. Theseveralsimplepleasuresof whichhllm_nnatureisThe_mplepleasures

susceptible,seemto beasfollows: I. Thepleasuresofsense,en_ra_!_2. Thepleasuresofwealth.3. Thepleasuresofskill. 4. Thepleasuresofamity. 5. Thepleasuresofa goodname. 6.The_ :"/ _pleasuresofpower.7. Thepleasuresofp_ty. 8. Thepleasuresofbenevolence.9. Thepleasuresofmalevolence,xo,Theplea-'_•suresof memory.II. Thepleasuresofimagination.I2. Thepleasaresofexpectation.I3. Thepleasuresdependentonasso- "_elation.14.Thepleasuresofrelief.

III. Theseveral_rnplepainsseemtobeasfollows: I. TheThes_plepainsofprivation.2. Thep_naofthesenses.3. ThepainsoI_a_.

•ra_ D

34 Plea_mre#wadPaine. [c_.

awkwardness.4. Thepainsofenmity. 5-Thepainsofanillname. 6. Thepainsof piety. 7. Thepainsof benevolence.8. Thepainsof malevolence.9. Thepainsof thememory.IO.Thepainsoftheimp#nation.I1.Thepainsofexpectation.12.Thepainsdependentonassociation1.

Plenumor IV.I. Thepleasuresofsenseseemtobeasfollows: I. The8_liseOntl.me_a_d,pleasuresofthetasteorpalate; includingwhateverpleasures

areexperiencedinsatisfyingtheappetitesofhungerandthirst.2. Thepleasureofintoxication.3. Thepleasuresoftheorganof smelling.4. Thepleasuresof thetouch. 5- Thesimplepleasuresoftheear;independentofassociation.6. Thesimplepleasuresoftheeye;independentofassociation.7. Theplea-sureofthesexualsense. 8. Thepleasureof health: or,theinternalpleasureablefeelingorflowofspirits(asit is called,)whichaccompaniesastateoffullhealthandvigour; especiallyattimesofmoderatebodilyexertion.9. Thepleasuresofnovelty:or,thepleasuresderivedfromthegratificationoftheappetiteof curiosity,bythe applicationofnewobjectsto anyofthesenses 2.

Pl_ of V. 2. Bythepleasuresofwealthmaybemeantthoseplea-wealth,whichare sureswhicha manis aptto derivefromtheconsciousnessoteitherofacQuisitlonpossessinganyarticleorarticleswhichstandinthelistofin-orof Ixm-se_on, strumentsofenjoymentor:security,andmoreparticularlyatthe

timeof hisfirstacquiringthem; atwhichtimethepleasuremaybestyledapleasureofgainorapleasureofacquisition:atothertimesapleasureofpossession.

a Ple_z_ 3. Thepleasuresofskill,asexerciseduponparticularobjects,ofskill.x._' 'Thecatalogueheregiven,is whatseemedto bea completelistof theviewwhynonee_._ e versasimplepleasuresand paineof whichhumannatureis susceptible:

insomuch,thatif, uponanyoccasionwhatsoever,a manfeelspleasureorpain,it is eitherreferableat onceto someoneorotherofthesekinds,orresolvableintosuch_sare. It mightperhapsIzavebeenasatisfactiontothereader,to haveseenananalyticalviewofthe subject,takenuponanexhaustiveplan,forthepurposeofdemonstratingthecatalogueto bewhatit purportsto be, a completoone. The catalogueis in factthe resultofsuchananalysis;which,however,Ithoughtitbettertodiscardat present,asbeingof toometaphysicalacast,andnotstrictlywithinthelimits ofthisdesign.Seech.xiii.[Casesunmeet],par.2.Note.'Therearealsopleasuresofnovelty,excitedbytheappearanceofnew

ideas: thosearepleasuresoftheimagination.Seeinim

v.] Pleasure,and Pains. 35

arethose whichaccompanythe applicationof suchparticularinstrumentsofenjoymentto theiruses,ascannotbesoappliedwithoutagreaterorlessshareof difficultyorexertion1.

VI. 4. Thepleasuresofamity,orself-recommendation,arethe4.P]emsur_pleasuresthat mayaccompanythepersuasionof aman'sbeing°fmmty"in theacquisitionor thepossessionof the good-willof suchorsuchassignablepersonorpersonsinparticular:or,asthephraseis, of beingupongoodtermswithhim orthem:andas a fruitof it, of his beingin a way to have thebenefitof theirspon-taneousand gratuitousservices.

VII. 5. Thepleasuresof a goodnamearethe pleasuresthat5.Pl_• ... ofagood.accompanythe persuasionof a man'sbeingin the acqmsa_lonnam_or thepossessionof thegood-willofthe worldabouthim ; thatis, of suchmembersof societyashe is likelyto haveconcernswith; andas ameansofit, eithertheirloveortheiresteem,orboth: andas a fruit of it, of his beingin the wayto have thebenefitoftheirspontaneousandgratuitousservices.Thesemaylikewisebe calledthepleasuresof gopcl_u_te,thepleasuresofhone._ orthe pleasuresof the moralsanction9..

VIII. 6. Thepleasuresof power"Kret_'_h_cpleasuresthat ac-_.PIe,_companythepersuasionof aman'sbeingina conditionto dis-o,fpower. 'e/posepeople,by meansof theirhopesand fears,to givehimthe ' :,benefitoftheirservices:that is,by thehopeofsomeservice,or /by the fearof somedisservice,that he may be in the way torenderthem.

IX. 7.Thepleasuresofpietyarethepleasuresthat accompany_.Pl_mreathe beliefof a man'sbeinginthe acquisitionor inpossessionoforpiety.the good-willor favourof the SupremeBeing: and as a fruitof it, of hisbeingin a wayof enjoyingpleasuresto be receivedby God'sspecialappointment,eitherin this life, or in a life tocome. Thesemayalsobe calledthe pleas_es of religion,the

t Forinstance,thepleasureofbeingabletogratifytheseineofhearing,bys'.mging:or.pe.fforminguponanymusicalinstrument.Theplea_urethusobtained, ma thing superaddedto,andperfectlydistinguishablefrom,thatwhicha manenjoysfromhearinganotherpersonperforminthesamemvdRnor.

s Seeeh.iii.[Sa.nctiom].De

36 Pleasuresamt.Pains. [eHA_.

pleasuresof a religiousdisposition,orthe pleasuresof therehgionssanctionx

s.vlc_su_X. 8.Thepleasuresofbenevolencearethepleasuresresultingofbenevo__nc_or fromtheviewofanypleasuressupposedtobepossessedbythe_-wLu beingswhomaybetheobjectsofbenevolence;towit,thesensi-

tivebeingsweareacquaintedwith;underwhicharecommonlyincluded,I. TheSupremeBeing.2. Humanbeings.3. Otheranimals.Thesemayalsobecalledthepleasuresofgood-will,thepleasuresofsympathy,orthepleasuresofthebenevolentorsocialaffections.

s.Pl_su_ XI.9.Thepleasuresofmalevolencearethepleasuresresult-ofmalevo- .lenc¢orill-lngfromthe viewof anypainsupposedtobesufferedbythewill.

beingswhomaybecometheobjectsof malevolence: to wit,I. Humanbeings,z. Otheranimals.Thesemayalsobestyledthepleasuresofill-will,thepleasuresoftheirascibleappetite,thepleasuresofantipathy,orthepleasuresofthemalevolentordissocialaffections.

10.Pl_s_,_8XII.xo.Thepleasuresofthememoryarethepleasureswhich,ofthememo_',afterhavingenjoyedsuchandsuchpleasures,oreveninsome

caseafterhavingsufferedsuchandsuchpains,a manwillnowandthenexperience,atrecollectingthemexactlyintheorderandinthecircumstancesinwhichtheywereactuallyenjoyedorsuffered.Thesederivativepleasuresmayofcoursebedistin-guishedintoasmanyspeciesasthereareoforiginalperceptions,fromwhencetheymaybecopied.Theymayalsobestyledpleasuresof simplerecollection.

ll.PleMu_XIII.IX.Thepleasuresoftheimaginationarethepleasuresof thei_-asina_on,whichmaybederivedfromthecontemplationof anysuch

pleasuresasmayhappentobesuggestedbythememory,butinadifferentorder,andaccompaniedbydifferentgtoupsofcircum-stances.Thesemayaccordinglybereferredtoanyoneofthethreecardinalpointsof time,present,past,orfuture.It isevidenttheymayadmitofasmanydistinctionsasthoseoftheformerclass.

12.PleasurwXIV.I2. Thepleasuresofexpectationarethepleasuresthat' Seech.iii.[Sanotio_

v.] eZ_a_,e,a_l,Pain4. 37

resultfromthecontemplationofanysortofpleasure,referredofex_a-tion.to timefuture,andaccompaniedwiththesentimentof beliefThesealsomayadmitofthesamedistinctionsl.

XV.I3. Thepleasuresofassociationarethepleasureswhichls.Ple_lr_. r _'I dependingcertainobjectsorincidentsmayhappentoafford,noto_mere-on_soc_tion.selves,butmerelyinvirtueofsomeassociationtheyhavecon-tractedin themindwithcertainobjectsorincidentswhicharein themselvespleasurable.Suchis thecase,forinstance,withthepleasureofskill,whenaffordedbysuchasetofincidentsascomposeagameofchess. Thisderivesits pleasurablequalityfromits associationpartlywiththepleasuresofskill,asexer-cisedin theproductionofincidentspleasurableofthemselves:partlyfromitsassociationwiththepleasuresofpower. Suchisthecasealsowiththepleasureofgoodluck,whenaffordedbysuchincidentsascomposethegameofhazard,oranyothergameofchance,whenplayedat fornothing. Thisderivesits plea-surablequafityfromitsassociationwithoneofthepleasuresofwealth; to wit,withthepleasureofacquiringit.

XVI.14.Fartheronweshallseepainsgroundeduponplea-l_.rle_ur_ofrelief.sures;in likemannermaywenowseepleasuresgroundeduponpains.Tothecatalogueofpleasuresmayaceordinglybeaddedthepleasuresofrelief:or,thepleasureswhichamanexperienceswhen,afterhehasbeenenduringapainofanykindforacertaintime,it comestocease,or toabate. Thesemayofcoursebedistinguishedintoasmanyspeciesasthereareofpains: andmaygiverisetosomanypleasuresofmemory,ofimagination,andof expectation.

XVII.I. Painsofprivationarethepainsthat mayresult1.rai,_goffromthethoughtofnotpossessingin the timepresentanyofpr_vat,on.theseveralkindsofpleasures.Painsofprivationmayaccord-inglyberesolvedintoasmanykindsasthereareofp]easurestowhichtheymaycorrespond,andfromtheabsencewhereoftheymaybederived.

XVIII.Thereare threesortsof painswhichare onlysoThe_in-clude,

iIncontradistinctiontothese,allotherpleasuresmay betermedplea-Auresof_'o_z_

38 Plea,ure*a_MPai_. [cnAv.

1.Painmof manymodificationsoftheseveralpainsofprivation.Whenthed_ir&enjoymentofanyparticularpleasurehappensto beparticularlydesired,butwithoutanyexpectationapproachingtoassurance,thepainofprivationwhichthereuponresultstakesaparticularname,andiscalledthepainofdesire,orofunsatisfieddesire.

2.eain,of XIX. Wheretheenjoymenthappenstohavebeenlookedforctisaplmmt-meaa witha degreeofexpectationapproachingtoassurance,andthat

expectationismadesuddenlytocease,it iscalledapainofdis-appointment.

3.Paimot XX. A paino[ privationtakes thenameofapainof regretregmt.in twoeases: I. Whereit is groundedon the memoryof apleasttre,whichhavingbeenonceenjoyed,appearsnotlikelytobe enjoyedagain: 2. Whereit is groundedon the idea ot apleasure,whichwasneveractuallyenjoyed,norperhapssomuchasexpected,butwhichmighthavebeenenjoyed(itissupposed,)had suchor such a contingencyhappened,which,in fact,didnothappen.

2.P_mof XXI. 2. Theseveralpains of the sensesseemto be as fol-thetransom.lows: I. Thepainsof hungerand thirst : or the disagreeablesensationsproducedby the wantof suitablesubstanceswhichneedat timesto be appliedto the alimentarycanal. 2. Thepainsofthetaste: orthedisagreeablesensationsproducedbytheapplicationof varioussubstancestothe palate,and othersupe-rior parts of the same canal. 3. Thepains of the organofsmell: or the disagreeablesensationsproducedby the effluviaofvarioussubstanceswhenappliedtothat organ. 4. Thepainsofthe touch:orthe disagreeablesensationsproducedbytheap-plicationofvarioussubstancestothe skin. 5.Thesimplepainsof the hearing: or the disagreeablesensationsexcitedin theorganofthat sensebyvariousk4ndsofsounds: independently(asbefore,)of association.6.Thesimplepainsofthe sight: orthe disagreeablesensationsif any suchtherebe, that may beexcitedin theorganofthat sensebyvisibleimages,independentof the principleof association.71. Thopainsresultingfrom

t,'?p_ i The pleasureof the 6exualsense seems to have no positive pain top_m$ corvvowovtto_ correspondto iS : it h_ only _ pain of priwtion, or pain of the mental

v.] Pleasuresand Pain,. 39

excessiveheator cold,unlessthesebereferableto thetouch.8. Thepainsofdisease: or the acuteanduneasysensationsresultingfromthe severaldiseasesandindispositionstowhichhumannatureis liable.9. Thepainofexertion,whetherbodilyormental: ortheuneasysensationwhichisapttoaccompanyanyintenseeffort,whetherofmindorbody.

XXII. 31 Thepainsof awkwardnessarethe painswhicha-r_or• awk_u'd-sometimesresultfromtheunsuccessfulendeavourtoapplyanyne_particularinstrumentsofenjoymentorsecuritytotheiruses,orfromthedifficultya manexperiencesinapplyingthem_.

XXIII.4- Thepainsofenmityarethepainsthatmayaccom-4.P_ ofpartythepersuasionofaman'sbeingobnoxiousto theill-wiUof°Dm_ty"suchor suchanassignablepersonorpersonsinparticular: or,asthephraseis,ofbeinguponilltermswithhimorthem: and,inconsequence,ofbeingobnoxioustocertainpainsofsomesortor other,ofwhichhemaybe thecause.

XXIV.5. Thepainsofanill-name,arethepainsthatac-5.Pai_orantll-name.companythepersuasionofaman'sbeingobnoxious,orinawaytobe obnoxiousto theill-willoftheworldabouthim. Thesemaylikewisebecalledthepainsofill-repute,thepainsofdis-honour,orthepainsofthemoralsanctiona

class, the painof unsatisfieddesire.If any positivepainof bodyresultplt_r_ortatfromthewantofsuchindulgence,itbelongsto theheadofpainsofdisease._-_u-J___.

i Thepleaauresofnoveltyhavenopositivepainscorrespendingto them.Novo_iuveThepainwhichamanexperienceswhenheisin theconditionofnot know-_t_ingwhatto dowithhimself,thatpain,whichin Frenchis expressedby a p_,_ ofsinglewordennui,isa painofprivation:a painresultingfromtheabsence,=_v_ty.notonlyofallthepleasuresof novelty,butofallkindsof pleasurewhatso-ever.

Thepleasuresof wealthhave alsono positivepainscorrespondingto _oortothu_them: the onlypainsopposedto themarepainsofprivatioa If any posi-of,,c_tire painsresultfromthewantofwealth,theyarereferableto someotherclassofpositivepains; principallytothoseof thesenses. Fromthewantoffood,forinstance,resultthepainsofhunger;fromthewantofclothing,thepainsof cold; andsoforth.ktmay bea question,perhapa,whetherthisbe apositivepainofiteelf,ht_ _d_orwhetherit benothingmorethan a painofprivation,resultingfromthe_°,P_o_econsciousnessof a wantof skill. It is,however,but_questionofwords,_,_lr tnotdoesit matterwhichwayit be determined. P"

*Inas fatasaman'sfellow-cre_aturesaresupposedto bedetermi.'nedby x_ p_tL_anyeventnotto regardhimwith anydegreeof.._.teem.orgoodwill,orto_°_ _regardhimwitha lessdegreeofesteemorgoodwillthantheywouldother-_ ofp,,,-

4o PleasuresamlPai_s. [cur.

Pa_o¢ XXV.61.Thepainsofpietyarethepainsthataccompanyp_ty,thebeliefofa man'sbeingobnoxioustothedispleasureoftheSupremeBeing:andin consequencetocertainpainsto beinflictedbyhisespecialappointment,eitherinthisfifeorinahfetocome. Thesemayalsobecalledthepainsofrefigion;thepainsofareligiousdisposition; orthepainsofthereligioussanction.Whenthebefiefis lookeduponaswell-grounded,thesepainsarecommonlycalledreligionsterrors; whenlookeduponasill-grounded,superstitiousterrorsz.

?.Painsof XXVI.7. Thepainsofbenevolencearethepainsresulting_nsvols_.fromtheviewofanypainssupposedto beenduredbyother

beings.Thesemayalsobe calledthepainsof good-will,ofsympathy,orthepainsofthebenevolentorsocialaffections.

aPain,of XXVII.8. ThepainsofmalevolencearethepainsresultingpJevolenc_,fromtheviewofanypleasuressupposedtobeenjoyedbyany

beingswhohappento be theobjectsof a man'sdispleasure.Thesemayalsobestyledthepainsofill-will,ofantipathy,orthepainsofthemalevolentordissocialaffections.

9r_i,Bot X.XVIII.9. Thepainsofthememorymaybegroundedonthememory.everyoneoftheabovekinds,aswellofpainsofprivationasofpositivepains.Thesecorrespondexactlytothepleasuresofthememory.

10rs_,,ot XXIX.Io.Thepainsoftheimaginationmayalsobegrounded

rio..opp_ wise; notto dohimanysortsofg_d offices,ornotto dohimsomanyto thet_,_= ofmgoodofficesastheywouldotherwise;thepainresultingfromsuchconsider-food,_,. stionmaybcreckonedapainofprivation: asfar astheyaresupposedtotoo Into ann•ao_c_, regardhimwithsuchadegreeofaversionordisesteemastobedisposedto

dohimpositive///offices,itmaybereckoneda positivepain-Thepainofprivation,and thepositivepain,in this caserunoneintoanotherindis-tinguishably.

_ po_,t t Thereseemto benopositivepainstocorrespondto the pleasuresofparos torte-,pond tothe power. Thepainsthata manmayfeelfromthe wantorthelossofpower,_¢=_ ot inas faras poweris distinguishedfromallothersourcesofpleasure,seempo_¢,, tobe nothingmorethanpainsofprivation.r_ _=t,¢ =Thepositivepainsofpiety,andthepainsofprivation,opposedtotheof l_ety.'_d t_ , pleasuresofpiety,runoneintoanotherintheSamemannerasthepositiveofp_o_, parosofenmity,orofanillname,dowithrespecttotheparosofprivation,_aos_dto_¢_-s or opposedtothe pleasuresof amity,andthoseof agoodname.If whatis_>.._, _to apprehendedat thehandsofGodisbarelythenotreceivingpl_ure, theooe=_h=_.painisoftheprivativeclass: if,moreover,actualpaiobeappreheuded,it

isof thecl_ of positivepains.

V.] Pteazure,and _ai_tz. 41

onanyoneof the abovekinds,aswellof painsof privationastheim_lrm-tion.ofpositivepains: inotherrespectsthey correspondexactlytothe pleasuresof the imagination.

XXX.II. Thepainsofexpectationmaybe groundedoneachzt.Pai_orexpectstion.

oneofthe abovekinds,aswellof painsof privationas ofposi-tivepains. Thesemaybealsotermedpainsofapprehension1.

XXXI. 12. The painsof associationcorrespondexactlyto 19..Painscrthe pleasuresof association, aascciatlon

XXXII. Of the above list there are certainpleasuresandflea,aresand pains

pains whichsupposethe existenceof some pleasureor painareezthev• . Belf.regard-

of someotherperson,to whichthe pleasureor pareof the per-m_orext_sonin questionhasregard: such pleasuresand painsmaybe residingtermedextra.regarding.Othersdonotsupposeanysuchthing :thesemay be termedself.regardi_2. The onlypleasuresandpainsof the extra-regardingclassarethose ofbenevolenceandthose ofmalevolence: all the rest areself-regarding3.

XXXIII.Ofalltheseseveralsortsofpleasuresandpains,thereInwhatways the

isscarceanyonewhichisnotliable,onmoreaccountsthanone,la__con-cernedwl_bto comeunderthe considerationof thelaw. Is anoffencecorn-theabo,_e

rmnsandmitted ? It is the tendencywhichit hastodestroy,in suchorp_e_s_.suohpersons,someof thesepleasures,or to producesomeofthesepains,that constitutesthe mischiefofit, and the groundforpunishingit. It is the prospectof someof thesepleasures,or of securityfrom someof thesepains, that constitutesthemotiveor temptation,it is the attainmentof themthat consti-tutes theprofitofthe offence. Is the offendertobe punished?It canbe onlyby theproductionof oneormoreoi thesepains,that the punishmentcanbeinflicted4

Incontradistinctiontothese,allotherpainsmaybetermedpainsof

ffiSeechap.x. [Motives].a BythismeansthepleasuresandpaJrmofamitymaybethemore_a._re__na

clearlydistinguishedfromthoseofbenevolence• andontheotherhandpaimo_,_,• . pariaenmLtythoseofenmatyfromthoseof malevolence.Thep]ea_urosandpainsofd*_hedfromtho_ ofamityandenmityareoftheself-regardingcast: thoseofbenevolenceandb_oe,.o_malevolenceoftheextra-regarding. _ =,_e.,_-• , lemc¢.

It wouldbeamatternotonlyofcuriosity,butofsomeuse,toexhibitComplexacatalogueoftheseveralcomplexple&surosandpainsanalyzingthematpleas.re_andt .... J . p_tnlomatlla,hesametimerotetheseveralsimpleones,ofwhmhtheyarerespectively_by.

4_, Pleasures a_ut Pab_.

composed.Butsuchadisquisitionwouldtakeuptoomuchroomtobead-mittedhere. A shortspecimen,however,forthepurposeof illustration,canhardlybe dispensedwith.

s ec_. Thepleasurestakenin at theeyeandearaxegenerallyverycomplex-P_asuz__Sof aThepleasuresofacountryscene,forinstance,consistcommonly,amongst¢z>uutry

pro_._ others,of the followingpleasures:I. Pleasuresof thesenses.

I. Thesimplepleasuresof sight,excitedbythe perceptionof agreeablecoloursandfigures,greenfields,wavingfoliage,glisteningwater,andthelike.

2. Thesimplepleasuresof theear,excitedby the perceptionsof thechirpingofbirds,themurmuringofwaters,therustlingofthewindamongthetrees.

3.Thepleasuresofthesmell,excitedbytheperceptionsofthe fragranceof flowers,of new-mownhay,orothervegetablesubstances,in thefirststages offermentation.

4- Theagreeableinwardsensation,producedbya briskcirculationoftheblood,andtheventilationofit inthelungsbya pureair,suchas thatin the countryfrequentlyis in comparisonof that whichis breathedintowns.

H. Pleasuxesof theimaginationproducedbyassociation.x. TheideaoIthe plenty,resultingfromthepossessionof the objects

thatareinview,andof thehappinessarisingfromit.2. Theideaof theinnocenceand happinessof the birds,sheep,cattle,

dogs,andothergentleordomesticaramaic.3-Theideaof theconstantflowofhealth,supposedto beenjoyedbyall

thesecreatures: anotionwhichis aptto resultfromthe occasionalflowofhealthenjoyedbythesupposedspectator.

4.Theideaofgratitude,excitedbythecontemplationoftheall-powerfulandbeneficentBeing,whoislookedupto astheauthoroftheseblessings.

Thesefourlastareallof them,in somemeasureat least,pleasuresofsympathy.

Thedeprivingamanof thisgroupeofpleasuresis oneoftheevilsapt toresultfromimprisonment;whetherproducedby illegalviolence,orinthewayofpunishment,byappointmentofthelaws.

CHAPTERVI.

OF CIRCUMSTANCESINFLUENCINGSENSIBILITY.

[. PAINand pleasureareproducedin men'smindsby therama-d- . pleasur_notactionofcertaincauses. Butthequantityofpleasureanclpareu_orm_y• . . pmpor.runsnotuniformlym proportionto thecause; m otherwords,tion_t_to the quantityof forceexertedby suchcause. Thetruthoftheircauses.thisobservationrestsnotuponanymetaphysicalnicetyin theimportgiven to the termscause,quantity,and force: it willbe equallytrue in whatsoevermannersuchforcebe measured.

II. Thedispositionwhichanyonehas to feelsuch orsuch a_ or• q.antumquantityofpleasureor pain,uponthe applicationof acauseoiorsensibi-given force,is what we term the degree or quantumof hishty'what.sensibihty. This may be eithergeneral,referringto the sumofthe causesthat act uponhimduringa givenperiod: or?ar-ticular,referringto the actionof anyoneparticularcause,orsortof cause.

III. But in the samemind suchand suchcausesof pain orBi_or1 qualityof

pleasurewillproducemorepain or pleasurethan suchor SUChsensibility,what•other causesof painorpleasure: and thisproportionwillindifferentmindsbedifferent.Thedispositionwhichanyonehasto have the proportionin whichhe is affectedby two suchcauses,differentfrom that in whichanothermanis affectedbythe sametwocauses,may be termedthe qualityor b/asofhissensibility. Oneman,for instance,maybemost affectedbythepleasuresofthe taste; anotherbythoseof theear. Soalso,if therebea differencein the natureor proportionof twopainsorpleasureswhichtheyrespectivelyexperiencefromthesamecause; a casenotso frequentas the former. Fromthesameinjury,forinstance,onemanmay feelthesamequantity

44 Of Circumsta_cuinfluencing8o_sibili_y. [cHAr.

of griefand resentmenttogetherasanotherman : but one ofthemshall feela greaterfJhareof griefthanofresentment: theother,a greatershareofresentmentthanof grief.

Exciting IV. Anyincidentwhichservesas a cause,eitherofpleasure_tl_eupleasu_bJeor ofpain, maybe termedanexcitin9cause: if of pleasure,aanddolonilc.

plsasurablecause: if of pain,a painful,afflictive,or dolorifiecausex.

cireum- V. Nowthe quantityof pleasure,orof pain,whichamanisstAu_ in-fluencing liableto experienceuponthe applicationof anexcitingcause,sensibtlity,_t. sincethey willnot dependaltogetherupon that cause,willde-

pendinsomemeasureuponsomeothercircumstanceorcircum-stances:thesecircumstances,whatsoevertheybe,maybetermedcircumstancesinflue_ng senst79ility2.

C_um. VI. Thesecircumstanceswill applydifferentlyto differentstancesin-fluencangexcitingcauses; insomuchthat to a certainexcitingcause,asenstbfllty . .enumerated,certaincircumstanceshallnot applyat all,whichshallapply

withgreat forcetoanother excitingcause. But withoutenter-ing for the present into thesedistinctions,it may be of use tosumup all the circumstgnc_e_o.whic._kz.mi._J_undto influencethe effep_tof_z_.e_xcit_use. These,asona formeroccasion,it maybe aswellfirsttosumup togetherin theconcisestmannerpossible,and afterwardsto allota fewwordsto the separateex-planationof eacharticle.Theyseemto beasfollows:I. Health.2.Strength. 3. Hardiness. 4. Bodilyimperfection.5. Quan-tity and quality of knowledge. 6. Strength of intellectualpowers. 7-Firmnessofmind. 8.Steadinessofmind. 9- Bentofinclination.IO.Moralsensibility. II. Moralbiases. 12.Re-

t Theexcitingcause,thepleasureorpainproducedbyit,andthereten-tionproducedbysuchpleasureorpaininthecharacterofa motive,areobjectssointimatelyconnected,that_inwhatfollows,IfearIhavenot,oneveryoccasion,beenabletokeepthemsufficientlydistinct.I thoughtitnecessarytogivethereaderthiswarning; afterwhich,shouldtherebefoundanysuchmistakes,it istobehopedtheywillnotbeproductiveofmuchconfusion.

t Thus,inphysicalbodies,themomentumofa ballputinmotionbyimpulse,willbeinfluencedbythecircumstanceofgravity: beinginsomedirectionsincreased,inothersdimlni_hedbyit. Soinaship,putinmotionbythewind,themomentumanddirectionwillbeinfluencednotonlybytheattractionofgrawty,butbythemotionaadtealstaaceoftbewater,andseveralothercircum_tmacos.

vL] Of OireumStanot*influe_ing8enai_ility. 45

hgioussensibility,z3. Religiousbiases.I4.Sympatheticsen-sibility,zS.Sympatheticbiases,z6.Antipatheticsensibility.17.Antipatheticbiases, z8. Insanity.z9. Habitualoccupa-tions. 20.Pecuniarycircumstances.2z. Connexionsin thewayofsympathy.22.Connexionsin thewayofantipathy.23.Radicalirameofbody. 24.Radiealfxameofmind.25.Sex.26.Age.27,Rank.28.Education.29.Chmate.30.Lineage,3z.Government.32.Religionsprofession1

VII. I. Healthistheabsenceofdisease,andconsequentlyof1.Heslth.allthosekindsofpainwhiehareamongthesymptomsofdisease.A manmaybesaidto bein a stateofhealthwhenhe isnotconsciousofanyuneasysensations,theprimaryseatofwhichcanbeperceivedtobeanywherein hisbody_. In pointof

1Ananalyticalviewofallthesecircumstanceswillbegivenatthecon-E_t_n,_d ,n.clusionofthechapter: to whichplaceit wasnecessaryto referzt,"0.sit eubjvct_rlcacYorth_couldnotweUhavebeenunderstood,tillsomeof themhadbeenpreviouslyexplained.

Tosearchoutthevastvarietyofexcitingormoderatingcauses,bywhichthedegreeorbiasof amen'ssensibilitymaybeinfluenced,to definetheboundariesof each,toextricatethemfromtheentanglementsinwhichtheyareinvolved,tolaytheeffectof eacharticledistinctlybeforethereader'seye,is,perhaps,ifnotabsolutelythemostdifficulttask,at leastoneofthemostdifficulttasks,withinthecompassof moralphysiology.Disqmsitiunsonthisheadcanneverbe completelysatisfactorywithoutexamples.Toprovideasufficientcollectionof suchexamples,wouldbea workofgreatlabouras wellas nicety: historyand biographywouldneedto be ran-sacked: a vast courseofreadingwouldneedto be travelledthroughonpurpose. Bysucha processthepresentworkwoulddoubtlesshavebeenrenderedmoreamusing;butinpointof bulk,soenormous,thatthissinglechapterwouldhave beenswelledintoa considerablevolume. Feignedcases,althoughtheymayuponoccasionserveto renderthegeneralmattertolerablyintelligible,canneverbe sufficientto renderit palatable. Onthistherefore,as onso re,anyotheroccasions,I mustconfinemyselftodryand generalinstruction: discardingillustration,althoughsensiblethatwithoutit instructioncannotmanifesthalf itsefficacy.Thesubject,how-ever,issodifficult,andsonew,thatI shallthinkI havenotillsucceeded,if,withoutpretendingto exhaustit, I shahhavebeenableto markoutthe

rincipalpointsofview,andto putthematterin suchamethodasmayilitatetheresearchesoihappierinquirers.

Thegreatdifficultyliesin then_tttreotthe words;whicharenot,likeainandpleasure,namesof homogeneousrealentities,butnamcsofvariousctitiousentities,forwhichno commongenusisto befound: andwhich

thamfore,withoutavastandroundaboutchainofinvestigation,canneverbebroughtunderanyexhaustiveplanofarrangement,but mustbepickedupboreandthereas theyhappento occur.

i It maybe thought,that in a certaindegreeof health,this negativeaccountofthematterhardlycomesuptothecase. Ina certaindegreeof

46 Of Circumstance#influencing8en*ibiligy. [OHA_'.

generalsensibility,a man whois under the pressureof anybodilyindisposition,or, as the phraseis, is in an ill state ofhealth,islesssensibleto theinfluenceof anypleasurablecause,andmoreso to that of any afflictiveone, thanif he werewe//.

*.s_r_n_th.VIII. 2. The circumstanceof strength, thoughin point ofcausalitycloselyconnectedwiththat ofhealth,isperfectlydis-tinguishablefromit. Thesamemanwillindeedgenerallybestrongerin agoodstateof health thanin a badone. But oneman,eveninabadstateof health,maybestrongerthananotherevenin a goodone. Weaknessis a commonconcomitantofdisease: butinconsequenceofhisradicalframeofbody,a manmaybe weakallhislifelong,withoutexperiencinganydisease.Health,as wehave observed,is principallyanegativecircumostance:strengthapositiveone. Thedegreeofa man'sstrengthcanbe measuredwithtolerableaccuracy1.

s.Har_i. IX. 3.Hardinessisacircumstancewhich,thoughcloselycon-nectedwiththat oi strength,isdistinguishablefromit. Hardi-nessis the absenceof irritability. Irritability respectseitherpain,resultingfromthe actionofmechanicalcauses;ordisease,resultingfromthe actionofcausespurelyphysiological.Irrita-bility,inthe formersense,isthe dispositiontoundergoagreaterhealth,thereisoftensuchakindoffeelingdiffusedoverthewholeframe,suchacomfortablefeel,orflowofspirRs,asitiscalled,asmaywithpro-prietycomeundertheheadofpositivepleasure.Butwithoutexperiencinganysuchpleasurablefeeling,ifamanexperiencenopainfulone,hemaybewellenoughs_idtobeinhealth-

M_ of _Themostaccuratemeasurethatcanbegivenofaman'sstrength,seems_r_n_h,the,,_e_ta_ tobethatwhichistakenfromtheweightornumberofpoundsandounces_ hecanliftwithhishandsina givenattitude.Thisindeedrelatesimme-

diatelyonlytohisarms: butthesearetheorgansofstrengthwhicharemestemployed;ofwhichthestrengthcorrespondswithmostexactnessbethegeneralstateofthebodywithregardtostrength; andinwhichthequantumofstrengthiseasiestmeasured.Strengthmayaccordinglybedistinguishedintogenera/andpart/vu/ar.

w_._ Weakne_isanegativeterm,andm)port_.theabsenceofstrength-Itis,besides,a relativeterm,andaccordinglylmportetheabsenceofsuchaquantityofstrengthasmakestheshare,possessedbythepersoninques-tion,lessthanthatofsomepersonheiscomparedto. W_trnRss,whenitisatsuchadegreeastomakeit painfulfora mantoperformthemotionsnece_m_tothegoingthroughtheordinaryfunctionsoflife,suohastog_tup,towalk,todes_one'sself,sadsoforth,bringsthecircumstanceofhealthintoquestion,andputsa manintothatsortofconditioninwhiohheissaidtobeinillhealth

vL] Of _r_tanc_ i_fluen¢i_g&n,ibili_y. 47

or less degreeof painuponthe applicationof a mechanicalcause; suchasaremostofthoseapplicationsby whichsimpleafflictivepunishmentsareinflicted,aswhipping,beating,andthelike. In the lattersense,it isthe dispositionto contractdiseasewithgreateror lessfacility,uponthe applicationof anyinstru-ment actingonthe bodyby its physiologicalproperties; as inthe caseof fevers,or of colds,or other inflammatorydiseases,producedby the applicationofdampair : or to experienceim-mediateuneasiness,as in the case of relaxationor chillinessproducedbyanoveror underproportionof the matterof heat.

Hardiness,eveninthe senseinwhichit isopposedto theactionwee_nco..... betweenofmechamcalcauses,ISdistmgumhablefromstrength. Theex-s_n_th

• . . andharda-ternalmdicatmusofstrengtharetheabundanceandfirmnessofnos_.the muscularfibres: thoseof hardiness,in this sense,arethefirmnessof the muscularfibres,andthe callosityof the skin.Strengthis morepeculiarlythe gift of nature: hardiness,ofeducation.Oftwopersonswhohavehad,theonetheeducationof a gentleman,the other, that of a commonsailor,the firstmaybe the stronger,at thesametime that the otheris thehardier.

X. 4" By bodilyimperfectionmaybe understoodthat con-4.Bodil_• . . imperfec-

di_ionwhichs personis in,whoeitherstandsdistmgutshedby t_o_anyremarkabledeformity,orwantsanyofthosepartsorfacul-ties,whichthe ordinaryrunofpersonsof the samesexand agearefurnishedwith: who,forinstance,has ahare-lip,isdeaf,orhaslostahand. Thiscircumstance,likethat ofill-health,tendsin generalto diminishmoreor lessthe effectofanypleasurablecircumstance,and to increasethat of any afflictiveone. Theeffectof this circnmRtance,however,admits of greatvariety :inasmuchas there area greatvariety ofwaysin whicha manmaysutterin hispersonalappearance,and inhis bodilyorgansand faculties: allwhickdifferenceswillbe takennoticeof intheirproperplaces1.

XI. 5. Somuchforcircnm_tancesbelongingtothe conditioni._mu_• suequa_t-yof the body: wecomenowto those whichconcernthe con-ctkn_-Jods_

t SeeB.LTit.[Irrop.corp•Injuries_

48 Of Cireuraataneeaiaflue_eing8e_Aili_y. [e_v.

ditionofthemind: theuseofmentioningthesewillbeseenhereafter.Inthefirstplacemaybereckonedthequantityandqualityof the knowledgethe personin questionhappen_topossess: thatis,of theideaswhichhehasactuallyin store,readyuponoccasiontocalltomind: meaningsuchideasasareinsomewayor otherof aninterestingnature: thatis,of anatureinsomewayorothertoinfluencehishappiness,orthatofothermen. Whentheseideasaremany,andofimportance,amanissaidto bea manofknowledge; whenfew,ornotofimportance,ignorant.

s st_nsth XII.6.Bystrengthofintellectualpowersmaybeunderstoodofmtellec-tu_powers,thedegreeoffacilitywhichamanexperiencesinhisendeavours

tocalltomindaswellsuchideasashavebeenalreadyaggre-gatedtohisstockofknowledge,asanyothers,which,uponanyoccasionthatmayhappen,hemayconceiveadesiretoplacethere.Itseemstobeonsomesuchoccasionasthisthatthewordspartsandtalentsarecommonlyemployed.Tothisheadmaybereferredtheseveralqualitiesofreadinessofapprehen-sion,accuracyandtenacityofmemory,strengthofattention,clearnessofdiscernment,amplitudeofcomprehension,vividityandrapidityofimagination.Strengthofintellectualpowers,ingeneral,seemstocorrespondprettyexactlytogeneralstrengthofbody:asanyofthesequalitiesinparticulardoestoparticularstrength.

7._rmn_ XIII.7'Firmnessofmindontheonehand,andirritabilityofmind. ontheother,regardtheproportionbetweenthedegreesofeffi-

cacywithwhichamanisacteduponbyanexcitingcause,ofwhichthevaluelieschieflyinmagnitude,andoneofwhichthevaluelieschieflyinpropinquityi.A manmaybesaidtobeofafirmmind,whensmallpleasuresorpains,whicharepresentornear,donotaffecthim,inagreaterproportiontotheirvalue,thangreaterpleasuresorpains,whichareuncertainorremote2;ofanirritablemind,whenthecontraryisthecase.

i Seechap.iv.['Value].IWhen,forinstance,havingbeendetermined,bytimprospectofsome

vI.] Of Circ_raata_influenei__er_ibiZi_y. 49

XIV.8. Steadinessregardsthef,lmeduringwhicha _ven_S_di.excitingcauseofa givenvaluecontinuestoaffecta maninnearlythesamemanneranddegreeasat first,noassignableexternaleventorchangeofcircumstancesinterveningtomakeanalterationinitsforce1.

XV.9. Bythebentofa man'sinclinationsmaybeunder-o Bentofstoodthepropensityhehastoexpectpleasureorpainitemcer-incli_tton_tainobjects,ratherthanfromothers.Amen'sinclinationsmaybess/dtohavesuchorsuchabent,when,amongsttheseveralsortsofobjectswhichaffordpleasureinsomedegreetoallmen,heisapttoexpectmorepleasurefromoneparticularsort,thanfromanotherparticularsort,ormorefromanygivenparticularsort,thananothermanwottldexpectfromthatsort; orwhen,amongsttheseveralsortsofobjecta,whichto onemanaffordpleasure,whilsttoanothertheyaffordnone,heisapttoexpect,ornottoexpect,pleasurefromanobjectofsuchorsuchasort:soalsowithregardtopains.Thiscircumstance,thoughinti-matelyconnected_viththatofthebiasofaman'ssensibility,isnotundistinguishablefromit. Thequantityofpleasureorpain,whichonanygivenoccasiona manmayexperiencefromanappheationofanysort,maybegreatlyinfluencedbytheex-pectationshe]msbeenusedtoentertainofpleasureorpainfromthatquarter;butit willnotbeabsolutelydeterminedbythem:forpleasureorpainmaycomeuponhimfroma quarterfromwhichhew_snotaccustomedt_expectit.

XVI.IO.Thecircumstancesofmoral,religious,8ymtn_thetic,1o.Mor_lsemib_Jt$.andantipatheticsensv_ility,whencloselyconsidered,willappeartobeincludedinsomesortunderthatofbentofinclination.Oninccaa_nience,nottodisclose$fact,althoughheshouldbeputtotherack,heperseveresinsuchresolutionaftertherackis broughtintohispresence,andevenappliedto

t Thef_flity withwhichchildrengrowtiredof theirplay-things,andthrowthemaway,is aninstanceofuns_ess : the perseverancewithwhicha merchantapplieshimselfto his tr&ffic,oran authortohiBbook,maybetakenforan instanceofthecontrary.Itis di_culttojudgeofthequantityof pleaaureorpaininthesecMes,butfromtheeffectswhichitproducesinthecharacterofa motive: Andeventhenit isdifficultto pro-notmoe,whetherthechangeofconducthappensbytheextinctionoftheoldpleasureorpain,orbythe interventionofJ newone.

E

50 Of Circumstance8influen¢ina&'n_ili_y. [cH_.

accountoftheirpm_icularimportancetheymay,however,beworthmentioningapart.Aman'smoralsensibilitymaybesaidtobestrong,whenthepainsandpleasuresofthe moralsane-tion1showgreaterinhiseyes,incomparisonwithotherpleasuresandpains(andconsequentlyexertastrongerinfluence)thanintheeyesofthepersonsheiscomparedwith; in otherwords,whenheis actedonwithmorethanordinaryet_caeybythesenseofhonour: it maybesaidtobeweak,whenthecontraryis thecase.

lz.More XVII.Ix. Moralsensibilityseemstoregardtheaverageeffectbi_mm.orinfluenceof thepainsandpleasuresofthemoralsanction,uponallsortsofoccasionstowhichitisapplicable,orhappensto beapplied.It regardstheaverageforceorquantCtyoftheimpulsesthemindreceivesfromthatsourceduringa givenperiod.Moralbz_sregardstheparticularactsonwhich,uponsomanyparticularoccasions,theforceofthatsanctionislookeduponasattaching.It regardsthequal/tyordirectionofthoseimpulses.It admitsofasmanyvarieties,therefore,astherearedictateswhichthemoralsanctionmaybeconceivedtoissueforth. Amanmaybesaidtohavesuchorsucha moralb/as,orto havea moralbiasin favourof suchorsuchanaction,whenhelooksuponitasbeingofthenumberofthoseofwhichtheperformanceisdictatedbythemoralsanction.

l_.aeli_o,,.XVIII.I2. Whathasbeensaidwithregardto moralsensi-_-b_. bility,maybeapplied,mutat/smutand/s,toreligious.is._s XIX. z3. Whathasbeensaidwithregardtomoralbiases,bnuNl.

mayalsobeapplied,murat/8mutand/s,to religionsbiases.1,sr_, XX.r4. Bysympatheticsensibilityis tobeunderstoodthethetio_n-libility, propensitythatamanhastoderivepleasurefromthehappi-

ness,andpainfromtheunhappiness,ofothersensitivebeings.It is thestronger,thegreatertheratioofthepleasureorpainhefeelsontheiraccountis to thatofthepleasureorpainwhich(accordingtowhatappearstohim)theyfeeltorthemselves.

lasrm_- XXI.x5.Sympatheticbiasregardsthedescriptionof thethetlcbiM_.partieswhoaretheobject_ofa man'ssympathy: andofthe

t Seeoh.v. [Plenum8andPains].

VL] OfGircurnstaneesinflue_win9 &risibility. 5_

actsorothercircumstancesofor belongingtothosepersons,by whichthesympathyis excited.Thesepartiesmaybe,x.Certainindividuals.2.Anysubordinateclassofindividuals.3. Thewholenation.4. Humankindin general.5. Thewholesensitivecreation.Accordingastheseobjectsofsym-pathyaremorenumerous,theaffect_bn,bywhichthemanisbiased,maybesaidtobethemoreenlarged.

XXII.I6,I7.Antipatheticsensibifityandantivatheticbiases1_,17.a_• -- _ . . .. _ . tllmthc_,icarelUStthereverseofsympatheticsenslblfityandsympathetm_nJib_l_tybiases.Byantipatheticsensibilityistobeunderstoodthepro-_nav,_-_:pensitythatamanhastoderivepainfromthehappiness,andpleasurefromtheunhappiness,ofothersensitivebeings.

_XIII.I8.Thecircumstanceofinsanityofmindcorrespondsis.I_.tothatofbodilyimperfection.Itadmits,however,ofmuchlessvariety,inasmuchasthesoulis (foraughtwecanperceive)oneindivisiblething,notdistinguishable,fikethebody,intoparts.Whatlesserdegreesofimperfectionthemindmaybesusceptibleof,seemto becomprisableunderthealready-mentionedheadsofignorance,weaknessofmind,irritability,orunsteadiness; orundersuchothersasarereducibleto them. Thosewhichareherein vieware thoseextraordinaryspeciesanddegreesofmentalimperfection,which,wherevertheytakeplace,areasconspicuousandas unquestionableas lamenessor blindnessin thebody: operatingpartly,it shouldseem,byinducinganextraordinarydegreeof the imperfectionsabovementioned,partlybygivingan extraordinaryandpreposterousbenttotheinclinations.

XXIV.19.Undertheheadofaman'shabitualoccupations,19.anb.-h tualcecu-aretobeunderstood,onthisoccasion,aswellthosewhiche_tio...

pursuesforthesakeofprofit,asthosewhichhepursuesforthesakeofpresentpleasure.Theconsiderationoftheprofititselfbelongsto theheadofa man'specuniarycircumstances.It isevident,thatifbyanymeansapunishment,oranyotherexcitingcause,hastheeffectofputtingitoutofhispowertocontinueinthepursuitofanysuchoccupation,itmustonthataccountbesomuchthemoredistressing.Aman'shabitualoccupations,

g2

52 Of Cireumetaneesi,_flue'acing8e_i_ili_. [CHEF.

thoughintimatelyconnectedin pointof causalitywiththebentof his inclinations,arenot to be lookedupon aspreciselythesamecircumstance.An amusement,orchannelofprofit,my bethe object of a man's inclinations,whichhas neverbeen thesubjectof his habitualoccupations: forit maybe, that thoughhe wishedto betakehimselfto it, he neverdid, it not beinginhis power: a circumstancewhichmay make a gooddeal ofdifferencein the effectof any incidentby whichhe happensto bedebarredfromit.

20.P_u- XXV. 20. Underthe head of pecuniarycircumstances,Iniarycir-cumt_nc_s,mean to bringto viewthe proportionwhicha man's mean,

bearto his wants: the sum total of his meansof everykind,to the sum total of his wantsof everykind. A man's meansdependupon three circumstances: I. His property. 2. Theprofitofhis labour. 3. Hisconnexionsin the wayof support.His wants seemto depend upon four circumstances. I. Hishabits of expense. 2. His connexionsin the way of burthen.3- Any presentcasualdemandhe mayhave. 4. Thestrengthof his expectation. By a man's propertyis to be under-stood, whateverhe has in store independentof his labour.By the profitof his labouris to be understoodthe growingprofit. As to labour, it may be either of the body princi-pally,or of the mindprincipally,orof bothindifferently: nordoes it matter in what manner,nor on what subject, it beapplied,so it producea profit. By a man's connexionsinthe way ofsupport,are to be understoodthe pecuniaryassist-anees,of whateverkind, whichhe is in a way of receivingfromany personswho, onwhateveraccount,and in whateverproportion,he hasreasonto expectshouldcontribute_'at/8tohismaintenance:such ashisparents,patrons,andrelations.Itseemsmanifest,that a mancanhavenoothermeansthanthese.W_nathe uses, he must have eitherof his own, or fromotherpeople: if from otherpeople,eithergrat/, or fora price. Asto habits of expense,it is wellknown,that aman'sdesiresaregovernedin agreatdegreeby hishabits. Manyarethe casesinwhichdesire(andconsequentlythepainofprivationconnected

yr.] Of Cireuragta_,eesinfluencingSensibility. 53

withit1)wouldnotevensubsistat all,but/or previousenjoy-ment. Byaman'seonnexionsin thewayofburthen,aretobeunderstoodwhateverexpensehehasreasonto lookuponhim-selfasboundtobeat inthe supportofthosewhobylaw,orthecustomsof theworld,arewarrantedin lookingup to him forassistance;suchaschildren,poorrelations,superannuatedser-vants, and any other dependentswhatsoever. As to presentcasualdemand,it ismanifest,that thereareoccasionsonwhichagivensum willbe worthinfinitelymoreto a man than thesamesumwouldat anothertime: where,forexample,ina caseof extremity,a manstands in needof extraordinarymedicalassistance: orwantsmoneyto carry ona law-suit,onwhichhisall depends: or has gota livelihoodwaitingfor himin adistantcountry,andwantsmoneyforthe chargesofconveyance.Insuchcases,anypieceofgoodor ill fortune,in the pecuniaryway,mighthavea verydifferenteffectfromwhatit wouldhaveat any othertime. Withregardto strengthof expectation;whenonemanexpectsto gainorto keepa thingwhichanotherdoesnot,it is plainthecircumstanceofnothavingit willaffectthetormerverydifferentlyfromthelatter; who,indeed,com-monlywillnot be affectedby it at all.

XXVI. ¢I. Underthe headof a man's eonnexionsin the21.con-. nexionsinwayofsympathy,I wouldbringto viewthenumberanddescnp-thewayott-ionofthepersonsinwhosewelfarehetakessuchaconcern,as_ymp_thythat theideaoftheirhappinessshouldbeproduetiveofpleasure,and that of theirunhappinessof painto him: forinstance,aman'swife,hischildren,hisparents,hisnearrelations,andin-timatefriends. Thisclassof persons,it isobvious,willforthemostpartincludethe twoclassesbywhiehhispecuniaryeircum-stancesareaffected: tJaose,to wit,fromwhosemeanshe mayexpectsupport,and thosewhosewantsoperateon him as aburthen. Butit isobvious,thatbesidesthese,it mayverywellincludeothers,withwhomhehasnosuchpecuniaryconnexion:andevenwithregardto these,it isevidentthat the pecuniarydependence,andtheunionofaffections,arecircumstancesper-

Seech.v.[Ple_uresandPains].

54 Of Gircurnstanee,inflnencimj8eneibility. [c_aP.

fectly distinguishable. Accordingly,the comaexio_hereinquestion,independentlyof any influencethey mayhaveon aman'specuniarycircumstances,havean influenceon the effectofanyexcitingcauseswhatsoever.Thetendencyofthemistoincreasea man'sgeneralsensibifity; to increase,on the onehand,the pleasureproducedbyallpleasurablecauses; on theother,thepainproducedbyallafflictiveone,. Whenany plea-surableincidenthappensto a man,he naturally,in thefirstmoment,thinksof the pleasureit willa_ordimmediatelytohimself: presentlyafterwards,however(exceptin afewcases,whichis not worthwhilehereto insiston)he beginsto thinl_of thepleasurewhichhisfriendswillfeelupontheircomingtoknowofit : andthis secondarypleasureis commonlynomeanadditionto the primaryone. First comesthe self-regardingpleasure: thencomesthe idea of the pleasureof sympathy,whichyousupposethatpleasureof yourswillgivebirthto inthebosomof yourfriend: and thisideaexcitesagainin yoursanewpleasureofsympathy,groundeduponhis. Thefirstplea-sureissuingfromyour ownbosom,as it werefroma radiantpoint,illuminatesthebosomof yourfriend: reverberatedfromthence,it isreflectedwithaugmentedwarmthto thepointfromwhenceit firstproceeded: andso it is withpains1.

Nordoesthiseffectdependwhollyuponaffection. Amongnearrelations,althoughthereshouldbe no kindness,theplea-suresandpainsofthemoralsanctionarequicklypropagatedbya peeufiarkindof sympathy: noarticle,eitherof honourordisgrace,canwellfalluponaman,withoutextendingto acer-tain distancewithinthe circleof his family. What reflectshonouruponthefather,reflectshonourupontheson: whatre-fleetsdisgrace,disgrace. Thecauseof thissinguJarandseem-inglyunreasonablecircumstance(thatis,itsanalogyto therest

Thisisonereasonwhylegislatorsingenerallikebettertohavemarriedpeopletodealwithtl_nsingle;andpeoplethathavechildrenthansuchasarechildless.It is manifestthbtthestrongerandmorenumerousaman'sconnexionsinthewayofsympathyare,thestrongeristheholdwhichthelawhasuponhim. Awifeandohildrenaresomanypledgesamangivestotheworldforhisgoodbehavioar.

vx.] Of Oirourataneeai_flue_i_ 8eluvi_ility. 55

of thephenomenaof thehumanmind,)belongsnotto the pre-sentpurpose. It is sufficientif theeiTectbe beyonddispute.

XXVII. 22. Ofaman'sconnexionsin thewayof antipathy,n. con..thereneedsnotanythingveryparticularto beobserved. Hap-th_¢_n_pily thereis noprim_evalandconstantsourceof antipathyin_tipamy.humannature,as thereisofsympathy. Therearenopermanentsetsofpersonswhoarenaturallyandofcoursetheobjectsofan-tipathyto aman,as therearewhoaretheobjectsof the con-traryaffection. Sources,however,buttoo many,ofantipathy,areapttospringupuponvariousoccasionsduringthecourseofaman'slife:andwhenevertheydo,thiscircnmMtaneemayhaveaveryconsiderableinfluenceonthe effectsof variousexcitingcauses. Asontheonehand,a punishment,forinstance,whichtendsto separatea manfromthosewithwhomhe isconnectedin the wayofsympathy,so ontheotherhand,onewhichtendsto forcehim into the companyof thosewithwhomhe is con-nectedin the way of antipathy,will,on that account,be somuchthemoredistressing. It isto beobserved,thatsympathyitselfmultipliesthesourcesof antipathy. Sympathyforyourfriendgives birthto antipathyon your partagainstall thosewhoareobjectso[antipathy,aswellas to sympathyforthosewhoareobjectsoisympathytohim. Inthe samemannerdoesantipathymultiplythesourcesofsympathy;thoughcommonlyperhapswithrathera lessdegreeofefficacy. Antipathyagainstyourenemyis apt to give birthto sympathyon your parttowardsthosewhoareobjectsof antipathy,as wellas to an-tipathyagainstthosewhoareobjectsof sympathy,to him.

XXVIII. 23. Thusmuchforthecircumstancesbywhichthe_ Radi_lframeofeffectof any excitingcausemay be influenced,whenappliedbody.upon any givenoccasion,at any given period. But besidesthese superveningincidents,there are othercircumstancesre-lativeto a man,that may havetheirinfluence,and whichareco-evalto his birth.In thefirstplace,it seemsto beuniversallyagreed,that in the original frameor textureof every man'sbody, there is a somethingwhich,independentlyof all subse-quently interveningcircumstances,rendershim liable to be

56 Of CircumsSaneeainfluencing8e_zi_ility. [c_AP.

affectedby causesproducingbodilypleasureor pain,in amannerdifferentfromthatin whichanothermanwouldbeaffectedby thesamecauses.Tothecatalogueofcircumstancesinfluencinga man'ssensibility,wemaythereforeaddhis ori-ginalorradicalframe,texture,constitution,or temperamentof body.

24._di_l XXIX. 24. In the nextplace,it seemsto beprettywelltramsofmind. agreed,that thereis somethingalsoin the originalframeor

textureof everyman'smind,which,independentlyof allex-teriorandsubsequentlyinterveningcircl,mstances,andevenofhisradicalframeof body,makeshim fiableto be differentlyatteetedby thesameexcitingcauses,fromwhatanothermanwouldbe. Tothe catalogueof circumstancesinfluencingaman'ssensibility,wemay thereforefurtheradd hisoriginalorradicalframe,texture,constitutionor temperamentof mindx.

ThlsdistinctXX.X. It seemspretty certain,all thiswhile,thata man'sfromthecir-...cum,_._,seuslbilitvtocausesproducingpleasureorpain,evenofmind,frameofbody; maydependin aconsiderabledegreeuponhisoriginalandac-

quiredframeofbody. Bu_wehavenoreasonto thinkthat itcandependaltogetheruponthat frame:since,onthe onehand,weseepersonswhoseframeof bodyis asmuchalikeascanbeconceived,dif[eringveryconsiderablyinrespectoftheirmentalframe:and,onthe otherhand,personswhoseframeofmindisasmuchalikeascanbeconceived,differingveryconspicuouslyin regardto their bodilyframe2.

Idlown_,'Thecharacteristiccircum_tance_wherebyoneman'sframeofbodyor_ mind,consideredstanygivenperiod,stan.d_,distinguishedfromthatof

another,havebeencomprisedbymetaphysicaansandphymolog_t_underthen_me/d/osynvraay,from_&o%peculmr,andaw/#_aa,composition.

w_¢_t_ t Thosewhomaintain,thatthemindandthebodyareonesubstance,so_be_¢- mayhereobjectthatu_onthatsuppositionthedistinctionbetweenframena]orimmate---. - -- . - - - •

_ =oofmindandframeofbodyisbutnonmml,andtlmtaccordinglythereisno_ suchthings_aframeofminddishnctfromtheframeofbody.Butgrant-

ing,forargument-sake,theantecedent,wemaydisputetheconsequenoe_Forifthemindbebutapartofthebody,iti_atanyr_ted mn_tttreverydifferentfromtheotherpartsotthebody.Aman'sframeofbodycannotinanypartofitundergoanyconsiderable

alteration_nthoutitsbeingimmediatelyindicatedbyph_nomengdiscern-iblebythesenses.Aman'sframeofmindmayundergoveryconsiderable$lter&tionB,hisframOofbodylt_i"i"_ thes6metoallappearanoe;that

Vl.] Of Ciroura,tanee,i_flueneimy8eru_ilit_. 57

XXXI. It seemsindisputablealso,thatthedifferentsetsof_,_ mexternaloccurrencesthatmaybefallamanin thecourseof hislife,willmakegreatdi_erencesinthe subsequenttextureofhismindat anygivenperiod: yet still thosedifferencesarenotsolelyto be attributedto suchoccurrences.Equallyfar fromthetruthseemsthatopinionto be (ifanysuchbemaintained)whichattributesall tonature,andthat whichattributesall toeducation. Thetwocircumstanceswillthereforestillremaindistinct,aswellfromoneanother,as fromallothers.

XXXII. Distincthoweveras theyare,it is manifest,thatatYetthere-sultofthemnoperiodin the activepartof a man'slifecantheyeitherofisnot_.ratelytits-themmaketheirappearanceby themselves.All theydo is tocermbJ_constitutethelatentground-workwhichtheothersuperveningc_rcumstanceshavetoworkupon:andwhateverinfluencethoseoriginalprinciplesmayhave,is sochangedandmodified,andcoveredover,asit were,by thoseothercircumstances,asnevertobeseparatelydiscernible.Theeffectsof theoneinfluenceareindistinguishablyblendedwith thoseof the other.

XYXIII. Theemotionsof the bodyarereceived,and withFrameotbodymdi-reason,asprobableindicationsof thetemperatureofthemind.c_tes,but... notcertain.Buttheyarefarenoughfromconclusive,k man mayexlnbtt,jr.thatofforinstance,the exteriorappearancesof grief,withoutreallyn_na.grievingat all,orat leastin anythingneartheproportioninwhichheappearsto grieve. OliverCromwell,whoseconductindicateda heartmorethanordinarilycallous,wasas remark-ablyprofuseintears1.Manymencancommandtheexternalap-pearancesofsensibihtywithveryfittlerealfeeling2.Thefemale

is,foranythingthatisindicatedtothecontrarybyphsenomenacognizabletothesenses: mt_tnln_thoseelothermen.

JHume'sHist.*Theqmm_tyofthesortofpain,whichiscalledgTief,isindeedhardly

tobemeasuredbyanyexternalindications.Itisneithertobemeasured,forins_nce,bythequantityofthetears,norbythenumberofmomentsspentincrying.Indicationsratherlessequivocalmay,perhaps,beaffordedbythepulse.A manhasnotthemotionsofhisheartatcommandashelurethoseofthemusclesofhisface. Buttheparticularsignificancyottheseindicationsisstillveryuncertain.Alltheyc_nexpressis,thatthemanisattected;theycannotexpressinwhatm,nner,norfromwhatcause.Totnafteotiouresultinginrealityfromsuchorsuchacause,hemaygive

58 Of CireurastaneeainfluencingSensibility. [cliaP.

sexcommonlywithgreaterfacifitythanthemale: hencetheproverbialexpressionofa woman'stears. Tohavethiskindofcommandoverone'sself,wasthecharacteristicexcellenceoftheoratorofancienttimes,andis stillthatof theplayerinour own.

SecondaryXXXIV.Theremainingcircumstancesmay,withreferencetolI]fluericlns_rcum- thosealreadymentioned,be termedsecondaryinfluencingelf-stances.

cumstances.Thesehaveaninfluence,itistrue,onthequantumorbiasof a man'ssensibility,but it isonlybymeansof theotherprimaryones. Themannerin whichthesetwosetsofcircumstancesareconcerned,issuchthattheprimaryonesdothebusiness,whilethesecondaryonesliemostopento ob-servation.Thesecondaryones,therefore,arethosewhicharemostheardof; onwhichaccountit willbenecessaryto takenoticeofthem: at thesametimethatit isonlybymeansoftheprimaryonesthattheirinfluencecanbeexplained; whereastheinfluenceoftheprimaryoneswillbeapparentenough,withoutanymentionofthesecondaryones.

25Sex. XXXV.25.Amongsuchofthe primitivemodificationsofthecorporealframeasmayappeartoinfluencethequantumandbiasof sensibility,themostobviousandconspicuousarethosewhichconstitutethesex. In pointofquantity,thesensibilityofthe femalesexappearsingeneraltobegreaterthanthat ofthemale. Thehealthofthefemaleismoredelicatethanthatofthemale: inpointofstrengthandhardinessofbody,inpointof quantityandqualityofknowledge,inpointof strengthofintellectualpowers,andfirmnessofmind,sheiscommonlyin-anartificialcolouring,andattributeit tosuchorsuchanothercause. Toanaffectiondirectedin reahtyto suchor sucha personas its object,hemay giveanartificialbias,and representit as ifdirectedto suchorsuchanotherobject.Tearsofragehemayattributeto contrition.Theconcernhe feelsat the thoughtsofa punishmentthatawaitshim,hemayimputeto asympatheticconcernforthemischiefproducedbyhisoffence.

Avery tolerablejudgment,however,maycommonlybeformedbyadis-cemingmind,uponlayingall theexternalindicationsexhibitedbya mantogether,andat thesametimecomparingthemwithhisactions.

A remarkableinstanceofthepowerof thewill,overtheexternalindica-tionsofsensibility,is tobe foundin Tacitus'sstoryoftheRomansoldier,whoraiseda mutinyin thecamp,pretendingto havelosta brotherbythelawlesscrueltyoftheGeneral.Thetruthwas,he neverhadhadabrother.

Vl.] Of Circura,tctnee,i_flueJwing8en,ibility. 59

ferior:moral,religious,sympathetic,andantipatheticsensibilityarecommonlystrongerin herthaninthemale. Thequalityofherknowledge,and thebentof herinclinations,arecommonlyinmanyrespectsdifferent.Hermoralbiasesarealso,incertainrespects,remarkablydifferent:chastity,modesty,anddelicacy,forinstance,areprizedmorethancourageina woman:courage,morethan any of those qualities,in a man. The religiousbiasesin the twosexesarenot apt tobe remarkablydifferent;exceptthat thefemaleis rathermoreinclinedthanthe maletosuperstition;that is, to observancesnot dictatedby theprin-cipleof utility; adifferencethat maybe prettywellaccountedforbysomeof thebefore-mentionedcircumstances.Hersym-patheticbiasesareinmanyrespectsdifferent;forherownoff-springall their lives long,and forchildrenin generalwhileyoung,her affectionis commonlystrongerthan that of themale. Her affectionsareapt to be lessenlarged:seldomex-pandingthemselvesso muchas to takein the welfareof hercountryin general,muchlessthat of mankind,or the wholesensitivecreation: seldomembracinganyextensiveclassordi-vision,evenof herowncountrymen,unlessit be in virtueofhersympathyforsomeparticularindividualsthatbelongto it.In general,herantipathetic,aswellassympatheticbiases,areaptto be lessconformableto theprincipleof utilitythanthoseofthe male; owingchieflyto somedeficiencyin pointof know-ledge,discernment,andcomprehension.Herhabitualoccupa-tionsof the amusingkind areapt to be in manyrespectsdif-ferentfromthoseof themale. Withregardtoherconnexionsin the wayof sympathy,therecan henodifference. In pointofpecuniarycircumstances,accordingto thecustomsofperhapsall countries,she is in generalless independent.

XXXVI. 26.Ageis of coursedividedinto diversperiods,of_.Amwhichthe numberandlimitsareby nomeansuniformlyascer-tained. Onemightdistinguishit, forthepresentpurpose,into,I. Infancy. 2.Adolescence.3.Youth. 4- Maturity. 5- De-cline. 5. Decrepitude.It werelost timeto stoponthepresentoccasionto examineit at eachperiod,andto observethe indi-

60 Of Circur_tanceginflueJ_cin#Sensibility. [eRAP,

cationsit gives, withrespectto the severalprimarycircum-stancesjustreviewed. Infancyanddecrepitudearecommonlyinferiortotheotherperiods,inpointof health,strength_hardi-ness,andso forth. In infancy,onthe partof thefemale,theimperfectionsof thatsexareenhanced:onthepartofthemale,imperfectionstakeplacemostlysimilarinquality,butgreaterinquantity,tothoseattendingthestatesofadolescence,youth,andmaturityinthefemale. In thestageofdecrepitudebothsexesrelapseintomanyoftheimperfectionsofinfancy.Thegenerahtyoftheseobservationsmayeasilybecorrectedupona particularreview.

9. l_nk. XXXVII. 27. Station,or rank in life, is a circumstance,that,amongacivilizedpeople,willcommonlyundergoa multi-plieityofvariations.C_terispam_u,_,thequantumofseusibihtyappearsto begreaterin the higherranksof menthanin thelower. The primarycircumstancesin respectof whichthissecondarycircumstanceisapt toinduceorindicateadifference,seemprincipallyto beas follows: x. QuantityandQualityofknowledge. 2. Strengthot mind. 3. Bentof inclination.4.Moralsensibility.5.Moralbiases.6.Religioussensibility.7.Religiousbiases.8.Sympatheticsensibility.9.Sympatheticbiases,xo.Antipatheticsensibility.IX.Antipatheticbiases.I2.Habitualoccupations.I3.Natureandproductivenessofaman'smeansoflivelihood.I4.Connexionsimportingprofit.I5.Habitofexpense.I6.Connexionsimportingburthen.A manofacertainrankwillfrequentlyhaveanumberofde-pendcntsbesidesthosewhosedependencyistheresultofnaturalrelationship.Astohealth,strength,andhardiness,ifrankhasanyinfluenceonthesecircumstances,itisbutinaremoteway,chieflybytheinfluenceitmayhaveonitshabitualoccupations.

_s.Educa- XXXVIII. 28. The influenceof educationis still moreex-tiomteusive. Educationstandsupona footingsomewhatdifferentfromthat of the circumstancesof age,sex,and rank. Thesewords,thoughthe influenceof the circn_qtaneesthey respec-tivelydenoteexertsitself principally,if not entirely,throughthe mediumof certainof the primarycircumstancesbefore

vl.] Of Circumalance_influencing5'en_ibility. 5i

mentioned,present,however,eachofthema circumstancewhichhasaseparateexistenceofitself. Thisis not thecasewiththewoldeducation: whichmeansnothinganyfartherthanas itservesto callup to view someoneor moreof thoseprimarycircumstances.Educationmay be distinguishedinto phy-sical and mental; the educationof the body and that ofthe mind: mental,again,into intellectualand moral; thecultureof the understanding,and the cultureof the affec-tions. Theeducationa man receives,is givento himpartlyby others,partlybyhimself. Byeducationthennothingmorecanbeexpressedthanthe conditiona man is inin respectofthose primarycircumstances,as resultingpartly from themanagementandcontrivanceofothers,principallyofthosewhoin the earlyperiodsof his fifehavehaddominionoverhim,partlyfromhis own. To the physicalpart of his education,belongthe circumstancesof health,strength,and hardiness:sometimes,by accident,thatof bodilyimperfection; aswherebyintemperanceornegligenceanirreparablen_isehie[happensto his person. Tothe intellectualpart,thoseof quantityandqualityof knowledge,andin somemeasureperhapsthoseoffirmnessof mindandsteadiness. Tothemoralpart,thebentoEhis incfinations,the quantityandqualityof his moral,re-ligious,sympathetic,andantipatheticsensibility: to all threebranchesindiscriminately,but under the superiorcontrolofexternaloccurrences,his habitualrecreations,hisproperty,hismeansof livelihood,hisconnexionsin the wayof profitandofburthen,andhishabitsof expense. Withrespectindeedtoallthesepoints,theinfluenceof educationismodified,inamannermoreorlessapparent,by that ofexterioroccurrences;andinamannerscarcelyat allapparent,andaltogetheroutof thereachofcalculation,by theoriginaltextureandconstitutionaswellof his bodyas of his mind.

XXXIX. 29. Amongthe externalcixeum_tancesby which._CL_.the influenceof educationis modified,the prinoil_lare thosewhichcomeunder the head of c/imate. This circumstanceplacesitselfinfront,anddemandsa separatedenomination,not

62 OfCireuras_aneesinfl_e_wir_&n_itilit_. [CHAP.

merelyona:eountofthemagnitudeofitsinfluence,butalsoonaccountofitsbeingconspicuoustoeverybody,andofitsapply-ingindiscriminatelytogreatnumbersata time.Thiscircum-stancedependsforitsessenceuponthesituationofthatpartoftheearthwhichisinquestion,withrespectto thecoursetakenbythewholeplanetinitsrevolutionroundthesun:butforitsinfluenceitdependsupontheconditionofthebodieswhichcom-posetheearth'ssurfaoeatthatpart,principallyuponthequan-titiesofsensibleheatatdifferentperiods,anduponthedensity,andpurity,anddrynessormoistureofthecircumambientair.Ofthesooftenmentionedprimarycircumstances,therearefewofwhichtheproductionisnotinfluencedbythissecondaryone;partlybyitsmanifesteffectsuponthebody; partlybyitslessperceptibleeffectsuponthemind.Inhotclimatesmen'shealthisapt tobemoreprecariousthanincold: theirstrengthandhardinessless: theirvigour,firmness,andsteadinessofmindless: andthenceindirectlytheirquantityofknowledge: thebentoftheirinclinationsditterent: mostremarkablysoinre-spectoftheirsuperiorpropensitytosexualenjoyments,andinrespectoftheearlinessoftheperiodat whichthatpropensitybeginstomanifestitself: theirsensibihtiesofallkindsmoreintense: theirhabitualoccupationssavouringmoreofsloththanofactivity: theirradicalframeofbodylessstrong,pro-bably,andlesshardy:theirradicalframeofmindlessvigorous,lessfirm,lesssteady.

a0.Lm_. XL. 30.Anotherarticlein thecatalogueofsecondarycir-curustances,is thatof raceor lineage: thenationalraceorlineageamanissuesfrom.Thiscircumstance,independentlyofthatofclimate,willcommonlymakesomedifferenceinpointofradicalframeofmindandbody. Amanofnegrorace,borninFranceorEngland,isa verydit_erentbeing,inmanyrespects,fromamanofFrenchorEnglishrace, AmanofSpanishrace,borninMexicoorPeru,isat thehourothisbirtha dif[erentsortof being,inmanyrespects,froma manof theoriginalMexicanor Peruvianrace. Thiscircumstance,as farasit isdistinctfromolimate,rank,andeducation,andfromthetwo

VI.] Of Cimumotaneeainflue_v:i_y8e_ibility. 63

justmentioned,operateschieflythroughthemediumofmoral,religious,sympathetic,andantipatheticbiases.

XLI. 31.Thelastcircumstancebutone,is thatofgovern,sl.Qovern.merit: thegovernmenta manfivesunderat the timeinques--,e_tion; orratherthatunderwhichhehasbeenaccustomedmostto live. Thiscircumstanceoperatesprincipallythroughthemediumofeducation:themagistrateoperatinginthecharacterofatutoruponallthemembersofthestate,bythedirectionhegivestotheirhopesandto theirfears.Indeedunderasolicitousandattentivegovernment,theordinarypreceptor,nayeventheparenthimself,isbutadeputy,asit were,to themagistrate:whosecontrollinginfluence,differentinthisrespectfromthatoftheordinarypreceptor,dwellswitha mantohislife'send.Theeffectsof thepeculiarpowerofthemagistrateareseenmoreparticularlyin theinfluenceitexertsoverthequantumandbiasofmen'smoral,religious,sympathetic,andantipatheticsensi-bilities. Undera well-constituted,orevenundera well-admi-nisteredthoughill-constitutedgovernment,men'smoralsensi-bilityiscommonlystronger,andtheirmoralbiasesmorecon-formableto thedictatesofutility: theirreligioussensibilityfrequentlyweaker,buttheirreligiousbiaseslessunconformableto thedictatesof utility: theirsympathetica_ectionsmoreenlarged,directedto themagistratemorethantosmallpartiesor to individuals,andmoreto thewholecommunitythantoeither: theirantipatheticsensibilitieslessviolent,as beingmoreobsequioustothe influenceofwell-directedmoralbiases,andlessapttobeexcitedbythatofill-directedreligiousones:theirantipatheticbiasesmoreconformabletowell-directedmoralones,moreapt (inproportion)tobegroundedonenlargedandsympatheticthanonnarrowandself-regardingaffections,andaccordingly,uponthewhole,moreconformableto thedictatesof utility.

XLII.32.Thelastcircumstanceis thatofrefigiousprofes-s__li_ou9sion:thereligiousprofessiona manisof: thereligiousfrater-prot_,_nity of whichheis a member.Thiscircumstanceoperatesprincipallythroughthemediumofreligioussensibilityandreli-

64 OfCireurt_tar_esinfluenei_8enaibility. [ctt_.

gionsbiases.It operates,however,asanindicationmoreorlessconclusive,withrespectto severalothercircumstances.Withrespecttosome,searcelybutthroughthemediumofthetwojustmentioned:thisis thecasewithregardto thequantumandbiasofa man'smoral,sympathetic,andantipatheticsen-sibility: perhapsin somecaseswithregardto quantityandqualityofknowledge,strengthofintellectualpowers,andbentofinclination.Withrespecttoothers,it mayoperateimmedi-ately ofitself: thisseemstobethecasewithregardtoa man'shabitualoccupations,pecuniarycircumstances,andconnexionsinthewayofsympathyandantipathy.Amanwhopaysverylittleinwardregardtothedictatesofthereligionwhichhefindsitnecessarytoprofess,mayfindit difficulttoavoidjoiningintheceremoniesofit, andbearinga partin thepecuniarybur-thensit imposes1. Bytheforceofhabitandexamplehemayevenbeledtoentertainapartialityforpersonsofthesamepro-fession,anda proportionableantipathyagainstthoseofarivalone. In particular,theantipathyagainstpersonsofdifferentpersuasionsisoneofthelastpointsofreligionwhichmenpartwith. Lastly,it isobvious,thatthereligiousprofessiona manisofcannotbuthaveaconsiderableinfluenceonhiseducation.But,consideringtheimportofthetermeducation,tosaythisisperhapsnomorethansayinginotherwordswhathasbeensaidalready.

vmor_e XLIII. Thesecircumstances,allormanyofthem,willneedtobeattendedtoasoftenasuponanyoccasionanyaccountisol_rva-

tion_ takenofanyquantityofpainorpleasure,asresultingfromanycause. Hasanypersonsustainedaninjury? theywillneedtobeconsideredinestimatingthemischiefoftheoffence.Issatis-factiontobemadetohim?theywillneedtobeattendedto in

Thewaysin whicha religionmay lessena mina'smeans,oraugmenthiswants,arevarious. Sometimesit willpreventhimfrommaltingaprofitofhismoney:sometimesfromsettinghishandtol_bour.SometimesitwillobLigehimto buydearerfoodimsteau]of cheaper: sometimesto pur-chaseuselesslabour:sometimesto paymenfornotlabouring:sometimesto purchasetrinkets,onwhichimaginationalonehasseta value: some-timestopurchs_exemptionsfl'ompuniBhment,ortitlesto felicityintheworldtocome.

vI.] Of Cire_n_gance_i_flue,lei,_g8e_i_ilig_. 65

adjustingthequantumofthatsatisfaction.Istheinjurertobepunished? theywillneedto beattendedtoinestimatingtheforceoftheimpressionthatwillbemadeonhimbyanygivenpunishment.

XLIV.It is to beobsen,ed,that thoughtheyseemallof[IowtartheClrCUm-them,onsomeaccountor other,tomerita placeinthecats-sta,_inlogue,theyarcnotallofequaluseinpractice.Differentarticlesbet_eni--amongthemareapplicabletodifferentexcitingcauses.Ofthosetoacooun_thatmayinfluencetheeffectofthesameexcitingcause,someapplyindiscriminatelyto wholeclassesof perseustogether;beingapplicabletoall,withoutanyremarkabledifferenceindegree: thesemaybedirectlyandprettyfullyprovidedforbythelegislator.Thisistheease,forinstance,withtheprimarycircumstancesofbodilyimperfection,andinsanity: withthesecondarycircumstanceofsex: perhapswiththatof age: atanyratewiththoseofrank,ofclimate,oflineage,andofreli-giousprofession.Others,howevertheymayapplyto wholeclassesofpersons,yetintheirapplicationtodifferentindiv_dualsaresusceptibleofperhapsanindefinitevarietyofdegrees.Thesecannotbefullyprovidedforbythelegislator;but,astheexist-enceofthem,ineverysortofcase,iscapableofbeingascer-tained,andthedegreein whichtheytakeplaceiscapableofbeiugmeasured,provisionmaybemadeforthembythejudge,orotherexecutivemagistrate,towhomtheseveralindividualsthathappentobeconcernedmaybemadeknown.Thisis thecase,x.Withthecircumstanceofheslth. 2.Insomesortwiththatofstrength.3.Scarcelywiththatofhardiness:stillleeswiththoseofquantityandqualityofknowledge,strengthofintel-lectualpowers,_nnessorsteadinessofmind;exceptinasfarasaman'scondition,inrespectofthosecircunrstanees,maybeindi-carolbythesecondarycircumstancesofsex,age,orrank:hardlywiththatofbentofinclination,exceptinasfarasthatlatentcir-cumstanceisindicatedbythemoremanifestoneofhabitualoo-cupa_ions:hardlywiththatofaman'smoralsensibilityorbiases,exceptinasfarastheymaybeindicatedbyhissex,age,rank,andeducation:not at allwithhisreligiou_sensibilityand

B_ F

66 OfCireura,tance,influe_lcb_g8en,ibihty. [chaP.

religiousbiases,exceptinasfarastheymaybeindicatedbythereligiousprofessionhebelongsto : notatallwiththequantityorqualityofhissympatheticorantipatheticsensibilities,exceptinasfarastheymaybepresumedfromhissex,age,rank,odu-cation,lineage,orreligiousprofession.It isthecase,however,_ithhishabitualoccupations,withhispecuniarycircumstances,andwithhisconnexiousin thewayofsympathy.Ofothers,again,eithertheexistencecannotbeascertained,orthedegreecannotbe measured.These,therefore,cannotbetakenintoaccount,eitherbythe legislatoror theexecutivemagistrate.Accordingly,they wouldhaveno claimto be takennoticeof,wereit notfor thosesecondarycircumstancesby whichtheyare indicated,and whoseinfluencecouldnot wellbeunderstoodwithoutthem. Whatthesearehasbeenalreadymentioned.

z,,l_t XLV.It hasalreadybeenobserved,thatdifferentarticlesin_xcitingc_u_therethislistofcircumstancesapplytodifferentexcitingcauses:theIS l]lO_tOCC_-•.,iont_appl_circumstanceofbodilystrength,forinstance,hasscarcelyanythem. influenceofitself(whateveritmayhaveina roundaboutway,

andby accident)onthe effectof an incidentwhichshouldincreaseordiminishthequantumofaman'sproperty.It re-mainstobeconsidered,whattheexcitingcausesarewithwhichthelegislatorhastodo. Thesemay,bysomeaccidentorother,beanywhatsoever: but thosewhichhehasprincipallytodo,arethoseofthepainfulorafflictivekind.Withpleasurableoneshe hashttle to do, exceptnowandthenby accident:thereasonsofwhichmaybeeasilyenoughperceived,at thesametimethatit wouldtakeuptoomuchroomtounfoldthemhere.Thcexcitingcauseswithwhichhehasprincipallytodo,are,ontheonehand,themischievousacts,whichit ishisbusinesstoprevent; ontheotherhand,thepunishments,bytheterrorofwhichit ishisendeavourtopreventthem. Nowofthesetwosetsof excitingcauses,the latteronlyisof hisproduction:beingproducedpartlybyhisownspecialappointment,partlyinconformitytohis generalappointment,bythespecialap-pointmentofthe judge. Forthe legislator,therefore,aswell

vI.] Of Circu_sla_ctsi_fl_e_ciJtg8_ls_bilitj. 67

as forthejudge,it is necessary(iftheywouldknowwhatit isthey aredoingwhenthey areappointingpunishment)to havean eye to all these circur_tances. For the legislator,lest,meaningto apply acertainquantityof punishmentto all per-sonswhoshallput themselvesina givenpredicament,heshouldunawaresapplyto someof thosepersonsmuchmoreormuchlessthan he himselfintended: for the judge,lest, inapplyingto aparticularpersona particularmeasureof punishment,heshould apply much more or much less than was intended,perhapsby himself,and at any rate by the legislator. Theyoughteach of them,therefore,to havebeforehim,on the onehand, a list of the severalcircumstancesby whichsensibilitymay be influenced; on the other hand, a list of the severalspeciesanddegreesofpunishmentwhichtheypurposetomakeuseof: and then,bymakinga comparisonbetweenthetwo,toforma detailedestimateof theinfluenceofeachof thecircum-stancesin question,upontheeffectof eachspeciesanddegreeofpunishment.

Thereare twoplansor ordersofdistribution,eitherof whichmightbepursuedinthe drawingup this estimate. Theoneistomakethe nameof the circumstancetakethe lead,andunderit to representthe differentinfluencesit exertsoverthe effectsof the severalmodesof punishment: the otheris to makethenameofthe punishmenttakethelead,andunderit torepresentthe differentinfluenceswhichare exertedovertheeffectsofitby theseveralcircumstancesabovementioned. Nowof thesetwosortsof objects,the punishmentis that towhichthe inten-tionof the legislatorisdirectedinthe firstinstance. Thisisofhisowncreation,and willbe whatsoeverhe thinksfit tomakeit : the influencingcircumstanceexists independentlyofhim,and iswhatit iswhetherhe willor no. Whathehas occasiontodoisto establishacertainspeciesanddegreeofpunishment:and it is only withreferenceto that punishmentthat he hasoccasionto makeany inquiryconcerningany of the circum-stancesherein question. Thelatter of the twoplans there-fore is that whichappearsby far the most usefuland com.

F2

68 Of C,rcu_#,ta_we,influencing8en,ibilily. [cHaP.

modious.Butneitherupontheonenortheotherplancananysuchestimatebedeliveredhere1.

A_lytiealXLVI.Oftheseveralcircumstancescontainedin thiscata-viewofthe_rcum. logue,it maybeof useto givesomesortofanalyticview;stancesir__e,_i,_ inorderthatitmaybethemoreeasilydiscoveredifanywhichsensibility,oughttohavebeeninsertedareomitted;andthat,withregard

to thosewhichareinserted,itmaybeseenhowtheydifferandagree.

In the firstplace,theymaybedistinguishedintoprimaryandsecondary: thosemaybetermedprimary,whichoperateimmediatelyof themselves: thosesecondary,whichoperatenotbutby themediumof theformer. Tothis latterheadbelongthecircumstancesofsex,age,stationinfife,education,climate,lineage,government,andreligiousprofession: therestareprimary.Theseagainareeitherconnateoradvent_/ous:thosewhichareconnate,areradicalframeofbodyandradicalframeofmind.Thosewhichareadventitious,areeitherpersonal,orezterior.Thepersonal,again,concerneitheraman'sd/s-positions,orhisac_/ons.Thosewhichconcernhisdispositions,concerneitherhisbodyorhismind. Thosewhichconcernhisbodyarehealth,strength,hardiness,andbodilyimperfection.Thosewhichconcernhismind,again,concerneitherhisunder-standingor his affections.To the formerheadbelongthecircumstancesofquantityandqualityofknowledge,strengthofunderstanding,andinsanity.Tothelatterbelongthecircum-stancesoffirmnessofmind,steadiness,bentofinclination,moral

i Thisistarfrombeingavisionaryproposal,notreducibletopractice.Ispeakfromexperience,havingactuallydrawnupsuchanestimate,thoughupontheleastcommodiousofthetwoplans,andbeforetheseveralcircumstancesinquestionhadbeenreducedtotheprecisenumberandorderinwhichthey_rehereenumerated,Thisisapartofthematterdestinedforanotherwork.Seeeh._2ii.[Casesimmeet],par.2.Note.Therearesomeo{theseciroumstancesthatbestowparticulardenominationson thepersonstheyrelatetO:thus,fromthecircumstanceof bodilyimper-factious,personsaredenominateddeaf,dumb,blind,andsoforth:fromthecircumstanceof insanity,idiots,andmama_: fromthecircumstanceofage,infants:forall whichel_sesofpersonsparticularpro.v'm.ion".ml_e '.mtheCode.SeeB.I.tit.[Exemptionsl.Personsthusdis_mgulSaCawutform somanyarticlesin the cataloCusperaolsarumprivilegiatarum.SeeAppendix.tit. [Composition].

vI.] Of Cireura*tanceai_.flue_ei_9 8en,ibil_ty. 69

sensibility,moralbiases,religioussensibility,religiousbiases,sympatheticsensibility,sympatheticbiases,antipatheticsensi-bility,andantipatheticbiases.Thosewhichregardhisactions,arehishabitualoccupations.Thosewhichareexteriortohim,regardeitherthethins orthepersemwhichheisconcernedwith;undertheformerheadcomehispectmiarycireumstancesl;underthelatter,hiseonnexionsin thewayofsympathyandantipathy.

t Asto a man'specuniarycircumstances,thecauseson whichthoseelf-^o_r_t__ewof the con_.

cumstaneesdepend,donotcomeallof themunderthesameclass. The_a_,tka_,_abso]utequantumof a man'spropertydoesindeedcomeunderthesamea.ma_'sp_.classwithhispecuniarycircumstancesin general: sodoestheprofithe_a_°a__-makesfromthe occupationwhichlurni_heshimwi_hthemeansofliveli-hood.Buttheoccupationitselfconcernshisownperson,andcomesunderthe sameheadas hishabitualamusements: as likewisehis habitsofexpense: hisconnexionsin thewaysot profitandof burthen,underthesameheadas hisconnexionsin the wayof sympathy: and thecircum-stancesofhispresentdemandformoney,andstrengthofexpectation,comeundertheheadofthosecircumstancesrelativetohispersonwhichregardhisaffeetiom.

CHAPTERVII.

OF HUMAN ACTIONSIN O]::h]'I_AL.

ThedemandI. Thebusinessofgovernmentistopromotethehappinessofforpumsh-me,tdc. thesociety,bypunishingandrewarding.Thatpartofits businessl_ndsIntortuwn whichconsistsin punishing,is moreparticularlythe subjectofot_: eypenallaw. In proportionasanacttendstodisturbthat happi-

ness,inproportionas thetendencyofitispernicious,willbethedemandit createsforpunishment. Whathappinesseonslstsofwehavealreadyseen: enjoymentof pleasures,securityfrompains.

TendencyofII. Thegeneraltendencyofanact ismoreorlesspernicious,an act deter.minedbyltsaccordingto thesumtotalofitsconsequences: that is, accord-qaen_* ingtothe differencebetweenthe sumof suchas aregood,and

the sum ofsuch as are evil._ter_ IlL It isto beobserved,that here,aswellashenceforward,qnence_onJywhereverconsequencesarespokenof, suchonlyaremeantasaretober_rded, are material. Ofthe consequencesof any act, the multitude

and varietymust needsbe in_finite: but suchof themonlyasarematerialareworthregarding.Nowamongtheconsequencesof anact, bethey whattheymay,suchonly,byonewhoviewsthemin thecapacityofa legislator,canbe saidtobematerial_,as eitherconsistofpainor pleasure,or havean influencein theproductionof pain or pleasure2.

t Orof importance.t Incertaincasestheconsequencesofanactmaylmmaterialbyserving

asevidencesindicatingtheexistenceofsomeotherm_terialfact,whichisevenantecedenttotheactofwhichtheyaretheconsequences:butevenhere,theyarematerialonlybecause,invirtueofsuchtheirevMentiaryquality,theyhaveaninfluence,at asuh_quentperiodoftime,inthepro-

Of Ituman Action, in General. 7_

IV. It isalsoto beobserved,that intotheaccountofthecon-Thesea_• . pendinpm.t

sequencesof the act, are to be taken not such onlyas mightu,o,,thehaveensued,wereintentionoutof the question,but suchalsom_,t_on.asdependupontheconnexionthere maybe betweenthesefirst-mentionedconsequencesand the intention. The connexionthere is betweenthe intentionand certainconsequencesis, aswe shall see hereafterl, a means of producingother conse-quences. In thisliesthe differencebetweenrationalagencyandirrational.

V. Nowthe intention,withregardtothe consequencesof anThei,_....tlondependsact,willdependupontwothings: I. The state ofthe willor in-_swell,m,l- -- the under-tention,with respectto the act itself. And, 2.Thestate of the_ta,_.,sunderstanding,or perceptivefaculties,with regardto the cir-tilewill.cumstanceswhichitis,or mayappeartobe,accompaniedwith.Nowwith respect to these circumstances,the perceptivefa-cultyis susceptibleof three states: consciousness,unconscious-ness,and falseconsciousness.Consciousness,whenthe partybelievespreciselythosecircumstances,andnoothers,tosubsist,whichreallydosubsist: unconsciousness,whenhefails ofper-ceivingcertain circumstancesto subsist,which,however,dosubsist:falseconsciousness,whenhebelievesorimaginescertaincircumstancesto subsist,whichin truth do not subsist.

VI. In everytransaction,therefore,whichis exanfinedwith1,anactionare robea viewto punishment,there are fourarticlesto becollsidered:¢_,dered_. _ 1.Theact.I. Theact,itself,whichis done. 2. Thecircumstancesin _nlcnz.Thec,_-it is done. 3-Theinten_ionalitythat mayhaveaccompanied""cums_n¢_IL.3.Theinten-

_ionahty.4. The consciousness,unconsciousness,or falseconsciousness,_.The_that mayhave accompaniedit. s_,o_s_.

Whatregardstheact andthecircumstanceswillbethe sub-ject of thepresentchapter: whatregardsintentionand con-sciousness,that of the two succeeding.

VII. Therearealsotwootherarticleson whichthe general5.The,,_-tires. _,Thetendencyof anact depends: andonthat, aswellas onotherd_itio_,.ductionof painand pleasure: for example, by servingas groundsfor con-viction, and thence for punishment. See tit. [Simple Falsehoods], verbo[material].

See B. I. tit. [Exemptiona-Iand tit. [Extenuations].

7_ Of Human_eti_, in Gn,eral. [caAP.

accounts,thedemandwhiehitcreatesforpunishment.Theseare,I. The particularmotiveor motiveswhichgave birth to it.z. The generaldispositionwhichit indicates. Thesearticleswillbe the subjeo_of twoother chapters.

Aetspositiro VIII. Actsmaybedistinguishedinseveralways,forseveralsud nega-tive. purposes.

Theymaybedistinguished,inthe first place, into positiveandnegative.Bypositiveare meantsuchasconsistinmotionor exertion: by negative,suchas consistin keepingat rest ;that is, in forbearingto moveor exert one's selfin such andsuchcircumstances. Thus, tostrike isa positiveact : not tostrike ona certainoccasion,a negativeone. Positiveacts arestyledalsoacts of commission; negative,acts ofomissionorforbearance1.

N_ive IX.Suchacts,again,as arenegative,mayeitherbeabsolu'_lyact_maybeso relativelySO,or relatively: absolutely,whenthey importthe negationofor ab_lute]y, allpositiveagencywhatsoever;forinstance,not to strikeat all:

relatively,whentheyimportthenegationofsuchorsucha par-ticularmodeofagency;forinstance,notto strikesucha personorsucha thing,orinsuchadirection.

l_-_ti_o X. It isto beobserved,thatthenatureof the act, whetheractsmaybeeapressecl positiveornegative,isnottobedeterminedimmediatelybytheposittvely;and_ formofthediscoursemadeuseofto expressit. An act whichI_'rla.

Aasor,_t_ ] The distinction between positive and negative acts rum through the_o,_ s_a whole system of offences,and sometimes makes a materialdifferencewitha¢cs.

regardto their consequences. To reconcile us the better _othe extensive,and, as it mayappear onsomeoccasions,the inconsistent significationheregiven to the word art,it may be considered, I. That in many cases, whereno exterior orovert act is exercised, the state which the mind is in at thetime when the supposed act is said to happen, is as truly and directly theresult of the will, as any exterior act, how plain and conspicuous soever.The not revealing a conspiracy, for instance, may be asperfectly the act ofthe will, as the joiningin it. In the next place, that even though the mindshouldneverhave had the incident inquestion ineontemplation (insomuchthat the event of its not happening should not have been so much asobliquelyintentional) still the state the person'smind was in at the timewhen, if he had so willed, the incident might have happened, is in manycasesproductiveof as material consequences;andnotonly as likely,but asfit to call for the interposition of otheragents, as the opposite one. Thus,whena tax Lqimposed,your notpaying it is an act which atany ratemustbe punishedin a certainmanner, whetheryouhappened to think of payingit or not.

_I.] Of lluman Aetionein Oe_zeral. 73

ispositiveinitsnaturemaybe characterizedbyanegativeex-pression: thus,notto be atrest, is asmuchas to sayto move.Soalsoanact, whichisnegativeinits nature,maybecharacter-izedbya positiveexpression: thus,to forbearor omitto bringIoodto a personin certaincircumstances,is signifiedby thesingleandpositiveterm to starve.

XI. In the secondplace,acts maybe distinguishedinto ex-Actsexter.n,_.Landm-ternaland in_ernal.Byexternal,are meantcorporalacts ; actsternal.Ofthe body: by internal,mentalacts;acts ofthe mind. Thus,to strikeis an externalor exteriorI act: to intend to strike,aninternal or interior one.

XII. Actsof discourseareasortof mixtureof the two : ex-An ofdis-course,wlmt.

ternalacts, whichare nowaysmaterial,nor attendedwithanyconsequences,anyfartherthanastheyserveto expressthe exist-enceof internalones. To speakto another to strike, to writetohimto strike,to makesignstohimto strike,arc all somanyacts of discourse.

XIII. Third,Actsthat are externalmaybedistinguishedinto Exter_actsmaybetransitiveandintransitive.Actsmaybe calledtransitive,whentr_B,t,_oorintransitive.the motionis communicatedfrom the personof the agent tosomeforeignbody: that is,to sucha foreignbodyonwhichtheeffectsof it are consideredas beingmaterial; as wherea manrunsagainstyou,or throwswaterin your face. Acts maybecalledintransitive,whenthemotioniscommunicatedtonootherbody,onwhichthee_ects ofit areregardedas material, thansomepartofthe samepersoninwhomit originated:aswhereamanruns, orwasheshimself2

An exterior act is also called by lawyersovert.The distinction is well imown to the latter grammarians : it is with x_t_-t_, b,.

them indeed that it took its rise: though by them it has been apphed _e¢_.°_.uv¢ acts and

rather to the names than to the thing_ themselves. To verbs, signifying,,_t_.transitive acts, as here described, they h_ve given the name of transitive [,_verbs: thosesigaificative of intransitive acts theyhave termedintransitive.These last arestill morefrequentlycalled ne_er; that is,ne/ther active norpassive. The appellation seems improper: since, instead of their beingne/lher, they are both in one.

To the class of acts that axe here termedintransitive, belongthose whichconstitutethe 3rdcl_s in thesystem of offences. Seech. [Division]LadB. I.tit_ [SeHregardingOtiences].

74 Oftt_raandction_in General. [CHAP.

_sieve XIV.Anactofthetransitivekindmaybesaidtobein its_. itoCom-mencement,co'fftrne_ement,orinthefirststageofits progress,whilethetermination, . .andinterme-motionisconfinedtothepersonoftheagent,andhasnotyetdintspru-gr_s. beencommunicatedtoanyforeignbody,onwhichtheeffectsof

it canbematerial.Itmaybesaidtobeinitsterrnination,ortobeinthelaststageofitsprogress,assoonasthemotionorim-pulsehasbeencommunicatedtosomesuchforeignbody.It maybesaidgobein themiddleorintermediatestageorstagesofitsprogress,whilethemotion,havingpassedfromthepersonoftheagent,hasnotyetbeencommunicatedtoanysuchforeignbody.Thus,assoonasamanhaslifteduphishandtostrike,theactheperformsinstrikingyouisinitscommencement:assoonashishandhasreachedyou,it isinitstermination.Iftheactbethemotionofabodywhichisseparatedfromthepersonoftheagentbeforeit reachestheobject,itmaybesaid,duringthatinterva],tobeinitsintermediateprogresst,oringradumedia-tire:asinthecasewhereamanthrowsastoneorfiresabulletatyou.

Ani,tr_nsi.XV.Anactoftheintransitivekindmaybesaidtobein itstwoact, itscommence-commencement,whenthemotionorimpulseisasyetconfinedment,andtermmatmn,tothememberororganinwhichitoriginated;andhasnotyet

beencommunicatedtoanymemberororganthatisdistinguish-ablefromtheformer. It maybesaidtobeinitstermination,assoonasithasbeenappliedtoanyotherpartofthesameper-son. Thus,whereamanpoisonshimself,whileheisliftingupthepoisontohismouth,theactis initscommencement: assoonasithasreachedhislips,it isin itstermination2.

artstran- XVI.In_hethirdplace,actsmaybedistinguishedintotran-sientandcont_-ued,sientandcontinued.Thus,tostrikeisa transientact: to lean,

acontinuedone. Tobuy,a transientact: tokeepinone'spossession,a continuedone.

Dieerenc_XVII.Instrictnessofspeechthereisadifferencebetweenabetweenacontinuedcontinuedactandarepetitionofacts. It isa repetitionofacts,

Or in its rngTration,or in tran,rltu.mThes_distinctions willbe referred to in the next chapter: ch. viii. [In-

tentionslity]: andappliedtopracticeinB.L tit.[Exteaustiom].

vrI.] Of Human_fction*in General. 75

whenthereareintervalsfilledupbyactsofdifferentnatures: aactandirel_tltlono!continuedact, whenthereareno suchintervals. Thus, to_.lean,is onecontinuedact: to keepstriking,a repetitionofacts.

XVIII. Thereis adifference,again,betweena repetitionofDifferencebetweenaacts,andahabitorpractice. Thetermrepetitionofactsmayrepetmonof. actsandabeemployed,let the actsinquestionbeseparateduyeversucnha_Lt.short intervals,and let the sumtotal of themoccupyeversoshort a spaceof time. Thetermhabit is not employedbutwhentheacts inquestionaresupposedto beseparatedby long-continuedintervals,andthe sumtotalofthemtooccupya con-siderablespaceof time. It is not (for instance)thedrinkingeversomanytimes,noreversomuchat a time,inthecourseofthe samesitting,thatwillconstituteahabit ofdrunkenness: itisnecessarythatsuchsittingsthemselvesbefrequentlyrepeated.Everyhabitis a repetitionof acts; or, to speakmorestrictly,whenaman hasfrequentlyrepeatedsuchandsuchacts afterconsiderableintervals,he issaid to haveperseveredinor con-tracted a habit : but everyrepetitionof actsis not a habit1.

XIX. Fourth,actsmaybedistinguishedintoindivisibleandActuatein-divisz_le.Indivisibleactsaremerelyimaginary: they-may_e"d,vis,bJc;di_is_bI_or,._ _ a_dallY1"easilyconceived,but canneverbe knownto be exempnneu,stble,a_well•, with_'a rdSuchasaredivisiblemaybeso,withregardeithertoma_erortomattera_to motion. Anact indivisiblewithregardto matter,is the_ motion.motionorrestofonesingleatomofmatter. Anactindivisible,with regardto motion,is the motionof any body, fromonesingleatomof spaceto the next toit.

Fifth,acts may be distinguishedinto simpleand complex:simple,suchas the actofstriking,theact ofleaning,orthe actof drinking,aboveinstanced: complex,consistingeachof amultitudeofsimpleacts, which,thoughnumerousandhetero-geneous,derivea sortofunity fromtherelationthey bear tosomecommondesignorend;suchastheactofgivingadinner,

A habit, it should seem,can hardly in strictness be termed an aggre-ate of acts : acts being a sort of real archetypalentities, and habits smd of fictitiousentities or imaginary beings, supposedto beconstituted

by, orto resultas it were out of,the former.

76 Of tluman Action8in General. [c_^P.

theactof maintaininga child,theact ofexhibitinga triumph,the act of bearingarms, the act of holdinga court, and soforth.

C_utionre- XX.It hasbeeneverynowandthenmsdeaquestion,whatitBl_CtJngthe . .amblgmtyoflSIn sucha casethat constitutesoneact : whereone act hash,_ve, ended,andanotheracthasbegun:whetherwhathashappened

hasbeenoneactor many1. Thesequestions,it isnowevident,mayfrequentlybeanswered,withequalpropriety,inoppositeways: and if there be any occasionson whichthey can beansweredonlyinoneway,theanswerwilldependuponthe na-ture ofthe occasion,andthe purposeforwhichthe questionisproposed. Aman iswoundedintwofingersat onestroke-Isit onewoundor several? A manis beatenat r2 o'clock,andagainat 8minutesafterI2--Is it onebeatingor several_. Youbeat oneman,and instantlyin the samebreath youbeat an-other--Is thisonebeatingorseveral? In anyof thesecasesitmay be one,perhaps,as to somepurposes,and severalas toothers. Theseexamplesare given,that men may be awareofthe ambiguityof language: and neitherharassthemselveswith unsolvabledoubts, nor one another with interminabledisputes.

C,rcu_- XXI. Somuchwithregardtoactsconsideredin themselves:8tan,'eaar_to_ con. we comenowto speakof the circumgancezwithwhichtheysidereal.

mayhavebeenaccompanied.Thesemustnecessarilybetakenintotheaccountbeforeany thingcanbedeterminedrelativetothe consequences.W-hatthe consequencesof anact may beuponthewholecanneverotherwisebe ascertained:it canneverbeknownwhetheritisbeneficial,or indifferent,ormischievous.In somecircumstancesevento killa manmay bea beneficialact: in others,to set foodbeforehimmaybe a perniciousone.

mane_,a_m"XXII. Nowthe circumstancesof an act, are, what ? ,anyw_t. objects_whatsoever.Takeanyactwhatsoever,thereisnothing

inthenatureofthingsthat excludesanyimaginableobjectfrom

DistinctionslikethesecomefrequentlyinquestioninthecomaeofProcedure.2Orentities.SeeB.II.tit.[Evidence],§[Fa_ts].

vii.] Of ttumau Actionsin Ge:leraL 77

beinga circumstancetoit. Anygivenobjectmaybea circum-stanceto any other1.

XXIII. WehavealreadyhadoccasiontomakementionforCJrcum-_,t.aneesamomentoftheca_eque,_eJofanact:theseweredistinguishedm_r_l,ndintomaterialandimmaterial.Inlikemannermaythe circum-immster,_l.stancesof it be distinguished.Nowmater_zlityis a relativeterm:appliedto theconsequencesofanact,it borerelationtopainandpleasure: appliedtothecircumstances,it bearsrela-tion to the consequences.A cirel_mRtancemaybe saidto bematerial,whenit bearsavisiblerelationin pointof causalitytotheconsequences:immaterial,whenit bearsnosuchvisiblerelation.

XXIV. Theconsequencesofanactareevents_. Acireum-Ao_um-stancemaystancemayberelatedtoan eventin pointof causalityinanybe_-ted&rlOVl_"lbIlloneof fourways: I. In the wayof causationor production,pointo¢ca_-

sahty,m2. In the wayof derivation.3. In the wayof collateralcon-fourways,•1 v_. l. Pro-nexion. 4. In thewayof conjunctinfluence.It maybesaladuetion.

2.I)eriva-to berelatedtotheeventinthewayofcausation,whenit isof_Konacol.

. lat_m,lcon-thenumberof thosethatcontributeto theproductionof sucnnexion.event:in thewayofderivation,whenit is ofthenumberof,h_4.Conjuncteventsto the productionof whichthat in questionhasbeencontributory: in the way of collateralconnexion,wherethecircumstancein question,andtheevent in question,withoutbeingeitheroftheminstrumentalintheproductionoftheother,arerelated,eachof them,tosomecommonobject,whichhasbeenconcernedin the productionof themboth: in thewayofconjunctinfluence,when,whetherrelatedinanyotherwayor

' The et_rmologyof the word circumstanceis perfectlycharacteristic of c,._.._t_.,,• , " ...... archetypa(mlaitsimport:e_rcumstan_ta,thingsstandingrouncl:objectsstandingroundorrue_o_a givenobject.I forgetwhatmathematicianitwasthatdefinedGod tobea circle,ofwhichthecentreiseverywhere,butthecircumferencenowhere•Inlikemannerthefieldofcircumstances,belongingtoanyact,may bedefineda circle,ofwhichtheciroumferenceisnowhere,butofwhichtheactm questionmthecentre.Nowthen,asanyactmay,lotthepurposeofdiscourse,heconsidereda_acentre,anyotheractorobjectwhatsoevermaybeconsideredasofthenumberofthosethatarestandingroundit.

SeeB.ILtit.[EvidenceJ,§[Facts].

78 OfttumauAeliotain General. [cnxv.

not,theyhavebothofthemconcurredintheproductionofsomecommonconsequence.

E_mple. XXV.Anexamplemaybeofuse.In theyearI628,Viltiers,A_m_- ....t,o,orSu,_h.DukeofBuckingham,favouriteandrmmsterofCharlesI. of,a_m. England,receiveda woundanddied. Themanwhogaveit

himwasoneFelton,who,exasperatedatthereal-administrationofwhichthatministerwasaccused,wentdownfromLondontoPortsmouth,whereBuckinghamhappenedthentobe,madehiswayintohisanti-chamber,andfindinghimbusilyengagedinconversationwithanumberofpeopleroundhim,gotclosetohim,drewaknifeandstabbedhim. In theeffort,theassas-sin'shatfelloff,whichwasfoundsoonafter,and,uponsearchinghim,thebloodyknife. In thecrownofthehatwerefoundscrapsofpaper,withsentencesexpressiveofthepurposehewascomeupon. Herethen,supposetheeventinquestionisthewoundreceivedbyBuckingham: Felton'sdrawingouthisknife,hismakinghiswayintothechamber,hisgoingdowntoPortsmouth,hisconceivinganindignationat theideaofBuck-ingham'sadministration,thatadministrationitself,Charlegsup.pointingsuchaminister,andsoon,higherandhigherwithoutend,aresomanycircumstances,relatedto theeventofBuck-ingham'sreceivingthewound,inthewayofcausationorpro-duction: thebloodinessoftheknife,acircumstancerelatedtothesameeventinthewayofderivation: thefindingofthehatupontheground,thefindingthesentencesinthehat,andthewritingthem,somanycircumstancesrelatedto itin thewayofcollateraiconnexion:andthesituationandconversationsofthepeopleaboutBuckingham,werecircumstancesrelatedtothecircumstancesotFelton'smakinghiswayintotheroom,goingdowntoPortsmouth,andsoforth,inthewayofconjunctinflu-ence;inasmuchastheycontributedincommontotheeventofBuckingham'sreceivingthewound,bypreventinghimfromputtinghimselfuponhisguarduponthefirstappearanceoftheintruder1.

' Thedivisionmaybe f&rtherillustratedandconfirmedby themoresimpleAndparticularcaseofanimalgeneration.Toproduetioncorresponds

VII.] Of ]tumauAction,in Ge_etal. 79

XXVI.TheseseveralrelationsdonotallofthemattachuponIti_notI * every eventaneventwithequalcertainty. In thefirstplace,it is pJam,th_b*,etr-

• cu_mit_nP_indeed,thateveryeventmusthavesomecarcumstaneeorother,relatedtoitinallthoseandintruth,anindefinitemultitudeofcircumstances,relatedtow_.it inthewayofproduction:it mustercoursehaveastillgreatermultitudeofcircumstancesrelatedtoit inthewayofcollateralconnexion.Butit doesnotappearnecessarythateveryeventshouldhavecircumstancesrelatedtoit inthewayofderivation:northereforethatit shouldhaveanyrelatedtoitinthewayofconjunctinfluence.Butofthecircumstancesofallkindswhichactuallydoattachuponanevent,itisonlyaverysmallnumberthat canbediscoveredbytheutmostexertionofthehumanfaculties:it isastillsmallernumberthateveractuallydoattractournotice:whenoccasionhappens,moreorfewerofthemwillbediscoveredbyamaninproportiontothestrength,partlyofhisintellectualpowers,partlyofhisinclination1.It appearspaternity: toderivation,filiation: tocollateralconnexmn,collateralcon-sanguinity:toconjunctinfluence,marrtageand copulation.

If necessary,it mightbeagainillustratedby the materialimageofachain,suchas thatwhich,accordingtotheingeniou_fictionoftheancients,is attachedtothe throneofJupiter. A sectionofthis chainshouldthenbeexhibitedbywayofspecimen,mthe mannerofthedtaqramofa pedi-gree. Sucha figalreI shouldaccordinglyhaveexhibited,hadit notbeenfor the apprehensionthat an exhibitmnof this sort,whileit made thesubjecta smallmatterclearertoonemanoutofa hundred,might,likethemathematicalformulariesweseesometimesemployedforthelikepurpose,makeit moreobscureandformidablefortheothcrninety-nine.

1Themoreremotea connexionofthissortis,ofcoursethemoreobscure.It willoftenhappenthat a connexion,the ideaof whichwouldat firstmghtappearextravagantandabsurd,shallbe renderedhighlyprobable,and indeedinchsputable,merelyby the suggestmnof afewintermediatecircumstances.

AtRome,39oyearsbeforetheChristianwra,agoosesetsupacackling:twothousandyearsafterwardsa kingofFranceismurdered.Toconsiderthesetwoevents,andnothingmore,whatcanappearmoreextravagantthanthenotionthattheformerofthemshouldhavehad anyinfluenceonthe productionof the latter? Fillup the gap,bringto minda fewinter-mediatecircumstances,andnothingcanappearmoreprobable.It wasthecacklingofa parcelofgeese,at thetimethe GaulshadsurprisedtheCapi-tol,that savedtheRomancommonwealth:hadit notbeenfortheascend-ancythatcommonwealthacquiredafterwardsovermostofthenationsofEurope,amongstothers over France,the Christianreligion,humanlyspeaking,couldnothaveestablisheditselfin the mannerit did in thatcountry. Grant then,that sucha manasHenryIV.wouldhaveexisted,noman,however,wouldhavehadthosemotives,by winchRavaiUae,mis-

80 Of IInma_Aetio_ i_ Ge_eral. [chAp.

thereforethat themultitudeanddescriptionofsuchoftkecir-cumstancesbelongingto anact,asmayappearto bematerial,willbedeterminedby twoconsiderations: x. Bythenatureofthingsthemselves.2.Bythestrengthorweaknessofthefacul-tiesofthosewhohappento considerthem.

v_ orthis XXVII.Thusmuchit seemednecessarytopremiseingeneralc_,_p_er,concerningacts,andtheircircumstances,previouslytothecon-

siderationof theparticularsortsof actswiththeir particularcircumstances,withwhichweshallhaveto do inthe bodyofthe work. Anactofsomesortorotherisnecessarilyincludedin thenotionof everyoffence.Togetherwiththisact,underthe notionof the sameottence,areincludedcertaincircum-stances: whichcircumstancesenterinto the essenceof theoffence,contributebytheirconjunctinduencetotheproductionofitsconsequences,andinconjunctionwiththeactarebroughtintoviewby thenamebywhichit standsdistinguished.Theseweshallhaveoccasionto distinguishhereafterbythenameofcriminativecircumstances1.Otherclrcums_ncesagainenteringintocombinationwiththeactandtheformersetofcircumstances,areproductiveof stillfartherconsequences.Theseadditionalconsequences,if theyareofthe beneficialkind,bestow,accordingto thevaluetheybearin that capacity,uponthecircumstancestowhichtheyowetheirbirth theappellationofexculpative2oreztenuativecircumstancess : if of the mischievouskind,theybestowon themthe appellationofaggrava_ivecircumstances4.Ofall thesedifferentsetsofcircumstances,thecriminstiveareconnectedwiththeconsequencesofthe originaloffence,inthewayof production; withthe act,andwithoneanother,inthewayof conjunctinfluence: the consequencesof the originaloffencewiththem,andwiththe act respectively,in thewayofderivation: the consequenceso[the modifiedoffence,withthe

ledbyamischievousnotionconcerningthedict_t_otthatr_h_ion,w_promptedto_ssin_tehim.

SeeB.I.t t.[Crim.circumstances].sSeeB.I.tit.[Justifications].• SeeB.I.tit.[Extenuationsl.' SeeB.I.tit.[Aggravations].

vii.] Of HumanActionsi_ Genera/. 81

eriminative,exeulpative,andextenuativeeircumstaneesrespee-tively,in the waya]_ of derivation: thesedifferentsetsofcircumstances,withthe consequencesof the modifiedact oroffence,in the wayof production: and withoneanother(inrespectofthe consequencesofthe modifiedactoroffence)inthewayofconjunctinfluence.Lastly,whatevercircumstancescanbeseento be connectedwiththeconsequencesofthe offence,whetherdirectlyin the wayof derivation,or obliquelyin thewayofcollateralaffinity(towit,invirtueofitsbeingconnected,in the wayof derivation,withsomeotthe circumstanceswithwhichtheystandconnectedinthe samemanner)bearamater_alrelationto theoffenceinthewayofevidence,theymayaccord-inglybe styledeviden_iarycircumstances,and maybecomeofuse, by beingheld forth uponoccasionas so many proofs,indications,or e_ddenceso_its ha_dngbeencommitted1.

xSeeB.I. tit.[AccessoryOffences]andB.II.tit.[Evidence].It isevidentthatthi_analysisIsequallyapphcabletoincidentsofa

purelyphysicalnature,astothoseinwhichmoralagencyisconcerned.Ifthereforeitbejustandusefulhere,itmightbefoundnotimpossible,per-haps,mfindsomeuseforitinnaturalphilosophy.

BF.I_AM 0

CHAPTERVIII.

OF INTENTIONALITY.

Recsp,tuh-I. So much_th regardto the twofirstofthearticlesupont,on.whichthe eviltendencyofanactionmaydepend:wz.theactitself,and thegeneralassemblageof the circumstanceswithwhichit mayhavebeenaccompanied.Wecomenowto con-siderthewaysinwhichtheparticuJarcircumstanceofin_nt/onmay beconcernedinit.

Theinch- II. First,then,the intentionor willmayregardeitheroftwotlonmay_xrd. objects: I. Theact itself: or, 2. Its consequences.Ofthese1.Theact:o,.2.T_e objects,that whichthe intentionregardsmaybestyledinten-OJllSe-quean, tional. If it regardsthe act, then the act may be saidtobe

intentional1: if the consequences,so alsothen maythe conse-quences. If it regardsboth the act and consequences,thewholeactionmaybesaidtobeintentional.Whicheverof thosearticlesisnot theobjectofthe intention,mayofcoursebesaidto beunintentional.

Amb;_uk'yof 1 On thisoccasion the wordsvoluntary and involuntaryare commonly_be,or_ employed. These, however, I purposelyabstainfrom,on accountof the_,_ory. extreme smbiguity of their m_aification. By a voluntary act is meant

sometimes,any act,in the performanceof whichthe willhashadany eon-cemat all ; in this sense it is synonymousto/n_nt/ona/: sometimessuchacts only, in the productionof which the will has been determinedbymotivesnot of a painfulnature ; in this sense it is synonymousto uncon-strained, or un_'_erced:sometimes such acts only, in the productionofwhich the will has been determinedby motives, which,whether of thepleasurableor painfulkind, occurredto a manhimself,without beingsug-gested by any bodyebe ; m this sense it is synonymons to apon_ane_.The senseof theword involuntarydoesnotcorrespondcompletely to thatof the wordvohmtacy. Involuntary is usedin opposition tointentional ;and to unconstrained: but not to spontaneous. It might beof use to con-fine thesignificationof the wordsvoluntaryand involuntaryto one singlnaudverynarrowcase,whichwillbemontionedin thenextnote.

OfIn_io_tity. 83III.Theactmayveryeasilybeintentionalwithoutthecon-Itma_re-• . garcltlie s_[_

sequences; andoftenisso. Thus,youmayintendtotoucha wlthoutanyof tile con-

man.withoutintendingto hurthim: andyet, as thecorse-s_qucno_quencesturnout,youmaychanceto hurthim.

IV.Theconsequencesofanactmayalsobeintentional,with---ortheo0n,sequencesouttheact'sbeingintentionalthroughout'thatis,withoutits_thoutre-' gartling thebeingintentionalineverystageofit: butthisisnotsofrequent_ctm_ itsstag_.

acaseastheformer.Youintendtohurtaman,suppose,byrun-ningagainsthim,andpushinghimdown: andyou runtowardshimaccordingly: but a secondmancomingin ona suddenbetweenyouandthefirstman,beforeyoncanstopyourself,yourun againstthe secondman,andby himpushdownthefirst.

V. But theconsequencesofanact cannotbe intentional,_ib_ntotwithouttheact'sbeingitselfintentionalin at leastthe first_i_s tao

.... _ sassy-stage. If the act benot intentionalm the firststage,it isno act of yours: thereis accordinglynointentionon yourparttoproducetheconsequences: thatistosay,the individualconsequences.Alltherecanhavebeenonyourpartisa distantingentiontoproduceotherconsequences,ofthesamenature,bysomeactofyours,ata futuretime: orelse,withoutanyinten-tion,abarew/shtoseesucheventtakeplace.Thesecondman,suppose,runsofhisownaccordagainstthefirst,andpusheshimdovrn.Youhadintentionsofdoinga thingofthesamenature:r/z.Torunagainsthim,andpushhimdownyourself; butyouhad donenothingin pursuanceof thoseintentions: theindi-vidualconsequencesthereforeoftheact,whichthesecondmanperformedin pushingdownthe first,cannotbe saidto havebeenonyourpart intentional1.

i TorendertheanalysisheregavenofthepossiblestatesofthemindinA_,cl,_tm...... t_oat_Inlitfu_pointofmtentionMityabsolutelycomplete,it mustbepushedtosuch&_t_mrt_fartherdegreeofminuteness,astosomeeyeswillbeapttoappeartrial...__Onthisaccountitseemedidvnmbletodiscardwhatfollows,fromthetext,._t_roftoaplacewhereanyonewhothinkspropermaypassbyit. Anactofthe='_=_-a_;body,whenofthepotiticskind,ist_motion: nowinmotiontheream_v-_tr.alwaysthreearticlesto beconsidered: ]. Thequantityofmatterthatmoves: z.Thedirectioninwhichit moves: and,3.Thevelocitywithwhichitmoves.Correspondenttothesethreearticles,aresomanymodeeofintentionality,withregardtoanact,consideredasbeingonlyinitsfirststage, Tobecompletelyunintentional,it mustbeunintentionalwith

02

84 Of lnte'ationalily. [chAP.

acon_. VI. Second. A consequence,whenit is intentional,mayquenc_,*heninten,eitherbe directlyso,or onlyobliquely. It may be saidto betiona],maybed,rectlydirectlyor lineallyintentional,whentheprospectof producingSO,orob-J_ueJy. it constitutedoneof the linksinthe chainof causesby which

the personwasdeterminedtodo theact. It maybe saidto beobliquelyorcollaterallyintentional,when,althoughtheconse-quencewasin contemplation,andappearedlikelyto ensueineaseoftheact'sbeingperformed,yettheprospectofproducingsuchconsequencedid not constitutea linkin the aforesaidchain.

Whendi- VII. Third. Anincident,whichisdirectlyintentional,mayfeebly,ulti. . -ma_lyso,oreitherbe ultimatelyso,oronly mediately.It maybesaidto bemed_y, ultimatelyintentional,whenit standslastof allexteriorevents

inthsaforesaidchainofmotives;insomuchthat theprospectoftheproductionofsuchincident,couldtherebeacertaintyofitstakingplace,wouldbe sufficientto determinethe will,withoutthe prospectof its producinganyother. It maybe saidto bemediatelyintentional,and nomore,whenthere is someotherincident,the prospectof producingwhichformsa subsequentlinkinthesamechain: insomuchthat theprospectofproducingrespecttoeveryoneofthccethreeparticulars.Thisistheca_ewiththeseactswhichaloneareproperlytermedinvol,,,ntary:acts,inthepertormancestwhichthewillhasnosortofshare:suchasthecontractionoftheheartandarteries.

Uponthisprinciple,actsthatareunintentionalintheirfirststage,maybedistmgmshedintosuchasaxecompletelyumntentional,amlsuchasareincompletelyunintentional: andtheseagainmaybeunintentional,eitherinpointofquantityofmatteralone,inpointofdirectionalone,inpointofvelocityalone,ormanytwoofthesepomt_together.

Theexamplegivenfurtheroumayeasilybeextendedtothispartoftheanalysis,byanyonewhothinksItworththewhile.

Thereseemtobeoccasmnsinwhicheventhesedisquisitions,minutetheymayappear,maynotbewithouttheiruseinpraetme.Inthecaseofhomicide,forexample,andothercorporalinjurie_,allthedistinotionsherespecifiedmayoccur,andinthecourseoftrialmay,forsomepurpoBeorother,requiretobebroughttomind,andmadethesubjectofdiseout_.Whatmaycontributetoreaderthementionofthempardonable,istheusethatmightpossiblybemadeoftheminnaturalphilosophy.Inthel_ndsofanexpertmetaphysician,these,togetherwiththeforegoingchapteronhumanactions,andthesectiononfactsingeneral,intitleEvidenceoftheBookofProcedure,might,perhaps,bemadeto contributesomethingtowardsanexhaustiveanalysisofthepossiblevarietiesofmechanicalinventions.

vm.] Of hdentio_ality. 85

theformerwouldnothaveoperatedasa motive,but forthetendencywhichitseemedtohavetowardstheproductionofthelatter.

VIII. Fourth.Whenan incidentisdirectlyintentional,itw-hendi-recUrrotes-mayeitherbeexclusivelyso,orinexclusively.It maybesaidt_o,,_l,it..... ma_'beex-tobeexcluswelyintentional,whennootherbutthatverynida-ea,;i_ely_o..... orinexclu-•adualincidentwouldhaveansweredthepurpose,insomuchthat_vely.nootherincidenthadanyshareindeterminingthewillto theactinquestion.It maybesaidtohavebeeninexelusively1in-tentional,whentherewassomeotherincident,theprospectofwhichwasactinguponthewillat thesametime.

IX. Fifth.Whenanincidentis inexclusivelyintentional,itWheninex-maybeeitherconjunctivelyso,disjunctively'. . etus_vely,itor_nd_scrzm_nately,maybeeon-

jsllcgively_It maybesaidtobeconjunctivelyintentionalwithregardl:Od_june-_- I;lve}y, or in-suchotherincident,whentheintentionistoproduceboth: ais-dlsenmm-

junctively,whentheintentionisto produceeithertheoneor"_l__o.theotherindifferently,butnotboth:indiscriminately,whentheintentionisindifferentlytoproduceeithertheoneortheother,or both,asit mayhappen.

X.Sixth.Whentwoincidentsaredisjunctivelyintentional,Whe,disJtlllcLP, e]_, rt

theymaybesowithorwithoutpreference.Theymaybesaidm,_bew3t,orwithouttobesowithpreference,whentheintentionis,thatoneofthemo_feren_inparticularshouldhappenrathcrthantheother: _ithoutpre-ference,whentheintentionisequ._llyfulfilled,whicheverofthemhappensz.

XI. Oneexamplewillmakeallthisclear.WilliamII.king_.xample.ofEngland,beingoutastag-hunting,receivedfromSirWalter

Orconcurrently.Thereisa differencebetweenthe casewherean incidentisaltogetherD,ffereaceb¢.

unintentional,and thatin which,it beingdislunetivelyintentionalwith_'_,,__'_'referenceto another,thepreferenceisinfavourof thatother. In thefirst_,int_t_J,and (|lsjuilc.case,it isnottheintentionofthepartythat theincidentin questionshould,_-'r_.t,o-happenat all: in the lattercase,the retentionis ratherthat the other"*_._h¢_the cle¢_on is

shouldhappen:butff thatcannotbe,thenthat thisinquestionshould_t°*ou_of.h_h_ppenratherthanthatneithershould,andthat both,at anyrate,shouldoVacr.nothappen.

Allthesearcdistinctionsto beattendedto intheuseoftheparticleor:a particleofveryambiguouslmport_andofgremtimportanceinlegislation.SeeAppend.tit.[Compositmn].

86 Of f_tio_alily. [cuAr,

Tyrrelawound,ofwhichhedied1. Letustakethiscase,anddiversifyitwithavarietyofsuppositions,correspondenttothedistinctionsjustlaiddown.

I. Firstthen,Tyrreldidnotsomuchasentertaina thoughtoftheking'sdeath; or,ifhedid,lookeduponitasaneventofwhichtherewasnodanger.In eitherofthesecasesthein-cidentofhiskillingthekingwasaltogetherurdntentional.

2. Hesawa stagrunningthat way,andhesawthekingridingthatwayat thesametime: whatheaimedat wastokillthestag: hedidnotwishtokilltheking: at thesametimehesaw,that if heshot,it wasaslikelyheshouldkillthekingasthestag: yet forallthat heshot,andkilledthekingac-cordingly.Inthiscasetheincidentofhiskillingthekingwasintentional,butobliquelyso.

3. Hekilledthekingonaccountofthehatredheborehim,andfornootherreasonthanthepleasureofdestroyinghim.Inthiscasetheincidentoftheking'sdeathwasnotonlydirectlybutultimatelyintentional.

+ Hekilledtheking,intendingfullysotodo; notforanyhatredheborehim,butforthesakeofplunderinghimwhendead.Inthiseasetheincidentoftheking'sdeathwasdirectlyintentional,butnotultimately: itwasmediatelyintentional.

5. Heintendedneithermorenorlessthantokilltheking.Hehadnootheraimnorwish.In thiscaseit wasexclusivelyaswellasdirectlyintentional:exclusively,towit,withregardtoeveryothermaterialincident.

6. SirWaltershotthekingintherightleg,ashewaspluck-inga thornoutofitwithhislefthand. Hisintentionwas,byshootingthearrowintohislegthroughhishand,tocripplehiminboththoselimbsat thesametime.In thiseasetheincidentof theking'sbeingshotin thelegwasintentional: andthatconjunctivelywithanotherwhichdidnothappen;v/z.hisbeingshotin thehand.

7. TheintentionofTyrrelwastoshootthekingeitherin thehandorin theleg,butnotinboth; andratherin thehand

Hume'sHist.

wn.] Of Iutentio_ality. 87

thaninthe leg. In thiscasethe intentionof shootinginthehandwasdisjunctivelyconcurrent,withregardtotheotherin-cident,and that withpreference.

8. Hisintentionwas toshootthekingeitherin the leg orthe hand,whichevermighthappen: butnot inboth. In thiscasetheintentionwasinexclusive,butdisjunctivelyso: yetthat,however,withoutpreference.

9. Hisintentionwasto shootthe kingeitherin the legorthe hand,or in both, as it might happen. In this casetheintentionwasindiscriminatelyconcurrent,withrespecttothetwoincidents.

XII. It isto beobserved,that anact maybeunintentionalhte_,t_onn_itVOf[ae ae_

inanystageorstagesofit,thoughintentionalinthepreceding:_,t_r_,_ctand,on the otherhand,it may be intentionalinanysta_eorent,t_-,,¢_ howfarml},-stagesof it, andyet unintentionalin the succeedinga. But_r_l.whetherit be intentionalorno in anyprecedingstage,is im-material,withrespecttotheconsequences,soit beunintentionalinthelast. Theonlypoint,withrespecttowhichit ismaterial,is the proof. Themorestagesthe act isunintentionalin, themoreapparentit willcommonlybe, thatit wasunintentionalwithrespectto the last. If aman,intendingto strikeyouenthecheek,strikesyouintheeye,andputsit out,it willprobablybe difficultforhimto provethat it wasnot hisintentiontostrikeyouintheeye. It willprobablybeeasier,ifhisintentionwasreallynottostrikeyou,orevennot to strikeat all.

XIII. It isfrequenttohearmenspeakofagoodintention,ofaood,,e_sand hfldlv

ahadintention; ofthe goodnessand badnessofaman'sinten-of,.t_,_oad_massed.

tion: acircumstanceonwhichgreatstressisgenerallylaid. Itisindeedofno smallimportance,whenproperlyunderstood:buttheimportofit isto thelastdegreeambiguousandobscure.Strictlyspeaking,nothingcanbe said to be goodor bad,buteitherinitself; whichis the caseonlywithpain or pleasure:oronaccountof itseffects; whichisthecaseonlywiththingsthat arethe causesorpreventivesofpainandpleasure.But ina figurativeandlessproperwayof speech,a thingmayalsobe

: Seech.vii.[Actions],par.I4_

88 OfIttte_lionality.

styledgoodorbad,inconsiderationofitscause.Nowtheeffectsofaninteationtodosuchorsuchanact,arethesameobj_tswhichwehavebeenspeakingofundertheappellationof itsconsequences: andthecausesofintentionarecalledmotives.Aman'sintentionthenonanyoccasionmaybestyledgoodorbad,withreferenceeithertotheconsequencesoftheact,orwithreferencetohismotives.If it bedeemedgoodorbadinanysense,it mustbeeitherbecauseit isdeemedtobeproductiveofgoodorofbadconsequences,orbecauseit isdeemedtooriginatefromagoodorfromabadmotive.Butthegoodnessorbad-hessoftheconsequencesdepettduponthecircumstances.Nowthecircumstancesarenoobjectsoftheintention.Amanin-tendstheact: andbyhisintentionproducestheact: butastothecircumstances,hedoesnotintendthem: hedoesnot,inas-muchastheyarecircumstancesof it, producethem. If byaccidenttherebea tewwhichhehasbeeninstrumentalinpro-ducing,it hasbeenbyformerintentions,directedtoformeracts,productiveofthosecircumstancesastheconsequences: at thetimeinquestionhetakesthemashefindsthem. Acts,withtheirconsequences,areobjectsof thewillas wellasof theunderstanding:circumstances,assuch,areobjectsoftheunder-standingonly. Allhecandowiththese,assuch,istoknowornottoknowthem: inotherwords,tobeconsciousofthem,ornotconscious.TothetitleofConsciousnessbelongswhatistobesaidofthegoodnessor badnessofaman'sintention,asresultingfromtheconsequencesoftheact: andto theheadofMotives,whatis tobesaidofhisintention,asresultingfromthemotive.

CHAPTERIX.

OF CONSCIOUSNESS.

I. Sofarwithregardto thewaysinwhichthewil!orinten-Connez_onof tinschap-tionmaybeconcernedin theproductionofanyincident: weterwiththecomenowto considerthe part whichthe understandingorforegoing.perceptivefacultymayhaveborne,withrelationto suchin-cident.

II. Acertainacthasbeendone,andthatintentional]y: thatactsadvisedand unad.actwasattendedwithcertaincircumstanc_: uponthesecir-vised:con-8ciollsnc_jcumstancesdependedcertainofitsconsequences;andamongstwhat.therest,allthosewhichwereofanaturepurelyphysical.Nowthen,takeanyoneofthesecircumstances,it isplain,thataman,at the timeofdoingtheact fromwhencesuchconsequencesensued,mayhavebeeneitherconscious,_'ithrespectto thiscircumstance,orunconscious.In otherwords,hemayeitherhavebeenawareofthecircumstance,or notaware: it mayeitherhavebeenpresentto hismind,ornotpresent. In thefirstcase,theactmaybesaidtohavebeenanadvisedact,withrespectto thatcircumstance: in theothercase,anunadvisedone.

III. Therearetwopoints,withregardtowhichanactmayvn_h_d-havebeenadvisedorunadvised: I. Theexistenceofthecircum-_-de_t_c_

elistence,orstanceitself. 2. Thematerialityofit1. mater_htyIV. It is manifest,that with referenceto thetimeof theThec_cum-

staricemayact,suchcircumstancamayhavebeeneitherprasent,past,orh_vobee_.f?/_YAre. pre_ent.pa_t,or

h d rut_V. Anactwhichisunadvised,iseitherheedless,ornot ee "Anunad-less. It is termedheedless,whenthecaseis thoughttobe"i_edactmaybe

heedless,orsuch,thata personofordinaryprudence2,if promptedbyan,otheedl_.i Seech.vii.[Actions],par.3. _Seecb.vi.[Seu_ibility],par.[2.

90 Of Co_sc_o_tle_Jo [CHAP,

ordinaryshareofbenevolence,wouldhavebeenlikelytohavebesgowedsuchandsomuchattentionandreflectionuponthematerialcircumstances,aswouldhaveeffectuallydisposedhimtopreventthemischievousincidentfromtakingplace:notheedless,whenthe caseisnot thoughtto besuchasabovementioned1

A,_i_d. VI.Again.Whetheramandidordidnotsupposetheex-vised_¢t,wh_,t.-A istenceormaterialityofagivencircumstance,itmaybethathemis-sup-po_L d_dsupposetheexistenceandmsterialityofsomecircumstance,

whicheitherdidnotexist,orwhich,thoughexisting,wasnotmaterial.Insucheasetheactmaybesaidtobemit-adm;sed,withrespecttosuchimaginedcircumstance:anditmaybesaid,thattherehasbeenanerroneoussupposition,oramis.tupp_salin thecase.

rhomp- VII. Nowa circumstance,theexistenceof whichis thuscir.cum_n_eerroneouslysupposed,maybematerialeither,I.Inthewayofmighthave . . .boenma-prevention:or,2.Inthatofcompensation.Itmaybesaidtoterialm the ....Imyeitherofbematerialmthewayofpreventlon,whenitseffectortendency,prevention • • 'orofcorn-haditeyasted,wouldhavebeentopreventtheobnoxaouscon-pem_tion.

sequences:inthewayofcompensation,whenthateffectorteudencywouldhavebeentoproduceotherconsequences,thebeneficialnessofwhichwouldhaveout-weighedthemischievous-nessoftheothers.

[tmayhaveVIII.Itismanifestthat,withreferencetothetimeofthebeensuf;-r_edp_.act,suchimaginarycircumstancemayineithercasehavebeenor_'t'rutur_St'supposedeithertobepresent,past,orfuture.Zxampl_,IX. Toreturnto theexampleexhibitedin thepreceding_ntmuedfromthelastchapter.chapter. Io. Tyrrelintendedt_)shootin thedirectionin whichhe

shot; buthedidnotknowthatthekingwasridingsonearthatway. In thiscasetheactheperformedinshooting,theactofshooting,wasunadvised,withrespectto theex/sCenceofthecircumstanceoftheking'sbeingsonearridingthatway.

Iz. Heknewthatthekingwasridingthatway: butatthe

SecB.I. tit.[Extenuations].

distanceatwhichthekingwas,heknewnotoi the probabilitythere wasthat the arrowwouldreachhim. In thiscasetheactwasunadvised,withrespectto themat_vzaldyof thecir-cumstance.

I2. Somebodyhad dipped the arrowin poison,withoutTyrrel'sknowingof it. In this casethe act wasunadvised,withrespectto the existenceof a pastcircumstance.

13.At the veryinstantthat Tyrreldrewthe bow,theking,beingscreenedfromhisviewby the foliageofsomebushes,wasridingfuriously,in such manneras to meet the arrowin adirect line: whichcircumstancewasalso morethan Tyrrelknewof. In this easethe act wasunadvised,withrespecttothe existenceof a presentcircumstance.

x4.The king being at a distancefrom court, could getnobodytodresshiswoundtillthe next day; ofwhichcircum-stanceTyrrelwasnotaware. In this casethe act wasunad-vised,withrespecttowhat wasthen afuturecircumstance.

15. Tyrrelknewofthe king'sbeingridingthat way,of hisbeingsonear,and soforth; butbeingdeceivedby the foliageofthebushes,hethoughthesawa bankbetweenthespotfromwhichheshot,andthat to whichthe kingwasriding. In thiscasetheact wasmis-aclvised,proceedingon themis.supposalofa preventivecircumstance.

16.Tyrrelknewthat everythingwasasabove,norwashedeceivedby the suppositionot any preventivecircumstance.But he believedthe king to be an usurper: and supposedhewascomingup toattack apersonwhomTyrrelbelievedtobethe rightfulking,and who wasridingby Tyrrel'sside. Inthis casethe act wasalsomis-advised,but proceededon thetufa-supposalof a compensativecircumstance.

X. Letusobservetheconnexionthereisbetweenintention-In,.h_caselntentlonsl, 1lad noseextelldsalityandconsciousness.Whenthe actitselfis' " oo_sc,oue-

• • the latch-withrespectto theexistenceof all the circumstancesadmsed,t_onaZifyasalsowithrespecttothematerialityofthosecircumstances,in_ht__ ctrelationtoa givenconsequence,and there is nomis-supposal_q_'withregardto anypreventivecircmmtance,thatconsequence

9z Of6'on_ciousneg,. [CHAI'.

mustalsobeintentional: inotherwor&; advisedness,withrespecttothecircumstances,ifclearfromthemis-supposalofanypreventivecircumstance,extendstheintentionalityfromtheact to theconsequences.Thoseconsequencesmaybeeitherdirectlyintentional,or onlyobliquelyso: but atanyratetheycannotbutbeintentional.

ExampleXI.Togoonwiththeexample.IfTyrrelintendedtoshoot_utin_. in thedirectioninwhichthekingwasridingup,andknewthat

thekingwascomingtomeetthearrow,andknewthepro-babilitytherewasofhisbeingshotinthatsamepartinwhichhewasshot,orinanotherasdangerous,andwiththatsamedegreeofforce,andsoforth,andwasnotmisledbytheerro-neoussuppositionofa circumstancebywhichtheshotwouldhavebeenpreventedtromtakingplace,oranysuchotherpre-ventivecircumstance,it isplainhecouldnotbuthaveintendedtheking'sdeath. Perhapshedidnotpositivelywishit ; butforallthat,inacertainsenseheintendedit.

A_i_d. XII.Whatheedlessnessis intheeaseof anunadvisedact,visedact_,,_be_l. rashnessisin thecaseofa misadvisedone.Amisadvisedactor notrash

thenmaybeeitherrashornotrash. It maybetermedrash,whenthecaseisthoughttobesuch,thatapersonofordinaryprudence,if promptedby an ordinaryshareofbenevolence,wouldhaveemployedsuchandsomuchattentionandreflectiontotheimaginedcircumstance,as,bydiscoveringtohimthenon-existence,improbability,or immaterialityof it, wouldhaveeffectuallydisposedhimtopreventthemischievousincidentfromtakingplace.

_e _ter_ XIII.In orchuarydiscourse,whena mandoesan act oftlonma bc • rgoodor_dwhwhtheconsequencespro_emischievous,it isa commonm itself m....dependentl.vthingtospeakofh_mashavingactedwithagoodintentionorofthemotit_" ,.1_w_ll_ withabadintention,ofhisintention'sbeinga goodoneorat_e,en_lbadone. Theepithetsgoodandbadareallthiswhileapplied,o_q_- wesee,to theintention: huttheapplicationofthemismost

commonlygovernedbyasuppositionformedwithregardtothenatureof themotive.Theact, thougheventuallyit provemischievous,issaidtobedonewithagoodintention,whenit is

Ix.] Of Conseiou_esg. 93

supposedtoissuefromamotivewhichislookeduponasagoodmotive: witha badintention,whenit is supposedtobetheresultofnmotivewhichislookeduponasabadmotive.Butthenatureoftheconsequencesintended,andthenatureofthemotivewhichgavebirthtothe intention,areobjectswhich,thoughintimatelyconnected,areperfectlydistinguishable.Theintentionmightthereforewithperfectproprietybestyledagoodone,whateverwerethemotive.It mightbe styledagoodone,whennotonlytheconsequencesoftheactprovemis-chievous,but themotivewhichgavebirthto it waswhatiscalledabadone. Towarrantthespeakingoftheintentionasbeingagoodone,it issufficientiftheconsequencesoftheact,hadtheyprovedwhattotheagenttheyseemedlikelyto be,wouldhavebeenof a beneficialnature. Andin the samemannertheintentionmaybe bad,whennotonlytheconse-quencesoftheactprovebeneficial,butthemotivewhichgavebirthto it wasa goodone.

XIV.Now,whenamanhasamindtospeakofyourinte_ionxtiBb_rwhenthein.asbeinggoodorbad,withreferencetotheconsequences,ifbe_,_io_,_meantt_bespeaksofit at allhemustusethewordintention,fortherespoke,or_

. being_x_isnoother. Butif amanmeanstospeakofthemotiveiromort_a.not_ ^_^ tosay,thewhichyourintentionoriginated,asbeingagoodora.......... t_

heiscertainlynotobligedtousethewordintention: it isatleastas welltousethewordmotive.Bythesuppositionhemeansthemotive; andverylikelyhemaynotmeantheinten-tion. Forwhatistrueoftheoneisveryoftennottrueoftheother. Themotivemaybegoodwhenthe intentionisbad:theintentionmaybegoodwhenthemotiveisbad: whethertheyarebothgoodorbothbad,ortheonegoodandtheotherbad,makes,asweshallseehereafter,averyessentialdifferencewithregardtotheconsequences1. It isthereforemuchbetter,whenmotiveismeant,nevertosayintention.

XV.Anexamplewillmakethisclear.Outofmaliceamangxa_$e.prosecutesyouforacrimeofwhichhebelievesyoutobeguilty,butofwhichinfactyouarenotguilt7. Heretheconsequences

See oh.xii. [Consequences].

94 OfCon_u_e_*. [C_AP.

ofhisconductaremischievous: fortheyaremischievoustoyouat anyrate,invirtueoftheshameandanxietywhichyouarcmadetosufferwhilethepro._eeutionisdepending: towhichisto beadded,ineaseofyourbeingconvicted,theevilofthepunishment.Toyouthereforetheyaremischievous; noristhereanyonetowhomtheyarebeneficial.Theman'smotivewasalsowhatiscalledabadone:totmalicewillbeallowedbyeverybodytobeabadmotive.However,theconsequencesofhisconduct,hadtheyprovedsuchashebelievedthemlikelytobe,wouldhavebeengood: forin themwouldhavebeenin-cludedthepunishmentofacriminal,whichisabenefittoallwhoareexposedtosufferbyacrimeofthelikenature. Theintentiontherefore,in thiscase,thoughnotinacommonwayofspeakingthemotive,mightbestyledaqoodone. Butofmotivesmoreparticularlyin thenextchapter.

Intention,XVI.Inthesamesensetheintention,whetheritbepositivelyi"_tt _ygoodorno,solongasit isnotbad,maybetermedinnocent.

taa_n_Accordingly,lettheconsequenceshaveprovedmischievous,andletthemotivehavebeenwhatit will,theintentionmaybetermedinnocentineitheroftwocases: I. In thecaseofun.advisednesswithrespecttoanyofthecircumstancesonwhichthemischievousnessoftheconsequencesdepended: z. In thecaseofrnis-advisednesswithrespecttoanycircumstance,which,haditbeenwhatitappearedtobe,wouldhaveservedeithertopreventortooutweighthemischief.

1,to,,tio_l-XVII.Afewwordsforthepurposeofapplyingwhathast_]?andoon-8cJousn_.beensaidtotheRomanlaw.Unintentionality,andinnocencehowspokenot_th+ of intention,seembothtobeincludedin thecaseof infor.s.maa_w,tunium,wherethereisneitherdolusnorculpa.Unadvisedness

coupledwithheedlessness,andmis-advisednesscoupledwithrashness,correspondto theculpasinedolo.Directintention-alitycorrespondstodolus.Obliqueintentionahtyseemshardlytohavebeendistinguishedfromdirect; wereit tooccur,itwouldprobablybedeemedalsotocorrespondtodolus,Thedivisioninl,oculpa,fats,leviz,andlevissima,issuchasnothingcertaincancorrespondto.Whatisitthatitexpresses?Adis-

xx.] Of Cou,eioug_les,. 95

tinction, not in the caseitself, but only in the sentiments whichany person(a judge, for instance) may findhimself disposedtoentertainwith relationto it: supposingit alreadydistinguishedinto three subordinate cases by other means.

The worddolu,seems ill enoughcontrived: the wordculpa asindifferently. Dolus,upon anyother occasion,wouldbe under-_toodto implydeceit, concealment1,elandestinity2: but hereitis extended to open force. Culpa, upon any oCheroccasion,would be understood to extend to blame of every kind. Itwould therefore include dolusa

XVlII. The above-mentioneddefinitions anddistinctions are useofthis1. andthepre-

farfrombeing meremattersof speculation. They are capaole_edmgofthe most extensiveand constant application, as well to moralclmpter, idiscourseas to legislativepractice. Upon the degreeand biasofa man's intention, upon the absenceor presence ofconscious-ness or mis-supposal, depend a great part of the good and bad,moreespecially ofthe bad consequencesofan act; and on this, ,:.as well as othergrounds, a great part of the demand forpumsh.

t SeeB.I. tit. [Theft]verbs[amenable].t Dolus,an virtusquisinhosterequirit?--¥n_arr_

a I pretendnot here to giveanydeterminateexplanationofa set ofwords,ofwhichthegreatmisfortuneis,thattheimportofthemisconfusedand indeterminate.Ispeak onlybyapproximation.Toattempttodeter-minethepreciseimportthat hasbeengiventhembyahundredthpartofthe authorsthathaveusedthem,wouldbean endlesstask.WouldanyonetalkintelligiblyonthissubjectinLatin?let himthrowout do/usa]to-gether: let him keepzu/pa,forthe purposeofexpressingnot the caseitself,butthesentimentthatisentertainedconcerningaeasedescribedbyothermeans.Forintentionality,lethimcoina wordboldly,andsayinten-|iono2ita,: forunintentionality,non-imo_/ona//taz.Forunadvisedness, _"hehasalreadythewordin,citia: thoughthewordsim_rudentia,im_b_er-varY,h,wereit notfor theothersensestheyareusedin,woulddo better: ;"forunadvisednesscoupledwithheedlessness,lethims_yiuscitiaculpabilis.forunadvisednesswithoutheedlessness,inscitiaimulpabilis:formis-ad-visednesscoupledwithr_shne_,erroroulpobilis,error_emerarius,ore_,curelemeritate: formis-_ivisednesswithoutrashness,errorineu/pabg/s, o,errornon4emerarius,orerrora/hetemer/tatc.Itisnotunfrequentlikewisetomeetwiththephrase,ma/oanlmo:a

phrasestillmoreindeterraingte,ifpossible,thananyoftheformer.Itseemtohaver_ferenceeithertointentionality,ortoconsciousness,ortothemotive,ortothedisposition,ortoanytwoormoreofthesetakentogether;nobodycantellwhich:thesebeingobjectswhichseemtohaveneverhithertobeenproperlydistinguishedanddefined.

96 Of Con_eiou_es,.

ment1. Thepresenceofintentionwithregardtosuchorsucha consequence,andofconsciousnesswithregardtosuchorsucha circumstance,oftheact,willformsomanycriminativecircum-stances2,or essentialingredientsin the compositionofthis orthatoffence: appliedtoothercircumstances,consciousnesswillforma groundof aggravation,annexableto the likeoffences.In almostall cases,the absenceoI intentionwithregardtocertainconsequences,andthe absenceof consciousness,or thepresenceofmis-supposal,withregardtocertaincircumstances,willconstitutesomanygroundsofextenuation4.

i Seech.xiii.[Casesunmeet].SeeB.I.tit.[Circumstancesinfluencing].

t SeeB.I.tit.[Aggrav_tmnsJ.6SeeB.I. tit.[Extenu_tio_].

CHAPTERX.

OF MOTIVES.

§ I. Differentsensesof the wordmotivea.

I. ITisanacknowledgedtruth,thatevery"kindofactwhat-Uotive_whycon-

ever,andconsequentlyeverykindofoffence,isapt toassumea ,id_ed.clifferentcharacter,andbeattendedwithdifferentettects,accord-ingtothenatureofthemotivewhichgivesbirthtoit.Thismakesitrequisitetotakeaviewoftheseveralmotivesbywhichhumanconductisliabletobeinfluenced.If.Byamotive,inthemostextensivesenseinwhichthe1_rsJy_-CtlLgtlVe1][10•

wordis everusedwithreferenceto a thinkingbeing,ismeant_ve_havenothingtoanythingthatcancontributetogivebirth to,oreventopre-dobore.vent,anykindofaction. Nowthe actionof a thinkingbeingistheacteitherofthebody,or onlyofthemind:andanactofthemindisan acteitheroftheintellectualfaculty,orof the j]will. Actsoftheintellectualfacultywillsometimesrestintheunderstandingmerely,withoutexertinganyinfluenceinthepro- _ductionofanyactsof the will. Motives,whicharenotof anatureto influenceanyotheractsthan those,maybe styledpurelyspeculativemotives,or motivesrestingin speculation.Butastotheseacts,neitherdotheyexerciseanyinfluenceover

zNotebytheauthor,July,i8z2.Foratabulazsimult_meousviewofthewholeI_stofgozzv_s,mconjunc-

tionwiththecorrespondentl_/e_sure_and_i_, interest_andd_n're_,see.l_othes_meauthor,TableoftH81_i,tgsofAction,&c.,withExplanatory

teeandOb_rvatiom.London: I8t7,Hunter,S_.Paul'sChurchYard,

tionmorecomprehensivethanthewordme/ire,and onsomeoco_ionsmoreappasite.

Bm_JL._ It

98 OfMotion. [C_AF.externalacts,orovertheirconsequences,norconsequentlyoveranypainor anypleasurethat maybe in the numberofsuchconsequences.Nowit isonlyonaccountoftheirtendencytoproduceeitherpainorpleasure,thatany actscanbe material.Withacts,therefore,that restpurelyintheunderstanding,wehavenothereanyconcern:northereforewithanyobject,if anysuchtherebe,which,inthe characterofamotive,canhavenoinfluenceon anyotheractsthanthose.

_to.__ III. Themotiveswithwhichalonewehaveanyconcern,arethewillsuchasareofa naturetoactuponthewill. Byamotivethen,inthissenseofthe word,is to beunderstoodany thingwhat-soever,which,by influencingthewillof a sensitivebeing,issupposedto serveas a meansof determininghim to act,orvoluntarilytoforbearto act1,uponanyoccasion.Motivesofthissort,incontradistinctiontotheformer,maybestyledprac-t/calmotives,or motivesapplyingto practice.

lCi_urativ,IV Owin_to the povertyandunsettledstateof language,and unflgur- " _ .attve9ensesthe wordmotzveis employedindiscriminatelyto denotetwocftheword.

kindsofobjects,which,forthebetterunderstandingofthesub-jeer,itisnecessaryshouldbedistinguished.Onsomeoccasionsit isemployedto denoteanyof thosereallyexistingincidentsfromwhencetheact in questionis supposedto takeits rise.Thesenseit hearsontheseoccasionsmaybestyledits literalorunf_urativesense. Onotheroccasionsitisemployedtodenoteacertainfictitiousentity,apassion,anattectionofthemind,anidealbeingwhichupon the happeningof anysuchincidentisconsideredas operatingupon the mind,and promptingit totakethat course,towardswhichit is impelledby the influence

WhentheelleetortendencyoIa motiveistodetermineamantofor-beartoact,it mayseemimpropertomakeuseofthetermmaioe:sincemotive,properlyspeaking,meansthatwhichdisposesanobjecttomo_e.Wemusthoweverusethatimproperterm,oratermwhich,thoughproperenough,isscarceinuse,theworddeterminative.Bywayofjustitication,oratleastapology,forthepopularusageinthisbehalf,it maybeobserved,thatevenforbearancetoact,orthenegationofmotion(thatis,o[bodilymotion)supposesanactdone,whensuchforbearanceisvoluntary.Itsup-poses,towit,anactofthewill,whichisasmuchapositiveact,asmuchamotion,asanyotheractofthethinkingsubstance.

x.] OfMotives. 99ofsuchincident.MotivesofthisclassareAvarice,Indolence,Benevolence,andsoforth; asweshallseemoreparticularlytartheron. Thislattermaybestyledthefujurativesenseofthetermmotive.

V.Asto therealincidents'towhichthenameofmotiveis_otiv_in-teriorandalsogiven,thesetooareoftwoverydifferentkinds. Theyextenor.maybeeither,I. Theinternalperceptionofanyindividuallotofpleasureorpain,theexpectationotwhichislookeduponascalculatedtodetermineyoutoactinsuchorsuchamanner;asthepleasureofacquiringsucha sumofmoney,thepainofexertingyourselfonsuchanoccasion,andsoforth: or,2.Anyexternalevent,thehappeningwhereofisregardedashavingatendencytobringabouttheperceptionofsuchpleasureorsuchpain; forinstance,thecomingupofalotteryticket,bywhichthepossessionofthemoneydevolvestoyou; orthebreakingoutofafireinthehouseyouarein,whichmakesitnecessaryforyoutoquitit. Theformerkindofmotivesmaybetermedinterior,orinternal: thelatterexterior,orexternal.

VI.TwoothersensesofthetermmotiveneedaJsotobedis-_o_v8inT • • 10_OSpeg_-tinguished.Motiverefersnecessarilytoaction.It Isapleasure,_,otivein

pain,orotherevent,thatpromptstoaction.Motivethen,ine_,_.onesenseoftheword,mustbeprevioustosuchevent. But,fora manto begovernedbyanymotive,hemustineverycaselookbeyondthateventwhichiscalledhisaction; hemustlooktotheconsequencesofit : andit isonlyin thiswaythattheideaofpleasure,ofpain,orofanyotherevent,cangivebirthto it. tiemustlook,therefore,ineverycase,to someeventposteriorto theactincontemplation: aneventwhichasyetexistsnot,butstandsonlyinprospect.Now,asitisinallcasesdifficult,andinmostcasesunnecessary,todistinguishbetweenobjectssointimatelyconnected,astheposteriorpos-sibleobiectwhichis thuslookedforwardto,andthepresentexistingobjectoreventwhichtakesplaceuponaman'slookingforwardtotheother,theyarebothofthemspokenofunderthesameappellation,motive.Todistinguishthem,theonefirstmentionedmaybe termeda motivein_ospect,theothera

H2

leo OfMot_**_. [c_AP.motiveines,e: and undereachof thesedenominationswillcomeaswellexteriorasinternalmotives.Afirebreaksoutinyourneighbour'shouse: youareunderapprehensionofitsex-tendingtoyourown: youareapprehensive,thatif youstayini'_,youwillbeburnt:youaccordinglyrunoutofit. Thisthenis the act : the othersareallmotivesto it. Theevent ofthefire'sbreakingoutinyourneighbour'shouseisanexternalmotive,and that in ease: the idea or beliefof the proba-biLityof the fire'sextendingtoyour ownhouse,that of yourbeingburnt if you continue,and the pain you fee]at thethoughtofsucha catastrophe,areallsomanyinternalevents,butstill inease: the eventof thefire'sactuallyextendingtoyourownhouse,and thatof yourbeingactuallyburntby it,externalmotivesinprospect:the painyouwouldfeelat seeingyourhousea burning,andthe painyouwouldfeelwhileyouyourselfwereburning,internalmotivesin prospect: whichevents,accordingas thematterturnsout,maycometo beine,sse: but thenof coursetheywillceasetoact asmotives.

_totlvesira. VII. Ofallthesemotive.,whichstandnearestto the act,tomediateandremote, the productionof whichthey allcontribute,is that internal

motivein easewhichconsistsintheexpectationoftheinternalmotivein prospect: the painor uneasinessyou feel st thethoughtsofbeingburnt1. Allothermotivesaremoreorlessremote: themotivesinprospect,inproportionastheperiodatwhichtheyareexpectedto happenis moredistantfromtheperiodatwhichtheact takesplace,andconsequentlylaterinpointoftime: themotivesinease,inproportionastheyalsoaremoredistantfromthat period,andconsequentlyearlierinpointof time_.

*Whetheritbetheexpec*ationofbeiugburnt_orthepainthataeeom-IroniesChatexpectation,thatistheimmediateinternalmotivespokenof,maybediffleulttodetermine.Itmayovenbequestioned,perhaps,whethertheyaredistinctentities.Bothquestions,however,seemtobemereques-tionsofwords,andthesolutionofthemaltogetherimmaterial.EventheotherkindsoImotives,thoughforsomepurposestheydemandaseparateconsideration,are,however,sointimatelyallied,thatitwilloftenbescarce_mcticable,andnotalwaysmaterial,toavoidconfoundingthem,astheyavealwayshithertobeenconfounded.

UnderthetermuasmustbeincludedaswellpaneJdstenoe,withre-

x.] Of_o_ives. IolVIII.It hasalreadybeenobserved,thatwithmotivesof_oti*ea'o

whichtheinfluenceterminatesaltogetherintheunderstanding,_',_'"• . howtheywehavenothingheretodo. Ifthen,amongstobjectsthataremayin,_-

spokenofasmotiveswithreferencetotheunderstanding,_nere"_wai.t_ebeanywhichconcernushere,it isonlyinasfarassuchobjectsmay,throughthemediumoftheunderstanding,exerciseaninfluenceoverthewill.It isinthisway,andinthiswayonly,thatanyobjects,invirtueofanytendencytheymayhavetoinfluencethesentimentofbelief,mayinapracticalsenseactinthecharacterofmotives.Anyobjects,bytendingtoinduceabeliefconcerningtheexistence,actual,orprobable,ofapracticalmotive; thatis,concerningtheprobabilityofamotiveinpros-pect,ortheexistenceofamotiveinesse;mayexerciseaninfluenceonthewill,andrankwiththoseothermotivesthathavebeenplacedunderthenameofpractical.Thepointingoutofmotivessuchasthese,iswhatwefrequentlymeanwhenwetalkofgivingreasons.Yourneighbour'shouseisonfireasbefore.I observetoyou,thatatthelowerpartofyourneigh-hour'shouseissomewood-work,whichjoinsontoyours; thattheflameshavechughtthiswood-work,andsoforth;whichIdoinordertodisposeyoutobelieveasI believe,thatifyoustayinyourhousemuchlongeryouwillbeburnt. In doingthis,then,Isuggestmotivestoyourunderstanding; whichmotives,bythetendencytheyhavetogivebirthtoorstrengthenapain,whichoperatesuponyouinthecharacterofaninternalmotiveinezse,jointheirforce,andactasmotivesuponthewill.

§z. Nomotiveseitherconstantly9oodorconstantlyba_.

IX.Inallthischainofmotives,theprincipalororiginallink_'oth,n_a_n• actofitselfseemstobethelastinternalmotiveinprospect: it isWthisas,_o_,,._

ferenceto a givenperiod,as_esent. Theyareequally real,in comparisonwith what is asyet but future. Languageis mater_allydeficiet_t,in notenablingustodistinguishwithprecisionbetweenex/_nceasopposedtourwealityandpresentexistenceasopposedtopast.ThowordexistenceinEnglish,andesse,adoptedbylawyersfromtheLatin,havetheincon-venienceof appearingto confinethe existence in questionto somesingle iperiodconsideredasbeingpresent.

Io2 Of Motives. [Cl_P.

huttheideas that alltheothermotivesinprospectowetheirmateriality: andofpleasureorpai,. the immediatelyactingmotiveits existence. Thismotivein

prospect,wesee,isalwayssomepleasure,or somepain; somepleasure,whichthe actinquestionisexpectedtobea meansofcontinuingor producing: somepainwhichit isexpectedto beameansofdiscontinuingor preventing.A motiveissubstan-tiallynothingmorethanpleasureor pain,operatinginacertainmanner.

Nosortor X. Now,pleasureis in itse!fa good' nay,evensettingasidemotiveisIll .

itselfabadnnmunityfrompain,the onlygood: painis initselfan evil;GIle.and,indeed,withoutexception,the onlyevil; orelsethewordsgoodandevilhavenomeaning.Andthisisaliketrueofeverysortof pain,andof everysortof pleasure. It follows,there-fore,immediatelyandincontestibly,that thereis nosuchthingasanysortofmotivethatis initselfa badone1.

InaccuracyXI.It iscommon,however,tospeakofactionsasproceedingofexpres-_,o_,, from_?oodorbadmotives:inwhichcasethemotivesmeantarewhichgoo_lor_'_ such as are internal. The expressionis far frombeing anappliedtomotlves,accurateone; and asit is apt to occurin the considerationof

almosteverykindof offence_it willbe requisiteto settle theprecisemeaningofit,andobservehowfar it quadrateswiththetruth of things.

A._tof XlI. With respectto goodnessandbadness,as it is withUlOtate _ay_i,eb_rthtoeverythingelsethat is notitselfeitherpainor pleasure,soisitanysor_of•ct. withmotives. If theyare goodorbad,it isonlyonaccountof

theireffects: good,on accountof their tendencyto producepleasure,or avertpain : bad,onaccountof theirtendencytoproducepain,oravertpleasure.Nowthe caseis,that fromoneandthe samemotive,andfromeverykindofmotive,maypro-ceedactionsthat are good,othersthat arebad,andothersthat

x Let a man's motive beill-will ; callit even malice,envy, cruelty; it isstill a kind of pleasure that is his motive : the pleasure he takes at thethoughtof thepainwhich he sees,orexpects to see,his adversary undergo.Noweventhis wretchedpleasure, t_kcn by itself,is good: it may befaint;it may be short : it must at any rate,be impure : yet while it lasts, andbeforeanybadconsequencesarrive,itisasgoodasanyotherthatisnot"moreintense.I%och.iv.[Value].

x.] OfMotives. Io3

areindifferent.Thisweshallproceedtoshewwithm_pecttoallthedi_erentkindsofmotives,asdeterminedbythevariouskindsofpleasuresandpaine.

XIII. Suchananalysis,usehtlasit is,willbefoundtobeaDifficultieswhich stand

matterofnosmalldifficulty; owing,ingreatmeasure,toacer-inthew_Ofan Bri-

tain perversityofstructurewhichprevailsmoreorlessthrough-Jr_sortb_outallhnguages.Tospeakofmotives,asofanythingelse,sorLonemustcallthembytheirnames.Butthemisfortuneis,thatit is raretomeetwitha motiveofwhichthenameexpressesthatandnothingmore. Commonlyalongwiththeverynameofthemotive,is tacitlyinvolvedapropositionimputingtoitacertainquality;aquafitywhich,inmanycases,willappeartoincludethatverygoodnessorbadness,concerningwhichwearehereinquiringwhether,properlyspeaking,it beorbenotim-putabletomotives.Tousethecommonphrase,inmostcases,thenameofthemotiveisawordwhichisemployedeitheronlyina9oodsense,orelseonlyinabadsense.Now,whenawordisspokenofasbeingusedinagoodsense,allthatisnecessarilymeantisthis: thatinconjunctionwiththeideaoftheobjectitisputtosignify,it conveysanideaofapprobation: thatis,ofapleasureorsatisfaction,entertainedbythepersonwhoemploysthetermatthethoughtsofsuchobject. Infikemanner,whenawordis spokenofasbeingusedina badsense,allthatisnecessarilymeantis this: that,in conjunctionwiththeideaof theobjectit isput tosignify,it conveysan ideaofdisapprobation: that is, of a displeasureentertainedbythepersonwhoemploysthetermat the thoughtsof such iiobject.Now,thecircumstanceon whichsuchapprobation '_isgroundedwill,asnaturallyasanyother,betheopinionof ithegoodnessof theobjectin question,as aboveexplained: _.such,at least,it mustbe, upontheprincipleofutility: so,ontheotherhand,thecircumstanceonwhichanysuchdis- ;Iapprobationis grounded,will,asnaturallyas anyother,betheopinionof thebadnessoftheobject: such,at least,itmustbe,inasfaras theprincipleofutilityis takenfar thestandard.

Io4 OfMotives. [chAr.

Nowtherearecertainmotiveswhich,unlessina fewpar-tieularcases,havescarcelyanyothernametobeexpressedby butsucha wordasis usedonlyinagood_ense.Thisisthecase,forexample,withthemotivesofpietyandhonour.Theconsequenceotthisis,thatit,inspeakingofsuchamotive,a manshouldhaveoccasiontoapplytheepithetbadtoanyactionswhichhementionsas apttoresultfromit, hemustappearto be guiltyofa contradictionin terms. But thenamesof motiveswhichhavescarcelyanyothernametobeexpressedby,but sucha wordas isusedonlyina badsense,aremanymore1. Thisisthecase,forexample,withthemotivesoflustandavarice.Andaccordingly,ifinspeakingofanysuchmotive,amanshouldhaveoccasiontoapplytheepithetsgoodorindifferenttoanyactionswhichhementionsasapttoresultfromit,hemustherealsoappeartobeguiltyofasimilarcontradiction2.

Thisperverseassociationofideascannot,it isevident,butthrowgreatdifficultiesin thewayoftheinquirynowbeforeus.Confininghimselftothelanguagemostinuse,amancanscarceavoidruJming,inappearance,intoperpetualcontradictions.Hispropositionswillappear,ontheonehand,repugnanttotruth;andontheotherhand,adversetoutility. Asparadoxes,theywillexcitecontempt: asmischievousparadoxes,indignation.Forthetruthshelabourstoconvey,howeverimportant,andhoweversalutary,hisreaderisneverthebetter:andhehimselfismuchtheworse.Toobviatethisinconvenience,completely,hehasbutthisoneunpleasantremedy; to layasidetheoldphraseologyandinventa newone. Happythemanwhose

Forthere_on, seechap.xi.[Dispositions],par.xvii.note.J Tothisimperfectionoflang-nage,andnothingmore,aretob__ttribute..d,

ingreatmeasure,thevlo]entclamoursthathavefromtimetotimebeenraised8gainstthoseingeniousmoralists,who,tr_vellingoutofthebeatentractof speculation,h_vefoundmoreor ]e_sdifficultyin disentanglingthemselvesfromtheshscldesofordinJrylsnguage: suehasRochefoueaul_,MsndevilleandHe/vetius.Totheunsoundnessof theiropinions,and,withstillgreaterinju_t/ee,to thecorruptionof theirhearts,wasoftenira.puted,whatw_smo_t,commonlyowingeitherto _wantofskill,inmsttersoflanguageonthepartof theauthor,or _wantofdiscernment,possiblynowandtheninsomeinstaacesawantof probity,onthepsrtofthecom-mentator,

x ] Of Motives. 1o5

languageis ductileenoughto permithimthisresource.Topalliatetheinconvenience,wherethatmethodofobviatingit isimpracticable,hehasnothingleftforit butto enterintoa longdiscussion,to statethewholematterat large,to confess,thatforthesakeof promotingthe purposes,he hasviolatedtheestabfishedlawsof language,and to throwhimselfuponthemercyofhisreaders1.

§ 3.CatalogueofmotivescorrespondingtothatofPleasures

andPains. tXIV. From thepleasuresof the senses,consideredin thePhysacalde-8U_corI_-

gross,resultsthemotivewhich,inaneutralsense,maybetermedspendingto..... ". ples_ure_of ,

physicaldesire: mabad sense,it istermedsensuality.Name_n_em iusedinagoodsenseit hasnone. Ofthis,nothingcanbedeter-_neral. 4

mined,till it beconsideredseparately,withreferenceto theseveralspeciesof pleasuresto whichit corresponds.

XV.Inparticular,then,tothepleasuresoIthetasteorpalatethemotivecorrespond-

correspondsa motive,whichina neutralsensehavingreceived,,___bepleasuresofnonamethat canserveto expressit in all cases,canonlybe_hs_t_t_termed,bycirctunlocution,theloveofthepleasuresofthepalate.In particulareasesit isstyledhunger: inothers,thirst2. Theloveofgoodcheerexpressesthismotive,butseemstogobeyond:

Happily,languageisnotalwayssointractable,butthatbymakinguseoftwowordsinstea_ofone,a manmayavoidtheinconvenienceoffabri-catingwordsthatareabsolutelynew.Thusinsteadelthewordlust,by _.puttingtogethertwowordsincommonuse,hemayframetheneutralex-pression,sexualdesire: insteadofthewordavarice,byputtingtogethertwootherwordsalsoincommonuse,hemayframetheneutralexpression,_neCtuniaryinterest.This,accordingly,isthecoursewhichI havetaken.

heseinstances,indeed,eventhecombinationisnotnovel: theonlynoveltythereisconsistsinthesteadyadherencetotheoneneutralex-pression,rejectingaltogethertheterms,ofwhichtheimportisinfectedbyadventitiousandunsuitableideas. _i

Inthecatalogueofmotives,correspondingtotheseveralsortsofpainssadpleasures,Ihaveinsertedsuchashaveoccurredtome. I cannotpretendtowarrantitcomplete.Tomakesureofrenderingitso,theonlywaywouldbe,to turneverthedictionaryfrombeginningto end:anopera-tionwhich,inaviewtoperfection,wouldbenecessaryformorepurposesthanthis. SeeB.I.tit.[:Defamation],andAppend.tit.[Composition].

sHungerandthirst,consideredinthelightofmotives,importnotsomuchthedesireofa:particularkindofpleasure,asthedesireofremovingapositivekindofpare.Theydonotextendtothedesireofthat,kindof _pleasurewhiohdepea&onthechoiceoffoodsandliqtmr&

Io6 OfMo_ive#. [c_F.

intimating,that thepleasureis to bepartakenof incompany,andinvolvingakindof sympathy. Ina badsense,it isstyledin somecasesgreediness,voraciousness,glutbony: in others,principallywhenapphedto children,lickerishness.It may insomecasesalsoberepresentedby theworddaintiness.Nameusedinagoodsenseit hasnone. I. Aboy,whodoesnotwantforvictuals,stealsa cakeoutofapastry-cook'sshop,andeatsit.In thiscasehismotivewillbeuniversallydeemeda badone:andifit beaskedwhatit is,it maybeanswered,perhaps,licker-ishness.2.Aboybuyss cakeoutof apastry-cook'sshop,andeatsit. In thiscasehismotivecanscarcelybe lookedul_onaseithergoodorbad,unlesshis mastershouldbeoutof humourwith him; andthenperhapshemay call it hckerishness,asbefore.In bothcases,however,hismotiveis the same. It isneithermorenor less thanthe motivecorrespondingto thepleasuresof thepalate1.

_ de- XVI. Tothe pleasuresof thesexualsensecorrespondsthesi_'es(,:orre....spondin_tomotivewhich,maneutralsense,maybetermedsexualdesire.thoplea.sure . .octhesexualIn a badsense,it isspokenofunderthenameoflasciviousness,mine andavarietyofother namesof reprobation. Nameusedin a

goodsenseit hasnone_I. ,4,man ravishesa virgin. In this casethe motiveis,with-

out scruple,termedby the nameof lust, lasciviousness,andsoforth ; andis universallylookeduponas a badone. 2. Thesameman,at anothertime,exercisesthe rightsofmarriagewithhiswife. In this casethe motiveis accounted,perhaps,agoodone,or at least indifferent: andhere peoplewouldscrupletocall it by any of those names. In both cases,however,the

1It willnotbeworthwhile,ineverycase,togiveaninstanceinwhichthe actionmaybeindifferent: if goodaswellasbadacf_onsmayresultf_omthesamemotive,itiseasytoconceive,thatalsomaybeindifferent.

I Loveindeedincludessometimesthiside_:hutthenit canneveranswerthe purposeof exhibitLugit separately:eincetherearethreemotives,atleast,thatmayallofthembei_cludedinit,besidesthis: theloveofbeautycorrespondingtotheplessm'esoftheeye,andthemotivescorrespondingtothoseofamityandbenevolence.Wespeakoftheloveofchildren,oftheloveofparents,oftheloveofGod.Thesepioususestoottheappellation,andpreserveitfromtheignominypouredforthuponitsprofaneassociates.Evensensuallovewouldnotanswerthepurpoae;sincethatwouldincludetheloveofbeanty.

x,] OfMo_ire_. Io7motivemaybe preciselythesame.In bothcasesitmaybeneithermorenorlessthansexualdesire•

XVII.Tothepleasuresofcuriositycorrespondsthemotivecutouts,knownbythesamename: and ' . _c.co_r_whichmaybeotherwisecalleds_nd,n_to

• • theplea-theloveofnovelty,ortheloveofexperiment; and,onparta-_u_o¢cularoccasions,sport,andsometimesplay, cumosit.v.

I. Aboy,inordertodiverthimself,readsanimprovingbook:themotiveisaccounted,perhaps,agoodone: atanyratenotabadone.2.Hesetshistopaspinning: themotiveisdeemed,at anyrate,notabadone. 3. Hesetslooseamadoxamongacrowd;hismotiveisnow,perhaps,termed_:nabominableone.Yetinallthreecasesthemotivemaybetheverysame: itmaybeneithermorenorlessthancuriosity•• XVIII.Asto theotherpleasuresof sensetheyareoftoo_'onetolittleconsequencetohavegivenanyseparatedenominationsto_,e_s_.ur_orthecorrespondingmotives.

XIX.TothepleasuresofwealthcorrespondsthesortofmotivePecun,aryinterest_owhich,inaneutralsense,maybetermedpecuniaryinterest: intheI_lea-6ure,sofabadsense,it is termed,insomecases,avarice,covetousness,wealth.rapacity,orlucre:inothercases,niggardliness:inagoodsense,butonlyinparticularcases,eeonomyandfrugality;andinsomecasesthewordindustrymaybeappliedtoit : inasensenearlyinditterent,butratherbadthanotherwise,it isstyled,thoughonlyinparticularcases,parsimony.

I. :Formoneyyougratifya man'shatred,byputtinghisadversaryto death. 2. Formoneyyouploughhisfieldforhim.--Inthefirstcaseyourmotiveistermedlucre,andisac-countedcorruptandabominable: andin thesecond,forwantofaproperappellation,it isstyledindustry;andislookeduponasinnocentat least,ifnotmeritorious.Yetthemotiveisinbothcasespreciselythesame: it isneithermorenorlessthanpecuniaryinterest.

XX.Thepleasuresofskillareneitherdistinctenough,norofNonetothepleasuresofconsequenceenough,tohavegivenanynametothecorrespond-skin.

ingmotive.XXI.Tothepleasuresofamitycorrespondsamotivewhich,Tothepl_,

io8 OfMo_es. [c_r.antesor inaneutralsense,maybetermedthedesireofingratiatingone'samitytilea_,_or self. Inabadsenseit isincertaincasesstyledservility: inai_gratiating _ .one's_f. goodsenseithasnonamethatispeculiartoit: inthecasesin

whichithasbeenlookedonwithafavourableeye,ithasseldombeendistinguishedfromthemotiveofsympathyorbenevolence,withwhich,insuchcases,it iscommonlyassociated.

I.Toacquiretheaffectionsofa womanbeforemarriage,topreservethemafterwards,youdoeverything,thatisconsistentwithotherduties,tomakeherhappy: inthiscaseyourmotiveislookeduponaslaudable,thoughthereisnonameforit. 2.Forthesamepurpose,youpoisonawomanwithwhomsheisatenmity: inthiscaseyourmotiveislookeduponasabominable,thoughstillthereisnonameforit. 3.Toacquireorpreservethefavourofamanwhoisricherormorepowerfulthanyour-self,youmakeyourselfsubservienttohispleasures.Letthemevenbelawfulpleasures,ifpeoplechoosetoattributeyourbe-haviourtothism_tive,youwillnotgetthemtofindanyothernameforit thanservility.Yetinallthreecasesthemotiveisthesame: it isneithermorenorlessthanthedesireofingra-tiatingyourselL

Totheplea- XXII.Tothepleasuresofthemoralsanction,or,astheymay611_S Ol a

name.otherwisebecalled,thepleasuresofagoodname,correspondsa_beloveof_pu_tion.motivewhich,inaneutralsense,hasscarcelyyetobtainedany

adequateappellative.It maybestyled,theloveofreputation.It isnearlyrelatedtothemotivelastpreceding: beingneithermorenorlessthanthedesireofingratiatingone'sselfwith,or,asinthiscaseweshouldrathersay,ofrecommendingone'sselfto:theworldatlarge.Inagoodsense,it is termedhonour,orthesenseofhonour: orrather,thewordhonourisintroducedsomehoworotherupontheoccasionofitsbeingbroughttoview:forinstrictnessthewordhonourisputrathertosignifythatimaginaryobject,whicha manisspokenofaspossessingupontheoccasionofhisobtainingaconspicuousshareofthepleasuresthatareinquestion.Inparticularcases,it isstyledtheloveof _glory.Inabadsense,itisstyled,insomeeases,falsehonour; Iinothers,pride;inothers,vanity.InasensenotdecidedlyI

x.] OfMogire_. Io9bad, but ratherbad thanotherwise,ambition. In an indifferentsense, in some cases, the love of fame : in others, the senseof

shame. And, as the pleasures belongingto the moral sanctionrun undistinguishably into the pains derived from the samesourcel, it may al_obe styled, in some cases, the fear of dis-honour, the fear of disgrace, the fear of infamy, the fear ofignominy, or the fear of shame.

I. You havereceived an affrontfrom a man: accordingto thecustom of the country, in order, on the one hand, to saveyour-self from the shame of being thought to bear it patiently _; on

' ,SeeChap.vi. [PleasuresandPains],par.xxiv.note.' A m_n'sbearinganaffrontpatiently,that is, withouttakingthis

methodoIdoingwhatis calledwipingit off,isthoughttoimportone orotheroftwothings• eitherthathedoesnot possessthatsensibilitytothepleasuresandpainsofthemoralsanction,wlfich,inordertorenderhimselfarespectablememberofsociety,a manoughttoposse_: or,thathedoesnot possesscourageenoughto stakehis lifetor thechanceof gratifyingthatresentmentwhicha propersenseofthe valueofthosepleasuresandthosepainsit is thoughtwouldnotfail toinspize.True it is, that therearediversothermotives,byanyofwhichthesameconductmightequallybeproduced: themotivescorrespondingto thereligioussanction,andthemotivesthatcomeundertheheadofbenevolence.PietytowardsGod,thepracticeinquestionbeinggenerallylookeduponaarepugnantto thedic-tatesofthereligioussanction:sympathyforyourantagonisthimself,whoselifewouldbeput tohazardat thesametimewithyourown; sympathyforhisconnexioas; thepersonswhoaredependenton himin thewayofsupport,or connectedwithhimin thewayofsympathy: sympathyforyourownconnexions: andevensympathyforthepublic,incase_wherethemanis suchthatthe publicappearstohavea materialinterestin hislife. Butincomparisonwiththeloveel life,theinfluenceoftherebgioussanctionisknownto beingeneralbutweak: especiallyamongpeopleofthoseclasseswhoareherein question: asureproofofwhichisthepreva-lenceofthisvarycustom.Whereit issostrongastopreponderate,it issorare,that, perhaps,itgivesa mana placein thecalendar: and,at anyrate,exal_himtother_nkofmartyr.Moreover,theinstancesin whicheitherprivatebenevolenceorpublicspiritpredominateovertheloveoflite.willalBonaturallybebutrare: and,owingto thegeneralpropensitytodetraction,itwillalsobemuchrarerforthemto bethoughtto doso.kh_ow,whenthreeormoremotives,anyoneofthemcapableofproducingagivenmodeofconduct,applyat once,thatwhichappearstobethemostpowerful,isthatwhichwillofcoursebedeemedtohaveaetuMlydonethemo_t: and,asthebulkof mankind,onthisasonotheroccasions,aredis-)oesedtodecideperemptorilyuponsuperficialestimates,itwillgenerallybeekeduponashavingdonethewhole.Theconsequenceis,thatwhena manot a certainrankforbearstotake

th_chanceofrevengingan affront,hieconductwill,by mostpeople,beimputedtotheloveoflife: which,whenitpredominatesovertheloveofreputation,is,bya notunsalutaryaesoeiationofideas,stigmatizedwiththereprcaeh_lnameofoomu'dice.

l,o 0/Motivee. [cuaP.

theotherhand,toobtainthereputationofcourage; youchal-lengehimto fightwithmortalweapons.Inthisca_yourmotivewillbysomepeoplebeaccountedlaudable,andstyledhonour: byothersitwillbeaccountedblameable,andthese,iftheycallithonour,willprefixanepithetofimprobationto it,andcallit falsehonour.2. In ordertoobtainapostofrankanddignity,andtherebyto increasetherespectspaidyoubythepublic,youbribetheelectorswhoaretoconferit,orthejudgebeforewhomthetitleto it is indispute.In thiscaseyourmotiveiscommonlyaccountedcorruptandabominable,andisstyled,perhaps,bysomesuchnameasdishonestorcorruptambition,as thereisnosinglenameforit. 5. In ordertoobtainthegood-willofthepublic,youbestowalargesuminworksofprivatecharityorpublicutility.Inthiscasepeoplewillbeaptnottoagreeaboutyourmotive.Yotlrenemieswillputabadcolouruponit,andcallitostentation: yourfriends,tos_veyouitemthisreproach,willchoosetoimputeyourcon-ductnotto thismotivebuttosomeother: suchasthatofcharity(thedenominationin thiscasegiventoprivatesym-pathy)orthatofpublicspirit. 4. A king,forthesakeofgainingtheadmirationannexedto thenameofconqueror(wewillsupposepowerandresentmentoutofthequestion}engageshiskingdomina bloodywar. Hismotive,bythemultitude(whosesympathyformillionsiseasilyoverbornebythepleasurewhichtheirimaginationfindsingapingat anynoveltytheyobserveintheconductofa singleperson)isdeemedanad-mirableone. Menoffeelingandreflection,whodisapproveofthedominionexercisedbythismotiveonthisoccasion,withoutalwaysperceivingthatit isthesamemotivewhichinotherin-stancesmeetswiththeirapprobation,deemit anabominableone; andbecausethemultitude,whoarethemanufacturersoflanguage,havenotgiventhemasimplenametocallitby,they iwillcallitbysomesuchcompoundnameas theloveof falsegloryorfalseambition.Yetinallfourcasesthemotiveisthe ]same: itisneithermorenorlessthantheloveofreputation. I

Tot_plea.XXIII.Tothepleasuresofpowercorrespondsthemotive i.

x.] 02'Moti,.ea. IzI

which,ina neutralsense,maybetermedtheloveofpower,snre_or..... power,thePeople,whoareoutofhumourwithttsometm-es,callitthelust_o_eor

ofpower.Inagoodsense,it isscarcslyprovidedwithaname.po_e_.Incertaincasesthismotive,aswellastheloveofreputation,areconfoundedunderthesamename,ambition.Thisisnottobewonderedat,consideringtheintimateconnexionthereisbe-tweenthetwomotivesinmanycases: sinceitcommonlyhap-pens,thatthesameobjectwhichaffordstheonesortofpleasure,affordstheothersor_at thesametime: forinstance,offices,whichareatoncepostsofhonourandplacesoftrust:andsinceatanyratereputationistheroadtopower.

z. If, inordertogainaplaceinadministration,youpoisonthemanwhooccupiesit. 2. If,in thesameview,youproposeasalutaryplanfortheadvancementofthepublicwelfare;yourmotiveis inbothcasesthesame. Yetin thefirstcaseit isac-countedcriminalandabominable:inthesecondcaseallowable,andevenlaudable.

XXIV.Tothepleasuresaswellas to thepainsof there-Themotive. belongingtohgioussanctioncorrespondsamotivewhichhas,strictlyspea_:-t_ereligious

ing,noperfectlyneutralnameapphcabletoallcases,unlessthesanction.wordreligionbeadmittedin thischaracter: thoughthewordreligion,strictlyspeaking,seemstomeannotsomuchthemo-tiveitself,asakindoffictitiouspersonage,bywhomthemotiveissupposedtobecreated,oranassemblageofacts,supposedtobedictatedbythatpersonage:nordoesitseemtobecompletelysettledintoa neutralsense.In thesamesenseitisalso,insomecases,styledrehgiouszeal:inothercases,thefearofGod.TheloveofGod,thoughcommonlycontras_eclwiththefearofGod,doesnot comestrictlyunderthishead. It coincidesproperlywithamotiveofadifferentdenomination;viz.akindofsympathyorgood-will,whichhastheDeityforits object.Inagoodsense,it iss_leddevotion,piety,andpiouszeal. Inabadsense,it isstyled,insomecases,superstition,orsuper-stitiouszeal: inothereases,fanaticism,orfanaticzeal: inasensenotdecidedlybad,becausenotappropriatedtothismotive,enthusiasm,or enthusiasticzeal.

11: OfMotive_. [cHAP.I. Inorder_oobtainthefavorerof theSupremeBeing,aman

assassinateshislawfulsovereign.In thiscasethemotiveisnowalmostuniversallylookeduponas abominable,andis termedfanaticism: formerlyitwasbygreatnumbersaccountedlaud-able,andwasby themcalledpiouszeal. 2. In the sameview,amanlasheshimselfwiththongs.In thiscase,inyonderhouse,themotiveisaccountedlaudable,andiscalledpiouszeal:inthenexthouseit isdeemedcontemptible,andcalledsuperstition.3. In the sameview,a maneatsapieceof bread(orat leastwhattoexternalappearanceis apieceof bread)withcertainceremonies.In thiscase,inyonderhouse,hismotiveislookeduponaslaudable,andisstyledpietyanddevotion: inthenexthouseit is deemedabominable,andstyledsuperstition,asbe-fore: perhapsevenit isabsurdlystyledimpiety.4. In thesameview,a manholdsa cowby thetailwhileheisdying. OntheThamesthe motivewouldinthiscasebedeemedcontemptible,andcalledsuperstition.OntheGangesitisdeemedmeritorious,andcalledpiety. 5. In the sameview,a manbestowsa largesuminworksof charity,or publicutility. In this easethemotiveisstyledlaudable,by thoseat leasttowhomtheworksin questionappeartocomeunderthisdescription:andbytheseat leastit wouldbestyled piety. Yetin all thesecasesthemotiveis preciselythe same: it isneithermorenorlessthanthemotivebelongingto the religioussanction1.

C,ood-wiILgXV.Tothe p]easuresofsympathycorrespondsthemotive&c.to tllept_su_sofwhich,inaneutralsense,is termedgood-will.Thewordsym.sym_thy,pathymayalsobeusedon thisoccasion: thoughthe senseof

it seemsto be rathermoreextensive. In agoodsense,it isstyledbenevolence:andincertaincases,philanthropy; and,ina figurativeway,brotherlylove; inothers,humanity;inothers,

i I am aware,or at least I hope, that people in general,when they evethe matter thus stated, willbe ready to acknowledge,that the moti_einthesecases, whateverbe the tendencyof the acts whichit produces,is nota badone : butthiswillnot render it the less true,that hitherto,in popu-lar discourseit has beencommon/or men to speakof acts,which theycouldnot butacknowledgeto haveoriginatedfromthissource,as proceed-mg froma bad motive. The sameobservationwill apply to many of _e

other cases, i

X.] Of _1ol_ive$. I 13

charity; inothers,pityandcompassion; inothers,mercy; inothers,gratitude;inothers,tenderness; inothers,patriotism;inothers,publicspirit. Loveis alsoemployedinthis asinsomanyothersenses. In a badsense,it has nonameapplicableto it in all cases: in particularcasesit is styledpartiality.Thewordzeal,withcertainepithetsprefixedtoit,mightalsobeemployedsometimesonthisoccasion,thoughthesenseofit bemoreextensive; applyingsometimesto illas wellas to goodwill. It is thus we speakof party zeal, nationalzeal,andpubliczeal. Thewordattachmentis alsousedwiththe likeepithets: wealso sayfamily-attachment. TheFrenchex-pression,espritde corps,for whichas yet there seemsto bescaree]yanynameinEnglish,mightberendered,insomecases,thoughratherinadequately,by the termscorporationspirit,corporationattachment,orcorporationzeal.

I. A manwhohas set a townon tireis apprehendedandcommitted: outo/regardorcompassionforhim,youhelphimtobreakprison. Inthis casethegeneralityofpeoplewillpro-bablyscarcelyknowwhetherto condemnyour motiveor toapplaudit : thosewhocondemnyourconduct,willbedisposedrathertoimputeit tosomeothermotive:iftheystyleitbenevo-lenceorcompassion,theywillbe forprefixinganepithet,andcallingitfalsebenevolenceorfalsecompassion1. 5.Themanistakenagain,andisput uponhistrial : to savehimyouswearfalselyinhisfavour.People,whowouldnotcallyourmotiveabadonebefore,willperhapscallit sonow. 3"Amanisat lawwithyouaboutan estate: he has no right toit : the judgeknowsthis,yet,havinganesteemoraffectionforyouradversary,

hmonlztheGreeksperhapsthemotiveandtheconductitgavebirthto,would,insuchac_e,havcbcenratherapprovedthandisapprovedof.ItseemstohavebeendeemedanactofheroismonthepartofHercules,tohavedeliveredh_sfriendTheseusfromhell:thoughdivinejustice,whichheldhimthere,shouldnaturallyhavebeenregardedasbeingatleastupona/ootingwithhumanjustice.ButtodJvinejustice,evenwhenacknowledgedunderthatcharacter,therespectpaidat thattimeofdaydoesnotseemtohavebeenveryprofound,orwcll-settled:stpresent,therespectpaidtoitisprofoundandsettledenough,thoughthenameofitl_buttoooftenappliec]todictateswhichcouldhavehadnootheroriginthantheworstsortofhumancaprice.Bg_'TI/A_ 1

I I4 OfMotive_. [CKAP.

adjudgesit tohim. Inthiseasethemotiveisbyeverybodydeemedabominable,andis termedinjusticeandpartiality.4.Youdetectastatesmaninreceivingbribes: outofregardtothepublicinterest,yougiveinformationofit, andprosecutehim.Inthiscase,byallwhoacknowledgeyourconducttohaveoriginatedfromthismotive,yourmotivewillbedeemedalaud-ableone,andstyledpublicspirit.Buthisfriendsandadherentswillnotchoosetoaccountforyourconductinanysuchmanner:theywillratherattributeit topart),enmity.5.Youfindamanonthepointofstarving: yourelievehim;andsavehisliIe.Inthiscaseyourmotivewillbyeverybodyheaccountedlaudable,anditwillbetermedcompassion,pity,charity,benevolence.Yetinallthesecasesthemotiveisthesame: it isneithermorenorlessthanthemotiveofgood-will,

re.will,a¢. XXVI.Tothepleasuresofmalevolence,orantipathy,corre.totheplea-sare_a-,_spendsthemotivewhich,inaneutralsense,istermedantipathyt,_tl,r, ordispleasure:and,inparticulareases,dislike,aversion,abhor-

renee,andindignation: inaneutralsense,orperhapsasenseleaningalittletothebadside,ill-will: and,inparticularcases,anger,wrath,andenmity.Inabadsenseit isstyled,indi]terentcases,wrath,spleen,ill-humour,hatred,malice,rancour,rage,fltry,cruelty,tyranny,envy,jealousy,revenge,misanthropy,andbyothernames,whichit ishardlyworthwhiletoendeavourtocollect1. Likegood-will,it isusedwithepithetsexpressiveofthepersonswhoaretheobjectsoftheat_ection.Hencewehearofpartyenmity,partyrage,andsoforth. Inagoodsensethereseemstobenosinglenameforit. Incompoundexpressionsitmaybespokenofinsuchasense,byepithets,suchasjustandlaudable,prefixedtowordsthatareusedinaneutralornearlyneutralsense.

r.Yourobama_a: heprosecutesyou,andgetsyoupunished:i Here,aselsewhere,it maybeobserved,that thes_reewordswhiohare

mentionedas namesofmotives,axealsomanyofthemrmmesofpassions,appetites,andaffections:fictitiousentities,whichareframedonlybycon-sideringpleasuresorpainsinsomeparticularpointofvlaw.Someofthemarealsonamesofmoralqunlities.Thisbranchofnomenclatureisremark-ablyentangled: tounravelitcompletelywouldt_keupa wlmlevolume;nota syllableofwhichwouldbelongp_operlytothepresentdesign,

X.] Of Motive8. I 15

outofresentmentyousetuponhim; andhanghimwithyourownhands.Inthiscaseyourmotivewilluniversallybedeemeddetestable,andwillbeeaUedmalice,cruelty,revenge,andsoforth. 2.Amanhasstolena littlemoneyfromyou: outofresentmentyouprosecutehim,andgethimhangedbycourseoflaw. In thiscasepeoplewillprobablybea littledividedintheiropinionsaboutyourmotive: yourfriendswilldeemitalaudableone,andcallit a justorlaudableresentment: yourenemieswillperhapsbedisposedtodeemitblameable,andcallit cruelty,mahce,revenge,andsoforth:toobviatewhich,yourfriendswilltryperhapstochangethemotive,andcallitpublicspirit. 3.Amanhasmurderedyourfather:outofresentmentyouprosecutehim,andgethimputtodeathincourseoflaw.Inthiscaseyourmotivewillbeuniversallydeemeda laudableone,andstyled,asbefore,a justorlaudableresentment: andyourfriends,inordertobringforwardthemoreamiableprin-ciplefromwhichthemalevolentone,whichwasyourimmediatemotive,tookitsrise,willbeforkeepingthelatteroutofsight,speakingofthe formeronly,undersomesuchnameasfilialpiety. Yetinall thesecasesthemotiveis thesame: it isneithermorenorlessthanthemotiveofill-will.

XXVII.Totheseveralsortsofpains,orat leasttoallsuchsclf+r_er-ration,toofthemasareconceivedtosubsistinanintensedegree,andtotheseveralI, kindser

death,which,asfaraswecanperceive,istheterminationofanjain_thepleasures,aswellasallthepainsweareacquaintedwith,correspondsthemotive,whichina neutral_enseisstyled,ingeneral,self-preservation:thedesireofpreservingone'sselffromthepainorevilinquestion.Nowinmanyinstancesthedesireofpleasure,andthesenseofpain,runintooneanotherundis-tinguishably.Self-preservation,therefore,wherethedegreeofthepainwhichit correspon&tois butslightwillscarcelybedistinguishable,byanypreciseline,fromthemotivescorre-spondingtotheseveralsortsofpleasures.Thusinthecaseofthepainsofhungerandthirst:physicalwantwillinmanycasesbescarcelydistinguishablefromphysicaldesire.Iasomecas_itisstyled,stillina neutralsense,seLf-defence.Betweenthe

I2

tI6 OfMotive_. [C_iAV.

pleasuresandthepainsofthemoralandreligioussanctions,andconsequentlyofthemotivesthatcorrespondto them,aslikewisebetweenthepleasuresofamity,andthepainsofenmity,thiswantofboundarieshasalreadybeentakennoticeoft. Theeaseisthesamebetweenthepleasuresofwealth,andthepainsofprivationcorrespondingtothosepleasures.Therearemanyeases,therefore,inwhichit willbedifficulttodistinguishthemotiveofself-preservationfrompecuniaryinterest,fromthedesireofingratiatingone'sself,fromtheloveofreputation,andfromreligioushope: inwhicheases,thosemorespecificandexplicitnameswillnaturallybepreferredto thisgeneralandinexplicitone. Therearealsoa multitudeof compoundnames,whicheitherarealreadyinuse,ormightbedevised,todistinguishthespecificbranchesofthemotiveoIself-preserva-tionfromthoseseveralmotivesofapleasurableorigin: suchasthefearofpoverty,thefearoflosingsuchorsucha man'srcg,_rd,thefearofshame,andthefearofGod. Moreover,totheevilofdeathcorresponds,ina neutralsense,theloveoflife; inabadsense,cowardice: which'correspondsalsoto thepainsofthesenses,atleastwhenconsideredassubsistinginanacutedegree.Thereseemstobenonamefortheloveoflifethathasagoodsense; unlessitbethevagueandgeneralnameofprudence.

I.Tosaveyourselffrombeinghanged,pilloried,imprisoned,orfined,youpoisontheonlypersonwhocangiveevidenceagainstyou. Inthiscaseyourmotivewilluniversallybestyledabominable:butasthetermself-preservationhasnobadsense,peoplewillnotcaretomakethisuseofit : theywillbeaptrathertochangethemotive,andcallitmalice.2.A woman,havingbeenjustdeliveredofanillegithnatechild,inordertosaveherselffromshame,destroysthechild,orabandonsit. Inthisease,also,peoplewillcallthemotiveabadone,and,notcaringtospeakofit underaneutralname,theywillbeapttochangethemotive,andcallit lJysomesuchnameascruelty.3.Tosavetheexpenseofahalfpenny,yousu_eraman,whom

Seech.v.[Ple_urea_ndPains],par.xxiv,xxv.

x.] OfMolire_. _J7youcouldpreserveat thatexpense,toperishwithwant,beforeyoureyes. ]u thiseaseyourmotivemillbeuniversallydeemedanabominableone; and,to avoidcallingit by soindulgentanameasself-preservation,peoplewillbe apt to callit avariceandniggardliness,withwhichindeedin this caseit indistin-guishablycoincides: forthe sakeotfindinga morereproachfulappellation,theywillbe apt likewisetochangethemotive,andtermit cruelty. 4. Toput anend tothe painof hunger,yousteala loafof bread. In this caseyourmotivewillscarcely,perhaps,be deemedaverybad one; and,in orderto expressmoreindulgencefor it, peoplewillbe apt to find a strongernameforit thanself-preservation,termingit necessity. 5. Tosaveyourselffromdrowning,youbeatoffaninnocentmanwhohasgotholdof thesameplank. In thiscaseyourmotivewillingeneralbedeemedneithergoodnorbad,andit willbetermedself-preservation,ornecessity,or the loveof life. 6. Tosaveyourlifefroma gangof robbers,youkilltheminthe conflict.Inthiscasethemotivemay,perhaps,bedeemedratherlaudablethanotherwise,and,besidesself-preservation,isstyledalsoself-defence.7-Asoldierissentoutupona party againsta weakerpartyof the enemy: beforehegetsupwiththem,to savehislife,he runsaway. In this easethe motivewilluniversallybedeemeda contemptibleone,andwillbecalledcowardice.Yetin all thesevariouscases,the motiveis still the same. It isneithermorenor lessthan self-preservation.

XXVIII. In particular,tothe painsofexertioncorresponds_othepainsof _e_ioB_

the motive,which,in a neutralsense,maybe termedthelovetheIo_,eorof ease,or by a longercircumlocution,the desireof avoiding_'trouble. In a bad sense,it is termedindolence1. It seemstohavenonamethat carrieswithit a goodsense.

I. Tosavethe troubleoftakingcareofit, aparentleaveshischildto perish. In this casethe motivewillbe deemedan

It may seem odd at first sight to speak of the love of easeas givingbirth to action : but exertion is asnaturalaneffect of the love of easeinaction is, whena smaller degreeof exertion promisesto exempta manfrom a greater.

1

118 OfMotive,. [c_rAp.

abominableone,and,becauseindolencewillseemtoomildanameforit,themotivewill,perhaps,bechanged,andspokenofundersomesuchtermascruelty.2.Tosaveyourselffroman illegalslavery,youmakeyourescape.In thiscasethemotivewillbedeemedcertainlynotabadone: and,becauseindolence,oreventhe loveofease,willbe thoughttoounfa-voarablsanameforit,it will,perhaps,bestyledtheloveofliberty.3.Amechanic,inordertosavehislabour,makesanimprovementinhismachinery.Inthisease,psoplewilllookuponhismotiveasagoodone; andfindingnonameforit thatcarriesagoodsense,theywillbedisposedto keepthemotiveoutofsight: theywillspeakratherofhisingenuity,thanofthemotivewhichwasthemeansofhismanifestingthatquality.Yetinallthesecasesthemotiveisthesame: it isneithermorenorlessthantheloveofease.

_o_,_._e_nXXIX.It appearsthenthatthereisnosuchthingasanyon]ybebadwiLhra_,-sort0Imotivewhichisabadoneinitself: nor,consequently,encetothemo_tfre-anysuchthingasasortofmotive,whichinitselfisexclusivelyquen_com.pl,.,o,,of agoodone. Andastotheireffects,it appearstoothatthesetheireffects,aresometimesbad,at othertimeseitherindifferentorgood:

andthisappearstobethecasewitheverysortofmotive.Ifanysortof motivetheniseithergoodorbadonthescoreof itsefeas,thinisthecaseonlyonindividualoccasion,,andwithin-dividualmotives; andthisis thecasewithonesortofmotiveaswellaswithanother.If anysortofmotivethencan,incon-siderationofitseffect,betermedwithanyproprietyabadone,itcanonlybewithreferencetothebalanceofalltheeffectsitmayhavehadofbothkindswithinagivenperiod,thatis,ofitsmostusualtendency.

Ho__t_ XXX.Whatthenz(itwillbesaid)arenotlust,cruelty,thatme- " ]tires,suchavarice,badmotives?Is theresomuchasanyoneindividual !as lull;,ava._. u. ,reoccasion,inwhichmotiveslikethesecanbeotherwisethanbad? "_onstantly _.

No,certainly: andyettheproposition,thatthereisnoonesortofmotivebutwhatwillonmanyoccasionsbeagoodone,isneverthelesstrue. Thefactis,thatthesearenameswhich,ifproperlyapplied,areneverappliedbutinthecaseswherethe

_.] Of Moth'e,,. 119

motivestheysignifyhappento bebad. Thenamesofthesomotives,consideredapartfromtheireffects,aresexualdesire,displeasure,andpecuniaryinterest.Tosexualdesire,whentheeffectsofit arelookeduponasbad,isgiventhenameoflust.Nowlustisalwaysa badmotive.Why? Becauseif thecasebesuch,thattheeffectsofthemotivearcnotbad,it doesnotgo,oratleastoughtnottogo,bythenameoflust. Thecaseis,then,thatwhenI say,' Lustisabadmotive,'itisapropo-sitionthatmerelyconcernstheimportofthewordlust; andwhichwouldbefalseif transferredtotheotherwordusedforthesamemotive,sexualdesire.Henceweseetheemptinessofallthoserhapsodiesofcommon-placemorality,whichconsistinthe takingofsuchnamesas lust,cruelty,andavarice,andbrandingthemwithmarksofreprobation:appliedto thethi_q,theyarefalse; appliedtothe_ame,theyaretrueindeed,butnugatory.Wouldyoudoarealservicetomankind,showthemthecasesinwhichsexualdesiremeritsthenameoflust; dis-pleasure,thatofcruelty;andpecuniaryinterest,thatofavarice.

XXXI.If itwerenecessarytoapplysuchdenominationsastudorth_abox'_I_

good,bad,andindifferenttomotives,theymightbeclassedin_t_ctton.,.motwes Inay

thetollowingmanner,inconsiderationofthemostfrequentcorn-bedmstm-• . . . gu_shedmtoplexionoftheireffects.In theclassofgoodmotiveslmgntoe_ooa,ban.

• and mdif-placedthearticlesof, I. Good-will.2. Loveofreputatmn.rer_ntor3. Desireof amity. And,4. Religion.In theclassofbadn°_tm'motives,5-Displeasure.In theclassofneut,ralor indifferentmotives,6. Physicaldesire. 7"Pecuniaryinterest. 8. Loveofpower.9-8elf-preservation; asincludingthe_earofthepainsofthesenses,the loveofease,andtheloveoflife.

XXXII.Thismethodofarrangement,however,cannotbutl,eonve,i-eneesofth_sbeimperfect; andthenomenclaturebelongingtoit isindangeraJst_ibuttot_.ofbeingfallaciouaForbywhatmethodofinvestigationcanamanbeassured,thatwithregardto themotivesrankedunderthenameofgood,thegoodeffectstheyhavehad,fromthebe-ginningoftheworld,have,in eachof thefourspeciescom-prisedunderthisname,beensuperiorto thebad? stillmoredifficultywouldamanfindinassuringhimself,thatwithregard

z_o Of Motlvee. [CBAP.

to thosewhicharerankedunderthenameofneutralorindif-ferent,theeffectstheyhaveha_haveexactlybalancedeachother,the valueofthegoodbeingneithergreaternorlessthanthatofthebad. Itistobeconsidered,thattheinterestsofthepersonhimselfcannomorebeleftoutof theestimate,thanthoseoftherestofthecommunity.Forwhatwouldbecomeofthe species,if it werenotforthemotivesofhungerandthirst,sexualdesire,the fearofpain,andtheloveoflife? Norintheactualconstitutionofhumannat_e isthemotiveofdispleasurelessnecessary,perhaps,than anyof the others: althoughasystem,inwhichthebusinessoflifemightbecarriedonwithoutit,mightpossiblybeconceived.It seems,therefore,thattheycouldscarcely,withoutgreatdangerof mistakes,be distin-guishedin thismannerevenwithreferenceto eachother.

I__onlsin XXXIII.Theonlyway,it shouldseem,in whichamotiveindividual,_n_s canwithsafetyand proprietybe styledgoodor bad,is withthat,motlv__ _ _ referenceto itseffectsineachindividualinstance"andpfinci.orbad. J

pallyfromtheintentionit givesbirthto : fromwhicharise,aswillbe shownhereafter,themostmaterialpart of its effects.h motiveisgood,whentheintentionit givesbirth toisagoodone; bad,whentheintentionisabadone: andanintentionisgoodorbad,accordingtothematerialconsequencesthataretheobjectso[it. Sofar isit fromthe goodnessoftheintention'sbeingtobeknownonlyfromthe speciesofthe motive. But ifromoneandthesamemotive,aswehaveseen,mayresultin- ttentionsofeverysortofcomplexionwhatsoever.Thiscircum-stance,therefore,canaffordnoclueforthearrangementofthe !severalsortsofmotives. |

_otl,esdis-XXXIV.A morecommodiousmethod,therefore,it sho_dtb_l_bedinto_a], seem,wouldbe to distributethemaccordingto theinfluence_d_lf. whichtheyappeartohaveontheinterestsoftheothermembers

ofthe community,layingthoseof thepartyhimselfoutofthequestion:towit,accordingtothetendencywhichtheyappeartohavetounite,ordisunite,hisinterestsandtheirs. Onthisplantheymaybedistinguishedintosocial,dissocial,andself-reqard-ir_. Inthesocialclassmaybereckoned,z. Good-will.2.Love

x.] OfMotivee. 12I

of reputation.3. Desireofamity.4. Religion.In the dis-sooialmaybe placed,5. Displeasure.In the self-regardingclass,6. Physicaldesire. 7' P_uniaryinterest. 8.Loveofpower.9-Selfipreservation; asincludingthefearofthepainsofthesenses,theloveofease,andtheloveoflife.

XXXV.Withrespectto themotivesthathavebeentermed-soci_.rotenure]_-social,if anyfartherdistinctionshouldbeofuse,to thatofsocial.,,,dgood-willalonemayheappliedtheepithetof purely.social;'_"is°c*_whiletheloveofreputation,thedesireofamity,andthemotiveofreligion,maytogetherbecomprisedunderthedivisionofsemi-social: thesocialtendencybeingmuchmoreconstantandunequivocalin the formerthanin anyofthe threelatter.Indeedtheselast,socialastheymaybetermed,areself-regard-ingat thesametime1.

§4. Orderofpre-eminenceamongmotives.XXXVI.Ofallthesesortsofmotives,good-willis thatofTbsdicta_

• . ofgood-willwhichthedictatesu,takeninageneralview,aresurestofcorn-arethe.1 1. . s_lrcstOfcidingwiththoseoftheprincipleofutility. For_nemcratesooi**c,di,s

1. _ . withthoseofutilityareneithermorenorlessthanthe_etatesoItneroosterut_h_y.extensive3andenlightened(thatiswell-advised4)benevolence.Thedictatesoftheothermotivesmaybeconformabletothoseofutility,orrepugnant,asitmayhappen.

XXXVII.In this,however,it is takenforgranted,thatinYetdo,orthecaseinquestionthedictatesofbenevolencearenoteontra-ins_lc_es.dietedbythoseofa moreextensive,that isenlarged,benevo-lence.Nowwhenthedictatesofbenevolence,asrespectingtheinterestsofacertainsetofpersons,arerepugnanttothedictates

L°Religion/says the piousAddison,somewher_in the Spectator, 'is thehighest speciesof self-love.'

Whena manis supposedto be prompted by any motive to engage,or L_ anddie-not to enrage in such-orsuch an action,it may be of use, for the cones-_t_°_¢_;_meneeof _l_course,to speak of suchmottveas gavmgbirth to anlmagunarymo_,,_kind of/aw or dictate,injoiainghim to engage,or not to engage, in it z.

' See eh. iv. [Value], and ch. vi. [Sensibihty],par. xxi.i See ch. ix. [Consciousness]. ,_t

' Seeoh.I, ;r'!

22 OfMotive,. [CRAP.ofthesamemo_ive,asrespectingthemoreimportantI interestsofanothersetofpersons,theformerdictates,itisevident,arerepealed,asit were,by thelatter: andaman,werehetobegovernedbytheformer,couldscarcely,withpropriety,besaidtobegovernedbythedictatesofbenevolence.Onthisaccount,werethemotivesonbothsidessuretobealikepresenttoaman'smind,thecaseofsucha repugnancywouldhardlybeworthdistingmshing,sincethepartialbenevolencemightbeconsideredasswallowedupinthemoreextensive:iftheformerprevailed,andgovernedtheaction,itmustbeconsideredasnotowingitsbirthtobenevolence,buttosomeothermotive: ifthelatterprevailed,theformermightbeconsideredashavingnoeffect.Butthecaseis,thatapartialbenevolencemaygoverntheaction,withoutenteringintoanydirectcompetitionwiththemoreextensivebenevolence,whichwouldforbidit; becausetheinterestsofthelessnumerousassemblageofpersonsmaybepresentto a man'smind,at a timewhenthoseof themorenumerousareeithernotpresent,or,ifpresent,makenoimpres-sion. It isinthiswaythatthedictatesofthismotivemayberepugnanttoutility,yet stillbethedictatesofbenevolence.Whatmakesthoseofprivatebenevolenceconformableuponthewholeto theprincipleofutility,is,thatingeneraltheystandunopposedbythoseofpublic: iftheyarerepugnanttothem,itisonlybyaccident.Whatmakesthemthemoreconformable,is,thatinacivilizedsociety,inmostofthecasesinwhichtheywouldofthemselvesbeapttoruncounterto thoseofpublicbenevolence,theyfindthemselvesopposedbystrongermotivesoftheself.regardingclass,whichareplayedo_againstthembythelaws; andthatit isonlyincaseswheretheystandunop-posedbytheothermoresalutarydictates,thattheyareleftfree.Anactofinjusticeorcruelty,committedbyamanforthesakeofhisfatherorhisson,ispunished,andwithreason,asmuch i'asifit werecommittedforhisown. _"

_e_to XXXVIII.Mtergood-will,themotiveofwhichthedictates ._.them cometbo*eoftheseemtohavethenextbestchanceforcoincidingwiththoseofloveof repu.ration, x Or valuable. See ck iv. [V_IuoJ.

x.] OfMo_ivea. 1_3utility,isthatoftheloveofreputation.Thereisbutoneeir-cumstaneewhichpreventsthedictatesofthismotivefromcoin-cidinginalleaseswiththoseoftheformer.Thisis,thatmenintheirlikingsanddislikings,inthedispositionstheymanifasttoannextoanymodeofconducttheirapprobationortheirdis-approbation,andinconsequenceto thepersonwhoappearstopractiseit,theirgoodortheirillwill,donotgovernthemselvesexclusivelyby theprincipleofutility. Sometimesit is theprincipleofasceticismtheyareguidedby: sometimestheprin-cipleofsympathyandantipathy.Thereisanothercircumstance,whichdiminishes,nottheirconformitytotheprincipleofutility,butonlytheirefficacyincomparisonwiththedictatesofthemotiveofbenevolence.Thedictateso_thismotivewilloperateasstronglyinsecretasinpublic:whetheritappearslikelythattheconductwhichtheyrecommendwillbeknownornot:thoseoftheloveofreputationwillcoincidewiththoseofbene-volenceonlyinproportionasa man'sconductseemslikelytobelmown.Thiscircumstance,however,doesnotmakesomuchdifferenceasat firstsightmightappear.Acts,inproportionastheyarematerial,areapttobecomeknown1: andinpointofreputation,the8hght_stsuspicionoftenservesforproof.Besides,ifanactbeadisreputableone,it isnotanyassuranceamancanhaveofthesecrecyoftheparticularactinquestion,thatwillofcoursesurmounttheobjectionshemayhaveagainstengagingin it. Thoughthe actin questionshouldremainsecret,it willgotowardsformingahabit,whichmaygivebirthtootheracts,thatmaynotmeetwiththesamegoodfortune.Thereisnohumanbeing,perhaps,whoisat yearsofdiscretion,onwhomconsiderationsofthissorthavenotsomeweight: andtheyhavethemoreweightupona man,inproportionto thestrengthofhisintellectualpowers,andthefirmnessofhismind2.Addtothis,theinfluencewhichhabititself,whenonceformed,hasin restrainingamanfromactstowardswhich,fromtheviewof thedisreputeannexedto them,as wellas fromany

SeeB.H.tit.[Evidence].=Seech.v_[Sensibility],par.xii,xiii. _I

124 Of Molive_. [c_AP.

othercause,hehascontractedan aversion.Theinfluenceofhabit, in suchcases,is a matterof fact, which,thoughnotreadilyaccountedfor,isacknowledgedandindubitable1.

1_'eltthose XXXIX. Afterthedictatesofthe loveofreputationcome,ofthedcsire . ._ofamity,asit shouldseem,thoseofthedesireofamity. Theformerare

disposedtocoincidewiththoseofutility,inasmuchas theyaredisposedto coincidewiththoseofbenevolence.Nowthoseofthe desireof amityare aptalsoto coincide,in acertainsort,withthoseof benevolence.Butthesort ofbenevolencewiththe dictatesofwhichthe loveof reputationcoincides,is themoreextensive; that withwhichthoseofthe desireofamitycoincide,the lessextensive.Thoseofthe loveof amityhavestill,however,theadvantageofthoseoftheself-regardingmotives.The former,at oneperiodorotherof hislife,disposea mantocontributetothehappinessofaconsiderablenumberofpersons:the latter,fromthebeginningoflife tothe endofit, confinethemselvesto thecareof thatsingleindividual. Thedictatesofthedesireofamity,it isplain,willapproachnearertoacoin-cidencewiththoseofthe loveofreputation,and thencewith J

thoseofutility,inproportion,c_erisparibus,tothenumberofthe personswhoseamitya manhas occasionto desire: andhenceitis,forexample,that an Englishmemberofparliament,withall hisownweaknesses,andall the folliesof the peoplewhoseamityhehastocultivate,isprobably,ingeneral,abettercharacterthanthe secretaryofa visierat Constantinople,or ofa naibin Indostan.

D,meultyof XL. Thedictatesofreligionare,undertheinfinitediversityplacingtheeof_ ofrehgions,soextremelyvariable,that it is difficulttoknowl.sio_, whatgeneralaccounttogiveof them,orin whatranktoplace

themotivetheybelongto. Uponthementionotreligion,people'sfirstthoughtsturnnaturallytothereligiontheythemselvespro- i

Strictlyspeaking, habit, being but a fictitiousentity, and not reallyany thing distinct from the acts orperceptionsby wlfichit is said to be iformed, cannotbe the causeof any thing. Theenigma,however,may besatisfactorily solvedupon the principleof association,of the nature andtorce of whicha very _tisfactory accountmay be seen in Dr.Phes_y'sedition of Hartley on Maa.

x.] Of Motives. x_5

tess.Thisisagreatsourceofmiscalculation,andhasatendencytoplacethissortofmotiveina higherrankthanitdeserves.Thedictatesofreligionwouldcoincide,inallcases,withthoseofutility,weretheBeing,whoistheobjectofreligion,univer-sallysupposedtobeasbenevolentasheissupposedtobewiseandpowerful; andwerethenotionsentertainedofhisbenevo-lence,atthesametime,ascorrectasthosewhichareentertainedofhiswisdomandhispower.UIrhappily,however,neitheroftheseisthecase.Heisuniversallysupposedtobeall-powerful:forbytheDeity,whatelsedoesanymanmeanthantheBeing,whateverhebe,bywhomeverythingisdone? Andastoknow-ledge,bythesamerulethatheshouldknowonethingheshouldknowanother.Thesenotionsseemto beascorrect,forallmaterialpurposes,astheyareuniversal.Butamongthevotariesofreligion(ofwhichnumberthemultifariousfraternityofChris-tiansisbut asmallpart)thereseemtobebutfew(Iwillnotsayhowfew)whoarerealbelieversinhisbenevolence.Theycallhimbenevolentinwords,buttheydonotmeanthatheissoinreality. Theydonotmean,thatheisbenevolentasmanisconceivedtobebenevolent: theydonotmeanthatheisbenevolentintheonlysenseinwhichbenevolencehasameaning.Foriftheydid,theywouldrecognisethatthedictatesofreligioncouldbeneithermorenorlessthanthedictatesofutility: nota tittledifferent: nota tittlelessormore. Butthecaseis,thatonathousandoccasionstheyturntheirbacksontheprin-cipleofutility.Theygoastrayafterthestrangeprinciplesitsantagonists: sometimesitistheprincipleofasceticism: some-timestheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy1. Accordingly,theideatheybearin theirminds,onsuchoccasions,isbuttoooftentheideaofmalevolence; towhichidea,strippingitofitsownpropername,theybestowthespeciousappellationofthesocialmotivez. Thedictatesofreligion,inshort,arenoother

ICh.if.[PrinciplesAdverso_par.xviii.ISometimes,inorderthebettertoconcealthechest(fromtheirowneyesdoubtlessaswellasfromothers)theysetupsphantomoftheirown, iwhichtheycallJustice:whosedictatesaxetomodify(whichbeingex-plsined,metrostooppose)thedictatesofbenevolence.Butjustice,inthe

i<,i

126 OfMotive,. [c_r.thanthedictatesofthatprinciplewhichhasbeenalreadymen-tionedunderthenameofthetheologicalprinciple1. These,ashasbeenobserved,arejustasitmayhappen,accordingtothebiasesofthepersoninquestion,copiesofthedictatesofoneorotherofthethreeoriginalprinciples: sometimes,indeed,ofthedictatesofutility:butfrequentlyofthoseofasceticism,orthoseofsympathyandantipathy.Inthisrespecttheyareonlyonaparwiththedictatesoftheloveofreputation: inanothertheyarebelowit. Thedictatesofreligionareinallplacesinter-mixedmereorlesswithdictatesunconformabletothoseofutility,deducedfromtexts,wellorillinterpreted,ofthewritingshcldforsacredbyeachsect: unconformable,byimposingpracticessometimesinconvenienttoaman'sself,sometimespernicioustotherestofthecommunity.Thesufferingsofuncalledmartyrs,thecalamitiesofholywarsandreligiouspersecutions,thetufa-chiefsofintolerantlaws,(objectswhichcanhereonlybeglancedat,notdetailed)aresomanyadditionalmischiefsoverandabovethenumberofthosewhichwereeverbroughtintotheworldbytheloveofreputation.Ontheotherhand,it ismanifest,thatwithrespectto thepowerofoperatinginsecret,thedictatesofreligionhavethesameadvantageoverthoseoftheloveofrepu-tation,andthedesireofamity,asispossessedbythedictatesofbenevolence.

Tenden_jXLI.Haouilv,thedictatesofreliffionsecreteapvroachnearerth .....eyhaveto ..... -impmv_andnearertoacoincidencewiththoseofutlhtyeveryday.But

why_. Becausethedictatesofthemoralsanctiondoso: andthosecoincidewithorareinfluencedbytl_ese.Beno(tl_eworstreligions,influencedbythevoiceandpracticeofthesurroundingworld,borrowcontinuallyanewandanewleafoutofthebookofutility: andwiththese,inordernotto breakwiththeir

onlysensein whichit hass meAnln5, is animaginarypersonage,feignedfortheconvenienceofdiscour_,whosedictatesarethedictatesel utility,appliedtocertainparticularcases.Justice,then,is nothingmorethananimaginaryinstrument,employedto forwardoncertainoceMions,andbycertainmea_, the purposesof benevolence.Thedictatesofjusticearenothingmorethanapartel thedictatesof benevolence_which,once_occasions,areaplfliedto certaineubjects; to wit,tocertainaotions.

i Seeoh.if.[Priaciple_Advar_ &c.]

x.] OfMotive.. 127

religion,theyendeavour,sometimeswithviolenceenough,topatchtogetherandadorntherepositoriesoftheirfaith.

XLI].As to the self-regardinganddissocialmotives,theAfter_ards• cometheorderthattakesplaceamongthese,andtheprecedingone,mself._nrd-Ing motives:pointofextra-regardinginfluence,is tooevidenttoneedinsist-oneJsstJy.that ofdls-ingon. Asto theorderthat_akesplaceamongthemotivespleasureof theself-regardingclass,consideredincomparisonwithoneanother,thereseemstobenodifferencewhichonthisoccasionwouldbewortbmentiouing.Withrespecttothedissocialmotive,it makesadifference(withregardtoitsextra-regardingeffects)fromwhichoftwosourcesit originates; whetherfromself-regardingorfromsocialconsiderations.Thedispleasureyouconceiveagainsta manmaybe foundedeitheronsomeactwhichoffendsyouinthefirstinstance,oronanactwhichoffendsyounootherwisethanbecauseyoulookuponit asbeingpre-judicialtosomeotherpartyonwhosebehalfyouinterestyour-self: whichotherpartymaybeofcourseeithera determinateindividual,oranyassemblageofindividuals,determinateorin-determinate1. It isobviousenough,thatamotive,thoughinitselfdissocial,may,byissuingfromasocialorigin,possessasocialtendency; andthatitstendency,in thiscase,islikelytobethemoresocial,themoreenlargedthedescriptionisofthepersonswhoseinterestsyouespouse.Displeasure,ventingitselfagainstaman,onaccountofamischiefsupposedtobedonebyhimtothepublic,maybemoresocialin its effectsthananygood-will,theexertionsofwhichareconfinedtoanindividualz.

§ 5. Confliaamongmotives.XLIII.Whenamanhasit incontemplationtoengageinanyanti,caira.• , . I_lh_ andaetaon,heisfrequentlyacteduponatthesametimebytheforcerestraimn_,

ofdiversmotives: onemotive,orsetofmotives,actinginonewhatdirection; anothermotive,orsetofmotives,actingasitwereinanoppositedirection.Themotivesononesidedisposinghimtoengageintheaction:thoseontheother,disposinghimnotto

Seeeh.vi.[Sensibility],par.xxi.t Seea_ora,par.xxxvii.

engageinit. Now,anymotive,theinfluenceofwhichtendsdisposehimtoengageintheactionin question,maybetermedanimpellimjmotive: anymotive,theinfluenceofwhichtendsto disposehimnotto engagein it, a restrainirqmotive. Buttheseappellationsmayofcoursebeinterchanged,accordingasthe actis ofthe positivekind,or the negative1.

wantare XLIV.It hasbeenshown,thatthereisnosortofmotivebutl_htlrtlOLl_r{_mo_ maygivebirthtoanysortofaction. It follows,therefore,thatqucntly atvat,anew,thereare notwomotivesbutmaycometo be opposedto one

another. Wherethe tendencyof the act is bad, the mostcommoneaseisforitto havebeendictatedbya motivecitheroftheself-regarding,orofthe dissocialclass. Insuchcasethemotiveofbenevolencehascommonlybeenacting,thoughineffec-tually,inthe characterof a restrainingmotive.

Eras,pieto XLV.Anexamplemaybeofuse,toshowthevarietyofcon-]llustra_ a_tr_sgl_tendingmotives,bywhichaman maybe acteduponat theI.rnong"_orl-_T_d_,s sametime. Crillon,a Catholic(ata timewhenit wasgenerallyrnotive_.

thoughtmeritoriousamongCatholicsto extirpateProtestants),wasorderedbyhisking,CharlesIX.ofFrance,tofallprivatelyuponColigny,a Protestant,andassassinatehim: his answerwas,' Excuseme,Sire; butI'll fighthimwithallmyheart2.'Here,then,wereallthethreeforcesabovementioned,includingthat of the politicalsanction,actinguponhimat once. Bythe politicalsanction,or at least so muchof the forceofit assucha mandate,fromsucha sovereign,issuedonsuchanoccasion,mightbesupposedtocarrywithit,hewasenjoinedtoput Colignyto deathin the wayofassassination: by the reli-gioussanction,thatis,by the dictatesofreligiouszeal,hewasenjoinedtoputhimtodeathinanyway: bythemoralsanction, ._orinotherwords,bythe dictatesofhonour,that is,ofthelove Iofreputation,hewaspermitted(whichpermission,whencoupled i_withthemandatesofhissovereign,operated,heconceived,asaninjunction)_ofightthe adversaryuponequalterms: by the I:

iSeeoh.vii.[Actions],par.viiL

• TheideaofthecaseheresupposediBtakenfroman_ecdoteinre_|history,butvariesf_o,ni_inseveralpaniculate.

x.] OJ'Mogives. j 29

dictatesofenlargedbenevolence(supposingthemandatetobeunjustifiable)hewasenjoinednottoattempthislifeinanyway,buttoremainatpeacewithhim: supposingthemandatetobeunjustifiable,bythedictatesofprivatebenevolencehewasenjoinednotto meddlewithhimat anyrate. Amongthisconfusionofrepugnantdictates,Crillon,it seems,gavethepre-ference,in thefirstplace,to thoseof honour: in thenextplace,to thoseofbenevolence.Hewouldhavefought,hadhisofferbeenaccepted; asit wasnet,hcremainedatpeace.

Hereamultitudeofquestionsmightarise.Supposingthedictatesofthepoliticalsanctiontofollowthemandateofthesovereign,ofwhatkindwerethemotiveswhichtheyaffordedhimforcompliance? Theansweris,oftheself-regardingkindatanyrate: inasmuchas,bythesupposition,itwasinthepowerofthesovereigntopunishhimfornon-compliance,orrewardhimforcompliance.Didtheyaffordhimthemotiveofre-ligion_.(Imeanindependentlyofthecircumstanceofheresyabovementioned)theansweris,Yes,ifhisnotionwas,thatitwasGod'spleasureheshouldcomplywiththem; No,ifitwasnot. Didtheyaffordhimthemotiveoftheloveofreputation_.Yes,ifit washisnotionthattheworldwouldexpectandre-quirethatheshouldcomplywiththem: No,ifitwasnot. Didtheyaffordhimthatofbenevolence?Yes,ifitwashisnotionthatthecommunitywoulduponthewholebethebetterforhiscom-plyingwiththem:No,ifitwasnot. Butdidthedictatesofthepoliticalsanction,in thecaseinquestion,actuallyfollowthemandatesofthesovereign: inotherwords,wassuchamandatelegal? Thisweseeisa merequestionoflocaljurisprudence,altogetherforeignto thepresentpurpose.

XLVI.Whatisheresaidaboutthegoodnessandbadnessoft,_i=l_• of_e abovemotives,isfarfrombeingamerematterofwords.Therewilldisqu_tionB• . relativetobeoccasiontomakeuseofithereafterforvariousImportantmoti,_.purposes.I shallhaveneedofit forthesakeofdissipatingvariousprejudices, whichareofdisserviceto thecommunity,sometimesbycherishingtheflameofcivildissensionsz,atother

SeeB.I.tit.[Rebellion].•mcrHaH K

I3o Of Motivee.

times,byobstructingthecourseofjustice.It willbeshown,thatinthecaseof manyoffences1, theconsiderationofthemotiveisa mostmaterialone: forthatin thefirstplaceitmakesa verymaterialdifferencein themagnitudeofthemis-chief2: inthenextplace,thatit iseasytobeascertained;andthencemaybemadeagroundforadifferenceinthedemandforpunishment: butthatinothercasesit isaltogetherincapableofbeingascertained; andthat,wereit capableofbeingeversowellascertained,goodorbad,itcouldmakenodifferencein thedemandforpunishment: thatinallcases,themotivethatmayhappentogovernaprosecutor,isa considerationtotallyimma-terial:whencemaybeseenthemischievousnessoftheprejudicethatissoapttobeentertainedagainstinformers; andthecon-sequenceit isofthat thejudge,inparticular,shouldbeproofagainstthe influenceofsuchdelusions.

Lastly,Thesubjectofmotivesisonewithwhichit isneces-saryto beacquainted,inordertopassa judgmentonanymeansthat maybeproposedforcombatingoffencesintheirsource 3

Butbeforethetheoreticalfoundationforthesepracticalob-servation_canbecompletelylaid,it isnecessaryweshouldsaysomethingonthesubjectofdispo_ion:which,accordingly,willfurnishmatterfortheensuingchapter.

i S_eB.I. tit. [Simp,corp.injuries].Ib. tit. [Homicide].2Seech. xi.[Dispositions].s SeeAppend.tit. [PreventiveInstltutiom].

CHAPTERXI.

OFHUMANDISPOSITIONSIN GENERAL.

I. INtheforegoingchapterithasbeenshownat]arge,thatDi.,poe_iongoodnessorbadnesscannot,withanypropriety,bepredicatedwilt.ofmotives.Is therenothingthenabouta manthatcanpro-perlybetermedgoodorbad,when,onsuchorsuchanoccasion,hesuffershimselfto begovernedbysuchorsuchamotive?Yes,certainly: hisdisposition.Nowdispositionisakindoffictitiousentity,feignedfortheconvenienceofdiscourse,inordertoexpresswhatthereissupposedto bepermanentinaman'sframeofmind,where,onsuchorsuchanoccasion,hehasbeeninfluencedbysuchorsuchamotive,toengageinanact,which,asitappearedtohim,wasofsuchorsucha tendency.

II. It iswithdispositionaswitheverythingelse: itwillbe-_e,_t_,it_, . ., belon_togoodorbadaccordingtoitseffects: accordingtotheenee_sit the_ueutsubject.hasinaugmentingordiminishingthehappinessofthecom-munity.Aman'sdispositionmayaccordinglybeconsideredintwopointsofview: accordingto the influenceithas,either,I. onhisownhappiness: or,2. onthe happinessof others.Viewedinboththeselightstogether,orineitherofthemin-discriminately,it maybetermed,ontheonehand,good; ontheother,bad; or,inflagrantcases,depravedI. Viewedinthe

It might_Isobetermedvirtuous,orvicious.TheonlyobjectiontotheuseoIthosetermsonthepresentoccasioni_,thegreatquantityofgoodandbadreputethatrespectivelystandannexedto them. Theinconve-niencoof thisis,theirbeingapt toannexan ill-proportionedmeasureofdisreputetodispositionswhichareill-constitutedonlywithrespectto thepartyhimself:involvingtheminsuch&degreeofignominy_ shouldbeappropriatedtosuchdispositionsonlyasammischievouswithregardtoothers.Toexaltweaknessesto_ levelwithcrimes,is _ wsytodimlni_h

X2

x32 HumanDisvosi_ion,in Oeneral. [ctIA_.

formeroftheselights,ithasscarcelyanypeculiarname,whichhasasyetbeenappropriatedtoit. It mightbetermed,thoughbut,inexpressively,frailorinfirm,ontheonehand: soundorfirm,ontheother.Viewedin theotherlight,it mightbetermedbeneficent,ormeritorious,ontheonehand: perniciousormischievous,ontheother.Nowofthatbranchofaman'sdisposition,theeffectsofwhichregardinthefirstinstanceonlyhimself,thereneedsnotmuchtobesaidhere. Toreformitwhenbad,is thebusinessratherofthemoralistthanthelegis-lator: norisit susceptibleofthosevariousmodificationswhichmakesomaterialadifsfenceintheelTectsoftheother.Again,withrespectto thatpartofit,theeffectswhereofregardothersin thefirstinstance,it isonlyinasfarasit isofamischievousnaturethatthepsnalbranchoflawhasanyimmediateconcernwithit: inasfarasitmaybeofabeneficentnature,itbelongstoahithertobutlittlecultivated,andasyetunnamedbranchoflaw,whichmightbestyledthercmuneratory.

Ammhio,.III. Amanthenissaidto beofa mischievousdisposition,ouadisposi-tionfi when,bytheinfluenceofnomatterwhatmotives,heispre-meritoriousdi_posi_on,sumedtobemoreapttoengage,orformintentionsofengaging,wktt.

inactswhichareapparentl_/ofapernicioustendency,thaninsuchasareapparentlyofabeneficialtendency:ofameritoriousorbeneficentdispositionintheoppositecase.

w_ta IV.Isaypresumed:for,bythesupposition,allthatappearsman'_dispo,.,_tLonira,mnIsonesingleaction,attendedwithonesingletrainofcireum-OU]be _ . . .m_te_rof stances: butfromthatdegre,eofconsistencyandumfornntyprmamp-tion. whichexperiencehasshowntobeobservableinthedifferent

actionsof thesameperson,theprobableexistence(pastorfuture)ofanumberofactsofasimilarnature,isnaturallyandjustlyinferredfromtheobservationofonesingleone. Undersuchcircums_mnees,suchasthemotiveprovestobeinonein-stance,suchis thedispositiontobepresumedtobeinothers.

itOopendaV. I sayappare_lymischievous: thatis,apparentlywithuponwhat

the abhorrencewhichought to be reservedforcrimea. Toexslt small evilsto a level with greatones, is the w_yto diminilh the 6hare of attentionwhichought to be imidto gre_tonea.

xl.] Human.Diapodtio;t,i_ General. 133

regardtohim:suchastohimappeartopossessthattendency:the_ta_forfromthemereevent,independentofwhattohimitappears_a_.._bebeforehandlikelytobe,nothingcanbeinferredoneitherside.If to himit appearslikelyto bemischievous,insuchease,thoughin theupshotit shouldproveinnocent,orevenbene-ficial,it makesnodif[erence; thereisnotthelessreasonforpresuminghisdispositiontobeabadone: iftohimitappearslikelytobebeneficialorinnocent,insuchcase,thoughin theupshotit shouldprovepernicious,thereisnotthemorereasononthataccountforpresuminghisdispositiontobeagoodone.Andhereweseetheimportanceofthecircumstancesofinten-tionalityx,consciousness2,unconsciousness_',andtufa-supposal2.

VI.Thetruthofthesepositionsdependsupontwoothers,Whi,hpoJi-• tionisbothofthemsufficientlyverifiedbyexperience: Theoneis,gro,nd_on

- . two facts:thatintheordinarycourseofthingstheconsequencesotactions1.Thecor-respondencecommonlyturnoutconformabletointentions.Amanwhosets_tw_nin.

. • _ _ . _ t_12tlO_ittldupabutcher'sshop,anddealsinbeef,whennemtenas_oKnockcorn,-downan ox,commonlydoesknockdownan ox; thoughbyquec_:someunluckyaccidenthemaychancetomisshisblowandknockdownaman: hewhosetsupagrocer'sshop,anddealsinsugar,whenhe intendsto sellsugar,commonlydoessellsugar: thoughbysomeunluckyaccidenthemaychancetosellarsenicintheroomofit.

VII. Theotheris,thatamanwhoentertainsintentions.of_,we*n_Jlelnl:erl-

doingmischiefatonetimeisapttoentertainthelikeintentionstiomorthesame personat anothers atd_fferenttime*.

VIII.TherearetwocircumstancesuponwhichthenatureOfThedisp_i-tion _sto be

thedisposition,asindicatedbyanyact,is liabletodepend:iafm_t:tSeeoh.viii. t _ech.ix.' Tosupposea manto beofn gooddisposition,andat t.hcsametime._oma_[_o_

likely,in virt,ueofthatverydisposition,to engageinan habitualtrainofp_o¢_*d,•_mschievousactionsisa contradictioninterms: norcouldsuchaproposi-_P'!ofdoi,gtioneverbeadvanced,butfromthegiving,to thethingwhichtheword_ot_ •gooddispositionis put for,a realitywhichdoesnotbelongto it. If then,foro=_example,a manofreligiousdispositionshould,in virtueof thatverydis-position,beinthehabitofdoingmischief,for instance,bypersecutinghisneighbours,the easemustbe,eitherthat hisdisposition,thoughgoodincertainrespeots,isnotgooduponthewhole: ortlmta religiousdispositionisnotingenerala goodone.

x34 Human_i_po_ition8in General [e_ae,

_.v_mtheL Theapparenttendencyoftheact: 2. ThenatureoftheapI_ntt,,nacn_,ofmotivewhichgavebirthtoit. Thisdependencyissubjecttolheact:5.Yromthediferentrules,accordingtothenatureofthemotive.InstatingIlatll_01't_ ,-otive.them,Isupposeallalongtheapparenttendencyoftheacttobe,

asit commonlyis,thesameasthereal.casex. IX.x.Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood,andthemotive

TendenCy,_a-_o. isoftheself-regardingkind.Inthiscasethemotiveaffordsnotire,s¢li'.reg_'_tms,inferenceoneitherside.Itaffordsnoindicationofagooddis-

position: butneitherdoesit affordanyindicationofa badone.

Abakersellshisbreadtoa hungrymanwhoasksforit.This,wesee,isoneofthoseactsofwhich,inordinarycases,thetendencyisunquestionablygood.Thebaker'smotiveistheordinarycommercialmotiveofpecuniaryinterest.It isplain,thatthereisnothingin thetransaction,thusstated,thatcanaffordtheleastgroundforpresumingthatthebakerisabetterora worsemanthananyofhisneighbours.

ca_e5. X.2.Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad,andthemotive,Tendency,bad--mo_i_e_asbefore,isoftheself-regardin9kind.Inthiscasethedispo-selLregard-m_. sitionindicatedisa mischievousone.

Amanstealsbreadoutofabaker'sshop: thisisoneofthoseactsofwhichthetendencywillreadilybeacknowledgedtobebad. Why,andinwhatrespectsit isso,willbestatedfartheronI. Hismotive,wewillsay,isthatofpecuniaryinterest; thedesireofgettingthevalueofthebreadfornothing,l:Iisdispo-sition,accordingly,appearstobeabadone: foreveryonewillallowathievishdispositiontobeabadone.

c_e_ XI. 3-Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood,andthemotiveTendency, .._-mo. isthepurelysocialoneofgood-will.InthiscasethedispositionilvO,_ood-w_L indicatedisabeneficentone.

h bakergivesa poormanaloafofbread.Hismotiveiscompassion;anamegiventothemotiveofbenevolence,inpar-ticularcasesofitsoperation.Thedispositionindicatedbythebaker,inthiscase,issuchaseverymanwillbereadyenoughtoacknowledgetobea goodone.

See¢h. xil. [Consequences],_ndCode,B. I. tit_[Theft].

xI.] lIuma_.DinlJosi_ionni_ General 135

XII. 4.Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad,andthemotive _Tel Idell _,V'jis thepuxelysocialoneofgood-will.Eveninthiscasethedis-_aa-moti,e

positionwhichthemotiveindicatesis dubious: it maybeasQ°d'W_"mischievousorameritoriousone,asit happens; accordingasthemischievousnessoftheactismoreorlessapparent.

XIII. It maybethought,that a easeofthissorteannotT_exist; andthattosupposeit,isacontradictioninterms. _orp_ibleo_theactisone,which,bythesupposition,theagentknowstobeamischievousone. Howthencanitbe,thatgood-will,thatis,thedesireofdoinggood,couldhavebeenthemotivethatledhimintoit? Toreconcilethis,wemustadvertto thedistinc-tionbetweenenlargedbenevolenceandconfined1. Themotivethatledhimintoit,wasthatofconfinedbenevolence.Hadhefollowedthedictatesofenlargedbenevolence,hewouldnothavedonewhathedid. Now,althoughhefollowedthedictatesofthatbranchofbenevolence,whichinanysingleinstanceofitsexertionismischievous,whenopposedtotheother,yet,astheeaseswhichcallfortheexertionoftheformerare,beyondcom-parison,morenumerousthanthosewhichcallfortheexertionoIthelatter,thedispositionindicatedbyhim,infollowingtheimpulseoftheformer,willoftenbe suchasina man,ofthecommonrunofmen,maybeallowedtobeagoodoneuponthewhole.

XIV.A manwitha numerousfamilyof children,on theE_ampleLpointofstarving,goesintoabaker'sshop,stealsa loaf,dividesit allamongthechildren,reservingnoneofit forhimself.Itwillbehardtoinferthatthatman'sdispositionisamischievousoneuponthewhole.Alterthecase,givehimbutonechild,andthathungryperhaps,butinnoimminentdangerofstarving:andnowlet themansetfiretoa housefujiofpeople,forthesakeoIstealingmoneyoutofit tobuythebreadwith.Thed_-positionhereindicatedwillhardlybelookedupouasagoodoue.

XV.Anothercasewillappearmoredifficulttodecidethanl_xampleH.either. Ravaillacassassinatedoneofthebestandwisestofsovereigns,atatimewhenagoodandwisesovereign,ablessing

Seeoilx.[Motives].

z36 tI_4_an.Dis2o#i¢io_i_ Ge_ral. [cuxP.

at alltimessovaluabletoastate,wasparticularlyprecious:andthattotheinhabitantsofapopulousandextensiveempire.Heistaken,anddoomedtothemostexcruciatingtortures.Hisson,wellpersuadedofhisbeingasincerepenitent,andthatmankind,ine_seofhisbeingatlarge,wouldhavenothingmoretofearfromhim,effectuateshisescape.Isthisthenasignofagooddispositionintheson,orofabadone? Perhapssomewillanswer,ofabadone; for,besidestheinterestwhichthenationhasinthesufferingsofsuchacriminal,onthescoreoftheex-ample,thefuturegoodbehaviourofsuchacriminalismorethananyonecanhavesufficientgroundtobepersuadedof.

_x,_ple XVI.Wellthen,letRavaillac,theson,notfacilitatehisIll,father'sescape; butcontenthimselfwithconveyingpoisontohim,thatatthepriceofaneasierdeathhemayescapehistor-ments.Thedecision_dllnow,perhaps,bemoredifficult.Theactisawrongone,letit beallowed,andsuchasoughtbyallmeanstobepunished: butisthedispositionmanifestedbyit abadone? Becausetheyoungmanbreaksthelawsinthisoneinstance,is itprobable,thatifletalone,hewouldbreakthelawsinordinaryinstances,forthesatisfactionofanyinordinatedesiresofhisown_ Theanswerofmostmenwouldprobablybein thenegative.

c_ca XVII. 5. Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood,andtheTendency,#oo_-mo-motiveisasemisocialone,theloveofreputatior_.Inthiscasefive,loveofrep_t_t_o_,,thedispositioninclicatedisagoodone.

Ina timeofscarcity,a baker,forthesakeofgainingtheesteemoftheneighbourhood,distributesbreadgrozi_amongtheindustriouspoor. Letthisbetal_enforgranted: andletitbeallowedtobeamatterofuncertainty,whetherhehadanyrealfeelingforthesufferingsofthosewhomhehasrelieved,orno.Hisdisposition,forallthat,_ammt,withanypretenceofreason, "_.betermedotherwisethanagoodandbeneficentone. It canonlybeinconsequenceofsomeveryidleprejudice,ifit receivesadiiterentnamei.

vbeb_kof _Thebulkofm_nkind,everreadytodepreciatethecharacteroftheirmankind_Pttoneighbours,inorder,indirectly,toexalttheirown,willtakeoccasionto E

XI.] ltftman Di,_fosilions in General. I37

X¥I]I. 6. Where the tendency ot the act is bad, and the_ c_ _.• "lendeuey,motive,as before, is a semi-socialone, the love oI reputatlon._-mon,_honour.In this case, the disposition which it indicates is more or lessgood or bad : in the firstplace, accordingas the tendency oftheact is moreor lessmischievous: in the next place accordingasthe dictates of the moral sanction,in the society in question,approachmore or lessto a coincidencewith those of utility. Itdoesnot seemprobable, that inany nation, whichis in astate oftolerablecivilization, in short, in any nation in whichsuch rul_as these can come to be consulted, the dictates of the moralsanction will so far recede from a coincidencewith those of

utility (that is, of enlightened benevolence)that the dispositionindicatedin this casecan be otherwisethan a goodone uponthewhole.

XIX. An Indian receivesan injury, real or imaginary, fromr,x,rnpleLan Indian of another tribe. Herevenges it upon the person ofhis antagonist with the most excruciating torments : the casebeing, that cruelties inflicted on such an occasion, gain himreputation inhis own tribe. The disposition manifestedin sucha case can never be deemed a good one, among a people ever

refera motiveto theclassof badonesas oftenastheycanfindonestilldep'_eratelJflsbetter,to whichthe actmighthaveowedits birth. Consciousthat his_onv_ownmotivesarenot ofthe_-st class,or persuadedthatif theybe,theywillnot bereferredtothat classbyothers; afraidof beingtakenfor adupe,andanxiousto showthereachofhispenetration; eachmantakescare,in thefirstplace,to imputethe conductofeveryothermant_)theleastlaudableofthe motivesflintcanaccountfor it : inthenext place,whenhehasgoneasfar that wayashe can,andcannotdrivedowntheindividualmotivetoanylowerclass,hechangeshisbattery,andattackstheveryela_sitself. Totheloveofreputationhewillaccordinglygiveabadnameuponeveryoccasion,callingit ostentation,vanity,oryam-glory.

P_rtlytothe samespiritofdetractmn,thenaturalconsequenceofthesensibilityofmentotheforceofthemoralsanction,partlytotheinfluenceoftheprincipleofascetwism,may,perhaps,beimputedthegreatabund-anceofbadnamesofmotives,incomparisonofsuchasaregoodorneutral:and,inparticular,thetotalwantofneutralnamesforthemotivesofsexualdesire,physicaldesireingeneral,and peeuniaa'yinterest. Thesuperiorabundance,evenofgoodnames,m comparisonofneutralones,would,ifexaminmt,befoundrathertoconfirmthandisprovetheaboveremark.Thelanguageofa peopleon thesepointsmay,perhaps,servemsomemeasureasa keytotheirmoralsentiments.Butsuchspeculativedisquisitiomareforeigntothe purposeofthepresentwork.

138 Itumanlh'sloositionsin General. [chAP.

sofewdegreesadvanced,inpointofcivifization,abovetheIndians.

_,,_ploIL XX.Anobleman(tocomebacktoEurope)contractsadebtwithapoortradesman.Thesamenobleman,presentlyafter-wards,contractsadebt,to thesameamount,toanothernoble-man,atplay. Heisunabletopayboth: hepaysthewholedebtto thecompanionofhisamusements,andnopartofit tothe tradesman.Thedispositionmanifestedin thiscasecanscarcelybetermedotherwisethanabadone. It iscertainly,however,notsobadasifhehadpaidneither.Theprincipleofloveofreputation,or(asit iscalledin thecaseofthispartialapplicationofit)honour,ishereopposedto theworthierprin-cipleofbenevolence,andgetsthebetterofit. Butitgetsthebetteralsooftheself-regardingprincipleofpecuniaryinterest.Thedisposition,therefore,whichit indicates,althoughnotsogoodaoneas thatinwhichtheprincipleofbenevolencepre-dominates,isbetterthanoneinwhichtheprincipleofself-interestpredominates,tiewouldbethebetterforhavingmorebenevolence: butwouldhebethebetterforhavingnohonour?Thisseemstoadmitofgreatdispute_.

c_¢,. XXI. 7"Wherethe tendencyoftheactisgood,andtheTendency,,oo,_t-,n_-motiveis thesemi-socialoneofrelioion.Inthiscase,thedis-tire,pJety, positionindicatedbyit (consideredwithrespecttotheinfluence

ofitontheman'sconducttowardsothers)ismanifestlyabene-ficentandmeritoriousone.

Abakerdistributesbread9ratisamongtheindustriouspoor.It isnotthathefeelsfortheirdistresses: norisit forthesakeofgainingreputationamonghisneighbours.It is forthesakeofgainingthefavourof theDeity: towhom,hetakesforgranted,suchconductwillbeacceptable.Thedispositionmaul-

.!restedbysuchconductisplainlywhateverymanwouldcalla tgoodone. _

c,s¢s. XXII.8.Wherethetendencyoftheactisbad,andthemotive _i_d--mot_ve,_rcndeneY'is thatofreligion,as before.In thiscasethedispositionis '_rehsi_, dubious.It isgoodorbad,andmoreorlessgoodorbad,inthe

a See the caseof Duels discussedin B. I. tik [Homicide].

xz.] HumanDi_poaigionain Genera£ I39

firstplace,asthetendencyo!theactismoreorlessmischievous;inthenextplace,accordingasthereligioustenetsofthepersoninquestionapproachmoreorlesstoacoincidencewiththedic-tatesofutility.

XXIII.It shouldseemfromhistory,thateveninnationsinThedlspo_i-• tJorLmay bea tolerablestateofcivilizationinotherrespects,thedictatesofbanintaisreligionhavebeenfoundsofartorecedefromacoincidencewiththoseofutility; inotherwords,fromthoseofenlightenedbenevolence;thatthedispositionin_catedinthiscasemayevenbeabadoneuponthewhole.Thishoweverisnoobjectiontotheinferencewhichita_or_ofagooddispositioninthosecountries(suchasperhapsaremostofthecountriesofEuropeatpresent)inwhichitsdictatesrespectingtheconduaofamantowardsothermenapproachverynearlytoacoincidencewiththoseofutility.Thedictatesofreligion,intheirapplicationtotheconductofamaninwhatconcernshimselfalone,seeminmostE_tropeannationsto savoura gooddealoftheasceticprinciple:buttheobedieneetosuchnfistakendictatesindicatesnotanysuchdispositionasislikelytobreakoutintoactsofpernicioustendencywithrespecttoothers.Instancesinwhichthedictatesofreli_onleadamanintoactswhichareperniciousinthislatterview,seematpresenttobebutrare: unlessitbeactsofpersecution,orimpoliticmeasuxesonthepartofgovern-ment,wherethelawitselfis eithertheprincipalactororanaccomplicein themischief.Ravaillac,instigatedbynoothermotivethanthis,gavehiscountryoneofthemostfatalstabsthatacountryeverreceivedfromasinglehand:buthappilytheRavaillacsarebutrare. Theyhavebeenmorefrequent,how-ever,in :Francethanin anyothercountryduringthesameperiod: andit isremarkable,thatineveryinstanceit is thismotivethathasproducedthem.Whentheydoappear,however,nobody,I suppose,butsuchasthemselves,willbefortermingadisposition,suchastheymanifest,agoodone. Itseemshardlytobedenied,butthattheyarejustsomuchtheworsefortheirnotionsofreligion; andthat hadtheybeenleftto thesoleguidanceoIbenevolenee,andtheloveofreputation,withoutany

I4o HumansDi_oail_o_,8in G_neraA [CHAr.

religionat all,it wouldhavebeenbutsomuchthebetterformankind.Onemaysaynearlythesamething,perhaps,ofthosepersonswho,withoutanyparticularobligation,havetakenanactivepartintheexecutionoflawsmadeforthepunishmentofthosewhohavethemisfortunetodifferwiththemagiBtrateinmattersofreligion,muchmoreofthelegislatorhimself,whohasputit intheirpower.IfLouisXIV.hadhadnoreligion,Francewouldnothavelost8oo,oooofitsmostvaluablesubjects.Thesamethingmaybesaidoftheauthorsofthewarscalledholyones; whetherwagedagalnstpersonscalledInfidels,orpersonsbrandedwiththestillmoreodiousnameofHeretics.InDen-mark,notagreatmanyyearsago,asectissaidtohavearisen,who,byastrangeperversionofreason,tookit intotheirheads,that,byleadingtorepentance,murder,oranyotherhorridcrime,mightbemadetheroadtoh_ven. It shouldallalong,how-ever,beobserved,thatinstancesofthislatterkindwerealwaysrare: andthatinalmostallthecountriesofEurope,instancesoftheformerkind,thoughonceabundantlyfrequent,haveforsometimeceased.Incertaincountries,however,persecutionathome,or{whatproducesadegreeofrestraint,whichisonepartofthemischiefsofpersecution)I meanthedispositiontoperse-cute,whensoeveroccasionhappens,isnotyetatanend: inso-muchthatif thereisnoactualpersecution,it isonlybecausetherearenoheretics; andif therearenoheretics,it isonlybecausetherearenothinkers1.

c_o. XXIV.9. Wherethetendencyoftheactisgood,andtheTelidency,_o_r_o-motive(asbefore)is thedissocialoneofill-will.In thiscaset_ve,malevo._ez,ce. themotiveseemsnottoaffordanyindicationoneitherside.][t

isno indicationofa gooddisposition; but neitheris it anyindicationofabadone.

z,,_,ple. Youhavedetectedabakerinsellingshortweight:youprose-cutehimforthecheat.It isnotforthesakeofgainthatyouengagedintheprosecution; forthereisnothingtobegotbyit : !it isnotfrompublicspirit: itisnotforthesakeofreputation; t:forthereisnoreputationtobegotbyit : it isnotintheview i

SeeB.Ltit. [Offonce_againstReligion]. ,'

xI.] HumanDispositionsin O_e,'a. *4x

ofpleasingtheDeity: it ismerelyonaccountofaquarrelyouhavewiththemanyouprosecute.Fromthe transaction,asthusstated,theredoesnotseemtobeanythingtobesaideitherinfavourofyourdispositionoragainstit. Thetendencyoftheactisgood:butyouwouldnothaveengagedinit,haditnotbeenfromamotivewhichthereseemsnoparticularreasontoconcludewilleverpromptyoutoengageinanactofthesamekindagain.Yourmotiveisofthatsortwhichmay,withleastimpropriety,betermedabadone:buttheactisofthatsort,which,wereitengagedineversooften,couldneverhaveanyeviltendency;norindeedanyothertendencythanagoodone.Bythesupposition,themotiveithappenedtobedictatedbywasthatofill-will:buttheactitselfisofsuchanatureastohavewantednothingbutsui_cientdiscernmentonyourpartinordertohavebeendictatedbythemostenlargedbenevolence.Now,fromaman'shavingsufferedhimselftobeinducedtogratifyhisresentmentbymeansofanactofwhichthetendencyisgood,itbynomeansfollowsthathewouldbereadyonanotheroccasion,throughtheinfluenceofthesamesortofmotive,toengageinanyactofwhichthetendencyisabadone.Themotivethatimpelledyouwasadissoeialone:butwhatsocialmotivecouldtherehay8beentorestrainyou? None,butwhatmighthavebeenoutweighedbyamoreenlargedmotiveofthesamekind.Now,becausethedissocialmotiveprevailedwhenitstoodalone,itbynomeansfollowsthatitwouldprevailwhenithadasocialonetocombatit.

XXV.xo.Wherethetendencyoftheactis bad,andthe c_Be10.._ Tendency,motiveisthedissocialoneofmalevolence.Inthiscaseznebad--motlve,

dispositionitindicatesisofcourseamischievousone. -*levolen_Themanwhostolethebreadfromthebaker,asbefore,didit_.amp_a

withnootherviewthanmerelytoimpoverishandafflicthim:accordingly,.whenhehadgotthebread,hedidnoteat,orsellit;butdestroyedit.Thatthedisposition,evidencedbysucha transaction,isa badone,iswhateverybodymustperceiveimmediately.

_IXVI.Thusmuchwithrespectto thecircumstancesfromP_blom-to

14_ IlumanDisFo_ition_i_ General. [CHAP.

m_re_hewhichthemischievousnessor meritoriousnessofaman'sdis.depravityInams_'ad,s-positionis tobeinferredinthegross: wecomenowtotheimsition.

raeacureofthatmischievousnessormeritoriousness,asresultingfromthosecircumstances.Nowwithmeritoriousactsanddis-positionswehavenodirectconcerninthepresentwork.Allthatpenallawisconcernedtodo,istomeasurethedepravityofthedispositionwheretheactismischievous.Tothisobject,therefore,weshallhereconfineourselves.

man',_- XXVII.Itisevident,thatthenatureofaman'sdispositionpositionisconstitutedmustdependuponthenatureofthemotiveshcisapttobebythesumorb,,mien-influencedby:inotherwords,uponthedegreeofkissensibilityuo_: totheforceofsuchandsuchmotives.Forhisdispositionis,as

itwere,thesumofhisintentions:thedispositionheisofduringacertainperiod,thesumorresultofhisintentionsduringthatperiod.If,oftheactshehasbeenintendingtoengageinduringthesupposedperiod,thosewhichareapparentlyofamischievoustendency,bearalargeproportiontothosewhichappeartohimtobeofthecontrarytendency,hisdispositionwillbeofthemischievouscast:ifbutasmallproportion,oftheinnocentorupright,

--whichoweXXVIII.Nowintentions,likeeverythingelse,areproducedtheirbirthtomotiveLbythethingsthataretheircauses:andthecausesofintentions

aremotives.If,onanyoccasion,amanformseitheragoodorabadintention,itmustbebytheinfluenceofsomemotive.

AseducingXXIX.Whentheact,whichamotivepromptsamantoorcorrupt-ingmotive,engagein,isofamischievousnature,itmay,fordistinction'swhat-a tu-_l_ or sake,betermedasedudnqorcorruptingmotive: inwhicheasepr_erva_ory,motiv_atsoanymotivewhich,inoppositiontotheformer,actsinthe

characterofarestrainingmotive,maybestyledatutelary,preservatory,orpreservingmotive, i

z,_t_ryXXX.Tutelarymotivesmayagainbedistinguishedintomotivesareeztherstand-8/.0._'_d$_orconstant,andoccasional,Bystandingtutelarymo-ingorocca.s_. tires,I meansuchasactwithmoreorlessforceinall,orat

leastinmostcases,tendingtorestraina manfromanymis-chievousactshemaybepromptedtoengagein;andthatwithaloreswhichdependsuponthegeneralnatureoftheact,rather

I.

xI.] lturaanDi_po_ionsi_ Ge_leral. I43

thanuponanyaccidentalcircumstancewithwhichanyindi-vidualactofthatsortmayhappentobeaccompanied.Byoc.easionaltutelarymotives,Imeansuchmotivesasmaychancetoactinthisdirectionornot,accordingto thenatureoftheact,andoftheparticularoccasiononwhichtheengagingin itisbroughtintocontemplation.

XXXI.Nowit hasbeenshown,that thereis nosort,ofstanain_• tutelary"me-

motivebywhichamanmaynotbepromptedtoengagemactst_v__ �€�thatareofamischievousnature; thatis,whichmaynotcome1.Gooa.wilL

toactinthecapacityofaseducingmotive.Ithasbeenshown,ontheotherhand,thattherearesomemotiveswhicharere-markablylesslikelytooperatein thiswaythanothers.It hasalsobeenshown,thattheleastlikelyofallisthatofbenevolenceorgood-will: themostcommontendencyofwhich,ithasbeenshown,is toactin thecharacterofa tutelarymotive.It hasalsobeenshown,thatevenwhenbyaccidentitactsinonewayinthecharacterofaseducingmotive,stillinanotherwayitactsintheoppositecharacterofa tutelaryone.Themotiveofgood-will,inasfarasit respectstheinterestsofonesetofpersons,maypromptamantoengageinactswhichareproductiveofmischiefto anotherandmoreextensiveset : but thisisonlybecausehisgood-willisimperfectandconfined: nottakingintocontemplationtheinterestsofallthepersonswhoseinterestsareat stake. Thesamemotive,weretheaffectionit issueditemmoreen]arged,wouldoperateeffectually,inthecharacterofaconstrainingmotive,againstthatveryacttowhich,bythesup-position,itgivesbirth.Thissamesortofmotivemaytherefore,withoutanyrealcontradictionordeviationfromtruth,berankedinthenumberofstandingtutelarymotives,notwithstandingtheoccasionsinwhiehitmayactat thesametimeinthecharacterofa seducingone.

XXXILThesameobservation,nearly,maybeappliedtothe_._s lore,._ ofrepute-semi-socialmotiveofloveofreputation.Theforceofthis,n_e_ion.

thatoftheformer,isliabletobedividedagainstitself. Asinthecaseofgood-will,theinterestsofsameofthepersons,whomaybetheobjectsofthatsentiment,areliabletobeatvariance

I44 l:[umanI)i._osigio_in General. -[crisP.

withthoseofothers: soin thecaseofloveofreputation,thesentimentsofsomeofthepersons,whosegoodopinionisdesired,maybeatvariancewiththesentimentsofotherpersonsofthatnumber.Nowintheeaseofanact,whichis reallyotamis-chievonsnature,it canscarcelyhappenthatthereshallbenopersonswhateverwhowilllookuponitwithaneyeofdisappro-bation.Itcanscarcelyeverhappen,therefore,thatanactreallymischievousshallnothavesomepartatleast,ifnotthewhole,oftheforceofthismotivetoopposeit ; nor,therefore,thatthismotiveshouldnotactwithsomedegreeofforceinthecharacterof a tutelarymotive.This,therefore,maybesetdownasanotherarticlein thecatalogueofstandingtutelarymotives.

arhedes_XXXIII.Thesameobservationmaybeapphedtothedesireofamity,ofamity,thoughnotinaltogetherequalmeasure.For,not-withstandingthemischievousnessofanact,it mayhappen,withoutmuchdifficulty,thatallthepersonsforwhoseamityamanentertainsanyparticularpresentdesirewhichisaccom-paniedwithexpectation,mayconcurinregardingitwithaneyeratherofapprobationthanthecontrary.Thisisbuttooapttobethecaseamongsuchfraternitiesasthoseofthieves,smug-glers,andmanyotherdenominationsofoffenders.This,how-ever,isnotconstantly,norindeedmostcommonlythecase:insomuch,thatthedesireofamitymaystillberegarded,uponthewhole,asa tutelarymotive,wereitonlyfromtheclosenessofitsconnexionwiththeloveofreputation.Andit mayberankedamongstandingtutelarymotives,since,whereit doesapply,theforcewithwhichitacts,dependsnotupontheocca-sionalcircumstancesoftheactwhichitopposes,butuponprin-ciplesasgeneralasthoseuponwhichdependtheactionoftheothersemi-socialmotives.

_._eme. XXXIV.Themotiveofrehgionisnotaltogetherinthesametivoortell-$oa. casewiththethreeformer.Theforceofit isnot,liketheirs,liabletobe dividedagainstitself.I meaninthecivilizednationsofmoderntimes,amongwhomthenotionoftheunityoftheGodheadisuniversal.Intimesofela_icalantiquityitwasotherwise.IfamangotVenusonhisside,Pallaswasonthe

xL] HumanDi_positiou_in General. I45

other:if_)Eoluswasforhim,Neptunewasagainsthim.JEneas,withallhispiety,hadbuta partialinterestat thecourtofheaven.Thatmatterstandsuponadifferenttoothlgnowa-days.Inanygivenperson,theforceofreligion,whateveritbe,isnowallo!itononeside.It maybalance,indeed,onwhichsideit shalldeclareitself: anditmaydeclareitself,aswehaveseenalreadyinbuttoomanyinstances,onthewrongaswellasontheright, Ithasbeen,at leasttilllately,perhapsisstill,accustomedsomuchtodeclareitselfonthewrongside,andthatinsuchmaterialinstances,thatonthataccountit scentednotpropertoplaceit, inpointofsocialtendency,ona levelalto-getherwiththemotiveofbenevolence.Whereitdoesact,how-ever,asitdoesinbyfarthegreatestnumberofcases,inopposi-tionto theordinaryseducingmotives,it acts,likethemotiveofbenevolence,inanuniformmanner,notdependingupontheparticularcircumstancesthatmayattendthecommissionoftheact; but tendingtoopposeit,merelyonaccountofitsmis-chievousness; andtherefore,withequalforce,inwhatsoevereircumstancesitmaybeproposedtobecommitted.This,there-fore,mayalsobeaddedto thecatalogueofstandingtutelarymotives.

XXXV.Asto themotiveswhichmayoperateoccasionallyoccas_onaltutelar.,,,me-inthecharacteroftutelarymotives,these,ithasbeenalreadytiv__aynnywhut._-intimated,areofvarioussorts,andvariousdegreesofstrengthever.

invariousoffences: dependingnotonlyuponthenatureoftheoffence,butupontheaccidentalcircumstancesinwhichtheideaofengaginginitmaycomeincontemplation.Noristhereanysortofmotivewhichmaynotcometooperateinthischaracter;asmaybeeasilyconceived.Athief,forinstance,mayhepre-ventedfromengaginginaprojectedschemeofhouse-breaking,bysittingtoolongoverhisbottle1,byavisitfromhisdoxy,bytheoccasionhemayhavetogoelsewhere,inordertoreceivehisdividendofa formerbooty_; andsoon.

XY_VI.Therearesomemotives,however:whichseemmorelwotivesthat

i Loveofthepleasuresofthep_l_te.RPecuniaryinterest.

BRNI_A_ L

146 IIu_aaT_Dispodtio;_*i_ Geg_era/. [CHAP.

arepartieu,apttoactinthischaracterthanothers; especiallyasthingsarelarlvapttoaotmthisnowconstituted,nowthatthelawhaseverywhereopposedtocharacter*re,1.1metheforceoftheprincipalseducingmotives,artificialtute]aryorease.2seir-pre-motivesofitsowncreation.Ofthemotivesheremeantitwillservatton,benecessarytotakeageneralview.Theyseemtobereducible

totwoheads; viz.I.Theloveofease; amotiveputintoactionbytheprospectofthetroubleoftheattempt;thatis,thetroublewhichitmaybenecessarytobestow,inovercomingthephysicaldifficultiesthatmayaccompanyit. 2.Self-preservation,asop-posedto thedangerstowhichamanmaybeexposedintheprosecutionofit.

_n_e_to XXXVH.Thesedangersmaybeeither,I. Ofapurelyphysi-whichself-preserVatlonca]nature: or,2. Dangersresultingfrommoralagency; inis mostapt,mthe5ea_otherwords,fromtheconductofanysuchpersonstowhomtheto ha_e re-spect,_re.act,ifknown,maybeexpectedtoproveobnoxious.Butmoral1.Dangerspu_y_h.v.agencysupposesknowledgewithrespectto thecircumstancessteal.2.I_,ngersthataretohavetheeffectofexternalmotivesingivingbirthtodepeltdu'Jg.. _. - • -ondetection,lT.. JNOWtheobtainingsuchknowledge,withrespectto the

commissionofanyobnoxiousact,on thepartofanypersonswhomaybedisposedtomaketheagentsufferforit,iscalleddeteaion; andtheagentconcerningwhomsuchknowledgeisobtained,issaidtobedetected.Thedangers,therefore,whichmaythreatenanoffenderfromthisquarter,depend,whatevertheymaybe,ontheeventofhisdetection; andmay,therefore,beallof themcomprisedunderthearticleofthedangerofdetection.

r_n_rde-XXXVIII.Thedangerdependingupondetectionmaybepenmn_onde_ttondividedagainintotwobranches: I. Thatwhichmayresultmayr_ultfrom, fromanyoppositionthatmaybe madeto theenterprisebyLOppomtion 8ont,_potpersononthespot; thatis,at theverytimetheenterpriseis2 Su_.q,e_t carryingon: 2. Thatwhichrespectsthelegalpunishment,orpunmhment,othersuffering,thatmayawaitatadistanceupontheissueof

theenterprise, i_'heforceor XXXIX.:Itmaybeworthcallingtomindonthisoccasion,Shetwo_andingtu-thatamongthetutelarymotives,whichhavebeenstyledcon-teMrymo-t,vuorlovestantones,therearetwoofwhichtheforcedepends(thoughnot

xI.] ItunzanDigpogitionsbt General. 147

soentirelyastheforceoftheoccasionaloneswhichhavebeenortepuh,-• t tlon,andde-justmentioned,yetinagreatmeasure)uponthec_rcumstanceoisireofamity.

dependsdetection.These,itmayberemembered,are,theloveofreputa-u_ndetec-tion,andthedesireofamity.In proportion,therefore,asthet_o=,chanceof beingdetectedappearsgreater,thesemotiveswillapplywiththegreaterforce: withthelessforce,asitappearsless.Thisisnottheeasewiththetwootherstandingtutelarymotives,thatofbenevolence,andthatofreligion.

XL.Wearenowinaconditiontodetermine,withsomede-s_en_thora tempi;a-

gree ofprecision,whatis tobeunderstoodbythestrengthofation,wl_atistemptat/on,andwhatindicationit maygiveofthedegreeOfmeantbyi_"mischievousnessinaman'sdispositioninthecaseofanyoffence.Whenamanispromptedtoengageinanymischievousact,wewillsay,forshortness,inano_ence,thestrengthofthetempta-tiondependsupontheratiobetweentheforceoftheseducingmotivesontheonehand,andsuchoftheoccasionaltutelaryones,asthecircumstancesofthecasecallforthintoaction,ontheother. Thetemptation,then,maybesaidtobestrong,whenthepleasureoradvantagetobegotfromthecrimeissuchasintheeyesoftheofiendermustappeargreatincomparisonofthetroubleanddangerthatappeartohimtoaccompanytheenterprise: slightorweak,whenthatpleasureoradvantageissuchasmustappearsmallincomparisonofsuchtroubleandsuchdanger.It isplainthestrengthofthetemptationdependsnotupontheforceof theimpelling(thatisoftheseducing)motivesaltogether: forlettheopportunitybemorefavourable,thatis,letthetrouble,oranybranchofthedanger,bemadelessthanbefore,itwillbeacknowledged,thatthetemptationismadesomuchthestronger: andontheotherhand,let theopportunitybecomelessfavourable,or,inotherwords,letthetrouble,oranybranchofthedanger,bemadegreaterthanbefore,thetemptationwillbesomuchtheweaker.

Now,aftertakingaccountofsuchtutelarymotivesashavebeenstyledoccasional,theonlytutelarymotivesthatcanremainare thosewhichhavebeentermedstandingones. Butthosewhichhavebeentermedthestandingtutelarymotives,arethe

L2

148 IlumanDispositionsin General. [cuxP.

samethatwehavebeenstylingsocial.It follows,therefore,thatthestrengthofthetemptation,inanyease,afterdeductingtheforceofthesocialmotives,isasthesumofthetortesoftheseducing,to thesumoftheforcesoftheoccasionaltutelarymotives.

IndicatiovsXLI.Itremainstobeinquired,whatindicationconcern-sffordedbyt_,sa_d ingthemischievousnessordepravityofaman'sdispositionisethercir-eu,.mn_affozdedbythestrengthofthetemptation,in thecasewhererespectingthedepra-anyo_eneehappenstohavebeencommitted.Itappears,vlt_vOfB._o_nder',then,thattheweakerthetemptationis,bywhichamanhas&sposition.beenovercome,themoredepravedandmischievousitshows

hisdispositiontohavebeen.Forthegoodnessofhisdisposi.tionismeasuredbythedegreeofhissensibilitytotheactionofthesocialmotivesi:inotherwords,bythestrengthoftheinfluencewhichthosemotiveshaveoverhim:now,thelessconsiderabletheforceisbywhichtheirinfluenceonhimhasbeenovercome,themoreconvincingistheproofthathasbeengivenoftheweaknessofthatinfluence.

Again,Thede_eeofa man'ssensibilityto theforceofthesocialmotivesbeinggiven,it isplainthattheforcewithwhichthosemotivestendtorestrainhimfromengaginginanymis-chievousenterprise,willbeastheapparentmischievousnessofsuchenterprise,thatis,asthedegreeofmischiefwithwhichitappearstohimlikelytobeattended.In otherwords,thelessmischievoustheoffenceappearstohimtobe,thelessaversehewillbe,asfarasheisguidedbysocialconsiderations,toengagein it; themoremischievous,themoreaverse.If thenthenatureoftheoffenceissuchasmustappeartohimhighlymis-chievous,andyetheengagesinit notwithstanding,it shows,thatthedegreeofhissensibilityto theforceofthesocialmo-tivesisbutslight; andconsequentlythat hisdispositionisproportionablydepraved.Moreover,thelessthestrengthofthetemptationwas,themoreperniciousanddepraveddoesit showhisdispositiontohavebeen. Forthelessthes_rengthofthe

thelesswastheforcewhichtheinfluenceof itemptationwas,J

i 8_pra,per._vii,xxviii.

I

xl.] HumanDisl_ositionsin General. I49

thosemotiveshad toovercome: theclearerthereforeis theproofthathasbeengivenoftheweaknessofthatinfluence.

XLII.Fromwhathasbeensaid,itseems,that,forjudgingofR_esrgr...... measuringthe indicationthatis affordedconcermngthedepravityofathedepra.

.... vityofd_-mansdlsposmonbythestrengthofthetemptation,comparedr_it.onin-1 dicatedbywiththemischievousnessoftheenterprise,thefollowingrulesano_ren¢_

maybelaiddown:RuleI. Thestrengthof thetemptationbeinggiven,themis-

chievousnessofthedisposhionmanifestedbytheenlerprise,isastheapparentmischievousnessoftheact.

Thus,it wouldshowamoredepraveddisposition,tomurderamanforarewardofaguinea,orfalselytochargehimwitharobberyforthesamereward,thantoobtainthesamesumfromhimbysimpletheft:thetroublehewouldhavetotake,andtheriskhewouldhavetorun,beingsupposedtostandonthesamefootingin theonecaseasin theother.

Rulez. Theapparentmischievousnessoftheactbeinggiven,aman'sdispositionis themoredepraved,thesliqhterthetempta-tionisbywhichhehasbeenovercome.

Thus,it showsamoredepravedanddangerousdisposition,ifamankillanotheroutofmeresport,astheEmperorofMorocco,MuleyMahomet,issaidtohavedonegreatnumbers,thanoutofrevenge,asSyllaandMariusdidthousands,orintheviewofself-preservation,asAugustuskilledmany,orevenforlucre,asthesameEmperorissaidtohavekilledsome.Andthee_ectsofsuchadepravity,onthatpartofthepublicwhichisapprizedofit,runinthesameproportion.FromAugustus,somepersonsonlyhadtofear,undersomeparticularcircumstances.FromMuleyMahomet,everymanhadto fearatall times.

Rule3. TheapTarentmischievousnessof theactbeinggiven,theevidencewhichitaffordsof thedepravityofa man'sdisposi-tionis thelessconclusive,thestrangerthetemptationisbywhichhehasbeenovercome.

Thus,ifapoorman,whoisreadytodiewithhunger,stealaloafofbread,it isa lessexplicitsignofdepravity,thanifarichmanweretocommitathefttothesameamount.It willbe

I5o ttumanDi_positi_iu General. [cHar.

observed,thatinthis_leallthatissaidis,thattheevidenceofdepravityisinthiscasethelessconclusive: it isnotsaidthatthedepravityispositivelytheless.Forinthiscaseitispossible,foranythingthatappearstothecontrary,thatthetheftmighthavebeencommitted,evenhadthe temptationbeennotsostrong. Inthiscase,thealleviatingcircumstanceisonlyamat-terofpresumption;intheformer,theaggravatingcircumstanceisamatterofcertainty.

Rule4. Wherethemotiveisofthedissoeialkind,theapparentmischievousnessoftheact,andthestrengthof thetemptation,beinggiven,thedepravityis asthedegreeofdeliberationugthwhichit isaccompanied.

Forineveryman,behisdispositioneversodepraved,thesocialmotivesarethosewhich,wherevertheself-regardingonesstandneuter,regulateanddeterminethegeneraltenorofhislife. Ifthedissocialmotivesareputinaction,it isonlyinparticulareircumstances,andonparticularoccasions;thegentlebutconstantforceofthesocialmotivesbeingforawhilesub-dued. Thegeneralandstandingbiasofeveryman'snatureis,therefore,towardsthatsidetowhichtheforceofthesocialmo-tiveswoulddeterminehimtoadhere.Thisbeingthecase,theforceofthesocialmotivestendscontinuallytoputanendtothatofthedissocialones; as,innaturalbodies,theforceoffrictiontendstoputanendtothatwhichisgeneratedbyira.pulse.Time,then,whichwearsawaytheforceofthedissocialmotives,addstothatofthesocial.Thelonger,therelore,amancontinues,onagivenoccasion,underthedonfinionofthedis-socialmotives,themoreconvincingistheproofthathasbeengivenofhisinsensibilityto theforceofthesocialones.

Thus,itshowsa worsedisposition,wherea manlaysade-liberateplanforbeatinghisantagonist,andbeatshimaccord-ingly,thanifheweretobeathimuponthespot,inconsequenceofasuddenquarrel: andworseagain,if,alterhavinghadhima longwhiletogetherinhispower,hebeatshimat intervals,andathisleisure1.

iSeeB.I.ti_.[Confinement]. ":

I

XI.] tIuman1)i3)Jo+itio_8i_ General. 15I

XLIII.Thedepravityofdisposition,indicatedbyanact,isa_eofth_materialconsiderationinseveralrespects.Anymarkofextra-¢i_vt¢,..ordinarydepravity,byaddingto theterroralreadyinspiredbythecrime,andbyholdingup theoffenderas a personfromwhomtheremaybemoremischieftobeapprehendedinfuture,addsinthatwayto thedemandforpunishment.Byindicatingageneralwantofsensibilityonthepartoftheoffender,itmayaddinanotherwayalsoto thedemandforpunishment.Thearticleofdispositionisofthemoreimportance,inasmuchas,inmeasuringoutthequantumofpunishment,theprincipleofsym-pathyandantipathyisaptto lookatnothingelse.Amanwhopunishesbecauschehates,andonlybecausehehates,suchaman,whenhedoesnotfindanythingodiousin thedisposition,is notforpunishingat all; andwhenhedoes,heis notforcarryingthepunishmentfurtherthanhishatredcarrieshim.Hencefileaversionwefindsofrequentlyexpressedagainstthemaxim,thatthepmfishmentmustrisewiththestrengthofthetemptation; amaxim,thecontraryofwhich,asweshallsee,wouldbeascrueltooffendersthemselves,asitwouldbesub-versiveofthepurposesofpunishment.

CHAPTERXII.

oF THECOSSSQUS_CESOF_ MISCHmVOUSAc'r.

§ I. Shapesin which$hemi6c_iefofanactmayshowitselj:

itecapit,ula- I. HITHERTOwehavebeenspeakingofthevariousarticlesorti_,, objectsonwhichtheconsequencesor tendencyofan actmay

depend: ofthebareactitself:ofthecircumstancesit mayhavebeen,or mayhavebeensupposedtobe,accompaniedwith: oftheconsciousnessa manmayhavehadwithrespecttoanysuchcircumstances: ofthe intentionsthatmay haveprecededtheact : of themotivesthat mayhavegivenbirth to thoseinten-tions: andofthedispositionthatmayhavebeenindicatedbythe connexionbetweensuchintentiousandsuchmotives. Wenowcometospeakofconsequencesortendency:anarticlewhichformsthe concludinglinkin allthischainofcausesandeffects,involvinginit thematerialityofthewhole. Now,suchpartofthistendencyas isofa mischievousnature,isall thatwehaveanydirectconcernwith;tothat, therefore,weshallhereconfineourselves.

M_hierot II. Thetendencyof anact is mischievouswhentheconse-aua£i',tile_r_ quencesofit aremischievous; that istosay,eitherthecertainorI_ I_ns-C|li_.'OU_]cousequencesortheprobable.Theconsequences,howmanyand_" whatsoevertheymaybe,ofanact,ofwhichthetendencyismis-quences.

chievous,may,suchofthemasaremischievous,beconceivedtoconstituteoneaggregatebody,whichmaybetermedthemischiefof theact.

Themi_ehiefIII. Thismischiefmayfrequentlybe distinguished,as itofana_t,primary-orwere,into two sharesor parcels: the one containingwhat_.t_ry maybe calledtheprimarymischief; theother,whatmaybe

Of/ke Congequeneesof a Misehievou_Ae/. 153

calledthesecondary.ThatsharemaybetermedtheTrimary,whichit sustainedbyanassignableindividual,oramultitudeofassignableindividuals.Thatsharemaybetermedthesecondary,which,takingits originfromtheformer,extendsitselfeitheroverthewholecommunity,or oversomeothermultitudeofunassignablcindividuals.

IV.TheprimarymischiefofanactmayagainbedistinguishedPrimaT_intotwobranches: I.Theoriginal: . . ortsinat,orand2.Thederwat_ve.Byderlv_ti'vetheoriginalbranch,Imeanthatwhichalightsuponandiscon-finedtoanypersonwhoisasuffererinthefirstinstance,andonhisownaccount:theperson,forinstance,whoisbeaten,robbed,ormurdered.Bythederivativebranch,I meananyshareofmischiefwhichmaybefallanyotherassignablepersonsinconse-quenceofhisbeingasufferer,andnootherwise.Thesepersonsmust,ofcourse,bepersonswhoinsomewayorotherarecon-nectedwithhim. Nowthewaysinwhichonepersonmaybeconnectedwithanother,havebeenalreadyseen: theymaybeconnectedinthewayofinterest(menningself.regardinginterest)or merelyin thewayofSymlxUhy.Andagain,personscon-nectedwitha givenperson,in thewayofinterest,maybeconnectedwithhimeitherbyaffordingsupporttohim,orbyderivingit fromhim1.

V. Thesecondarymischief,again,mayfrequentlybeseentoThe. secondary--consistoftwoothersharesorparcels: thefirstconsistingelxAlan,.or.Tain; theotherof dan_er.Thepainwhichit producesisa_"mn_er.painofapprehension: apaingroundedontheapprehensionofsufferingsuchmisehiefsorinconveniences,whatevertheymaybe,asit isthenatureoftheprimarymischieftoproduce.Itmaybe styled,inoneword,thealarm.Thedangeris thechance,whateverit maybe, whichthemultitudeitconcernsmayinconsequenceoftheprimarymischiefstandexposedto,ofsufferingsuchmischiefsorinconveniences.Fordangerisnothingbutthechanceofpain,or, whatcomesto thesamething,oflossofpleasure.

VI.Anexamplemayserveto makethisclear. A manEx,mplc.' Seeoh,vi.[Sensibility].

154 OftheConsequencesof a Mi,wlderousAeL [cJ_xV.

attacksyouontheroad,androbsyou. YousufferapainontheoccasionoflosingsomuchmoneyI :youalsosufferedapainst thethoughtsofthepersonalill-treatmentyouapprehendedhemightgiveyou,incaseofyournothappertingtosatisfyhisdemandse.Thesetogetherconstitutetheoriginalbranchoftheprimarymischief,resultingfromtheactofrobbery.Acreditorofyours,whoexpectedyouto payhimwithpartof thatmoney,anda sonofyours,whoexpectedyouto havegivenhimanotherpart,areinconsequencedisappointed.Youareobligedtohaverecoursetothebountyofyourlather,tomakegoodpartofthedeficiency.Thesemischiefstogethermakeupthederivativebranch.Thereportof thisrobberycirculatesfromhandtohand,andspreadsitselfintheneighbourhood.Itfindsitswayint6thenewspapers,andispropagatedoverthewholecountry.Variouspeople,onthisoccasion,calltomindthedangerwhichtheyandtheirfriends,asitappearsfromthisexample,standexposedtointravelling;especiallysuchasmayhaveoccasiontotravelthesameroad. Onthisoccasiontheynaturallyfeelacertaindegreeofpain:slighterorheavier,ac-cordingto thedegreeofill-treatmenttheymayunderstandyoutohavereceived;thefrequencyoftheoccasioneachpersonmayhaveto travelinthat sameroad,oritsneighbourhood; thevicinityofeachpersonto thespot; hispersonalcourage; thequantityofmoneyhemayhaveoccasiontocarryaboutwithhim; andavarietyofothercircumstances.Thisconstitutesthefirstpartofthesecondarymischief,resultingfromtheactofrobbery; viz.thealarm. Butpeopleofonedescriptionorother,notonlyaredisposedtoconceivethemselvesto incura chanceofbeingrobbed,inconsequenceoftherobberycom-mitteduponyou,but(aswillbeshownpresently)theydoreallyincursucha chance.Andit is thischancewhichconstitutestheremainingpartof thesecondarymischiefof theactofrobbery;viz.thedanger.

' Viz.apainqfprivatiort.Seeeh.v.[PleasuresandPains],xvii.' Viz.avtirtofapprehension,groundedontheprospectofor__anieal i

pain,orwhateverothermischiefsmighthaveensuedfromtheilltreat-ment.Ib.xxx.

XlI.] Of theCon,equeneuof a Mi,etiievou,Act. 155

VII.Letusseewhatthischanceamountsto; andwhence_e dan_r.• . whenceitit comes.Howisit,forinstance,thatonerobberycancontn-ari_s--a_ pastoffen_butetoproduceanother? Inthefirstplace,it iscertainthat_or__o-- directme-it cannotcreateanydirectmotive.Amotivemustbe thetivewaprospectofsomepleasure,orotheradvantage,tobeenjoyedfuture.in future: buttherobberyinquestionispast: norwoulditfurnishanysuchprospectwereit tocome:tor it isnotonerobberythatwillfurnishpleasuretohimwhomaybeabouttocgmmitanotherrobbery.Theconsiderationthatis toope-rateupona man,as a motiveorinducementto commitarobbery,mustbetheideaofthepleasureheexpectstoderivefromthefruitsofthatveryrobbery: butthispleasureexistsindependentlyofanyotherrobbery.

VIII•Themeans,then,bywhichonerobberytends,asitBu_tts_.Kesb_te_m-shouldseem,toproduceanotherrobbery,aretwo. I. Bysug-bdity,andweakensthe

gestingtoapersonexposedtothetemptation,theideaofcorn-forceof,_-1 strainingmittingsuchanotherrobbery(accompanied,perhaps,withthemotives;

beliefofitsfacility}.Inthiscasetheinfluenceitexertsappliesitself,inthefirstplace,totheunderstanding.2. Byweakeningtheforceofthe tutelarymotiveswhichtendto restrainhimfromsuchanaction,andtherebyaddingto thestrengthoIthetemptationt. Inthiscasetheinfluenceappliesitselftothewill.Theseforcesare,I.Themotiveofbenevolence,whichactsasabranchoIthephysicalsanction2. 2. Themotiveofsclf-pre.servation,asagainstthepunishmentthatmaystandprovidedbythepoliticalsanction.3. Thefearofshame; amotivebe-longingto themoralsanction.4. Thefearof thedivinedis-pleasure;a motivebelongingto thereligioussanction.Onthefirstandlastoftheseforcesit has,perhaps,noinfluenceworthinsistingon: butit hasontheothertwo.

IX. Thewayinwhichapastrobberymayweakentheforce vi,.. . I.Thoseis-withwhichthe1_oli_ir,al sanctiontendsto preventa iu_ure8urnsfrom

Seech.xi.[Dispositions],xl.Towit,invirtueofthe painit maygiveamanto beawitnessto,or

otherwiseconsciousof,thesufferingsofafellow-creature:especiallywhenhe ishimselfthe causeof them : ina word,the painofsympathy.Seeoh.v.[PleasuresandPauas],xxvi.

156 OftheOonseq_le_wesofa Mi;ekievousAct. [chaP.

thepoliticalrobbery,maybethusconceived.Thewayinwhichthissane-sanction,tiontendsto preventa robbery,isbydenouncingsomepar-

ticularkindofpunishmentagainstanywhoshallbeguiltyofit:therealvalueofwhichpunishmentwillofcoursebediminishedbytherealuncertainty: asalso,iftherebeanydifference,theapparentvaluebytheapparentuncertainty.Nowthisuncer-taintyisproportionablyincreasedbyeveryinstanceinwhichsmanisknowntocommittheoffence,withoutundergoingthepunishment.This,ofcourse,willbethecasewitheveryoffenceforacertaintime;inshort,untilthepunishmentallottedtoittakesplace.Ifpunishmenttakesplaceatlast,thisbranchofthemischiefoftheoffenceisthenat last,butnottillthen,putastopto.

_.Tbo_is. X. Thewayinwhichapastrobberymayweakentheforce_,omor_Lwithwhichthemoralsanetiontend_topreventafuturerobbery,

maybethusconceived.Thewayinwhichthemoralsanctiontendstopreventa robbery,isbyholdingforththeindignationofmankindasreadytofalluponhimwhoshallbeguiltyofit.Nowthisindignationwillbethemoreformidable,accordingtothenumberofthosewhojoininit : it willbethelessso,thefewertheyarewhojoininit. Buttherecannotbeastrongerwayofshowingthatamandoesnotjoininwhateverindignationmaybeentertainedagainsta practice,thantheengaginginithimself.Itshowsnotonlythathehimselffeelsnoindignationagainstit,butthatit seemstohimthereisnosufficientreasonforapprehendingwhatindignationmaybefeltagainstit byothers.Accordingly,whererobberiesarefrequent,andun-punished,robberiesarecommittedwithoutshame.It wasthusamongsttheGreciansformerly1. It is thusamongtheArabsstill.

iti,,,,dw XI. Inwhicheverwaythenapastoffencet_ndstopavetheeiderst_b_"themsu. wayforthecommissionofafutureoffence,whetherbysuggest-eneoofel- ._pl_. lagtheideaofcommittingit,orbyaddingtothest,rengthof

,SeeHorn.Odyss.L.xix.I.395; ib.L.ill1.?L PlatodeRep.L i.p.576,edi_.Ficin.Thucyd.L L--and_¢0B.I.tit.[Offencesagainstexternalsecurity].

XII.] Of gkeGonsequenee8of a Misckievoue,4et. I57

thetemptation,inbothcasesit maybesaidtooperateby theforceorinfluenceofezample.

XII. Thetwobranchesofthesecondarymischiefofanact,_e_arm. . andthedan.thealarmandthedanger,mustnotbeconfounded: thoughger,th?u_hinbimatelyconnected,theyareperfectlydistinct: eithermayared,_in-subsistwithouttheother.Theneighbourhoodmaybealarmed_hie.withthereportofa robbery,when,infact,norobberyeitherhasbeencommittedorisinawaytobecommitted: aneigh-bourhoodmaybeonthepointofbeingdisturbedbyrobberies,withoutknowinganythingofthematter.Accordingly,weshallsoonperceive,thatsomeactsproducealarmwithoutdanger:others,dangerwithoutalarm.

XIII. Aswellthedangerasthealarmmayagainbedivided,Bothmayhaverespecteachofthem,intotwobranches:thefirst,consistingofsomucht_thesameper_oli,or toofthealarmordangerasmaybeapt toresultfromthefutureoth_r_behaviourofthesameagent: thesecond,consistingofsomuchasmaybeapttoresultfromthebehaviourofotherpersons:suchothers,towit,asmaycometoengageinactsofthesamesortandtendency1.

XIV.ThedistinctionbetweentheprimaryandthesecondaryTheprlma,ycoDgo.consequencesofauactmustbecarefullyattendedto. It issoqueansor

. . at1aot_layjnat,thatthelattermayoftenbeofadirectlyoppositenature_ober_sch,e_-• o_, andthetheformer.Insomeeases,wheretheprimaryconsequenceso__c*,darytheactareattendedwithamischief,thesecondaryconsequencesmaybebeneficial,andthattosuchadegree,asevengreatlytooutweighthemischiefof theprimary.Thisis the case,forinstance,withallactsofpunishment,whenproperlyapplied.Ofthese,theprimarymischiefbeingneverintendedto fallbutuponsuchpersonsasmayhappentohavecommittedsomeact whichit isexpedienttoprevent,thesecondarymischief,thatis, thealarmandthedanger,extendsnofartherthantosuchpersonsasareundertemptationtocommitit : inwhich

'Totheformerofthesebranchesisopposedsomuchoftheforceofanypunishment,asissaidtooperateinthewayofreformat/on:tothelatter,somuch-asissaidtooperateinthewayof_amp_ Seech_lifiJ.[Casesunmeet],par.ii.note,

158 Oft_eCoa_equenee_ofa MiscAievou_Act. [CHnP.

case,inasfarasittendstorestrainthemfromcommittingsuchacts,it isofabeneficialnature.

Aealya_orXV.Thusmuchwithregardtoactsthatproducepositivethediffensnl;sb_.._ pain,andthatimmediately.Thiscase,byreasonofitssim-wh_,chthe_,,¢h_otplicity,seemedthefittesttotakethelead.Butactsmaypro-anac_mayshowit.ll,duesmischiefinvariousotherways;which,togetherwith

thosealreadyspecified,mayallbecomprizedbythefollowingabridgedanalysis.

Mischiefmayadmitofadivisioninanyoneofthreepointsofview. z.Accordingto itsownnature.2. Accordingtoitscause.3. Accordingto theperson,orotherparty,whoistheobjectofit1. Withregardto itsnature,itmaybeeithersimpleorcomplex2: whensimple,itmayeitherbepositiveornegative: positive,consistingofactualpain: negative,con-sistingofthelossofpleasure.Whethersimpleorcomplex,andwhetherpositiveornegative,itmaybeeithercertainorcomin-gent.Whenitisnegative,itconsistsofthelossofsomebenefitoradvantage: thisbenefitmaybematerialinbothoreitheroftwoways: z.Byaffordingactualpleasure: or,2.Byavertingpainordanger,whichisthechanceoIpain:thatis,byaffordingsecurity.Inas_ar,then,asthebenefitwhicha mischieftendstoavert,isproductiveofsecurity,thetendencyofsuchmischiefistoproduceinsecurity.2. Withregardtoitscause,mischiefmaybeproducedeitherbyonesingleaction,ornotwithouttheconcurrenceofotheractions: ifnotwithouttheconcurrenceofotheractions,theseothersmaybetheactionseitherofthesameperson,oroiotherpersons: ineithercase,theymaybeeitheractsofthesamekindasthatinquestion,orofotherkinds.3. Lastly,withregardto thepartywhois theo_ec_ofthemischief,or,inotherwords,whoisinawaytobeaffectedbyit,suchpartymaybeeitheranassignable"_individual,orassem-

Theremaybeetherpointsofview,according_ whichmischiefmightbedivided,besidesthese: butthisdoesnotpreventthedivisionheregivenfrombeinganexhaustiveone. h linemaybedividedinany oneofaninfinityofways,andyetwithoutleavingin anyoneof thoseease_anyremainder._eeoh.xvi.[Division]i. not_.

' Ch.v. [Pleasttre_andPai_] i.s Scoch.xvi.[Division]iv.note,

xlz.] Of tleeCo_86que_tce8of a Mi,_c_iao_8Act. 159

blageofindividuals,orelsea multitudeofunassignableindi-viduals.Whentheobjectis an assignableindividual,thisindividualmayeitherbethepersonhimse!fwhoistheauthorofthemischief,orsomeothe_person.Whenthe individilalswhoaretheobjectsof it,arean una_ignablemultitude,thismultitudemaybeeitherthewholepoliticalcommunityorstate,orsomesubordinatedivisionofit. Nowwhentheobjectofthemischiefistheauthorhimself,it maybestyledself-re_arding:whenanyotherpartyis theobject,ex_ra-regardinf:whensuchotherpartyisanindividual,itmaybestyledprivate:whenasubordinatebranchofthecommunity,semi-public."whenthewholecommunity,public.Here,forthepresent,wemuststop•Topursuethesubjectthroughitsinferiordistinctions,willbethe businessof the chapterwhichexhibitsthe divisionofoffences 1.

Thecaseswhichhavebeenalreadyillustrated,arethosein_tp)J_l_othepreced-whichtheprimarymischiefisnotnecessarilyotherwisethana,ns,ares.simpleone,andthatpositive: present,andthereforecertain:produciblebyasingleaction,withoutanynecessityofthecon-currenceofanyotheraction,eitheronthepartofthesameagent,orofothers; andhavingforitsobjectanassignablein-dividual,or,byaceident,anassemblageofassignableindividuals:extra-regardingtherefore,andprivate. Thisprimarymischiefisaccompaniedbya secondary: thefirstbranchofwhichissometimescontingentandsometimescertain,theotherneverotherwisethan contingent:bothextra-regardingandsemi-public: inotherrespects,prettymuchupona parwiththeprimarymischief: exceptthatthefirstbranch,viz.thealarm,thoughinferiorin magnitudeto theprimary,is,in pointofextent,andtherefore,uponthewhole,inpointofmagnitude,muchsuperior.

XVI.Twoinstancesmorewillbesufficientto illustratethe-_e_m-piesof othermostmaterialofthemodificationsaboveexhibited. _ whe_

• . themischiefAmandrinksacertainquantityofliquor,andintoxicates_l_con-

_- sptc_JOUS,himself,TheintoxicationinthisparticularinstancedoesnlmEt_pleI.

Ch.xvi.

16o Of tAeConeeque_esof a Mi,c/devousAcl. [cuAP.

A,aotornosortofharm: or.whatcomestothesamething,nonethatisself-intoll-cation, perceptible.Butit isprobable,andindeednexttocertain,that

a givennumberofactsofthesamekindwoulddohimaveryconsiderabledegreeofharm:moreorlessaccordingtohiscon-stitutionandothercircumstances:forthisisnomorethanwhatexperiencemarfifestseveryday. It isalsocertain,thatoneactofthissort.byonemeansorother,tendsconsiderablytoincreasethedispositionamanmaybein topractiseotheractsofthesamesort: forthisalsoisverifiedbye_rperience.This,there-fore,isoneinstancewherethemischiefproduciblebytheactiscontingent?inotherwords,inwhichthetendencyoftheactisnootherwisemiscWevousthaninvirtueofitsproducingacMnceofmisckief.Thischancedependsupontheenncurrenceofotheractsofthesamekind; andthosesuchasmustbepractisedbythesameperson.Theobjectofthemischiefisthatverypersonhimselfwhoistheauthorofit,andheonly,unlessbyaccident.Themischiefisthereforeprivateandself-regarding.

Astoitssecondarymischief,alarm,itproducesnone: itpro-ducesindeeda certainquantityofdangerbytheinfluenceofexample: butit isnotoftenthatthisdangerwillamounttoaquantityworthregarding.

_a,,_le11.XVII.Again.Amanomit*payinghissharetoa publicNon.pay-men_orstax. ThisweseeisanactofthenegativekindI. Isthisthen_L

tobeplaceduponthelistofmischievousacts?Yes,certainly.Uponwhatgrounds?Uponthefollowing.Todefendthecom-munityagainstitsexternalaswellasitsinternaladversaries,aretasks,nottomentionothersofa lessindispensablenature,whichcannotbefulfilledbutat aconsiderableexpense.Butwhenceisthemoney/ordefrayingthisexpensetocome? Itcanbeobtainedinnoothermannerthanbycontributionstobecollectedfromindividuals; inaword,bytaxes.Theproduce ithenofthesetaxesis tobelookeduponasa kindofbene.fit Lwhichitisnecessarythegoverningpartofthecommunityshouldreceivefortheuseofthewhole.Thisproduce,beforeitcanbe !appliedtoitsdestination,requiresthatthereshouldbecertain II

iSeeeh.vii.[Actions]viii. i

XlI.] Of_lteCon,eq_e_eeaofa Mi_ettiero_de_. I6X

personscommissionedtoreceiveandtoapplyit. Nowifthesepersons,hadtheyreceivedit,wouldhaveappliedit toitsproperdestination,itwouldhavebeenabenefit: thenotputtingthemina waytoreceiveit,is thena mischief.Butit ispossible,thatif received,it mightnothavebeenappliedto itsproperdestination; orthattheservices,inconsiderationofwhichitwasbestowed,mightnothavebun performed.It ispossible,thattheunder-officer,whocollectedtheproduceofthe tax,mightnothavepaiditovertohisprincipal: it ispossiblethattheprincipalmightnothaveforwardedit onaccordingtoitsfartherdestination; tothejudge,forinstance,whoistoprotectthecommunityagainstitsclandestineenemiesfromwithin,orthesoldier,whoistoprotectitagainstitsopenenemiesfromwithout: it ispossiblethatthejudge,orthesoldier,hadtheyreceivedit,wouldnothoweverhavebeeninducedbyit to fulfiltheirrespectivoduties: it ispossible,thatthejudgewouldnothavesatforthepunishmentofcriminals,andthedecisionofcontroversies: it ispossiblethatthesoldierwouldnothavedrawnhisswordin the defenceofthecommunity.These,togetherwithaninfinityofotherintermediateacts,wtfieliforthesakeofbrevityIpassover,formaconnectedchainofduties,thedischargeofwhichisnecessaryto thepreservationofthecommunity.Theymusteveryoneofthembedischarged,erethebenefittowhichtheyarecontributorycanbeproduced.Iftheyarealldischarged,inthatcasethebenefitsubsists,andanyact,bytendingto interceptthatbenefit,mayproducea mis-chief. Butifanyofthemarenot,thebenefitfails: it failsof oitself: it wouldnothavesubsisted,althoughtheactinquestion(theactofnon-payment)hadnotbeencommitted.Thebenefitisthereforecontingent; and,accordingly,upona certainsup-position,theact whichconsistsin theavertingofit isnotamischievousone.Butthissupposition,inanytolerably-orderedgovernment,willrarelyindeedbeverified.Intheveryworst-orderedgovernmentthatexists,thegreatestpartofthedutiesthat areleviedarepaidoveraccordingto theirdestination:and,withregardtoanyparticularsum,thatisattemptedtobe

16_ Of tlteCo_equ_ce8of a Ni_c_i_ousdc_. [cH_r.

levieduponanyparticularpersonuponanyparticularoccasion,it isthereforemanifest,that,unlessit becertainthatitwillnotbesodisposedof,theactofwithholdingit isamischievousone.

Theactofpayment,whenreferabletoanyparticularsum,especiallyifitbeasmallone,mightalsohavefailedofprovingbeneficialonanotherground:and,consequently,theactofnon-payment,ofprovingmischievous.It ispossiblethatthesameservices,precisely,mighthavebeenrenderedwithoutthemoneyaswithit. If,then,speakingofanysmalllimitedsum,suchasthegreatestwhichanyonepersoniscalledupontopayat atime,a manweretosay,thatthenon.paymentofit wouldbeattendedwithmischievousconsequences;thiswouldbefarfromcertain: butwhatcomestothesamethingasifitwere,itisper-fectlycertainwhenappliedtothewhole.It iscertain,thatifallofasuddenthepaymentofalltaxeswastocease,therewouldnolongerbeanythingeffectualdone,eitherforthemaintenanceofjustice,orforthedefenceofthecommunityagainstitsforeignadversaries:thatthereforetheweakwouldpresentlybeoppressedandinjuredinallmannerofways,bythestrongathome,andbothtogetheroverwhelmedbyoppressorsfromabroad.Uponthewhole,therefore,itismanifest,thatinthiscase,thoughthemischiefisremoteandcontingent,thoughinitsfirstappearanceit consistsofnothingmorethantheinterceptionofa benefit,andthoughtheindividuals,inwhosefavourthatbenefitwouldhavebeenreducedintotheexphcitformofpleasureorsecurity,arealtogetherunassignable,yetthemischievoustendencyofthe

• actisnotonalltheseaccountsthelessindisputable.Themis-chief,inpointofintensityandduration,isindeedunknown: itisuncertain: it isremote.Butinpointofextentitisimmense;andin pointoffecundity,pregnantto a degreethatbaffles [calculation.

_¢o_, XVIII.It maynowbetimetoobserve,thatit isonlyin thewhennoassemblecasewherethemischiefisextra-regarding,andhasanassign-personistheobject, ablepersonorpersonsforits object,that so muchof the

secondarybranchof it asconsistsin alarmcanhaveplace, t!Whentheindividualsitaffectsareuncertain,andaltogetherout t

xII.] Oft_eCoueequeneeoof a Mi_eldevou8Act. I63

ofsight,noalarmcanbeproduced: asthereisnobodywhosesufferingsyoucansee,thereisnobodywhosesufferingsyoucanbealarmedat. Noalarm,forinstance,isproducedbynon-paymenttoa tax. Ifatanydistantanduncertainperiodoftimesuchoffenceshouldchancetobeproductiveofanykindofalarm,it wouldappearto proceed,asindeedimmediatelyitwouldproceed,fromaverydifferentcause.It mightbeimme-diatelyreferable,forexample,to theactofa legislator,whoshoulddeemitnecessarytolayonanewtax,inordertomakeupforthe deficiencyoccasionedin the produceof theoldone. Orit mightbereferableto theactof anenemy,who,underfavourofadeficiencythuscreatedin thefundallottedfordefence,mightinvadethecountry,andexactfromitmuchheaviercontributionsthanthosewhichhadbeenthuswith-holdenfromthesovereign1.

Astoanyalarmwhichsuchanoffencemightraiseamongthefewwhomightchancetoregardthematterwiththeeyesofstatesmen,it isoftooslightanduncertainanaturetobeworthtakingintotheaccount.

§2. HowInten_ionali_y,&c.,nayinfluencetheraischiefofanact.

XIX.Wehaveseenthenatureofthesecondarymischief,socon0ar_r .... mi_hiottn-whichisapttobereflected,asitwere,Iromtheprimary,mthetlueneed10yeaseswheretheindividualswhoaretheobjectsofthemlsemei,..th.ths._t,sg_.toor

mind.

Theinve_igationmight,byaproce_renderedobviousbyanslogy,beextendedto theeonsequenc_ofanact ofa beneficialnatm'e. In bothinstancesaghirdorderof comequence_maybe reckonedto havetakenpls_o,whenthe influenceofthe act, throughthe mediumof thepassivefacultyof thelmtient,hascometoaffecthisactivefaculty. In tMsway,L Evllmayflowoutofev//:--instance; the exertionsofindustryput astopbebytheextinctionofinducement,resultingfroma continuedchainofactaofrobberyorextortion. 2.Goodot_ofevil:--instance; h_bit_ofdel_redationput astoptoby a steadycourseof ptmishment.3.Ev_ outof# :--imtanee;lmbitaofindustryputa stoptoby anexcessiveeourecof gratintoa8bounty. 4. Goodetaofgood:--ilmtance; a constantandincreasingcome ofindustry,excitedandkeptupby therewardsaffordedby aregularandincreasingmarketforthefruitsofit.

Mg.

I64 Of t/_eC_seT_e_weaof a Mi,e_ievoT,,de_. [CHAP.

areassignable.It isnowtimetoexamineintothecircumstancesuponwhichtheproductionofsuchsecondarymischiefdepends.Thesecircumstancesarenoothersthan thefourarticleswhichhaveformedthe subjectsofthe fourlastprecedingchapters:viz.I. Theintcntionality.2.Theconsciousness.3.Themotive.4-Thedisposition.It istobe observedallalong,that it isonlythedangerthatisimmediatelygovernedby therealstateofthemindinrespecttothosearticles: it isby the apparentstateofit that the alarmis governed.It isgovernedby therealonlyin as farasthe apparenthappens,as in mostcasesit maybeexpectedto do, to quadratewiththe real. Thedifferentin-fluencesofthe articlesofintentionalityandconsciousnessmaybe representedin theseveralcasesfollowing.

cas_1. XX. CaseI. Wheretheact issocompletelyunintentional,Involut:k_ri.,_s. as tobealtogetherinvoIuntarg.In thiscaseit isattendedwith

nosecondarymischiefat all.A brick]ayerisat workupona house: a passengeriswalking

in the streetbelow. A fellow-workmancomesand givesthebricklayer,_violentpush,inconsequenceofwhichhefallsuponthe passenger,andhurtshim. It is plainthere isnothinginthiseventthatcangiveotherpeople,whomayhappentobeinthestreet,theleastreasontoapprehendanythinginfutureonthepartofthemanwhofell,whatevertheremaybewithregardtothe manwhopushedhim.

oa__. XXI.Case2.Wheretheact,thoughnotunintentional,isun-Unint_n._io_lity advised,insomuchthat themischievouspar_oftheconsequenccstvtthheckl-ing. isunintentional,buttheunadvisednessisattendedwithheedless- i

hess. In thiscasetheactisattendedwithsomesmalldegreeofsecondarymischief,inproportiontothedegreeofheedlessness.

Agroombeingonhorseback,andridingthrougha frequented istreet,turnsa cornerata fullpace,andridesovera passenger, Iwhohappenstobe goingby. It isplain,by thisbehaviourofthe groom,somedegreeof alarmmaybeproduced,lessorgreater,accordingto thedegreeof heedlessnessbetrayedbyhim: accordingto the quicknessofhispace,thefulnessofthestreet,andsoforth. IIe hasdonemischief,it maybesaid,by

t

xn.] Of lt_eCoJ_eyte_teesof a M_eckievou__lct. i65

hiscarelessness,already:whoknowsbutthatonotheroc('asionsthehkecausemayproducethelikeeffect_.

XXII.Case3.Wheretheactismisad_qsedwithrespecttoa c_os.WOLLld _llSSUpposalcircumstance,which,haditexisted, fullyhaveexcludedorofacompleto

(whatcomesto thesamething)outweighedtheprimary_,,o"n;°]u_tlticatlOn,wtthoutchief: andthereisnorashnessinthecase. Inthiscasetheact_"isattendedwithnosecondarymischiefat all.

It isneedlesstomultiplyexamplesanyfarther.XXIII.Case4.Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoa c_e

Miasupposalcircumstancewhichwouldhaveexcludedorcounterbalancedtheor_wru_ljustilicatmn.

primarymischiefinpart,butnotentirely:andstillthereisnow_tho,trashness.Inthiscasetheactisattendedwithsomedegreeofra_oss.secondarymischief,inproportiontothatpartoftheprimarywhichremainsunexcludedoruncounterbalanced.XXIV.Case5.Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespectto casos.Missupposal,._circumstance,which,haditexisted,wouldhaveexcludedorw_thr_h-

counterbalancedtheprimarymischiefentirely,orinpart:and_c_thereisadegreeofrashnessin thesupposal.Inthiscase,theactisalsoattended_dthafartherdegreeofsecondarymischief,inproportionto thedegreeofrashness.

XXV.Case6. Wheretheconsequencesarecompletelyfates- cB_6.COtlSe,.

tiona],andthereisnomissupposalinthecase.Inthiscasetnequencessecondarymischiefisat thehighest. _P _intcntmnal,

andfreeXXVI.Thusmuchwithregardtointentionalityandcon-from_ms-supposal.

sciousness.We nowcometoconsiderinwhatmannertheThenaturesecondarynnschiefisaffectedbythenatureofthemotive, of_motl,etakesnot

Whereanactisperniciousinits primaryconsequences,tllea,*s)'the" mmclnefofsecondarym_ischieIisnotobliteratedbythegoodnessofthetoo-tl_second-

orycoast-five;thoughthemotivebeofthebestkind.For,notwith-queac_.standingthegoodnessofthemotive,anactofwhichtheprimaryconsequencesarepernicious,isproducedbyitintheinstanceinquestion,bythesupposition.Itmay,therefore,inotherin-stances:althoughthisisnotsolikelytohappenfromagoodmotiveasfromabadonei.

Anactofhomicide,forinstancc,isnotrcnderedinnocent,muchle_sbeneficial,merelybyitsproceedingfromapnncipleofreligion,ofhonour

x56 Of tke Con_eque#cezofa Mi_ckievousAct.[cnAP.

_'orthe XXVII.Anact,which,thoughperniciousinitsprimaryI_ueflciul.-_ consequences,isrenderedinotherrespectsbeneficialuponthe

whole,bydr_ueofitssecondaryconsequences,isnotchangedbackagain,andrenderedperniciousuponthewholebythebadnessofthemotive: althoughthemotivebeoftheworstkindx

rutitms_ XXVIII.Butwhennotonlytheprimaryconsequencesofan_vate_. actarepernicious,but,inotherrespects,thesecondarylikewise,ehlev09s-

=_ wh_ thesecondarymischiefmay bea@gra_egbythenatureofthetheyammi_vou_motive:somuchofthatmischief,towit,asrespectsthefuture

behaviourofthesameperson.Butnotthe XXIX.It isnotfromtheworstkindofmohve,however,mc6tinthe

(thatls,ofloveelreputation)orevenofbcnevolcnce.WhenRavaillscassassinatedHenryIV.itwasfromaprincipleofrcligiomButthisdidnotsomuchasabatefromthemischiefoftheact.Itevenrenderedtheactstdlmoremischievous,forareasonthatweshal]seepresently,thanifithadoriginatedfromaprincipleofrevenge.WhentheconspiratorsagainstthelatekingofPortugalattemptedtoassassinatehim,itissaidtohavebeenfromaprincipleofhonour.Butthis,whetheritabatedorno,willcertainlynotbethoughttohaveoutweighed,themischiefoftheact.HadasonofRsvafllac's,asinthecasebeforesupposed_,merelyonthescoreoffills1affection,andnotinconsequenceofanyparticipationinhiscrime,puthlmtodeathinordertorescuehimfromthesevererhandsofjustice,themotive,althoughitshouldnotbethoughttoaffordanyrnefofa mischievousdisposition,andshould,evenincaseofpun/shment,avemadesuchrescueranobjectofpity,wouldhardlyhavemadetheact

ofrescuea beneficialone.Theprosecutionofoffences,forimt_nce,proceedsmostcommonly

fromoneorother,or bothtogether,oftwomotive,theoneofwhichisoftheself-regarding,theothero[thedissocialkind: viz.pecumaryinterest,andill-will: frompecuniaryinterest,forinstance,whenevertheobtainingi_ctmiazyamendsfordamagesufferedisoneendoftheprosecution.It iscommonenoughindeedtohearmenspeakerprosecutionsundertakenfromyublic_rit," whichisabranch,as wehaveseen'_,oftheprincipleofbene-volence.Far beit frommetodenybut thatsucha principlemayveryfrequentlybean ingredientin the sumof motivez,by whichmenareengagedina proceedingofthisnature. But wheneversucha proceeding_sengagedinfromthesoleinfluenceofpublicspirit,uncombinedwiththeleac_ttinctureofself-interest,orill-will,it mustbeaclmowledgedto bea Iproceedingoftheheroickind.Nowact_ofheroismare,intheveryessenceofthem,butrare: forfftheywerecommon,theywouldnotbeactsofheroism.Butprosecutionsforcrimesareveryfrequent,andyet,unle_inveryparticularcircumstancesindeed,theyareneverotherwisethanbeneficial.

ICh.zl.[Dizl_ti_j I,v. sSeeoh.x.[Motives]Tar.

xII.] Of tl_eConae_uenee,of _ Mi,d_ievou,Act. 167

thatthesecondarymischiefofanactreceivesitsgreatestaggra-_oott_worstl_o-vation, tiv_.

XXX. Theaggravationwhichthesecondarymischiefof anIt_oesthemore,theact, in as far as it respectsthe futurebehaviourof thesamemorecon.siderablctheperson,receivesfromthe nature of a motivein an individualtendencyof

the art Ofthemottvecase,isasthetendencyofthemotivetoproduce,on p _pro0u_thesameperson,actsofthe Likebadtendencywiththat ofthe 6ucha¢_.actin question.

XXXI. Thetendencyofamotiveto produceactsofthe like-whichas it.qkind, on the partof any givenperson,is as the strengthandstrengthandcotmtancy.constancyofits influenceon that person,asappLiedto thepro-ductionofsucheffects.

XXXII. Thetendencyofa speciesofmotivetogivebirth toC_enemem-cacyofa

acts of anykind,amongpersonsin general,is as the ,trengt,h,Bl_i_ofmotive,bowconstancy,andextensivenessxof its influence,as appliedto themwur_productionofsucheffects.

XXXIII. Nowthe motives,whereofthe influenceisat onceam_chicv.-- costact_s

mostpowerful,mostconstant,andmostextensive,arethe me-moreso,wheni_uing

tires ofphysicaldesire,theloveofwealth,theloveofease,tanfromamelt-love of life,and the fearof pain : all of themself-regarding_e_n...... fromaditmo-motaves.Themotiveofdispleasure,whateverit maybeinpointc_lmotne.of strengthand extensiveness,isnotnearsoconstantinits in-fluence(thecaseofmereantipathyexcepted)as anyoftheotherthroe. A perniciousact, therefore,whencommittedthroughvengeance,orotherwisethroughdispleasure,isnotnearsomis-chievousasthesameperniciousact,whencommittedby forceofanyoneofthoseothermotives2.

Oh.iv.[Value].i It isfortimreasonthatathreat,orotherpersonaloutrage,whencom-

mittedonastranger,inputsuanceofaschemeofrobbery,isproductiveofmoremischiefmsociety,andaccordinglyis,perlmps,everywheremoreseverelypumshed,thananoutrageofthes_mekindofferedtoanacquaint-ance,inprosecutionofa schemeofvengeance.Nonmnisalwaysinarage.But,st alltimes,everyman,moreorloss,lovesmoney.Accord-ingly,althougha manbyhisquarrelsomenessshouldforoncehavebeenengagedinabadaction,hemayneverthelessremainalongwhile,orevenhiswholelife-time,mthoutengaginginanotherbadactionofthesamekind:forhemayverywellremainhiswholelife-timewithoutengagingin8oviolentaquarrel:noratanyratewillhequarrelwithmorethanone,

168 Of tke Consequencesof a Mi,d_ievou,Act. [cB_e.

-moewn XXXIV.As to the motiveof religion,whateverit maywhen I_11°

ingfromthesometimesprovetobeinpointofstrengthandconstancy,it ismotive ofr_igion, llotinpoirltofextentsouniversal,especiallyinitsapplication

to actsofa mischievousnature,asany ofthethreeprecedingmotives.It may,however,beasuniversalinaparticularstate,or in aparticulardistrictof a particularstate, It is liableindeedtobeveryirregularinitsoperations.It isapt,however,to befrequentlyas powerfulas the motiveof vengeance,orindeedanyothermotivewhatsoever.It willsometimesevenbe morepowerfulthananyothermotive. It is,at anyrate,muchmoreconstant1. A perniciousact, therefore,whencom-mittedthroughthemotiveofreligion,ismoremischievousthanwhencommittedthroughthemotiveofill-wilL

nowthe XXXV.Lastly,Thesecondarymischief,towit,somuchofitsecondarymisclucfi_as hathrespecttothefuturebehaviourof thesameperson,ismliueneedbydie,i- aggravatedorlessenedbytheapparentdepravityorbeneficenceties.

elhisdispositi_)n: andthatintheproportionofsuchapparentdepravityor beneficence.

connexionXXXVI. Theconsequenceswehavehithertobeenspeakingof th_swiththesuccor"-of,arethenaturalconsequences,ofwhichtheact,andtheother

e_pter,articleswehavebeenconsidering,arethecauses: consequencesthat resultfromthebehaviourof the individual,whois theoffendingagent,withouttheinterferenceofpoliticalauthority.Wenowcometo speakofpunishment:which,in thesenseinora fewpeopleatatime.Butifaman,byhisloveofmoney,busoncebeenengagedinabadaction,suchasaschemeofrobbery,hemayatanytime,bytheinfluenceofthesamemotive,beengagedinactsofthesamedegreeofenormity.Fortakementhroughout,ffamanlovesmoneytoacertaindegreeto-day,it isprobablethai;hewillloveit,atleastiJiequaldegree,to-morrow.Andffama_aisdisposedtoacquireitintha£way,hewillfindindmeraenttorob,wheresoeverandwhensoevertherearepeopletoberobbed.

aItamanhappento_akeitintohisheadtoassassinatewithhisownhands,orwiththeswordofjustice,thosewhomhecallsheretics,thatis,peoplewhothink,orperhapsonlyspeak,differentlyuponasubjectwhichneitherpartyimderst,_nds,hewdlbeasmuchinclinedtodothisat one ttimeasatanother.:Fanaticismneversleeps: ittsneverglutted: itisneverstoppedbyphilanthropy; foritmakesameri_oftramplingonphilanthropy:itisneverstoppedbyconscience;forithaspressedconscienceintoitsservice.Avarice,lust,andvengeance,havepmty,benevolence,honour; fanaticismhasnothingtoopp_eit.

xlx.] Oftke Consequence8ofa MischievousAct. x69

whichitishereconsidered,isanartificialconsequence,annexedbypoliticalauthoritytoanoffensiveact,inoneinstnnee; intheviewofputtinga stopto theprocluetionofeventssimilarto theobnoxiouspartot its naturalconsequences,in otherinstances.

CHAPTERXIII.

CASES UNMEET FOR PUNISHMENT.

§z. Generalview03'casesunmeetforpunishment.

•_ _dor I. THEgeneralobjec_whichalllawshave,oroughttohave,law_,toa_p_e,tincommon,istoaugmentthetotalhappinessofthecommunity;happiness,andtherefore,inthefirstplace,toexclude,asfarasmaybe,

everythingthattendstosubtractfromthathappiness:inocherwords,toexcludemischief.

nutptmish.II. Butallpunishmentismischief:allpunishmentinitselfmen.is _lleva. isevil. Upontheprincipleofutility,ifit oughtat alltobe

admitted,itoughtonlytobeadmittedinasfarasitpromisestoexcludesomegreaterevil1.

w_Atco,cerasI What follows,relativeto the subject of punishment,ought regularlytou,¢,,,#.,,d bepreceded by u dzstinet chapter on the ends ot punishment. But having._veralothertopics,ei_u,_little to sayon that particular branch of the subject, which has not beentopun_shmeat..d._,ssedto said before, it seemed better, in a work,whichwillat any rate be but tooanotherwork.voluminous,to omit this title, reservingit for another, hereafter t4)bepub-

lished, iatltuled The Theoryof Punishment_, To the same work I mustreferthe analysis ofthe severalpossiblemodesof punishment,a particularand minute examination of the nature of each, and of its advantages anddisadvantages, and various other disquisitions,which did not seem abso-lutely necessary to beinserted here. Avery few words,however, concern-ing the ends of punishment, can scarcelybe dispensedwith.

cooem,i_,or The immediate principalend of punishment is to controlaction. Thist_,¢_dsof action is either that of the offender,or of others : that of the offenderiti_unlsltm_t.

controls by its influence, either on his will, in which ea_e it is said tooperate in the wayofreformation,"or on his physical power, in whichcase

1ThleJ#theworkwhkb,itemtheAutbor'_pape_b_ slncebeenpubhsbedbyMr.Dumontin French.incompanywitbTheTht'or'yofRewardaddedtoit,forthepurposeofnlllttl&]Illtt_tratiol%It b incontemplattoato publiahtlle_lb-_th_ I_.ngltah.fromtheAuthor'smanttscripts,withthebenefitof _' amendmentsthathaveb_n madeb}'Mr.Dttmont.[,Vot._toEel|etchof 1ii23.]

Case,Unrne,ctfar Punish_ub. x71

III. It isplain,therefore,thatinthefollowingcasespunish-rherefo_oughtnottomentoughtnottobeinflicted, beadmtttcd;I. Whereit isgroundless:wherethereisnomischiefforitJ._erogroundless.

toprevent; theactnotbeingmischievousuponthewhole.2. Whereit mustbeineffcaciou,s:whereitcannotactsoas_-.Incmc_

topreventthemischief, c_ous.3.Whereitisunprofitable,ortooexpensive:wherethe,_Vupro_able.

mischiefitwouldproducewouldbegreaterthanwhatitpre-vented.

4.Whereitisneedless."wherethemischiefmaybeprevented,_Orneed-orceaseofitself,withoutit:thatis,atacheaperrate.

§2. Casesinwhichpunishmentisgroundless.Theseare,

IV.I. Wheretherehasneverbeenanymischief: whereno1.Where• . therehasmischiefhasbeenproducedtoanybodybytheactmquestion,neverbeenOfthisnumberarethoseinwhichtheactwassuchasmight,on¢a_:,_-inthecaseofsomeoccasions,bemischievousordisagreeable,butthepersonco,ont.whoseinterestitconcernsgavehisconsenttotheperformanceofitL Thisconsent,provideditbefree,andfairlyobtainedi,isthebestproofthatcanbeproduced,that,tothepersonwhoit issaidtooperatebydisablement:thatofothersitcaninfluencenoother-wisethanbyit_influenceovertheirwills; inwhichcaseit issaid toope-ratein theway of example. A kindof collateralend,whmhit has anaturaltendencytoanswer,is thaCofaffordinga pleasureorsatisfactiontothepartyinjured,wherethereisone,and,ingeneral,topartieswhoseill-will,whetheronaself-regardingaccount,orontheaccountofsympathyorantipathy,ha_beenexcitedbytheoffence.Thispurpose,asfarasitcanbeansweredgratis,isabeneficialone.Butnopunishmentoughttobeallottedmerelytothispurposc,because.(settingasideitseffectsinthewayofcontrol)nosuchpleasureiseverproducedbypunishmentascanbeequivalenttothepain.Thepunishment,however,whichisallottedtotheotherpurpose,ought,asfarasitcanbedonewithoutexpense,tobeaccommodatedtothls.Satisfactionthusadministeredtoapartyinjured,intheshapeofadissocialpleasure_,maybestyledavindictivesatisfactionorcompensation:asacompensation,administeredintheshapeofaself-regardingprofit,orstockofpleasure,maybestyledalucrativeone.SeeB.L tit.vi.[Compensation].Exampleisthemostimportantendofall,inproportionasthenumberofthepersonsundertemptationto offendisto011¢.

SeeB.I. tit.[Justifications].

; Seecb.x.[Mettvm].

17_ CagesUnmeetfor PtlniakmenL [CHAr.

givesit,nomischief,at leastnoimmediatemischief,uponthewhole,isdone.Fornomancanbesogoodajudgeasthemanhimself,whatit isgiveshimpleasureordispleasure.

s.whero V.2. Wherethemischiefwasoutweighed."althoughamis-t,hemischiof_. rwa_ou_ cmeIwasproducedbythatact,yetthesameactwasnecessary•,o_ed:_,... productionofabenefitwhichwasofgreatervaluexthanmpreeau- 1_Ounetiouagainstcalamity,themischief.Thismay_bethecasewithan)"thingthatisdoneeaerem_aat_oof inthewayofprecautionagainstinstantcalamity,asalsowithrc_ers, anythingthat isdonein theexerciseoftheseveralsortsof

powersnecessarytobeestablishedineverycommunity,towit,domestic,iudieial,military,andsupreme2.

a.-orwill, VI.3. Wherethereisacertaintyofanadequatecompensa-fora cer-tmutybe tion: andthatinallcaseswheretheoffencecanbecommitted.curedbycom_m-Thissupposestwothings: I. Thattheotienceissuchasadmitstion. ofanadequatecompensation: 2. Thatsuchacompensationis

suretobeforthcoming.Ofthesesuppositions,thelatterwillbefoundtobea merelyidealone: a suppositionthatcannot,intheuniversalityheregiventoit,beverifiedbyfact. It calmot,therefore,in practice,benumberedamongstthegroundsofabsoluteimpunity.It may,however,beadmittedasagroundforanabatementofthatpunishment,whichotherconsiderations,standingbythemselves,wouldseemtodictate3.

§3. Casesinwhichpunishmentrnus_bein_acwus.Theseare,

l.Whc_o VII.r. Wheretheportalprovisionis notestablid:eduntilthepenal

I See supra, ch. iv. [Value].s Sec Book I. tit. [Justifications].

n_e the a Tills, for example, seems to have been one grotmd, a_ least, of theft_°_'_h¢'_"ot_favour shown by perhaps all systems of laws, to such offendersas standfieces .....fesp_._,_eupon a footing of responsibility: shown, not d,rectly indeedto thepersonsoffeuder_:suc]_-- a libelassimplemex-theraselves; buttosuehoffeneesasnonebutresponmblepersorm re y¢*_tu_f_uds to hs_e the opportunity of oagagingm. In particular, this seems to bo

file mason why embezzlement, in certain eases, has not commonly beenpunished upon the footing of theft : nor mercantile frauds upon thnt ofcommon sharping _.

1 Seetit.[Simplemere.Defraudmem].

xnl.] Case8Unmeetfor Puni_hraent. i73

aftertheactisdone. Sucharetheeases,x.Ofanex.post-(actoprovision..... com_ too

law; wherethelegislatorhnnselfappointsnotapumshmenttilllate:a_in,1 1.An ex-ioost-aftertheactisdone.2. Ofa sentencebeyondthelaw; wnere:,_tolaw.

thejudge, • ..... 2.Anuitra-ofhisownauthority,appointsapumshmentwhichthele_sel_-legislatorhadnotappointed, tenee.

VIII.2.Wherethepenalprovision,thoughestablished,isnot2.Ori9• not made

conveyedto thenoticeofthepersononwhomitseemsantendedknown:Bsina lawnollthat it shouldoperate.Suchis the casewherethe lawnassufficiently

omittedtoemployanyoftheexpedientswhicharenecessary,top._._l-makesurethateverypersonwhatsoever,whoiswithinthereachofthe law,be apprizedofall thecaseswhatsoever,in which(beinginthestationoflifelieisin)hecanbesubjectedto thepenaltiesofthelawa.

IX. 3- Wherethepenalprovision,thoughitwereconveyeds.wl_erethewill Cannot

toaman'snotice,couldproducenoeffectonhim,withrespecttot_deterredfrom anu

thepreventinghimfromengaginginanyactofthesor_inques-act.ssi,.tion. Suchis thecase,x. In extremei_fancy;wherea manl,lInfancy.hasnotyetattainedthatstateordispositionofmindinwhichtheprospectofevilssodistantasthosewhichareheldforthbythelaw,hastheeffectofinfluencinghisconduct.2.Ininsanity;[blInsanity.wheretheperson,ifhehasattainedtothatdisposition,hassincebeendeprivedofit throughthe influenceofsomepermanentthoughunseencause. 3. Ini_oxication;wherehehasbeen[elIntoxi.

deprivedofitbythetransientinfluenceofavisiblecause: suchcation.astheuseofwine,oropium,orotherdrugs,thatact in thismanneronthe nervoussystem: whichconditionis indeedneithermorenorlessthana temporaryinsanityproducedbyanassignablecause2.

SeeB.II.Appendix,tit.iii.[Promulgation].Notwithstandingwhatisheresaid,thecasesofinfancyandintoxicationxn_r_c__nd

(asweshallseehereafter)eammtbelookeduponmpracticeasaffording_to_t_lomhecasecanh_ysufficientgroundsforabsoluteimpunity. But thisexceptionin pointofb_p_o,cdtopracticeis no objectionto the proprietyof therule in pointof theory._le._°_e_th"The groundof theexceptionis neithermorenor]e_qthan the difficultythereis of ascertaimngthe matterof fact: viz.whetherat the requisitepoint of timethe party wasactuallyin the state in question; that is,whetheragivencasecomesreallyunderthenile.Supposethematteroffactcapableofbeingperfectlyascertained,withoutdangerormistake,the

174 CasuU_mee_for P_ni*/_raen_. [CHAP.

Ornot X. 4. Wherethepenalprovision(although,beingconveyedIromthein-dividual_ totheparty'snotice,itmightverywe]]preventhisengagingininquo_.Xon,uin, actsofthesortinquestion,providedheknewthatitrelatedto

thoseacts)couldnothavethiseffect,withregardto theindi-vidualactheisabouttoengagein: towit,becauseheknowsnotthatit isofthenumberofthosetowhichthepenalpro-

l_Jvmnten-visionrelates.Thismayhappen,I. Inthecaseofunin_en_ion-tm_ht3'.ality; whereheintendsnottoengage,andtherebyknowsnotthatheisabouttoengage,intheactinwhicheventuallyheis

[hit_ncor.-abouttoengage1. 2. Inthecaseofunconsciousness; where,sclousness,althoughhemayknowthatheisabouttoengagein theactitself,yet,fromnotknowingallthematerialcircumstancesat-tendingit,heknowsnotofthe'te_demyithastoproducethatmischief,incontemplationofwhichithasbeenmadepenalin

[ej_riuu_mostinstances.3.Inthecaseofrnissupposal;where,althoughpo_L hemayknowof thetendencytheacthas toproducethat

degreeof mischief,hesupposesit, thoughmistakenly,tobeattendedwithsomecircumstance,orsetofcircumstances,which,ifit hadbeenattendedwith,it wouldeithernothavebee_productiveofthatmischief,orhavebeenproductiveofsuchagreaterdegreeofgood,ashasdeterminedthelegislatorinsuchacasenottomakeitpenal2.

_.o_is_tedXI. 5. Where,thoughthepenalclausemightexerciseafullonbysatop_i_su.andprevailinginfluence,wereit toactalone,yetbythepre-!eerierforoe;_ • • ,-* - •asby, c_om_na_llmuenceo_someoppomtecauseuponthewill,itmust

necessarilybeineffectual;becausetheevilwhichhesetshimselfabouttoundergo,inthecaseofhisnotengagingintheact,issoimproprietyofpunishmentwouldbeasindubitableinthesecasesasinanyother_.

_erea*o_re, Thereasonthatiscommonlyassignedfortheestablishinganexemptionh_n°tp,mshmgthesetitre*frompuni,hmentinfavourofinfant*,intonepersons,andpersonsunderc_-_9_co_.intoxication,iseitherfalseinfact,oreon/nsedlyexpressed.Thephraseis,monwpmepoh_'_'S that the willof thesepersonsconcurs not with the aot; that theyhave no"_" viciouswill ; or,that theyhave not the freeuse of their wilLButsuplmee

allthistobetrue?Whatisittothepurpcee! Nothing:exceptinaefar as it implieathe ro_on givenin the text.

Seeeh.viiL[Intention&lity].Seeoh.ix.[Consciousness].

I Seen. L tit.h'.[Eze_ptaor_],andtit.vii.|Ettentugion,].

xm.] Caae,Unmeetfor Tuniskment. x75

great,thattheevildenouncedbythepenalclause,incaseofhisengagingin it,cannotappeargreater.Thismayhappen,I. In[_1Physicaldanger.thecaseofphysicaldanger; wheretheevilissuchasappearslikelytobebroughtaboutbytheunassistedpowersofnature.2. In thecaseof a threatenedmischief;whereit is suchastb]_re_-

cu_d llli$.

appearslikelytobebroughtaboutthroughtheintentionalandc_,¢t.consciousagencyofman1.

XII. 6. Where(thoughthepenalclausemayexertafulland6.--orthe...... bodilyor-prevailinginfluenceoverthew_lloftheparty)yethisphyswal_ns'_,not• . . followitsde-faculties(owingtothepredonnnantinfluenceofsomephymcaltermination:cause)arenotinaconditiontofollowthedeterminationoftheasunder

will: insomuchthattheactisabsolutelyinvoluntary.SuchisPhysicalcompulsionthecaseofphysicalcompulsionorrestraint,bywhatevermeansorrestramt.broughtabout; wheretheman'shand,forinstance,ispushedagainstsomeobjectwhichhiswilldisposeshimnottotouch; ortieddownfromtouchingsomeobjectwhichhiswilldisposeshimtotouch.

§4. Caseswherepunishmentisunprofitable.Theseare,

XIII.x.Where,ontheonehand,thenatureoftheoffence,ont.where,• • . intheserttheotherhand,thatofthepumshment,are,mtheordtnarystateofrosei,f .. que_ion,thoofthings,such,thatwhencomparedtogether,theevilo _nepumshraen_

wouldpro-latterwillturnouttobegreaterthanthatoftheformer, du_more• ovdthantheXIV.Nowtheevilofthepunishmentdividesitselfintozouro_enc_

branches,bywhichsomanydifferentsetsofpersonsareaffected,wom¢Evilprodu.I.Theevilofcoerc/onorrestraint."orthepainwhichitgivesacibloi?ya .

-- . punlsnl'aen_

mannottobeabletodotheact,whateveritbe,whichbythe-_four" branches--apprehensionofthepunishmentheisdeterredfromdoing.This_. ILlRe-str_nt.

I Theinfluencesofthemoralandrd/9/o_sanctions,or,inotherwords,W_rthein.ofthemotivesof/oreo/'reptda2/oaandrdta/on,areothercauses,the forcea_ctoft,,emoral and re-

ofwhichmay uponparticularoecamons,cometo begre_terthanthatofhg_.s_¢........ ttons is tto{any pumshmentwhichthelegislatorisab/e,or atlemtwhichhewillthtnkmentionedinprO'/_,to apply. These,therefore,it willbe properforhimto havehista,_. _**.eyeupon. Butthe forceof theseinfluencesis variableand differentindi_erenttimesandplaces:theforceof theforegoinginfluencesisconstantandthesame,at alltimesandeverywhere.These,therefore,itcanneverbepropertolookuponassafegroundsforestablishingabsoluteimpunity:owing(asintheabove-mentionedcasesofinfancyandintoxioatmn)totheimpracticabilityof$_cort_iningthematteroffact.

176 CasesU_meetfor Puuishraent. [cn_F.

blAp_ is feltby thosebywhomthelawisobserved,z. Theevilofhension.apprehension."orthepainwhichaman,whohasexp_edhim-selftopunishment,feelsatthethoughtsofundergoingit. Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawhasbeenbroken,andwhofeel

telSuffer-themselvesindangerofitsbeingexecuteduponthem. 3. The8nee.evilofsufferance1: orthepainwhichamanfeels,invirtueofthepunishmentitself,fromthetimewhenhebeginstoundergoit. Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawisbroken,andupon

[d]mri*a.whomit comesacLual]ytobeexecuted.4- Thepainofsym-tiree_ds.pathy,andtheotherderivativeevilsresultingto thepersonswhoareinconnectionwiththeseveralclassesoforiginalsuf-ferersjustmentioned_. Nowofthesefourlotsofevil,thefirstwillbegreaterorless,accordingto thenatureoftheactfromwhichthepartyisrestrained: thesecondandthirdaccordingtothenatureofthepunishmentwhichstandsannexedto thatoffence.

{Thoevl]of XV.Ontheotherhand,astotheeviloftheoffence_thiswilltheoftene_e_Jn_d,t- also,ofcourse,begreaterorless,accordingtothenatureofeachfelt'en[;,ae-_rd,,¢to offence.Theproportionbetweentheoneevilandtheotherwillthenatureoftheor- thereforebedifferentinthecaseofeachparticularoffence.Thefei'lce,(:an-notbeto- cases,therefore,wherepunishmentisunprofitableonthisground,_r_euteder#.l canbynoothermeansbediscovered,thanbyanexaminationof

eachparticularoffence; whichiswhatwillbethebusinessofthebodyofthework.

2.--OrmtheXVI.2. Where,althoughin theordinarystateofthings,theladit_du__o in evilresultingfromthepunishmentisnotgreaterthanthebenefitquestion:bymuo_ot whichislikelytoresultfromtheforcewithwhichitoperates,

duringthesamespaceoftime,towardstheexcludingtheeviloftheoffences,yetitmayhavebeenrenderedsobytheinfluenceofsomeoccasionalcircumstances.Inthenumberofthesecircum-

[a]_e sfaneesmaybe,r.Themultitudeofdehnquentsataparticularmultitudeof.ac_q_nt_luncture; beingsuchaswouldincrease,beyondtheordinarymeasure,thequantumofthesecondandthirdlots,andtherebyalsoofa partofthefourthlot,intheevilofthepunishment.

Seeoh.v.[Pleasuresand Pains].i Seeoh. xi/. [ConsequencesI iv.

XIII.] Cvae_UnmeetforP_uidiment. 177

2. Theextraordinaryvalueoftheservicesofsomeonedelin-tb]_h,va/ueorsquent'inthecasewheretheeffectofthepunishmentwoulddelinquent's' _rvicc.betodeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthoseservices.3.Thedispleasureofthepeople;thatis,ofanindefinitenumber[_]z_edmplessttreofthemembersofthesamecommunity,incaseswhere(owingtootthel_eple.theinfluenceofsomeoccasionalincident)theyhappentocon-ceive,thattheoffenceortheoffenderoughtnottobepunishedatall,oratleastoughtnottobepunishedinthewayinquestion.4-Thedispleasureofforeignpowers; thatis,ofthegoverning[d]Re• . displeasurebody,oraconsiderablenumberofthemembersofsomeforcngnotrore,_ucommunityorcommunities,withwhichthecommunityinques-pow_s.tioniscomlected.

§5. C_eswherepsnisI_mentis_.ztless.Theseare,

XVII.I. Wherethepurposeofputtinganendtothepractice1.wherethemischiefmaybeattainedaseffectuallyatacheaperrate:byinstruction,,stobQI preventedatforinstance,aswellasbyterror:byinformingtheuncler-acheaterstanding,aswellasbyexercisinganimmediateinfluenceonther_;_,will.Thisseemstobethecasewithrespecttoallthoseoffencesey_true-tiOll.whichconsistinthedisseminatingperniciousprinciplesinmat-tersofduty;ofwhateverkindthedutybe;whetherpolitical,ormoral,orreligious.Andthis,whethersuchprinciplesbedisseminatedunder,orevenwithout,asincerepersuasionoftheirbeingbeneficial.Isay,evenw/thout:forthoughinsuchacaseitisnotinstructionthatcanpreventthewriterfromendeavouringtoinculcatehisprinciples,yetitmaythereadersfromadoptingthem:withoutwhich,hisendeavouringtoincul-catethemwilldonoharm.Insuchacase,thesovereignwillcommonlyhavelittleneedtotakeanactivepart:ifitbetheinterestofoneindividualtoinculcateprinciplesthatareper-nicious,itwillassurelybetheinterestofotherindividualstoexposethem.Butifthesovereignmustneedstakeapartinthecontroversy,thepenistheproperweapontocombaterrorwith,notthesword.

CHAPTERXIV.

OF THE PROPORTIONBETWEENPUNISHMENTSAND OFFENCES.

R_pituZa.I. WEhaveseenthatthegeneral'objectofall]awsistopre-[,1011.ven_mischief; thatistosay,whenitisworthwhile; butthat,wheretherearenoothermeansofdoingthisthanpunishment,therearefourcasesinwhichit isnotworthwhile.

Pour_Jj_et5II.Whenitisworthwhile,therearefoursubordinatedesignsofpulush-mc_. orobjects,which,inthecourseofhisendeavourstocompass,as

farasmaybe,thatonegeneralobject,alegislator,whoseviewsaregovernedbytheprincipleofutility,comesnaturallytopro-posetohimself.

bt Otlject-- III. I. Hisfirst,mostextensive,andmosteligibleobject,istoprevent_lo_eL_,toprevent,inasfarasit ispossible,andworthwhile,allsorts

ofoffenceswhatsoever1: inotherwords,sotomanage,thatnooffencewhatsoevermaybecommitted.

_ohjeet- IV.2. Butif amanmustneedscommitanoffenceofsometo prL,ven_th_wors_kindorother,thenextobjectis toinducehimtocommitan

offencelessmischievous,rattierthanonemoremischievous: inotherwords,tochoosealwaysthe leastmischievous,oftwooffencesthatwilleitherofthemsuithispurpose.

a_Object-V.3.Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffence,thetokeep,J_w_thenextobjectis todisposehimtodonomoremischiefthanismischleLnecessarytohispurpose:inotherwords,todoasLittlemischiefasisconsistentwiththebenefithehasinview.

4_hO_ject-VI.4. Thelastobjectis,whateverthemischiefbe,whichittoactatthe •_t isproposedto prevent,topreventit at ascfieapa rateas_pe,_- possible.aulesor VII.Subservientto thesefourobjects,orpurposes,mustbeproporhon

By olFer_eesI mesa, at present, _cts which _ppear to him to have atendencytoproducemilch/el.

P

ProportionbelweeuPuuighment_amt Offences.I79

therulesorcanonsbywhichtheproportionofpunishmentsttobetweenpumsh-offencesis tobegoverned, meatsnunoffend.

VIII. RuleL L Thefirstobject,it hasbeenseen,is to R_Ie_.prevent,inasfarasit is worthwhile,all sortsofoffences"Out_,i_l,J_hepr_tltoftherefore, theoffence.

Thevalueofthepunish_nentmust'notbelessinanycasethanwhatissu)_eientgooutweighthatofthepro.fit"_oftheoffences

If it be, the offence(unlesssomeotherconsiderations,independentofthepunishment,shouldinterveneandoperateefficaciouslyin thecharacterof tutelsrymotivesa)willbesureto be committednotwithstanding5: thewholelot of

Thesamerules0t isto beobserved)maybeapplied,withlittlevaria-Th_e r_J_- appbcab[¢totion,torewardsaswellas ptmislnaent: in short,tomotivesmgeneral,_ot,_e_which,accordingas theyareofthepleasurableorpainfulkind,areoftheg,ou_.natureofrez_urdorpunvshment: and,a_cordmgastheact theyareappliedto produceis ofthepositiveornegativeldad,arestyledimpellingorre-straining.Seech.x. [Motives]xliii.

Bythe profitotan offence,is to beunderstood,notmerelythepecu-P,ont_,yb_niaxyprofit,butthe pleasureoradvantage,ofwhateverkindIt"be,winchk,_a.°r_y_b_,_s_¢u_a manreaps,orexpectstomap,fromthegratitlcationofthedesirewhichm¢_rpromptedhimtoengageinthe offencek

It is theprofit(that i%theexpectationoItheprofit)of theoffencethatJ=propnctyot• . tlne aalmn thatconstitutesthe smpelh_gmotive,or,where,therearcseveral,the sumofthepu_t_h_nenttheimpelhagmotives,bywhicha manispromptedtoengageintheoffence,o,_h_,or.to_,,It isthepunishment,thatis,theexpecta[ionofthepunishment,thatcon-_,_,_to__u_stituteethe reztrainingmotive,which,eitherby iLsel/,orm conjuuctmnwithothers,is toactuponhimin aconfrarydirection,soastoinducehimtoabstainfromengagingintheoffence•Accidentalcircumstancesapart,thestrengthofthe temptatmnis as theforeunf theseducing,that is,oftheimpe]hngmotiveor motives. Tnsaythen,as authorsofgreatmeritandgreatnamehavesaid,that thepunishmentoughtnottoincreasewiththe_trengthofthetemptation,isasmuchastosayinmechanics,thatthemovingforceormomentumofthe powerneednotincreasemproportiontothemnmcntumoftheburthen.

Becearia,deidilctti,§6. id. trad.par.Morellet,§23.Seech.xi. [Dispositions]x.xix.It isa well-knownadage,thoughit istobehopednota trueone,that

everymanhashisprice. It i_commonlymean_ofa man'svirtue. Thissaying,thoughina verydifferentsense,wasstrictlyverifiedby someoftheAnglo-Saxonlaws: by whicha fixedpricewasset,notupona man'svirtueindeed,but uponhislife: that ofthesovereignhimselfamongtherest. For2ooshillingsyoumighthavekilleda peasant: forsixtimesasmuoh.anobleman:forsix-and-thirtytimesasmuchyoumighthavekilledtheking_. A kingin thosedays wasworthexactly7,2ooshillings. Ifthentheheirto thethrone,foreaampie,grewwearyof waitingforit. hehadasecureandlegalwaynfgratifyinglmimpatience:hehadbuttokill

Iseaeh.z.[Motives]§1.Wi_t,,,_'Leg.&nglO-_.Lp.7_.7a. _. t-l.me.VokI_Apr.L_ ztg.

1So Of thePro2orlionbetween [cuAr.

punishmentwillbethrownaway: itwillbealtogetherine_-cacious1.

thepr_ IX. Theaboverulehasbeenoftenobjectedto,onaccountofpne_yoftak_theitsseemingharshness:butthiscanonlyhavehappenedforwant_n_h oftaetompt_ofitsbeingproperlyundcrstood.Thestrengthofthetempta-tion/ora_oundor tion,cceterispar_bus,isastheprofitoftheoffence: thequantumabatement,neo_joetionofthepunishmentmustrisewiththeprofitof theoffence:gothisrule.

cceterisparibus,it musttheretorerisewiththestrengthofthetemptation.Thisthereisnodisputing.Trueit is,thatthestrongerthetemptation,thelessconclusiveis theindicationwhichtheactofdelinquencya/_orclsof thedepravityof theoffender'sdisposition2. 8ofar thenas theabsenceof anyaggravation,arisingfromextraordinarydepravityofdisposition,mayoperate,orattheutmost,sofarasthepresenceofagroundofextenuation,resultingitemtheinnocenceorbeneficenceoftheoffender'sdisposition,canoperate,thestreng_hofthetemptationmayoperateinabatementofthedemandforpunishment.Butitcanneveroperatesofarastoindicatetheproprietyofmakingthepunishmentinef[eetual,whichit issuretobewhenbroughtbelowtheleveloftheapparentprofiteltheoffence.

Thepartialbenevolencewhichshouldprevailforthere-ductionofitbelowthislevel,wouldcounteractaswellthosepurposeswhichsuchamotivewouldactuallyhaveinview,asthosemoreextensivepurposeswhichbenevolenceoughttohaveinview: itwouldbecrueltynotonlyto thepublic,butto thethekingwithonehand,andpayhimselfwiththeother,andallw_sright.AnearlGodwin,ora dukeStreon,couldhaveboughtthelivesofa wholedynasty. It isplain,that ifevera kingin thosedaysdiedinhisbed,hemusthavehadsomethingelse,besidesthislaw,to thank/orit. Thisbeingthe productionota remoteandbarbarousage,the absurdityofit ispre-sentlyrecognised: but,uponexamination,i_wouldbefound,that thefreshestlawsoftherno_tcivilisednationsarecontinuallyfallingintothesameerror_. This,inshort,is thee_c wheresoeverthepnniAhmentisfixedwhiletheprofitel dehnquencyis indefinite: or,to speakmorepre+cindy,wherethepunislimentislimitedtosucha mark,thatthe profitofdelinquencymayreachbeyondit.

Seeell.xiii.[Casesunmeet],§L*Seeoh.xL[Dispositions],xlii. I

! _ InparticulartheE_glOht_atutelawithroughout.BonaIoarbe'#PenalCode,a_dtherecentlyenactedornotenacted/_pan/_&PenalCo_.--No_ebl]theAuthor,JulplBz_.

1

IV.] Puni_krae_and Offence,. _8x

verypersonsinwhosebehalfit pleads: initseffects,Imean,howeveroppositeinitsintention.Crueltytothepublic,thati_crueltyto theinnocent,bysufferingthem,forwantofanade-quateprotection,to lieexposedto themischiefoftheoffence:crueltyevento theoffenderhimself,bypunishinghimto nopurpose,andwithoutthechanceofcompassingthatbeneficialend,bywhichalonetheintroductionoftheevilofpunishmentis tobejustified.

X. Rule2. Butwhetheragivenoffenceshallbeprevented_u__.Venture

inagivendegreeby agivenquantityofpunishment,isnevermo_imt• a tanythingbetterthanachance; forthepurchasingofwhich,o_ thanwhateverpunishmentis employed,is somuchexpendedina_aLuone.advance.However,forthesakeofgivingit thebetterchanceofoutweighingtheprofitoftheoffence,

Thegreaterthemischiefof theoffence,thegreateris theez.pense,whichi_maybeworthwhileto becg,in thewayof?unishment1.

XI. Rule3. Thenextobjectis,to inducea mantochoose_ule_Causethealwaystheleastmischievousoftwooffences;therefore lea_tortwoWheretwooffencescomeincompetition,the ..... o_en_totrumsnmen_jor thebopre/erred.

greogeroffencemustbesuffvien$to inducea mantoprefertheless2.

XII. Rule4. WhenamanhasresolveduponaparticularRu;eoffence,thenextobjectis,toinduce'" _ _ • _. ,PunchforfilmI;Ouo no more mlscnlei _h particleofthethanwhatisnecessaryforhispurpose: therefore m_c_.t.

TheI_unishmentshouldbeadjustedin suchmannertoeachparticularoffence,thatforeverypartof themischieftheremaybeamotivetorestraintheoffenderfromgivingbirthtoit3.

Forexample,if it caneverbe worthwhileto beat theexpenseofsoE_m_--. Incendiarismhorriblea pumshmentas that of burningalive,it willbemoreso in_aea_dco_t_g,viewotpreventingsuch• crimeasthatoimurderorincendiarism,thanintheviewofpreventingtheutteringofapieceofbadmoney.SeeB.I. tit.[Detraudmenttouchingthe Coin]and [Incendiarism].

J Espr.desLoix,L.vi.o. t6.I If anyonehaveanydoubtof this,lethimconceivetheoffenceto beEn=p_.-

dividedintoasmanyseparate,offences.asthere,aredistinm_ishableo_r_.........Io_d_nbto,_m_ey_venof mischiefthatresultfromit. LetIt consmt,forexJLmple,in a m_n's_t_,agivingyoutenblows,orstealingfromyoutenshillings.Ifthen,forgivingyoutenblows,heispunishednomorethanforgivingyoufive,thegiving

_82 Of t}.ePropoYtionbetween [CHAr.

RuloS. XIII, Rule5. Thelastobjectis, whatevermischiefis:Punishinnoae_,ceguardedagainst,to guardagainstit at as cheapa rateaswithout._i.I possible: thereforer_on. Thepunishmentoughtin nocasetobemorethanw_atis

necessarytobringit intoconforo_itywiththerulesheregiven._uzo_. XIV.Rule6. It isfurthertobeobserved,thatowingtotheAtLendto

eircum-differentmannersanddegreesinwhichpersonsunderdifferentstancesina,,snci,¢circumstancesareaffectedbythesameexcitingcause,apunish-senJibflity,meatwhichisthesameinnamewillnotalwayseitherreally

produce,orevensomuchasappeartootherstoproduce,intwodifferentpersonsthesamedegreeofpain: therefore

Tha_thequantityactuallyinflictedoneachindividualoffendermaycorrespond$othequantityintendeclfor similaroffendersingeneral,theseveralcircumstancesinfluencingsensibilityoughtalwaystobetakenintoaccountz.

Comparati*'eXV.Oftheaboverulesofproportion,thefourfirst,wemayvmwofthe_ovcru_e_perceive,servetomarkoutthelimitsonthesideofdiminution;the linfitsbelowwhicha punishmentoughtnotto bedimi-nished: thefifth,thelimitsonthesideofincrease; thelimitsabovewhichit oughtnotto beincreased.Thefivefirstarecalculatedtoserveasguidesto thelegislator: thesixthiscal-culated,insomemeasure,indeed,forthesamepurpose; butprincipallyforguidingthejudgeinhisendeavourstoconform,onbothsides,to theintentionsofthelegislator.

ln__e XVI.Letuslookbacka little. Thefirstrule,inordertoaCCountOftbeval_ofarenderitmoreconvenientlyapplicabletopractice,mayneedpumshment,mUstbe perhapstobea littlemoreparticularlyunfolded.It is tobe

youfiveoftheseten blowsis anoffenceforwhichthereisnopunishmentat all: whichbeingunderstood,asoftenasa mangivesyoufiveblows,hewillbesuretogiveyoufivemore,sincehemayhavethepleasureofgivingyouthesefivefornothing. In likemanner,if for stealingfromyoutenshilling,_,heis punishednomorethan forstealingfive,thestealingoftheremainingfiveof thoseten shillingsis an offcnce_orwhiohthere is nopunishmentat all.ThisruleisviolatedinalmosteverypageofeverybodyoflawsI haveeverseen.

Theprofit,it istobeobgerved,thoughfrequently,isnoteoaqtantly,pro-portionedtothemischief:forexample,wherea thief,alongwiththethingshecovets,stealsotherswhichareof nouseto him. Thismayhappenthroughwantonness,indolence,precipitation,&c.&e.

Seeeh.vi.[Sensibility].|

xIv.] Punishmentsand Offences. i83

observed,then,thatforthesakeofaccuracy,it wasnecessary,t_kenit_deficiencyininsteadofthe_ordquantitytomakeuseofthelessperspicuousj_ntor. • . certaiutyterm_lue. Forthewordquant2tywillnotproperlyincludeandthecircumstanceseitherofcertaintyorproximity: circum-pro,imit_.stanceswhich,inestimatingthevalueofa lotofpainorplea-sure,mustalwaysbetakenintotheaccount1.Now,ontheonehand,a lotofpunishmentisa lotofpain; onthcotherhand,theprofitofanoffenceisa lotofpleasure,orwhatisequivalentto it. Buttheprofitoftheoffenceiscommonlymorecertainthanthepunishment,or,whatcomestothesamething,appearssoat leastto theoffender.It isat anyratecommonlymoreimmediate.It follows,therefore,that,inordertomaintainitssuperiorityovertheprofitoftheoffence,thepunishmentmusthaveitsvaluemadeupinsomeotherway,inproportiontothatwherebyit fallsshortinthe twopointsofcertaintyandpTox-fruity.Nowthereisnootherwayinwhichit canreceiveanyadditionto itsvalue,butbyreceivinganadditioninpointofmagnitude.Whereverthenthevalueofthepunishmentfallsshort,eitherinpointof certainSy,orofp_ozimity,ofthatofthe profitof theoffence,it mustreceivea proportionableadditioninpointofmagnitude2.

XVII.Yetfarther.TomakesureofgivingthevalueoftheAls_intotheaccountpunishmentthesuperiorityoverthatoftheoffence,itmay_eofthe• • m_ehiefnecessary,msomecases,totakeintotheaccounttheprofitnota,_d_o_tot

" • . - • . theoffence,,onlyoftheindividualoffencetowhichthepumst_mentistot_ethem,_,h,ef._ andprofitotannexed,butalsoofsuchotherof[encesofthesamesortas_neother

withoutdetectmn,thesameoffenderislikelytohavealreadycommitted" . o_en_otThisrandommodeofcalculation,severeasit is,it willbeira-hast.possibletoavoidhavingrecourseto,incertaineases:insuch,towit,inwhichtheprofitispecuniary,thechanceofdetectionverysmall,andtheobnoxiousactofsuchanatureasindicatesahabit: forexample,inthecaseoffraudsagainstthecoin. Ifrtbenotrecurredto,thepracticeofcommittingtheoffencewillbesuretobe,uponthebalanceoftheaccount,againfulpractice.'_ ch.iv.[Value].2Itisforthismason,forexample,thatsimplecompensationisnever

lookeduponassuitieien_punishmentfortheftorrobbery.

I84 Oft/_eProloortionbetween [chAr.

Thatbeingtheease,thelegislatorwillbeabsolutelysureofnotbeingableto suppressit, andthewholepunishmentthatisbestoweduponitwillbethrownaway.Inaword(tokeeptothesameexpressionswesetoutwith)thatwholequantityofpunishmentwillbeinefficacious.

R_e_'. XVlII. Rule7. Thesethingsbeingconsidered,thethreeWantofe_inty followingrulesmaybelaiddownbywayofsupplementandmustbe•-aao.pinexplanationtoRulex._itude. Toenablethevalueofthepunishmenttooutweighthatofthe

profitoftheoffence,it mustbeincreased,inlaointofmagnitude,inproportionasit fallsshortinpointofcertainty.

Uules. XIX.Rule8. Punishmentmustbefurtherincreasedinpoint80al_owsa'lt . .._otprex_m_ts,o/magm_uae,in_oportionasit/ellsshortinpointofprozimity.

Rule9. XX. Rule9. Wheretheactis conclusivelyindicativeofaForactsindic_t_vcofbah/t,guchanincreasemustbegiventothepunishmentasmayahabitpums_as enableit tooutweightheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffence,f_tthehabit, butofsuchotherlikeoffencesasarelikelytot_avebeencommi_.d

withimpunitybythesameoffender.Theremain- XXI. Theremaybeafewothercircumstancesorconsidera-in_rulesare_.orJess _mnswhichmayinfluence,insomesmalldegree,thedemandt_p_,_oe,forpunishment: butastheproprietyoftheseiseithernotso

demonstrable,ornotsoconstant,ortheapplicationoIthemnotsodeterminate,asthatoftheforegoing,it maybedoubtedwhethertheybeworthputtingonalevelwiththeothers.

_-_ao.XXII. RuleIo. Whena lmnishment,whid_in pointofForthesake ..ol'qualikv,quahtyis particularlywellcalculatedtoanswer_ intention,;novelleJo --q_. cannotexistin lessthanacertainquantity,itmaysometimesbe

ofuse,for thesakeofemployin#it,tostraeha littlebeyondthatquantitywhick,onotheraccounts,wouldbestrictlynecessary.

Itulen. XXIILRulexI.Inparticular,thismaysometimesbethecase,PartJcalaxly.for. moral wngre tke _l_?gn_]t,w,6,_pro_3ooedi$ ofsuch a natureastobe par-

a_oa. ticularlywellcalculatedtoanswerthepurposeo.famorallessonx^p,._m., a .4.punishmentmaybesaidtobec_leulstedtoanswerthepuruo_eof-• phedbywalt . . .,_'_,,m_.moralle_oa,when,byreasonofthetgnommyttst_mpsupontheo_e-ce,it.•_'" iscalculatedtoinspirethepubJJewithsentiraentsofaversiontowardsthoso

pernicioush_bitsanddispositionswithwhichtheoffenceappearstoboconnected; andtherebytoineulcstetheopp_itebeneficialh_bit__nddispositiom.

,xrv.] Puniekraengsand Offences. I85

XXIV.Rulex2.ThetendencyoftheaboveconsiderationsisR_l_.is.Attendtotodictateanaugmentationinthepunishment:thefollowin_ircum.• . _stancesruleoperatesinthewayofdiminutlon.Therearecertaincaseswhichmayrender(ithasbeenseeni)inwhich,bytheinfluenceofaccidentalcir-punishment._ unprOfl_cumstances,punishmentmayberenderedunprofitableinmeablawhole:inthesamecasesitmaychancetoberenderedunpro-fitableastoapartonly.Accordingly,

In adjustingthequantumof punishment,thecircumstances,bywhichallpunishmentmayberenderedunprofitable,oughttobeattendedto.

XXV. RuleI3. It istobeobserved,that themorevariousR_ea_-• ]Foralto.andminuteanysetofprovisionsare,thegreaterthechanceisplicity's

• sake,smallthatanygivenarticleinthemwillnotbeborneinmind: wzth-diw_opo_... _ tionsmaybeoutwhich,nobenefitcanensuefromit. Distinctions,wmcnaren*sl_te_.morecomplexthanwhattheconceptionsofthosewhoseconductit isdesignedto influencecantakein,willevenbeworsethanuseless.Thewholesystemwillpresentaconfusedappearance:andthustheeffect,notonlyoftheproportionsestablishedbythearticlesinquestion,butofwhateverisconnectedwiththem,willbedestroyed2. Todrawapreciselineofdirectioninsuchcaseseemsimpossible.Bowever,bywayofmemento,it maybeofsomeusetosubjointhefollowingrule.

Amongprovisionsdesiqnedtoperfecttheproportionbetweenpunishmentsandoffences,ifanyoccur,which,bytheirownpar-ticulargood_ffects,wouldnotmakeupfortheharmtheywoulddobyaddingtotheintricacyoftheCode,theyshouldbeomitted3.

It is this,forexample,ifanything,that mustjustifythe appheationofEnm_-soseverea punishmentas the infamyofa pubhcexhibition,hereinsCtcri°_,m_,cowproposed,forhimwholiftsup hishandagainsta woman,orag,k_st'baspo_t_lather. SeeB.I. tit. [Simp.corporalinjuries].

It is partlyon thiBprinciple,I suppose,that militarylegislatorslaaveEx,,_yl,.-justifiedtothemselvestheinflictingdeathonthesoldierwholiftsuphJsu_,"i,_:at_vhandagainsthissuperiorofficer.

Seeoh.xiiJ.[Casesunmeot],§4._SeeB.If.tit.[Purposes],Append.tit.[Composition].'Notwithstandingthisrt_le,myfearis,thatintheensuingmodel,Ie_opoalo,_i_

maybethoughtto havecarriedmyendeavoursatproportionalitytoofax.[_]Iithartoscarceanyattentionhasbeenpaidtoit.Montesquieus_mstowork-_hy.havebeenalmostthefirstwhohashadtheleastideaofanysuchthing.Insucha matter,therefore,excessseemedmoreeligiblethandefect.The

186 Of OieProportion3elwee_ [CHAP.

Aut_lfar_XXVI.It mayberemembered,thatthepoliticalsanction,forc_ofthephysical,beingthat towhichthesortofpunishmentbelongs,whichinmoral,midreh_ou_thischapterisallalonginview,isbutoneoffoursanctions,wineries,tlothereallowedwhichmayallofthemcontributetheirsharetowardsproducingrot-why,thesameeffects.Itmaybcexpected,therefore,thatinadjusting

thequantityofpoliticalpunishment,allowanceshouldbemadefortheassistanceitmaymeetwithfromthoseothercontrollingpowers.Trueitis,thatfromeachoftheseseveralsourcesaverypowerhllassistancemaysometimesbederived.Butthecaseis,that(settingasidethemoralsanction,inthecasewheretheforceofit isexpresslyadoptedintoandmodifiedbythepolitical1)theforceofthoseotherpowersisneverdeterminateenoughtobedependedupon.It canneverbereduced,hkepoliticalpunish-ment,intoexactlots,normetedoutinnumber,quantity,andvalue.Thelegislatoris thereforeobligedto providethefullcomplementofpunishment,asifheweresureofnotreceivinganyassistancewhateverfromanyofthosequarters.Ifhedoes,somuchthebetter: butlestheshouldnot,it isnecessaryheshould,atallevents,makethatprovisionwhichdependsuponhimself.

ll_pitula-XXVII.It maybeofuse,in thisplace,torecapitulatetheLlOlaseveralcircumstances,which,inestablishingtheproportionbe-twixtpunishmentsandoffences,aretobeattendedto. Theseseemtobcasfollows:I. Onthepartoft_eoffence:

I. Theprofitoftheoffence;2. Themischiefoftheoffence;3. Theprofitandmischicfofothergreaterorlesseroffences,

ofdifferentsorts,whichtheoffendermayhavetochooseoutof;

4. Theprofitandmischiefofotheroffences,ofthesamesort,whichthesameoffendermayprobablyhavebeenguiltyofalready.

diglculty is to invent : that done,if anything seom_svperfluous, it is easyto retrench.

J See B. I. tit. [Punishments].

x[v.] Punishment8and Offences. 187

II. Onthepartofthepunishment:5.Themagnitudeofthepunishment:composedofits

intensityandduration;6.Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointoicertainty;7.Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofproximity;8.Thequalityofthepunishment;9.Theaccidentaladvantageinpointofqualityofapunish-

ment,notstrictlyneededinpointofquantity;zo.TheuseoIapunishmentofaparticularquality,inthe

characterofamorallesson.III. Ontheparto.ftheoffender:

xr. Theresponsibilityoftheclassofpersonsinawaytooffend;

z2.Thesensibilityofeachparticularoffender;I3. Theparticularmeritsorusefulqualitiesofanyparti-

cularoffender,incaseofa punishmentwhichmightdeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthem;

I4. Themultitudeofoffendersonanyparticularoccasion.IV.Onthepartofthepublic,at anyparticularconjuncture:

x5.Theinclinationsofthepeople,fororagainstanyquantityormodeofpunishment;

I6.Theinclinationsofforeignpowers.V. OntheTartof thelaw: that is, ofthepublicfora con-

tinuance:17.Thenecessityofmakingsmallsacrifices,in pointof

proportionality,forthesakeofsimplicity.XXVIII.Therearesome,perhaps,who,at firstsight,mayThenicety

• - • J herelookuponthemcetyemployedmtheadjustmentofsuchrules,obBervedvindicatedassomuchlabourlost: forgrossignorance,theywillsay,nevernorath,_.chargeoftroublesitselfaboutlaws,andpassiondoesnotcalculate._U_inutillty.

theevilofignoranceadmitsofcurei:andastotheproposi-tionthatpassiondoesnotcalculate,this,likemostoftheseverygeneralandoracularpropositions,isnottrue.Whenmattersofsuchimportanceaspainandpleasureareatstake,andtheseinthehighestdegree(theonlymatters,inshort,thatcanbeof

i SeeAppend.tit.[Promulgation].

I88 _ro_ortionbetweeuPuni,iimenteand Offence,,

importance)whoistherethatdoesnotcalculate? Mencalcu-late,somewithlessexactness,indeed,somewithmore: butallmencalculate.Iwouldnotsay,thatevena madmandoesnotcalculatea. Passioncalculates,moreorless,ineveryman: indifferentmen,accordingtothewarmthorcoolnessoftheirdis-positions:accordingtothefirmnessorirrit_bilityoftheirminds:accordingtothenatureofthemotivesbywhichtheyareactedupon. Happily,ofallpassions,thatisthemostgiventocalcu-lation,fromtheexcessesof which,byreasonofits strength,constancy,anduniversality,societyhasmostto apprehend2:I meanthat whichcorrespondsto the motiveof pecuniaryinterest: sothattheseniceties,if suchtheyareto becalled,havethebestchanceof beingefficacious,whereefficacyis ofthemostimportance.

1Therearefewmadmenbutwhatareol_orvedtobe_a-_idofthestraitwaistcoat.

' Seech.xii.[Consequences],xxxiiL

CHAPTERXV.

OF THE PROPERTIESTO BE GIVENTO A LOTOF PUNISHMENT°

I. IThasbeenshownwhattherulesare,whichoughttobePro_ties• are to_observedinadjustingtheproportionbetweenthepumshment_ovor,,_aby

andtheoffence.Thepropertiestobegiventoa lotofpunish-propor,on.ment,ineveryinstance,willofcoursebesuchasit standsinneedof,inordertobecapableofbeingapphed,inconformitytothoserules: thequalitywillberegulatedbythequantiZy.

II. Thefirstofthoserules,wemayremember,was,thatthe_ro_n_1.• • • 3 arLab_Jity.quantityofpumshmentmustnotbeless,manycase,thanwhatissut_cienttooutweightheprofitoftheoffence: since,asoftenasit isless,thewholelot(unlessbyaccidentthedeficiencyshouldbesuppliedfromsomeoftheothersanctions)isthrownaway:itisineffw_acious.Thefifthwas,thatthepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisrequiredbytheseveralotherrules:since,ifitbe,allthatisabovethatquantityisneedless.Thefourthwas,that thepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachindividualoffence,thateverypartofthemischiefofthatoffencemayhaveapenalty(thatis.a tutelarymotive)toencounterit : otherwise,withrespecttosomuchoftheoffenceashasnots penaltytocorrespondtoit,it isasiftherewerenopunishmentinthecase. Nowtononeofthoserulescanalotofpunishmentbeconformable,unless,foreveryvariationinpointofquantity,inthemischiefofthespeciesofoffencetowhichitisannexed,suchlot ofpunishmentadmitsofacorrespondentvariation.Toprovethis,let theprofitoftheoffenceadmitofa multitudeofdegrees.Supposeit, then,at anyoneofthesedegrees: ifthepunishmentbele_ thanwhatissuitableto thatdegree,itwillbeineffwado_; it willbesomuchthrownsway:

I9o Ofi_eP_'opertiesto te give_to [CHAP.

ifitbemore,asfarasthedifferenceextends,itwillbcneed/ess;itwillthereforebethrownawayalsointhatease.

Thefirstproperty,therefore,thatoughttobegiventoa lotofpunishment,is thatofbeingvariableinpointofquantity,inconformitytoeveryvariationwhichcantakeplaceineithertheprofitormischiefoftheoffence.Thispropertymight,perhaps,betermed,inasingleword,variability.

P_o_rty_. III. Asecondproperty,intimatelyconnectedwiththeformer,EquabLhty.maybestyledequability.It willavailbutlittle,thatamodeofpunishment(properinallotherrespects)hasbeenestablishedbythelegislator; andthatcapableofbeingscreweduporletdowntoanydegreethatcanberequired;if,afterall,whateverdegreeofitbepitchedupon,thatsamedegreeshallbeliable,accordingtocircumstances,toproduceaveryheavydegreeofpain,oraveryslightone,orevennoneat all. In thisease,asin theformer,if circumstanceshappenoneway,therewillbca greatdealof painproducedwhichwillbe needless."if theotherway,therewillbcnopainatallapplied,ornonethatwillbee._cacious.Apunishment,whenliableto thisirregularity,maybestyledanunequableone: whenfreefromit,anequableone. Thequantityofpainproducedbythepunishmentwill,itis true,dependin aconsiderabledegreeuponcircunmtancesdistinctfromthenatureofthepunishmentitself: upontheconditionwhichtheoffenderisin,withrespectto thecircum-stancesbywhichaman'ssensibilityis liabletobeinfluenced.Buttheinfluenceoftheseverycircumstanceswillinmanycasesbereciprocallyinfluencedbythenatureofthepunishment: inotherwords,thepainwhichisproducedbyanymodeo!punish-ment,willbethejointe_ectofthepunishmentwhichisappliedtohim,andthecircumstancesinwhichheisexposedtoit. Nowtherearesomepunishments,ofwhichtheeffectmaybeliabletoundergoa greateralterationby theinfluenceofsuchforeigncircumstances,thantheeflFectofotherpunishmentsisliabletoundergo.Sofar, then,as thisis thecase,equabilityorun-equabilitymayberegardedaspropertiesbelongingtothepunishmentitself.

xv.] a Lot of .Pun_hrnent. 191

IV. An exampleofa modeofpunishmentwhichisapt tobePunish-meritswluchunequable,is thatofbanishment,whenthelocusa quo(orplace_ _l,tbedeficientthepartyisbanishedfrom)issomedeterminateplaceappointed,, th_by the law, whichperhapsthe offendercaresnot whetherhel-o_peeLeverseeor no. Thisisalsothe casewithpecuniary,or _uasi.pecuniarypunishment,whenit respectssomeparticularspeciesofproperty,whichthe offendermayhavebeenpossessedof,ornot, as it may happen. All these punishmentsmay be splitdowninto parcels,and measuredout withthe utmostnicety:beingdivisibleby time,at least,if bynothingelse. Theyarenot, therefore,anyof themdefectivein pointof variability:andyet, in manycases,this defectin pointof equabilitymaymakethemasunfit foruseas if theywere1.

V. Thethirdruleofproportionwas,that wheretwooffenceserol_rtys.Oornmen-comein competition,the punishmentforthe greateroffence_u_b_ht_toothermustbe sufficientto induceamantopreferthe less. Now,topumsu.besufficientforthispurpose,it mustbeevidentlyanduniformlym_nt_greater: greater,not in the eyesof somemenonly,but of allmen whoareliable to be in a situationto take their choicebetweenthe twooffences; that is,ineffect,ofallmankind. Inotherwords,the twopunishmentsmust beperfectlycommen-surable.Hencearisesa third property,whichmaybe termedeommensurabili*y:towit,withrefereneetootherpunishments2.

VI. But punishmentsof differentkindsare in veryfewin-Howt_olotsof

stancesuniformlygreateronethan another; especiallywhenpuni_hmor,tmaybe

thelowestdegreesot that whichis ordinarilythe greater,arcre_,tlered

BytheEnglishl_w,thereareseveraloffenoeswhicharepunishedbyatotalforfeitureofmoveables,notextendingtoimmoveables.Thisistheca_owithsmcide,andwithcertainspeciesoftheftandhomicide.Insomeeases,thisistheprincipalpumshment:inothers,eventheonlyone.Theconsequenceis,thatif• man'sfortuneh_ppenstoconsistinmove_bles,heisruined; ifinimmoveables,hesuffersnothing.

s SeeViewoftheHard,-Labo_rBill,Loud._778,p.xoo.Fortheideaofthisproperty,I mustacknowledgemyselfindebtedtoan

anonymousletterintheSt.Jamos'sChronicle,ofthe27thofSeptember,1777; theauthorofwhichistotallyunknowntome. Ifanyoneshouldbedisposedtothinklightlyoftheinstruction,onaccountofthechannelbywhichitwasfirstcommunicated,lethimtellmewhereIcanfindanideamoreingeniousororiginal.

I92 Of t/_e.Pro?stilesgo_e9ive_to [cgAr.

perf_lycomparedwiththehighestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilycomn]srl.s_-_bl_theless: inotherwords,punishmentsofdifferentkindsarein

fewinstancesuniformlycommensurable.Theonlycertainanduniversalmeansof makingtwolotsofp_i_hmentperfectlycommensurable,isbymakingthelesseraningredientinthecompositionofthegreater.Thismaybedoneineitheroftwoways.r. Byaddingtothelesserpunishmentanotherquantityofpunishmentofthesamekind. 2. Byaddingtoitanotherquantityofadifferentkind.Thelattermodeisnotlesscertainthantheformer: forthoughonecannotalwaysbeabsolutelysure,thattothesamepersona givenpunishmentwillappeargreaterthananothergivenpunishment; yetonemaybealwaysabsolutelysure,thatanygivenpunishment,soasit doesbutcomeintocontemplation,willappeargreaterthannoneatall.

_'romrty_ VII.Again: PunishmentcannotactanyfartherthaninasOharacter-_ti_. farastheideaofit,andofitsconnectionwiththeoffence,in

presentinthemind.Theideaofit,ifnotpresent,cannotactatall; andthenthepunishmentitselfmustbe_7_effw_c/o_.Now,tobepresent,it mustberemembered,andtoberemem-beredit mus_havebeenlearnt.Butofallpunishmentsthatcanbeimagined,therearenoneofwhichtheconnectionwi_htheoffenceiseithersoeasilylearnt,orsoefficaciouslyremembered,asthoseofwhichtheideaisalreadyin partassociatedwithsomepartoftheideaoftheoffence: whichisthecasewhentheoneandtheotherhavesomecircumstancethatbelongstothemincommon.Whenthisisthecasewitha punishmentandanoffence,thepunishmentis saidtobearananalogyto,ortobe tc_racter_icof,theoffencei. Characteristicalnessis,therefore, f

a fourthproperty,whichonthisaccountoughttobegiven,wheneverit canconvenientlybegiven,toaloto[punishment.

Whemodocr VIII.It isobvious,thattheeffectofthisson,vancewillbepunmhmen_*he_ost thegreater,astheanalogyis thecloser.Theanalogywillbeemiuentlye_r- thecloser,themorez_er_l zthatcircumstanceis,whichis in

SeeMontesq.Esp.desLoix,L.xii.oh.iv. Heseemstohavethepropertyofcharacteristicalnessinview;butthattheide_heh_lofitwasveryindistinct,appearsfromtheextravagantadvantagesheattributestoit.

JSeeoh.vii.[Actions],iii.

xv.] aZotofP._/e/_ment. 193

common.Nowthemostmaterialcircumstancethatcanbelongistic.+,thatofrein]in-toanoffenceandapunishmentincommon,isthehurtordamaget_n.whichtheyproduce.Theclosestanalogy,therefore,thatcansubsistbetweenanoffenceandthepunishmentannexedtoit,isthatwhichsubsistsbetweenthemwhenthehurtordamagetheyproduceisofthesamenature: inotherwords,thatwhichisconstitutedbythecircumstanceofidentityinpointofdamaget.Accordingly,themodeofpunishment,whichofallothersbearstheclosestanalogyto theoffence,isthatwhichintheproperandexactsenseofthewordis termedretaliation.Retaliation,therefore,inthefewcasesinwhichit ispracticable,andnottooexpensive,willhaveonegreatadvantageovereveryothermodeofpunishment.

IX. Again: It is the ideaonlyofthepunishment(or,inPro_rtys.• Exem-otherwords,theapparentpumshment)thatreallyactsuponthel_]arity.mind; thepunishmentitself(therealpunishment)actsnotanytartherthanas givingriseto that idea. It is theapparentpunishment,therefore,thatdoesalltheservice,I meaninthewayofexample,whichis theprincipalobject2. It is therealpunishmentthatdoesallthemischiefa. Nowtheordinaryandobviouswayofincreasingthemagnitudeoftheapparentpunish-ment,isbyincreasingthemagnitudeofthereal. Theapparentmagnitude,however,maytoa certaindegreebeincreasedbyotherlessexpensivemeans: whenever,therefore,at thesametimethattheselessexpensivemeanswouldhaveansweredthatpurpose,anadditionalrealpunishmentisemployed,thisaddi-tionalrealpunishmentisneedless.Asto theselessexpensivemeans,theyconsist,I. In thechoiceofa particularmodeofpunishment,a punishmentof a particularquality,indepen-dentof thequantity4. 2. In a particularsetof solemnitiesdistinctfromthepunishmentitself,andaccompanyingtheexecutionofit s.

t Besidesthis,therearea varietyoi otherwaysinwhichthepunishmentmaybearananalogyto theoffence.Thiswillbeseenbylookingoverthetableofpunishments.

*Seeoh.xiii.[Casesunmeet],§I, 2.note. * Ib.§4. par.iii.*SeeB.I. tit. [Punishments]. ' SeeB.II. tit. [Execution].1311_TiI_ o

194 Of theProper{ie,to be9i_el_to [CHAP.

r_ _ X.Amodeofpunishment,accordingastheappearanceofitea'ecmal_or bearsagreaterproportiontothereality,maybesaidtobetheg a 7 _rp_ent moreezem1_tary.±_owas towhatconcernsthechoiceoftheel_aplaryis . _ .bym_rts el'pumsnmen_itself,thereisnotanymeansbywhicha given_o_. quantityofpunishmentcanberenderedmoreexemplary,than

bychoosingit ofsucha sortas shallbearananalogytotheoffence.Henceanotherreasonforrenderingthepunishmentanalogousto,orinotherwordscharacteristicof,theoffence.

_rty _ XI. Punishment,it isstilltoberemembered,is in itselfanPru_hty.expense: it is initselfanevil1. Accordinglythefif_ ruleofproportionis,nottoproducemoreofit thanwhatisdemandedbytheotherrules. Butthisisthecaseasoftenasanyparticleofpainisproduced,whichcontributesnothingtotheeffectpro-posed. Nowif anymodeof punishmentis moreapt thananothertoproduceanysuchsuperfluousandneedlesspain,itmaybestyledunfrugal; if less,itmaybestyledfrugal.Fru-ga//ty,therefore,isa sixthpropertytobewishedforinamodeofpunishment.

t_ XII. Theperfectionoffrugality,inamodeofpunishment,isIn . .

ontowherenotonlynosuperfluouspainmproducedonthepartof_ thepersonpunished,buteventhatsameoperation,bywhichhe

issubjectedtopain,ismadetoanswerthepurposeofproducingpleasureonthepartofsomeotherperson.Understandaprofitorstockofpleasureoftheself-regardingkind:forapleasureofthedissoeialkindisproducedalmostofcourse,on thepartofallpersonsinwhosebreaststheoffencehasexcitedthesentimentofill-will.Nowthisisthecasewithpecuniarypunishment,asalsowithsuchpunishmentsofthequasi-_cuniarykindascon-sistinthesubtractionofsuchaspeciesofpossessionasistrans-ferablefromonepartytoanother.Thepleasure,indeed,pro-ducedbysuchanoperation,isnotingeneralequaltothepain2:itmay,however,besoinparticularcircumstances,aswherehe,fromwhomthethingistaken,isveryrich,andhe,towhomitisgiven,verypoor:and,beitwhatitwill,it isalwayssomuchmorethancanbeproducedbyanyothermodeofpunishment.

Ch.xiii.[CMe_anmeet_par.iii. _Ib.nolo.

xv.] a Lotof Pnnish_zent. i95

XIII. Thepropertiesofexemplarityandfrugalityseemto_emp_ntypursuethesameimmediateend,thoughbydifferentcourses._t_y. iaBothareoccupiedindiminishingtheratiooftherealsuffering_i_e_totheapparent:butexemplaritytendstoincreasetheapparent;frugalitytoreducethereal.

XIV.Thusmuchconcerningthepropertiesto begiventoOth6rpropertluofpunishmentsingeneral,towhatsoeveroffencestheyaretooeLnr_ior

applied.Thosewhichfollowareoflessimportance,eitherasimportance.referringonlyto certainoffencesin particular,or dependingupontheinfluenceoftransitoryandlocalcircumstances.

In thefirstplace,thefourdistinctendsintowhichthemainandgeneralendofpunishmentisdivisiblel,maygiverisetosomanydistinctproperties,accordingasanyparticularmodeofpunishmentappearstobemoreparticularlyadaptedtotlmcom-passingofoneorofanotherofthoseends. Tothatofexample,asbeingtheprincipalone,aparticularpropertyhasalreadybeenadapted.Thereremainsthethreeinferioronesofreformation,disablement,andcompensation.

XV.A seventhproperty,therefore,to bewishedforinaProperty7.Subset-modeofpunishment,is thatofsubserviencytoreformation,orviencytoreforming_endency.Nowanypunishmentis subservienttoreformation.reformationinproportiontoitsquantity:sincethegreaterthepunishmentamanhasexperienced,thestrongeristhetendencyit hasto createinhiman aversiontowardstheoffencewhichwasthecauseofit : andthatwithrespecttoalloffencesalike.Buttherearecertainpunishmentswhich,withregardtocertainoffences,haveaparticulartendencytoproducethat effectbyreasonoftheirquality:andwherethisisthecase,thepunish-mentsinquestion,as appliedto theoffencesinquestion,willprotantohavetheadvantageoverallothers. Thisinfluencewilldependuponthenatureofthemotivewhichis thecauseoftheoffence: thepunishmentmostsubservienttoreformationwillbethesortofpunishmentthatisbestcalculatedtoinvali-datetheforceofthatmotive.

XVI.Thus,in offencesoriginatingfromthemotiveof ill--mpp_ato*Seeoh.xiii.[Casesunmeet],par.ii.aot_

02

196 Of tl_ePropertie,to begive_to [c_Ar.

ofTon_ will1,thatpunishmenthasthestrongestreformingtendency,ori$1rmtingmm.wnt,whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceof theirascibleaffections.Andmoreparticularly,inthatsortofoffencewhichconsistsinanobstinaterefusal,onthepartoftheoffender,todosomethingwhichislawfullyrequiredofhim2,andinwhichtheobstinacyisingreatmeasurekeptupbyhisresentmentagainstthosewhohaveaninterestin forcinghimto compliance,themostefficaciousptmishmentseemstobethatoIconfinementtosparediet.

-u o_ence_XVII.Thus,also,in offenceswhichowetheirbirthto theorlganatinginindolent*jointinfluenceofindolenceandpecuniaryinterest,thatpunish-joinedto

m_w_m_,mentseemstopossessthestrongestreformingtendency,whichisbestcalculatedto weakenthe forceoftheformerofthosedispositions.Andmoreparticularly,in thecasesoftheft,em-bezzlement,andeveryspeciesof defraudment,themodeofpunishmentbestadaptedto thispurposeseems,inmostcases,tobethatofpenallabour.

rro_r_ya XVIII.Aneighthpropertytobegivento alot ofpunish-Efficacywithrespectmentincertaincases,is thatofeffvavywithrespecttodisable-todm_ble-,,en_ merit,or,asit mightbestyledmorebriefly,disablingeffvacy.

Thisisa propertywhichmaybegiveninperfectiontoa lotofpunishment; andthatwithmuchgreatercertaintythanthepropertyofsubserviencytoreformatior,.Theinconvenienceis,thatthispropertyisapt,ingeneral,to runcounterto thatoffrugality:therebeing,inmostcases,nocertainwayofdisablingamanfromdoingmischief,without,atthesametime,disabLinghim,ina greatmeasure,fromdoinggood,eithertohimselforothers.Themischiefthereforeoftheoffencemustbesogreatasto demanda veryconsiderablelot ofpunishment,forthepurposeof example,beforeit canwarranttheapplicationofa punishmentequalto thatwhichisnecessaryforthepurposeof disablement.

-ismost XIX.Thepunishment,ofwhichtheefficacyinthiswayisthe{_IIBDiCLIOIIS . . • "1 _'t _ _ • _ .1i,_c_p,talgrca_est,isewuen_lytna_oiseam.Inthiscasetheefficacyofit10unmhment,

1Seech.x.[Motives].• _ B.I.tit.[OttencesagMnstJastice].

xv.] a Lotof Punid_meut. _97

iscertain.Thisaccordinglyisthepunishmentpeculiarlyadaptedto thosecasesinwhichthenameoftheoffender,solongashelives,maybesufficienttokeepawholenationinaflame.Thiswillnowandthenbe thecasewithcompetitorsforthesove-reignty,andleadersofthefactionsincivilwars: though,whenappliedtooffencesof soquestionablea nature,in whichthequestionconcerningcriminalityturnsmoreuponsuccessthananythingelse; an inflictionof thissortmayseemmoretosavourofhostilitythanpu_fishment.At thesametimethispunishment,it isevident,is in aneminentdegreeunfrugal;whichformsoneamongthemanyobjectionsthereareagainsttheuseofit,inanybutveryextraordinarycases1.

XX.InordinarycasesthepurposemaybesufficientlyansweredOtherpum_h-byoneorotherofthevariouskindsofconfinementandbanish-meatsinwhmhit is

meat:ofwhich,imprisonmentisthemoststrictandefficacious,tobofou,_dForwhenanoffenceissocircumstancedthatit cannotbecom-mittedbutinacertainplace,asis thecase,forthemostpart,withoffencesagainsttheperson,allthelawhastodo,inorderto disabletheoffenderfromcommittingit, is topreventhisbeingin thatplace.Inanyoftheoffenceswhichconsistin thebreachortheabuseofanykindof trust,thepurposemaybecompassedata stillcheaperrate,merelyby forfeitureof thetrust:andingeneral,inanyofthoseoffenceswhichcanonlybecommittedunderfavourofsomerelationinwhichtheoffenderstandswithreferencetoanyperson,orsetsofpersons,merelybyforfeitureofthatrelation:thatis,oftherightofcontinuingtoreaptheadvantagesbelongingto it. Thisis thecase,forinstance,withanyofthoseoffenceswhichconsistinanabuseoftheprivilegesofmarriage,orofthe libertyofcarryingonanylucrativeorotheroccupation.

XXI.Theninthpropertyisthatofsubservie_cytoco,nper_a-I'ror_rty9.' Subser-tion.Thispropertyofpunishment,ifitbevindictivecompen-,,i_cyto

• .• COml_IlSa-sationthatisinview,will,withlittlevariation,vempropomontion.tothequantity:iflucrative,itisthepeculiarandcharacteristicpropertyo[pecuniarypunishment.

SeeB.I.tit.[Puni_hmcnts].

I98 Of tkeProtoerties_obe91veJ_to [cm,P.

v,or,e__0. XXII.In therearofallthesepropertiesmayheintroducedPopularity.thatofpopularity; averyfleetingandindetermlnatekindofproperty,whichmaybelongtoalotofpunishmentonemoment,andbelostbyit thenext. Bypopularityismeantthepropertyofbeingacceptable,orrathernotunacceptable,to thebulkofthepeople,amongwhomit isproposedtobeestablished.Instrictnessofspeech,it shouldratherbecalledabsenceofun-popularity:foritcannotbeexpected,inregardtosuchamatteraspunishment,thatanyspeciesorlotofit shouldbepositivelyacceptableandgratefulto thepeople: it issufficient,forthemostpart,iftheyhavenodecidedaversiontothethoughtsofit.Nowthepropertyofcharacteristicalness,abovenoticed,seemstogoasfartowardsconciliatingtheapprobationofthepeopletoamodeofpunishment,asany:insomuchthatpopu*aritymayberegardedasakindofseconda_quality,dependinguponthatofcharacteristicalness1. Theuseofinsertingthispropertyinthecatalogue,ischieflytomakeit servebywayofmementotothelegislatornotto introduce,withoutacogentnecessity,anymodeorlotofpunishment,towardswhichhchappenstoper-ceiveanyviolentaversionentertainedbythebodyofthepeople.

Mi_l,iefsXXIII.Theeffectsofunpopularityinamodeofpunishmentleaultmgrrcmth_ areanalogousto thoseofunfrugality.Theunnecessarypainunpopu-Im_yorswhichdenominatesa punishmentunfrugal,ismostapt tobe

_,te,_na_ whichis producedonthepartoftheoffender.Aper-amongthepeople,andtionofsuperfluouspainisin likemannerproducedwhenthew_gn_ inthelaw. punishmentisunpopular:butinthiscaseitisproducedonthe

partoipersonsaltogetherinnocent,thepeopleatlarge.Thisisalreadyonemischief; andanotheris,theweaknesswhichit isaptto introduceintothelaw. Whenthepeoplearesatisfiedwiththelaw,theyvoluntarilylendtheirassistanceintheexecu-tion: whenthe),aredissatisfied,theywillnaturallywithhold

c_nete_l_. * The property of charaoteristiealness,therefore, is useful in a mode el_m,,a_s punishment m three differentways : I. It renders a modeof puni._hment,• punishment,

m_bV_ : before infliction,more e_y to beborne in mind: 2. It enables it, especially_.(_xemIsry:wp_. after infliction,to m_ke the stronger impression,when it is there ; that is,

renders it the moreexemplary: 3.It tends to render it moreacceptable tothe woplo, that is, it renders it the more popldar.

xv.] a Zog,f l'u_i,Jl_eug. )99

thatassistance; it iswelliftheydonottakeapositivepartinraisingimpedimenta.Thiscontributesgreatly_otheuncer_intyofthepunish_nent;bywhich,mthefirstinstance,thefrequencyoftheotiencereceivesan increase•In processoftimethatdeficiency,asusual,isapttodrawonanincreaseinmagnitude:anadditionof a certainquantitywhichotherwisewouldbe_te_,dless1.

XXIV.Thisproperty,it is tobeobserved,necessarilysup-_,isp_op,r.• • • ty8Uposes,onthepartofthepeople,somepreludmeorother,whmh.p_a.aP_• _ whichtheit isthebusinessofthelegislatortoendeavourtocorrect,yorle_i,laot

oughttoiftheaversiontothepunishmentinquestionweregroundedon¢_u_.theprincipleoiutility,thepunishmentwouldbesuchas,onotheraccounts,oughtnottobeemployed: inwhichcaseitspopularityorunpopularitywouldneverbeworthdrawingintoquestion•It isproperlythereforeapropertynotsomuchofthepunishmentasofthepeople: adispositiontoentertainanun.reasonabledislikeagainstanobjectwhichmeritstheirapproba-tion. It isthesignalsoofanotherproperty,towit,indolenceor weakness,on thepartof the legislator:insufferingthepeople,forthewantofsomeinstruction,whichoughttobeandmightbegiventhem,to quarrelwiththeirowninterest• Bethisasit may,so longas anysuchdissatisfactionsubsists,itbehovesthelegislatortohaveaneyeto it,asmuchasifitwereeversowellgrounded.Everynationis liabletohaveits pre-judicesanditscaprices,whichit isthebusinessofthelegislatortolookoutfor,tostudy,andtocure2.

XXV.Theeleventhandlastofallthepropertiesthatseemrroperyn......... Remitm-tobereqmslte]nalotofpumshment,is thatofremtss_thty3.b,hty.Thegeneralpresumptionis,that whenpunishmentisapplied,punishmentisneedful: thatitoughttobeapplied,andthere-forecannotwantto beremitted.Butinveryparticular,andthosealwaysverydeplorablecases,it maybyaccidenthappenotherwise.It mayhappenthatpunishmentshallhavebeen

J Seech. xiii.[Casesunmeet],§v.' _c ch.xiii. [Caae_unmeet],§iv. par.iv.'SeeViewof theHardLsbourBill,p. zc9.

_oo OfI/_Pro_#ties_obeglve_to [cl_AP.

inflicted,where,accordingto theintentionofthelawitself,itoughtnottohavebeeninflicted: thatis,wherethesu_ererisinnocentoftheoffence.Atthetimeofthesentencepassedheappearedguilty:butsincethen,accidenthasbroughthisinno-cenceto light. Thisbeingthecase,somuchofthedestinedpunishmentashehassufferedakeady,thereisnohelpfor.Thebusinessis thento freehimfromasmuchasisyet tocome.Butis thereanyyettocome? Thereisverylittlechanceoftherebeingany,unlessit besomuchasconsistsofehronicalpunishment:suchasimprisonment,banishment,penallabour,andthe like. Somuchasconsistsofacutepmfishment,towitwherethepenalprocessitselfisoverpresently,howeverper-manentthepunishmentmaybeinitseffects,mayheconsideredasirremissible.Thisis thecase,forexample,withwhipping,branding,mutilation,andcapitalpunishment.Themostlderfeetlyirremissibieofanyiscapitalpunishment.Forthoughotherpunishmentscannot,whentheyareover,beremitted,theymaybecompensatedfor;andalthoughtheunfortunatevictimcannotbeputintothesamecondition,yetpossiblymgansmaybefoundofputtinghimintoasgoodacondition,ashewouldhavebeeninifhehadneversuffered.Thismayingeneralbedoneveryeffec-tuallywherethepunishmenthasbeennootherthanpecuniary.

Thereisanothercaseinwhichthepropertyofremissibilitymayappeartobeofuse: thisis,where,althoughtheoffenderhasbeenjustlypunished,yetonaccountofsomegoodbehaviourofhis,displayedata timesubsequentto thatofthecommence-mentofthepunishment,itmayseemexpedienttoremitapartofit. Butthisitcanscarcelybe,iftheproportionofthepun-ishmentis,inotherrespects,whatitoughttobe. Thepurposeofexampleis themoreimportantobject,incomparisonofthatofreformation1. It isnotverylikely,that lesspunishmentshouldberequiredfortheformerpurposethanforthelatter.Forit mustberatheranextraordinarycase,ifa punishment,whichissufficientto detera manwhohasonlythoughtofitfora fewmoments,shouldnotbesufficienttodcteramanwho

Seech.xtii.[Casesunmeet],ii.noto.

xv.] a Lot of Punish_e_lt. _OI

I_asbeenfeelingitallthetime.Whatever,then,isrequiredforthepurposeofexample,mustabideat allevents: it isnotanyreformationonthepartoftheoffender,that canwarranttheremittingofanypartofit : ifit could,amanwouldhavenothingtodobuttoreformimmediately,andsotreehimselffromthegreatestpartofthatpunishmentwhichwasdeemednecessary.Inorder,then,towarranttheremittingofanypartofa punishmentuponthisground,it mustfirstbesupposedthatthepunishmentat firstappointedwasmorethanwasne-cessaryforthepurposeofexample,andconsequentlythatapartofit wasneedlessuponthewhole.This,indeed,isaptenoughtobethecase,undertheimperfectsystemsthatareasyetonfoot:andtherefore,dulingthccontinuanceofthosesystems,thepropertyofremissibilitymay,onthissecondgroundlikewise,aswellasontheformer,bedeemedausefulone. Butthiswouldnotbetheeaseinanynew-constructedsystem,inwhichtherulesofproportionabovelaiddownshouldbeohserved.Insuchasystem,therefore,theutilityofthispropertywouldrestsolelyontheformerground.

XXVI.UpontakingasurveyofthevariouspossiblemodesofToobtainaUthesepunishment,it willappearevidently,thatthereisnotanyonepro!_rties.

e , pui2lsh-ofthemthatpossessesalltheabovepropertiesinpenectmn,mentsmustTodothebestthatcanbedonein thewayofpunishment,itbe-,_ea.willthereforebenecessary,uponmostoccasions,tocompoundthem,andmakethemintocomplexlots,eachconsistingofanumberofdifferentmodesof punishmentput together: thenatureandproportionsoftheconstituentpartsofeachlotbeingdifferent,accordingto thenatureof theoffencewhichit isdesignedtocombat.

XXVII.It maynotbeamisstobringtogether,andexhibitinThefo_goingoneview,theelevenpropertiesaboveestablished.Theyareasp_over_,c_

mcapttula-follows: _aTwoofthemareconcernedinestablishingaproperpropor-

tionbetweenasingleoffenceanditspunishment; viz.I. Variability.q..Equability.

_o_ Of tke Propertiesto _egivento [ctlsv.

One,inestablishingaproportion,betweenmoreo_eneesthanone,andmorepunishmentsthanone; viz.

3. Commensurabifity.Afourthcontributestoplaeethepunishmentinthatsituation

inwhichaloneitcanbeefficacious;andatthesametimetobebestowingonit thetwofartherpropertiesofexemplarityandpopularity; viz.

4. Characteristicalness.Twoothersareconcernedinexcludingalluselesspunish-

ment; theoneindirectly,byheighteningtheefficacyofwhatisuseful; theotherinadirectway; viz.

5. Exemplarity.6. Frugality.Threeotherscontributeseverallytothethreeinferiorendsof

punishment; viz.7. Subserviencyto reformation.8. Efficacyindisabling.9"Subserviencytocompensation.Anotherpropertytendstoexcludeacollateralmischief,which

a particularmodeofpunishmentishableaccidentallytopro-duce; viz.

Io. Popularity.The remainingpropertytends to palliatea mischief,

whichallpunishment,as such,is liableaccidentallyto pro-duee; viz.

I1. Remissibility.Thepropertiesofcommensurability,charaeteristiealness,ex-

emplarity,subserviencytoreformation,andefficacyindisabling,aremoreparticularlycalculatedtoaugmenttheprofitwhichistobemadebypunishment:frugality,subserviencytocompen-sation,popularity,andremissibility,todiminishtheezloenne:variabilityandequabilityarealikesubservienttoboththosepurposes.

co,._i_ XXVIII.Wenowcometotakeageneralsurveyofthesystemof thiswt_the¢n*uint_ofo._e_w2$: thatis,ofsucha_t8towhich,onaccountofthe¢havter.mischievousconsequencestheyhaveanaturaltendencytopro-

xv.] a Lotof .Puni_kment. 203

duee,andintheviewofputtingastoptotho_consequences,itmaybepropertoannexa certainartificialconsequence,con-sistingofpunishment,tobeinflictedontheauthorsofsuchacts.aeeorclingtotheprincipleslustestablished.

CHAPTERXV1.

DIVISIONOF OFFENCES.

§I. ClassesofOffences.

Distraction1|_isnecessary,attheoutset,tomakeadistinctionbetweenbetweenwhat_e suchactsasareormaybe,andsuchasoughtto beoffences.

Me,hodput. _Thibchal)teris anatAemptto put ourideasofoffencesrotean exactsuedmthefvl- " t rev i _ bu tto_ _. method. Theparticularusesofmehoda ar ou_: t he generalone_,oa_ is,to enablementounders_nd thethingsthat arcthesubjectsofit. To

understanda thing,istobeacquaintedwithitsqualitiesor properties.Oftheseproperties,somearecommontoit withotherthings; therest,pecu-liar. But the qualitieswhichaxepeculiarto anyonesortofthingarefewindeed,incomparisonwiththosewhicharecommontoit withotherthings.To makeit knownin respectofits d_ference,wouhtthereforebe doinghttle,unlessit weremadeknownalsoby itsgenus. Tounderstandit per-fectly,amanmustthereforebeinformedofthe pointsinwlfichit agrees,as wellas ofthosein whichit disagrees,withall otherthings. Whenanumberofobjects,composinga logicalwhole,aretobe consideredtogether,allofthesepossessingwithrespecttooneanothera certaincongruencyoragreementdenotedby a certainname,thereis but oneway ofgivingaperfectknowledgeoftheirnature; andthat is,by distributingthemintoasystemofparcel_,eachofthema part,eitherofsomeotherparcel,or,atanyrate,ofthecommonwhole.Thiscanonlybedoneinthe wayofbipar-titian,dividingeachsuperiorbranchintotwo,andbut two,immediatelysubordinateones; bcgbmingwiththelogicalwhole,dividingthatinto twoparts,theneachof thosepartsinto twoothers; andsoon. Theseilrst-distinguishedpartsagreeinrespectofthosepropertieswhichbelongtothewhole: theydifferinrespectofthosepropertieswhicharepeculiartoeach.To dividethe wholeinto morethantwoparcelsat once,forexampleintothree,wouldnotanswerthepurpose; for,infact,it isbut twoobjectsthatthe mindcancomparetogetherexactlyat thesametime. Thus then,letusendeavourtodealwithoffences; orrather,strictlyspeaking,withactswhichpossesssuchpropertiesasseemtoindicatethemfittobcconstitutedoffences.Thetaskis arduous;and,asyetat least,perhapefor ever,aboveourforce. Thereisnospeakingofobjectsbut by theirnames: but thebusinessofgivingthemnameshasalwaysbeenpriorto thetrueandperfectknowledgeof theirnatures. Objectsthemostdissimilarhavebeenspokenofandtreatedasfftheirpropertieswerethesame.Object_sthemostsimilarhavebeenspokenofandtreatedasiftheyhadscarceanythingineommon.Whateverdiscoveriesmaybemadeconcerningthem,howdifferentsoevertheircongruenciesanddisagreementsmaybefoundto befromthosewhiehare indicatedby theirnames,it isnotwithoutthe utmostdifficultythatanymeanscanbefoundoutofexpressingthosediscoveriesbya conform-

Divie__ Offerces. _o5An3"act maybean offence,whichthey whomthe communityo_sno_e,lctwhatoughtarein thehabitofobeyingshallbepleasedto makeone: thattobais,anyact whichtheyshallbepleasedto prohibitor topunish.But, uponthe principleof utility,suchacts aloneou_Mto bemadeoffences,asthegoodofthecommunityrequiresshouldbemadeso.

II. Thegoodofthecommunitycannotrequire,thatanyact_o_oughttobeaushouldbemadean offence,whichisnot liable,insomewayoro_,oeb_t.whatlsother,tobedetrimentaltothe community. Forinthe caseo5detrimeutal.tothesuchanact,all punishmentisgroundless1. com-_uni_y

III. But if the wholeassemblageof any numberof indivi-Toboso,itdualsbeconsideredasconstitutingan..... ,,u_tbeimaginarycompounacony,detrimental

anyactthat isdemmentaltoormoteohtsa communityor pohticalstate; • . w_omeo,eanyoneormoreofthosemembersis,astosomuchofits effects,ms_-_rg.detrimentalto thestate.

IV. Anact cannotbe detrimentalto a state,but by beingThe_maybe_gn-detrimentalto someone ormoreof the individualsthat com-ableornot.

poseit. But these individualsmayeitherbe assignable2orunassi_nable.

V. Whenthere is any assignableindividualto whomanlt_i_-• • • able.theoffencemdetrimental,that personmayeitherbea personotherofrenderhzr_eli',orthantheoffender,or theoffenderl_imself, other_.

VI. Offencesthat are detrimental,in the first instance,to cl_,,l.assignablepersonsother than the offender,may betermed_ rri,at_onecommonname,offencesagainstiadividuals.Andof thesemaybe composedthe ISt classofoffences.Tocontrastthemablesetofnames.Changetheimportoftheoldnames,andyouaxeinperpetualdangerofbeingmisunderstood: introduceanentirenewsetofn_mos,madyouaresurenottobeunderstoodat all. Complete,success,then,is,asyetatleast,unattainable.Butanattempt,thoughimper/ect,mayhaveitsuse: and,at theworst,itmayacceleratethearrivalofthatperfectsystem,thepossessionofwhichwillbethehappinessofsomema-turerage.Grossignorancedescriesnodifficulties; imperfectknowledgefindsthemout,andstruggleswiththem: itmustbeperfectknowledgethatovercomesthem.

Seeeh._ii.[Casesunmeet],§ii.La Thatis,eitherbyname,orat leastbydescription,insuchmannerasrt_.ons_ss_.

tobesufficientlydistinguishedfromallothers; forinstance,bythecircum-_. ho_.stanceofbeingtheowneroroccupierofsuchandsuchgoods.SeeB.I.tit. [Personation],supra,oh.rdi.[Consequences],xv.

_,o5 .Divi_'o_of O.fe_tee_. [chAP.

withoffencesof the2ndand4th classes,it may alsosometimesbeconvenientto stylethemprivateoffences.Tocontrastthemat the sametimewithoffencesofthe 3rdclass,theymaybestyledprivateextra.regardingoffences.

c_s _. VII. Whenit appears,in general,that there are personstoSemi-publico_eoc_, whomthe actinquestionmaybedetrimental,but suchpersons

cannotbeindividuallyassigned,thecirclewithinwhichitappearsthat theymaybe found,is eitheroflessextentthan that whichcomprisesthe wholecommunity,or not. Ifof less,the personscomprisedwithinthis lessercirclemaybe consideredfor thispurposeascomposingabodyofthemselves; comprisedwithin,but distinguishablefrom,thegreaterbodyof the wholecom-munity. Thecircumstancethat constitutestheunionbetweenthe membersofthis lesserbody,maybeeithertheir residencewithina particularplace, or, in short, any other less explicitprincipleof union,whichmayserveto distinguishthemfromthe remainingmembersof the community. In the firstcase,the actmaybe styledanofencea4ainstaneighbourhood:in thesecond,anoiteneeagainsta particularclassofpersonsin thecommunity, Offences,then,againsta classorneighbourhood,may,together,constitutethe2ndelassoioffences1. Tocontrastthemwithprivateottenceson the onehand,and publicontheother,they mayalsobestyledsemi-publicoffences.

c_ s. VIII. Offences,whichin thefirstinstancearedetrimentaltoSetf-revard-i_oeen_,the offenderhimself,and to nooneelse,unlessit be by their

beingdetrimentaltohimself,mayservetocomposeathirdclass.To contrastthemthe better withoitencesof the first,second,

LL_asbct.ee._Withregardtooffencesagainstaclassorneighbourhood,itisevident,prtva_e._eml-pu__d thatthefewertheindividual_are,o/whichsuchcla_siscomlXmed,sad_hep.b_o._c_,narrowerthatneighbourhoodis,themorelikelyarethepersons,towhom_g_. the offence is detrimental, to become assignable; insomuchthat, in some+_ cases,itmaybedi[iiculttodetermineconcerningagivenof[once,whether

itbeanoffenceagainstindividuals,oragainstaclassorneighbourhood.Itisevidentalso,thatthelargertheclassorneighbourhoodis,themoreitapprcachestoa coincidencewiththegreatbodyofthestate.Thethreeclasses,therefore,areliabletoucertaindegree,torunintooneanother,andbeconfounded.Butthisisnomorethanwhatisthecase,moreorless,withallthoseidealcompartmentsunderwhlehmenarewonttodis-tributeobjectsfortheconvenienceofdiscourse.

xw.] Divisiou Of Offences. _.o7

and fourth classes, all which are of a transitive natuze, theymight be styled intransitive 1 offences; but still better, self-regarding.

IX. The fourth classmay be composedof such acts as ought Clsss_. . PublmtO be made offences,on account of the distant mischief whicho_eaces.theythreaten to bring upon anunassignable indefinitemultitudeof the whole number of individuals, of which the community iscomposed:althoughno particular individualshouldappear morelikely to be a sufferer by them than another. These may becalled public offences,or offences against the state.

X. A filth class, or appendix, may be composed of such act_ clama• Multiformas, accordingto the circumstancesin which they are committed,offences,,iz.1.Ogenc_csand more particularly according +.othe purposes to which they by_lsea_l.... 2.Offeucesare applied, may bedetrimental many one of the waysm which_na_LrUSl_,the act of one man can be detrimental to another. These maybe termed multiform, or hegerogeneousoffences_. Offences that

J Seech.vii. [Actions],xiii.L Offencesbyfalsehood: z. Offencesagainst_rust. Seealsopar.xx. TSetropes:-

to XXX.and par.lxvi. M_atarerviewshavesuggestedthefeasibility,and_:_L_,-themeans,ofriddingthesystemofthis anomalousexcrescence.Insteadot_d_ oet consideringtheseassomanydivisionsofoffences,dividedintogenera,_g¢_t.correspondentandcollateralto theseveralgeneradistinguishedbyotherappellations,they maybeconsideredas somanyspecificdifferences,re-spectivelyapplicabletothosegenera.Thus,inthecaseofasimplepersonalinju_y,intheoperationofwhichaplanoffalsehoodhasbeenemployed: itseemsmoresimpleandmorenatural,toconsidertheoffencethuscommittedassparticularspeciasormodificagivnofthegenusofoffencetermedasimTlcperso_dinjury,thantoconsiderthesimplepersonalinjury,wheneffectedbysuchmeans,asa modificationofthedi_sionofoffencesentitledOffencesthrough.faIzehood._Bythismeansthecircumstancesoftheinterventionoffalsehoodasaninstrument,andoftheexistenceofaparticularobligationofthenatureofa trust,willbereducedto aparwithvariousotherclassesofcircumstancescapableofaffordinggroandsofmodification,commonlyofaffyravogionorextenuation,to variousgeneraof offences: instance,Pre-medi_gion,andcon_iracy,on the onehand; Procva_wnreceived,andinl,ozication,onthe other. Thinclasswillappear,buttooplainly,as akindofbotchin comparisonoftherest. Butsuchisthefate ofscience,andmoreparticularlyofthemoralbranch; thedistributmnofthingsmustin a great measurebe dependentontheirnames: arrangement,theworkofmaturereflection,mustberuledby nomenclature,theworkofpopularcaprice.

Inthebookofthelaws,offencesmus_thereforebetreatedof_ muchaspossibleundertheiraccustomednames. Gcnericalterms,whichareincontinualuse,andwhichexpressideasforwhichtherearenoothertermsin use,cannotsagelybediscarded.Whenanysuchoccur,whichcannot

208 Division_" Offences [cuAp.

areinthiseasemaybereducedtotwogreatheads: I.Offencesbyfahe_ood:and2. Offencesagainsttrust.

§2. Di*_isionsandsub-d_visions.Divisionsof XI. LetusseebywhatmethodtheseclassesmaybefartherClus1.(OO,eucessub-divided.First,then,withregardtooffencesagainstindi-ag_nst_o,: (2)viduals.Property,In thepresentperiodofexistence,aman'sbeingandwell-(3)Reputa-t,o,_;(4) being,hishappinessandhissecurity• ina word,hispleasuresCondition;(5)Person,andhisimmunityfrompains,arealldependent,moreorless,inandpr_-l_rty;(6) thefirstplace,uponhisownperson• in thenextplace,uponPosenandreputation,theexteriorobjectsthatsurroundhim. Theseobjectsareeither

things,orotherpersons.Underoneorotheroftheseclassesmustevidentlybecomprisedeverysortofexteriorobject,bymeansofwhichhisinterestcanbeaffected.If then,bymeansofanyot_enee,a manshouldonanyoccasionbecomeasufferer,itmustbeinoneorotherof twoways: z. absolutely,towit,

be,broughtto quadratewithsucha planofclassificationasappearsto bemostconvenientuponthewhole,whatthenis to bedone? Thereseemsto bebut,one thing; whichis,to retain them,and annexthem to theregularpart ofthesystemintheformof anappendix. Thoughtheycan-not, whenentire,be madetorankunderany oftheclassesestablishedintherest ofthesystem,thedivisionsto whichtheygivetitlemaybebrokendowninto lesserdivisions,whichmay not bealikeintractable. By thismeans,howdiscordantsoeverwiththerest ofthesystemtheymayappeartobeat firstsight,ona closerinspectionthey maybefoundconformable.

J"_ Thismustinevitablybethecasewiththe namesofoffences,whichareofth_s_ sovariousand universalin theirnature,as to becapable,eachofthem.

of doingwhatevermischie[canbedoneby anyotherkind or kindsofoffenceswhatsoever. Offencesof this descriptionmaywellbe calledanomalonfl.

--_h_h:o,ld Suchoffences,it isplain,cannotbutshowthemselvesequallyintractable_ct bc avmdedo_,.y o_ undereverykindofsystem. Uponwhateverprinciplethesystembecon°pl_. structed,theycannot,anyof them,withanydegreeof propriety,becon-

finedto any onedivision. If, therefore,they constituteablemishinthepresentsystem,it issucha blemishascouldnotbeavoidedbut at theex-penseof a greater. The classtheyare heretkrowninto willtraverse,inits subordinateramifications,theotherclassesand diwsionsofthepresentsystem: true,but sowouldtheyof anyother. Anirregularity,andthatbut asuperficialone,isa lessevilthancontinualerrorandcontradiction.But eventhis slightdeviation,whichthe fashionof languageseemedtorenderunavoidableat theoutset,weshallsoonfindoccasiontocorrectasweadvance.ForthoughthefirstgreatparceBintowhichthe offencesofthisclassaredividedarenotreferable,anyof them,to anyofthelormerclasses,yet thesubsequentlessersubdivisionsare.

xvI.] Divisionof Offeuees. uo9

immediatelyinhisownperson; inwhichcasetheoffencemaybesaidtobeanoffenceagainsthisperson:or,2.relatively,byreasonofsomematerialrelation1whichthebeforementionedexteriorobjectsmayhappentobe_r,in thewayof causality(seech.vii.Actions,par.24)tohishappiness.Nowinasfarasamanisinawaytoderiveeitherhappinessorsecurityfromanyobjectwhichbelongstotheclassofthings,suchthingissaidtobehisFroper_y,oratleastheissaidtohaveaproper_yoraninteresttherein: anoffence,therefore,whichtendstolessenthefacilityhemightotherwisehaveofderivinghappinessorsecurityfromanobjectwhichbelongstotheclassofthings,maybestyledanoffenceagainsthisproperty.Withregardtopersons,inasfaras,fromobjectsofthisclass,amanisillawaytoderivehappinessorsecurity,itisinvirtueoftheirservices: invirtueofsomeservices,which,byonesortofinducementoranother,theymaybedisposedtorenderhim2.Now,then,takeanyman.

Seeeh.vii.[Actions],iiLandxxiv.If,byreasonofthewordrdation,thispart ofthedivisionshouldappear,_,,_t_a

obscure,the unknowntermmaybegot rid ofin thefollowingmanner._,_'_Ourideasarederived,allofthem,/_romthesenses;pleasurableandpainfulu_ _ reh-• - ;icm• ma_ones,therefore,amongtherest:consequently,fromtheoperatmnofsensJbb _, to,,.objectsuponoursenses.A m_n'shappiness,then,maybesaidtodependter_bj_u.moreorlessuponthe Tdatwnhebearstoanysensibleobject,whensuchobjectisin a waythatstandsa chanre,greateror less,of producingtohim,oravertingfromhim,painorpleasure. Nowthis,ifat all,i_mustdoinoneorotheroftwoways; LIn an naiveway,properlysocalled;viz.bymotion: or,z.In apazaiveorquiescentway,bybeingmovedto,oractedupon: andineithercase,either,I. inan immedia_way,by actingupon,or beingactedon by,the organsof sense,withouttheinterventiono[anyotherexternalobject: or,2.ina moreorle_sremoteway,by actingupon,or beingactedonby,someotherexternalobject,which(withtheinterventionofa greaterorlessnumberofsuchobjects,andat theendofmoreorleasconsiderableintervalsoftime)willcomeat lengthto_ctupon,orbeacteduponby,thoseorgans.Andthisisequallytrue,whethertheexternalobjectsin questionbethingsorpersons.It is alsoequ_.llytrueofpsi.usandpleasuresof themind,as of thoseofthebody: allthedif-ferenceis,thatintheproductionofthese,thepleasureorl_inmayresultimmediatelyfromtheperceptionwhichit accompanies: intheproductionofthoseofthemind,itcannotresultfromtheactionofanobjectofsense,anyotherwisethanby accent/on; towit,bymeansof someconnectionwhichtheperceptionha_contractedwithcertainprioronea,lodgedalreadyinthememory_.

' Seen_x.[Motives].I See cb. v.I.Pleeumresand l'.al_2, xv. xxz!. Ch. x. LlMotlv_].z_.zl._note.

_to Divi,io,,ofO_e_ees. [CHA_.bywayofexample,andthedisposition,whateverit maybe,whichhemaybeintorenderyouservice,eitherhasnootherconnectionto givebirthorsupportto it,thanthegeneralonewhichbindshimtothewholespecies,orithassomeothercon-nectionmoreparticular.Inthe lattercase,suchaconnectionmaybespokenofasconstituting,inyourfavour,akindofficti-tiousor incorporealobjectofproperty,whichisstyledyourcond/_ion.Anoffence,therefore,the tendencyofwhichis tolessenthefacilityyoumightotherwisehaveofderivinghappi-nessfromtheservicesofapersonthusspeciallyconnectedwithyou,maybestyledanoffenceagainstyourconditioninlife,orsimplyagainstyourcondition.Conditionsinlifemustevidentlybeas variousas therelationsbywhichtheyareconstituted.Thiswillbeseenmoreparticularlyfartheron. In themeantimethoseof husband,wife,parent,child,master,servant,citizenofsuchorsuchacity,natural-hornsubjectofsuchorsuchacountry,mayanswerthepurposeofexamples.

Wherethereisnosuchparticularconnection,or{whatcomesto thesamething)wherethedisposition,whateveritmaybe,whichamanis illto renderyouservice,isnotconsideredasdependinguponsuchconnection,butsimplyuponthegood-willhebearstoyou; insuchcase,inordertoexpresswhatchanceyouhaveofderivingabenefitfromhisservices,akindofficti-tiousobjectofpropertyisspokenof,asbeingconstitutedinyourfavour,andiscalledyourre_ta_ion.Anoffence,therefore,thetendencyofwhichisto lessenthefacilityyoumightotherwisehavehadofderivinghappinessorsecurityfromtheserviceso(personsat large,whetherconnectedwithyouor notbyanyspecialtie,maybestyledanoffenceagainstyourreFu_ion.Itappears,therefore,thati[byanyoitenceanindividualbecomesa sufferer,it mustbeinoneorotherofthefourpointsabovementioned;viz.hisperson,hisproperty,hisconditioninlife,orhisreputation.Thesesourcesofdistinction,then,mayservetoformsomanysubordinatedivisions.Ifanyoffencesshouldbefoundtoaffectapersoninmorethanoneofthesepointsatthesametime,suchoffencesmayrespectivelybeputundersomany

q

xvr] Divido,_of02reputes. _I1separatedivisions; andsuchcompounddivisionsmaybesub-joinedtothe precedingsimpleonesTheseveraldivisions(simpleandcompoundtogether)whicharchereinafterestablished,standas follows: I. Offencesagainstperson. 2. Offencesagainstreputation. 3.Offencesagainstproperty. 4. Offencesagainstcondition. 5. Offencesagainstpersonand propertytogether.6.Offencesagainstpersonand reputationtogether1.

XII. Nextwithregardto semi-publicoffences.Pain,con-viv;,io_of• CJa_2.

siderealwithreferenceto the timeof the act fromwhichit ]s,.O_cnc_. through

liableto issue,must,it isevident,be eitherpresent,past, o'm,m_ty.future. In asfar asit iseitherpresentor past,it cannotbetheresultofanyact whichcomesunderthe descriptionofa semi-publicoffence: forifit bepresentor past,the individualswhoexperience,or whohaveexperienced,it arc assignablee. Thereremainsthat sortofmischief,which,if it evercometo existatall,isasyetbut future: mischief,thuscircumstaneed,takesthenameofdangerz. Now,then,whenbymeansofthe actofanypersona wholeneighbourhood,or other classofpersons,areexposedtodanger,thisdangermusteitherbeintentionalonhispart, orunintentional_. If unintentional,suchdanger,whenitisconvertedintoactualmischief,takesthenameofacalamity:offences,productiveof suchdanger,may bestyledsemi.publicoffencesopera_ingthroughcalamity; or, morebriefly,offencesthroughcalamity. If the dangerbeintentional,insomuchthatit mightbeproduced,and mightconvertitselfintoactualmis-chief,withouttheconcurrenceofanycalamity,itmaybesaidtooriginatein mereddinquency: offences,then, which,withoutthe concurrenceofany calamity,tendto producesuchdanger

t Subsequentconsiderationhasheresuggestedseveralalterations.Thenecessityofaddingtoproperty,power,inthechax&cterofadistinguishableaswellssvshmbleobjectorsubject-matterofpossession,haspresenteditselftoview:andinregardtothefictitiousentityheretermedcondition(forshortnessinsteadofsayingconditioniulife),ithasbeenobservedtobe_sortofcornpoait_object,compoundedofproperty,repu/_6)n,l_ower,trodr/g_toserv/e_s.Forthiscompositeobjectthemoreproperplacewasthereforeatthetailoftheseveralsimpleones.--hrotebytheEditor,Jldy,z822:

t Supra,iv.note. ' Seeoh.xii.[Consequences].4Seech.viii.[IntentionMity].

r,z

%

2I_ Divisionof Offences. [CHAP.

asdisturbsthesecurityofalocal,orothersubordinat_elassofpersons,maybestyledsemi-?ublicoffencesopera_i_merelybydelinquency,ormorebriefly,offencesofmeredelinquency.

Sub- XIII. Withregardto anyfarthersub-divisions,offencesdivisionsofo_c_ throughcalamitywilldependuponthenatureoftheseveralthrough_ity, calamitiestowhichman,andtheseveralthingsthatareofused_smi_red.to him,standexposed.Thesewillbeconsideredinanother

place1.• o_sn_ XIV.Semi-publicoffencesof meredelinquencywillfollowof meredehnquency,themethodofdivisionaopfiedtooffencesagainstindividuals.howthey --_rr_pondItwilleasilybeconceived,thatwhatevervainorinconveniencewiththe " *• ,_onBoranygivenindividualmaybemadetosuffer,tothedangerofo_enc_ thatpainorinconveniencemayanynumberofindividuals,as-

signableor notassignable,beexposed.Nowtherearefourpointsorarticles,aswehaveseen,inrespecttowhichanindi- "xddualmaybemadetosufferpainorinconvenience.If then,withrespecttoanyoneofthem,theconnectionofcausesandeffectsissuch,that tothedangerofsufferingin thatarticleanumberofpersons,whoindividuallyarenotassignable,may,bythedelinquencyofoneperson,beexposed,sucharticlewillformagroundofdistinctiononwhichaparticularsub-divisionofsemi-publicoffencesmaybeestablished: if,withrespecttoanysucharticle,nosucheffectcantakeplace,thatgroundofdistinctionwilllieforthepresentunoccupied:ready,however,uponanychangeofcircumstances,orinthemannerofviewingthesubject,to receiveacorrespondentsubdivisionofoffences,ifeverit shouldseemnecessarythatanysuchoffencesshouldbecreated.

Divisiol_of XV.Wecomenexttoself-regardingoffences; or,morepro-Class3_iucideverly,toactsvroductiveinthefirstinstanceofnootherthanwiththoseef* . " . . ocJ__ aself-regardingm]schieI: actswhich,ifinanyinstanceit be

1 SeeB.I. tit. [Semi-publicoitences].Inthcmetntimethatofpe._t/-fencemayserveasan example. A man,'withoutany intentionofgivingbirthto suchacalamity,mayexposea neighbourhoodtothe dangerofit,by breakingquarantineorviolatinganyofthoseotherpreventiveregula-tionswhichgovernments,atcertainconjunctures,mayfindit CXl_h_t tohaverecourseto, forthe purposeofguardingsgai_t suchdanger.

XVI.] _z_)is/o_Of ._lC_. _I_

thoughtfittoconstitutethemoffences,willcomeunderthedenominationofoffences_gainstone'sself. Thisclasswillnotforthepresentgiveusmuchtrouble.Forit isevident,thatinwhateverpointsamanisvulnerablebythehandofanother,inthesamepointsmayhebeconceivedtobevulnerablebyhisown.Whateverdivisionsthereforewillserveforthefirstclass,thesamewillserveforthis.Astothequestions,Whatactsareproductiveofamischiefofthisstamp?and,amongsuchasare,whichit may,andwhichit maynot,beworthwhileI to trea_uponthefootingofoffences? thesearepoints,the latterofwhichat leastistoounsettled,andtooopentocontroversy,tobelaiddownwiththatdegreeofconfidencewhichisimpliedintheexhibitionofpropertieswhicharemadeuseofastheground-workofanarrangement.Proi)ertiesforthispurposeoughttobesuchasshowthemselvesatfirstglance,andappeartobelongto thesubjectbeyonddispute.

XVI.Publicoffencesmaybedistributedunderelevendivi-Divisions*orsiena2. I. Offencesagainstexternalsecurity,z. Ottene_CL__.againstjustice.3.Offencesagainstthepreventivebranchofthe

'Seech._dii.[Casesunmeet],§iv.In thispartof theanalysis,I havefoundit necessaryto deviatein_,_f_

m¢_hoddesomedegreefromtherigidrulesoftheexhaustivemethodI setout with.me _ro". . p m.Byme,orby someone else,this methodm_y,perhaps,bemorestrictlypursuedat somem_turerperiodot thescience. At present,the benefitthatmightresultfromtheunrelaxedobservanceofit,seemedsoprecaxious,that I couldnot helpdoubtingwhetherit wouldpay_orthe delayandtrouble.Doubtlesssuchsmethodisemmentlyinstruct_ve:butthefatigueof followingit outissogreat,not onlytotheauthor,butprobablyalsotothereader,that ffcarriedtoiteutmostlengthatthefirstattempt,it mightperhapsdomoredisserviceinthe wayofdisgust,thanservicein thewayofinformation.Forknowledge,likephysic,howsMutarysoeverinitself,becomesnolongerofanyuse,whenmadetoounpalatabletobeswallowed.Meantime,it cannotbutbea mortifyingcircumstancetoa writer,whoissensibleof thei_aport_nceof his subject,andanxioust_)doit justice,tofindhimselfobligedto exhibitwhatheperceivesto befaulty,withanyview,howindistinctsoever,ofsomethingmorePerfectbeforehiseyes. Iftherebeany thingnewmadoriginalin thiswork,it is to theexhaustivemethodsooftenaimedatthat Iam indebtedforit. It will,therelore,benogreatwonderif I shouldnotbeabletoquit it withoutreluctance.Ontheotherhand,themarksofstillnesswhichwilldoubtlessbeperceivedina multitudeof places,arechieflyowingtoa solicitous,andnotperfectlysuccessfuL,pursuitof this samemethod. Newinstrument_sa_seldomhandledatfirstwithperfectease.

214 1)i_,io_of Off_e_. [e.^P.pohce.4.Offencesagainstthepublicforce.5.Offencesagaiustthe_ositiveincreaseofthenationalfdici_y.6.Offencesagainstthepublicwealth.7. Offencesagainst_opulation.8. Offencesagainstthenationalwealth.9. Offencesagainstthesovere_g._ty.Io.Offencesagainstreligion.II.Offencesagainstthenationaliraere_tingeneral.Thewayin whichtheseseveralsortsofoffencesconnectwithoneanother,andwiththeinterestofthepublic,thatis,ofanunassignablemultitudeoftheindividualsofwhichthat bodyiscomposed,maybethusconceived.

Conne_tio=XVII.Mischiefbywhichtheinterestofthepublicasabovethemnonr_t definedmaybeaffected,must,ifproducedat all,beproduceddivisionsone .w_th eitherbymeansofan influenceexertcdontheoperationsofanother.

government,orbyothermeans,withouttheexertionofsuchin-fluence1. Tobeginwiththelattercase:mischief,beitwhatitwill,andletithappentowhomitwill,mustbeproducedeitherbytheunassistedpowrrsoftheagentinquestion,or bytheinstrumentalityofsomeotheragents.In thelattercase,theseagentswillbeeitherpersonsorthings. Personsagainmustbeeithernotmembersofthecommunityinquestion,ormembers.Mischiefproducedbygheinstrumentalityofpersons,mayaccord-inglybeproducedbytheinstrumentafityeitherofezlernalorofinternaladversaries.Nowwhenitisproducedbytheagent'sownunassistedpowers,or by theinstrumentalityofinternaladversaries,oronlybytheinstrumentalityofthings,itisseldomthat it canshowitselfin anyothershape(settingasideanyinfluenceit mayexertontheoperationsofgovernment)thaneitherthatofanoffenceagainstassignableindividuals,orthatofanoffenceagainstalocalorothersubordinateclassofpersons.If thereshouldbeawayinwhichmischiefcanbeproduced,byanyofthesemeans,to individualsaltogetherunassignable,itwillscarcelybe foundconspicuousor importantenoughto

t Theideaofgovernment,it maybeobserved,isintroducedherewithoutanypreparation.Thefactofits beingestablished,I assumeasnotorious,andthenecessityofit asahkeobwousandincontestable.Observationsindicatingthat necessity,ifanysuchshouldbethoughtworthlookingatinthi_view,maybetoundbyturningto apassagein a formerchapter,whoretheywere.ineidentaUyaddueedforthepurposeofillustration.Seech.xii.[Consequences],§xvii.

xvl.] Dirisio_e of Offe_o¢$. _I5

occupyatitlebyitself; itmayaccordinglybereferredto themiscellaneousheadof offenvesagainstthenationalinterestingeneral1. Theonlymischief,ofanyconsiderableaccount,whichcanbemadetoimpendindiscriminatelyoverthewholenumberofmembersinthecommunity,isthatcomplexkindofmischiefwhichresultsfromastateofwar,andisproducedbytheinstru-mentalityofexternaladversaries; bytheirbeingprovoked,forinstance,orinvited,orencouragedto invasion.Inthiswaymayamanverywellbringdownamischief,andthataveryheavyone,uponthewholecommunityin general,andthatwithouttakinga partin anyof theinjurieswhichcameinconsequencetobeofferedtoparticularindividuals.

Nextwithregardtothemischiefwhichanoffencemaybringuponthepublicbyitsinfluenceontheoperationsofthegovern-ment. Thisit mayoccasioneither,I. In a moreimmediateway,byitsinfluenceonthoseoperationsthemselves: 2. Inamoreremoteway,byitsinfluenceontheinstrumentsbyorbythehe]pofwhichthoseoperationsshouldbeperformed: or3.Inamoreremotewaystill,byitsinfluenceonthesourcesfromwhencesuchinstrumentsaretobederived.Firstthen,astotheoperationsofgovernment,thetendencyofthese,inasfarasit isconformabletowhatontheprincipleofutilityitoughttobe,isineverycaseeithertoavertmischieffromthecommunity,orto makean additionto thesumofpositivegood2. Now

Seeinfra,lie.note. Eventhis head,ampleas it is,and vagueas itmayseemtobe,willnot,whenexaminedbytheprincipleofutility,serve,anymorethananother,to secreteany offencewhichhasno title to beplacedthere. Toshowthepainorlossofpleasurewhichislikel:ytoensue,isa problem,whichbefore8,legiBlatorcanjustifyhimselfin_ddmgtheact_othecatalogueofoffences,hemayinthiscase,_ ia everyother,becalleduponto solve.

' Forexamples,seeinIra,he. note. This branchof the businessofgovernment,a sortofworkofsupererog_tion,as itmaybecalled,in thecalendarof politicalduty,iscomparativelybutofrecentdate. It isnot,forthistliattheuntutoredm_uycouldhaveoriginallysubmittedthemselvesto thedominionof thefew. It wasthedreadofevil,notthe hopeofgood,that firstcementedsocietiestogether.Necessariescomealwaysbeforeluxuries.Thestateoflanguagemarkstheprogressofideas.Timeoutofmindthemilitarydepartmenthashada name:sohasthatofjustice:thepowerwhichoccupmsitselfin preventingmischief,nottilllately,andthatbuta looseone,thepohce:for thepowerwhichtakesforit8objectthe

_I6 .Divleio_of_.e_wes. [cllAv.mischief,wehaveseen,mustcomeeitherfromexternaladver-saries,frominternaladversaries,orfromcalamities.Withregardto mischieffromexternaladversaries,thererequiresnofilrtherdivision. Asto mischie_frominternaladversaries,the cxpe-dientsemployedforavertingitmaybedistingu/shedintosuchmaybeapphedbeforethe discoveryofanymischievousdesigninparticular,andsuchascannotbeemployedbutinconsequenceof thediscoveryofsomesuchdesign: theformerof thesearecommonlyreferredtoa branchwhichmaybestyledthe1_reve_.tirebranchofthepolice:thelattertothatofjusticeI. Secondly,Asto theinstrumentswhichgovernment,whetherin theavert-ingo[ evil or in theproducingof positivegood,canhave toworkwith,thesemustbeeitherIJersonsorthings.Thosewhicharedestinedtotheparticularfunctionof guardingagahastmis-chieffromadversariesin general,but moreparticularlyfromexternaladversariesz maybedistinguishedfromtherestunderintroductionofpositivegood,nopecnliar_me,howeverinadequate,seemsyettohavebeendevisod.

Thefunctionsofjustice,andthoseofthepolice,mustbeaptinmanypointstorunoneintoanother..especiallyasthebusinesswouldbeverybadlym_rmgedifthesamepersons,whesemorepartieuhrdutyitistoactasofficersofthepolite,werenotuponoccasiontoactinthecapacityofofficersofjustice.Theideas,however,olthetwofunctionsmaystillbe

t distinct: andIseenotwherethelineofeep_ationcanbedra_ra,s itbeasabove.Astotheword_iee, thoughofGrookextraction,is_eernatobeot

Frenchgrowth:it isfromFrance,atleast,thatithasbeenimportedintoGreatBritain,whereitstillretainsitsforeigngarb: inGermany,ifitdidnotoriginatethere,ithasat,leastbeennaturalized.Takenalltogether,theideabelongingtoit seemstobetoomultifa,-aoustobesusceptibleofanysingledelinitiomWantofwordsobligedmetoredueethetwobranchesherospecifiedintoone.Whowouldhaveenduedinthisplacetolmveseentwosuchwords_ thephthano-lJaranomicorcrime-_eventing,andthephthano-symphoricor¢,alamity-Fe_nlin_,branehesofthepolice? theineon-veniencesofunitingthetwobranchesunderthesamedenomination,are,however,theless,inasmuchastheoperationsrequ_itetobeperformedtorthetwopurposeswillinmanye_esbethesame.Otherfunctions,com-monlyreferredtotheheadofpolice,mayberefutedeithertotheheadofthatpowerwhiehoccupiesitselfinpromotingmapositivewaytheinereaseofthenatio_lfelicity,orofthatwhichempIoy_itselfmthemanagementofthepublicwealth.Seeiafra,lie.note.

It isfromabroadthattho_epernieio_enterprisesaremostapttooriginate,whichcomebackedwithagre_terquantityofphysicalforcethanthepersonswhoateina moreparticularsensetheofficersofjust,icearewonttohavesttheircommand.Mi_ki_ftheperpetrationofwhichisemsuxedbyaforceofsuchmagnitude,amythereforebelookeduponin

XVL] DivisiO_of Offences. _I7

thecollectiveappellationofthepublicmilitaryforce,and,foreon-ciseness'sake,themilitaryforce.Therestmaybecharacterisedby thecollectiveappellationofthepublicwealth.Thirdly,withregardto thesourcesorfundsfromwhencetheseinstruments,howsoeverapplied,mustbederived,suchofthemascomeunderthe denominationof 1_ersonsmustbe taken out of the wholenumberofpersonsthatareinthecommunity,thatis,outofthetotal lxypulationof thestate : so that the greaterthe popula-tion,thegreatermayeceterispan,usbethisbranchofthepublicweslth; andthe less,the less. In likemanner,suchas comeunderthedenominationof thingsmaybe, andmostof themcommonlyare,takenoutofthes_,mtotalofthosethingswhichare tl_eseparatepropertiesoftheseveralmembersofthe com-muazity:thesumofwhichpropertiesmaybetermedthena2ionalwealthl:sothatthegreaterthenationalwealth,thegreatereceterisparibusmayberanisremainingbranchofthepublicwealth; andtheless,theless. It is hereto beobserved,that if theinfluenceexertedonanyoeeasionbyanyindividualovertheoperationsofthegovernmentbepernicious,it mustbeinoneor otheroftwoways: r. Bycausing,ortendingto cause,operationsnot tobeperformedwhichoughtto be performed; in otherwords,byimpedingthe operationsof government. Or, 2. By causingoperationsto beperformedwhichoughtnot to be performed;in other words,by misdirectingthem. Lastly, to the total

generalastheworkofezterna/adversaries.P.eeordingly,whenthepersonsbywhomitisperpetratedareinsuchforceastobiddefiancetotheordi-nsryettortsofjustice,theyloosenthemselvesfromtheiroriginaldenomina-tioninproportionastheyincrea_inforce,tillatlengththeyarelookeduponasbeingnolongermembersofthestate,butasstandingaltogetheruponafootingwithexternaladversaries.Giveforceenoughtorobbery,anditswellsintorebelhon: givepermanenceenoughtorebellion,andi_settlesintohostility.

It mustbeconfessed,thatincommonspeechthedistincLienhereestablishedbetweenthepublicwealthandthenationalwealthis butindi_terentlysettled: noristhistobewouderedst; theideasthemselves,thoughherenecessarytobedistinguished,beingsofrequentlyconvertible.ButI ammistakenifthelanguagewillfLu'dishanyothertwowordsthatwouldexpressthedi_tmetionbetter.Thoseinquestionwill,I imagine,beallowedtobethusfarwellchosen,thatif theyweremadetochang_theirplaces,theimportgiventothemwouldnotappeartobequitesoproperasthatwhichisgivento_hemastheystandatpresent.

assemblageofthepersonsbywhomtheseveralpoliilealoperationsabovementionedcometo beperformed,wesetoutwithapply-ingthe collectiveappellationofthegovernment.Amongthesepersonstherecommonly1issomeoneperson,orbodyofpersonswhoseofficeit istoassignanddistributetotheresttheirseveraldepartments,todeterminetheconducttobepursuedbyeachintheperformanceoftheparticularsetofoperationsthatbelongstohim,andevenuponoccasionto exercisehisfunctioninhisstead. Wherethereisanysuchperson,orbodyofpersons,heor/t ,nay,accordingastheturnofthephraserequires,betermedthesoverciT_,or thesovereignty.Nowit isevident,that toim-pedeor misdirecttheoperationsof the sovereign,asherede-scribed,maybe to impedeor misdirectthe operationsoftheseveraldepartmentsofgovernmentasdescribedabove.

Fromthisanalysis,by whichtheconnectionbetweentheseveralabove-mentionedheadsofoffencesisexhibited,wemaynowcollecta definitionforeacharticle. By offencesagainstexternalsecurity,wemayunderstandsuchoffenceswhereofthetendencyisto bringuponthe publicamischiefresultingfromthe hostilitiesofforeignadversaries.Byo.tfencesa_ainstjustice,suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyistoimpedeormisdirecttheoperationsof thatpowerwhichisemployedin thebusinessofguardingthe publicagainstthemischiefsresultingfromthede-linquencyof internaladversaries,asfaras it is to bedonebyexpedients,whichdonotcometobeappliedinanycasetillafterthediscoveryofsomeparticulardesignofthesortofthosewhichtheyarecalculatedtoprevent.Byoffences_ainstthel_eventivebranchofthe police,suchoffenceswhereofthe tendencyi_toimpedeor misdirecttheoperationsofthat powerwhichisem-ployedin guardingagainstmisehiefsresultingfromthedelin-quencyofinternaladversaries,byexpedientsthat cometo beappliedbeforehand; or ofthat whichis employedinguarding

t I shouldh_vebeenafraidtohavesaidnecessargy.In theUnitedProvinces,intheHelvetie,orevenintheGermanicbody,whereisthatoneassemblyinwhichanabsolutepoweroverthewholeresides? wherewasthereintheRomanCommonwealthi' I wouldnotundertakeforcertaintofindananswertoallthesequestions.

xvn] Dividou of Offe_lee,. 219

againstthemischiefsthatmightbeoccasionedbyphysicalcala-mities.Byoffeacesagainstthepublicforce,suchoffenceswhereofthe tendencyis to impedeormisdirectthe operationsof thatpowerwhichisdestinedto guardthe publicfromthe mischicfswhichmayresultfromthehostilityofforeignadversaries,and,incaseofnecessity,inthecapacityofministersofjustice,frommischiefsof the numberof thosewhichresultfromthe delin-quencyofinternaladver_ries.

By offemesc_air_ttheincreaseof t_ nationalfel_ity, suchoffenceswhereofthe tendencyistoimpedeormisapplytheope-rationsofthosepowersthatareemployedin theconductingofvariousestablishments,whicharecalculatedtomake,insomanydifferentways,a positiveadditionto thestockofpublichappi-ness.Byoffencesagainsttl,e publicwealth,suchoffenceswhereofthe tendencyistodiminishtheamountormisdirecttheapplica-tionofthemoney,andotherarticlesofwealth,whichthegovern-mentreservesasa fund,outof whichthestockof instrumentsemployedintheserviceabovementionedmaybekeptup. Byoffencesagainstpopulation,suchoffenceswhereofthe tendencyis to diminishthenumbersor impairthepoliticalvalueofthesumtotalofthemembersofthecommunity.Byoffe_ca_againstt)_enationalwealth,suchoffenceswhereofthetendencyis todiminish the quantity, or impairthe value,of the thingswhichcomposethe separatepropertiesorestatesoftheseveralmembersof the community.

XVIII. In thisdeduction,it maybeasked,whatplaceisleftcon_ection- ofoffen_-..aforreligion? Thisweshallseepresently.Forcombatingtheagainst

• • rehgionwithvariouskindsofoffencesaboveenumerated,thatis,forcombatingthe_ore-all theoffences(thosenotexceptedwhichwearenowaboutcon-_oinson_.sidering)whichit isin man'snatureto commit,the statehastwogreatengines,punishmentand reward: punishment,tobeappliedto all,anduponallordinaryoccasions: reward,tobeappliedtoafew,forparticularpurposes,anduponextraordinaryoccasions.But whetherornoa manhas donetheact whichrendershimanobjectmeetforpunishmentorreward,theeyesofthose,whosoevertheybe,towhomthemanagementofthese

_o l_ivi_io#ofOfe_es. [CHAP.enginesis entrustedcannotalwayssee,nor, whereit is punish-mentthatisto beadministered,cantheirhandsbealwayssureto reachhim. Tosupplythesedeficienciesin pointof power,itisthoughtnecessary,orat leastuseful(withoutwhichthetruthof the doctrinewouldbe nothingto thepurpose),to inculcateintothemindsofthe peoplethebeliefofthee_stenceofapowerapplicableto the samepurposes,and not liableto the samedeficiencies:the poweroi a supremeinvisiblebeing,towhomadispositionofcontributingtothesameendstowhichthe severalinstitutionsalreadymentionedarecalculatedtocontribute,mustforthispurposebe ascribed. It isof courseexpectedthat thispowerwill,at onetimeor other,beemployedinthe promotingof thoseends: andto keepupandstrengthenthis expectationamongmen,isspokenofas beingthe employmentofakindofallegoricalpersonage,feigned,asbefore1,forconvenienceofdis-course,andstyledrdigion. Todiminish,then,or misapplytheinfluenceof religion,is _o tantoto diminishor misapplywhatpowerthe statehasofcombatingwitheffectanyof the before-enumeratedkindsofoffences;that is,allkindsofoffenceswhat-soever. Actsthat appeartohavethistendencymaybestyledofer__rza_ain,_treligion. Ofthesethen maybe composedthetenthdivisionof the classofoffencesagainstthestatez.

1Seepar.xvi/.withregs_dtoj_t/ce,2It maybeobserved,thatuponthisoccasionI considerreligioninno

otherlight,thaninrespectoftheinfluenceitm_yhaveoathehappinessoftheprese_fife. .Astotheeffectsit mayhaveinassuringusofandpreparingusfora betterlifetocome,thisisamatterwhichcome9not_ithinthecognizanceofthelegislator.Seetit.[Offencesagainstreligion].

I sayoflencesagainstrelif/ion,thefictitiousentity:notoffencesagainstGod,therealbeing. For,whatsortofpainshouldtheactofa feeblemortaloccasiontoabeingunsusceptibleofl_in? Howshouldanoffenceaffecthim?Shouldit beanoffenceagainsthisperson,hisproperty,hisreputation,orhiscondition?

It hascommonlybeenthewaytoputoffencesagainstreligionforemost.Theideaofprecedenceisnaturallyenoughconnectedwiththatofreverence.'E_A,5__pX&_,eaOo.Butforexpressingreverence,thereareothermethodsenoughthatarelessequivocal.Andinpointofmethodandperspicuity,itisevident,thatwithregardtooffencesagainstreligion,neitherthenatureofthemischiefwhichitistheirtendencytoproduce,northereasontheremaybeforpunishingthem,canbeunderstood,butfromtheconsiderationoftheseveralmisehiefswhichresultItemtheseveralothersortsofoffences.

XVI,] Diviaionof Offence,. 221

XIX.If therebeanyactswhichappearliabletoaffecttheco_n_tio.• ofoffencesstateinanyoneormoreoftheaboveways,byoperatingma_t the• , uatioua]prejudiceoftheexternalsecurityofthestate,orofitsinternal_n_t in• generalwithsecurity; ofthepublicforce; oftheincreaseofthenationaltheft.felicity;ofthepublicwealth;ofthenationalpopulation;ofthenationalwealth;ofthesovereignty;orofreligion;atthesametimethatit isnotclearinwhichofallthesewaystheywillaffectitmost,norbutthat,accordingtocontingencies,theymayaffectit inoneofthesewaysonlyorinanother; suchactsmaybecollectedtogetherundera miscellaneousdivisionbythem-selves,andstyledoffencesagainsttilenationalinterestingeneral.OfthesethenmaybecomposedtheeleventhandlastdivisionoItheclassofoffencesagainstthestate.

XX.Wecomenowtoclassthefifth: consistingofmultiformSub-"h dtvisiousofoffences.These,ashasbeenalreadyintimated,areel_erc]as_5vv _ ._ enumerated.

offencesbyfalselwod,oroffencesconcerningtrust, unaer_neD,viBio_headofoffencesbyfalsehood,maybecomprehended,_" , ore#en_I._lmp_ebytal_h_

falsehoods.2. Forgery.3. Personation.4. Perjury1. Letusobserveinwhatparticularsthesefourkindsoffalsehoodagree,andinwhattheydiffer.

XXI.Offencesbyfalsehood,howeverdiversifiedinotherpar-O_e_by..... f_lsehood,intmulars,havethismcommon,thattheyconzlstmsomeabuseof_t th._agr_withthefacultyofdiscourse,orrather,asweshallseehereafter,ofone*,other.

Ina politicalview,it is onlybecausethoseothersaremischievous,thatoffencesagainstreligionaresotoo.

Thisdivisionoffalaehoods,it istobeobserved,isnotregularlydrawnout: thatbeingwhatthenatureofthec_sewillnothere_dmiteL False-hoodmaybeinfinitelydiversifiedinotherwaysthanthese.Ina particularcase,forinstanoe,simplefalsehoodwhenutteredbywriting,isdistinguishedfromthesamefalsehoodwhenutteredbywordofmouth; andhashadaparticularname_vento it accordingly.I mean,whereit strikesagainstreputation; inwhichcase,theinstrumentithasbeenutteredby hasbeencalledal/be/.Nowit isobvious,that inthe samemannerit mighth_vereceiveda disfinotnameinallothercaseswhereit isutteredbywriting.Buttherehasnothappenedto beanythinginp_'ticularthathasdisposedmankindinthosecasesto giveit suchaname•Thecaseis,th&tamongtheinfinityofcircumstancesbywhiehitmighthavebeendiversified,thosewhichconstituteit a libel,l_ppento haveengageda peculiarshareofattentiononthepartoftheinstitutorsoflangttsge;eitherinvirtueoftheinfluencewlflchthe_eeircumstacvesl_ve onthetendencyoftheact,orinvirtueofanyparticulardegreeofforcewithwhichonanyother_eotmttheymayb_vcdispceedit to strikeupontheimagination.

_2z .Diviaio_of Offences. [ciIAr.

thefacultyofinfluencingthesentimentofbeliefinothermen1,whetherbydiscourseorotlierwise.Theuseofdiscourseis toinfluencebelief,andthatinsuchmannerastogiveothermentounderstandthatthingsareastheyarereally.Falsehoods,ofwhateverkindtheybe,agreein this: thattheygivementounderstandthatthingsareotherwisethanasinrealitytheyare.

- in_h_t XXII.Personation,forgery,andperjury,areeachofthemthey&Per. _ ,distinguishedfromothermodesofutteringfalsehoodbycertainspecialcircumstances.Whena falsehoodisnotaccompaniedbyanyofthosecircumstances,itmaybestyledsimplefalsehood.Thesecircumstancesare,I. Theforminwhichthefalsehoodisuttered.2.Thecircumstanceofitsrelatingornottotheiden-tityofthepersonofhimwhouttersit. 3.Thesolemnityoftheoccasiononwhichit is uttered_. Theparticularapplicationof thesedistinctivecharactersmaymorecommodiouslybereservedforanotherplacez.

Sub- XXIII.Wecomenowto thesub-dlvisionsof offencesbydivisionsofo_euce,byfalsehood.Thesewillbringusbackintotheregulartrackoffalsehoodaredeter-analysis,pursued,'withoutdeviation,throughthefourprecedingminedbythedivislon_classes.ofthe!nrveeelinzBywhatevermeansa mischiefis broughtabout,whethere_j. falsehoodbeorbenotofthenumber,theindividualsliableto

beatteetedbyitmusteitherbeassignableorunassignable.Ifassignable,therearebutfourmaterialarticlesinrespecttowhiehtheycanbea_eeted:towit,theirpersons,theirproperties,theirreputations,andtheirconditionsinlife. Thecaseis thesame,if,thoughunassignable,theyarecomprisableinanyclasssubor-dinatetothatwhichiscomposedofthewholenumberofmem-bersofthestate. If thefalsehoodtendtothedetrimentofthewholestate,it canonlybebyoperatinginoneorotherof,the

i SeeB.I. tit. [FalsehoodsI.Thereare twoothercircumstancesstillmorematerial; viz.I. The

partieswhoseinterestisaffectedby thefaLqehood: 2.Thepointorbrticlein whichthat interestis affected. Thesecircumstances,however,enternotinto the compositionof the generic_lcharacter. Thoiruseis,as w_shall_oe,tocharacterizethe severalspecieso| eachgenus. SeeB.I.tit.[Falsehoods].

I Ibid.

xvI.] Divisionof Offences. _;_3

characters,whicheveryactthatisanoffenceagainstthestatemustassume; viz.thatofanoffenceagainstexternal_eeurity,againstjustice,againstthepreventivebranchofthepolice,againstthepublicforce,againsttheincreaseofthenationalfelicity,againstthepublicwealth,againstthenationalpopula-tion,againstthenationalwealth,againstthesovereigntyofthestate,or againstitsreligion.

XXIV.It isthecommonproperty,then,oftheoffencesthatoeen_or• thiselks inbelongto thisdivision,to runoverthesamegroundthatis_mem-stll/lt',eBoccupiedbythoseoftheprecedingclasses.Butsomeofthem,changetheir

name_; inasweshallsee,areapt,onvariousoccasions,todroporchangeotharsnot.thenameswhichbringthemunderthisdivision: thisischieflythecasewithregardtosimplefalsehoods.Othersretaintheirnamesunchanged;andeventherebysupersedethenameswhichwouldotherwisebelongtotheoffenceswhichtheydenominate:thisischieflytheeasewithregardtopersonation,forgery,andperjury.Whenthiscircumstancethen,thecircumstanceoffalsehood,intervenes,insomecasesthenamewhichtakestheleadis thatwhichindicatestheoffencebyitseffect; inothercases,it isthatwhichindicatestheexpedientorinstrumentasitwerebythehelpofwhichtheoffenceiscommitted.Falsehood,takeit byitself,consideritasnotbeingaccompaniedbyanyothermaterialcirelrnatances,northereforeproductiveofanymaterialeffects,cannever,upontheprincipleofutility,consti-tuteanyoffenceat all. Combinedwithothercircumstances,thereisscarcean),sortofperniciouseffectwhichitmaynotbeinstrumentalinproducing.It isthereforeratherincom-pliancewiththelawsoflanguage,thaninconsiderationofthenatureofthethingsthemselves,thatfalsehoodsaremadesepa-ratementionofunderthenameandinthecharacterofdistinctoffences.Allthiswouldappearplainenough,ifit werenowatimeforenteringintoparticulars: butthatiswhatcannotbedone,consistentlywithanyprincipleoforderorconvenience,untiltheinferiordivisionsofthoseotherclassesshallhavebeenpreviouslyexhibited.

XXV.Wecomenowtooffencesagainsttrust. Atrust;*a tr_t-_' what.

224 Divi,ion_ Offences. [CHAP.

wherethereisanyparticularactwhichoneparty,intheexerciseofsomepower,orsomer/j]_x,whichisconferredonhim,is

_ xPowers,thoughnotaspeciesofrights(forthe twosortsoffictitious-Jrm.why_oentities,termedapowerandar/g]_,arealtogetherdisparate)areyetsofarcompletedc:fi-_u s hereincludedunderrights,thatwhereverthewordpowermaybeemployed,thesiamott_m.wordrigh2mayalsobeemployed: Thereasonis,thatwhereveryoumay

speakof apersonashavinga power,youmayalsospeakofhimashavinga righttosuchpower: buttheconverseofthispropositiondoesnobholdgood: therearecasesinwhich,thoughyoumayspeakofa manashavinga right,youcannotspeakofhimashavinga power,orinanyotherwaymakeanymentionof that word.Onvariousoccasionsyouhavea r/ght,forinstance,totheser_cesofthe magastrate: butifyouarea privateper-son,youhaveno po_'eroverhim: allthepowerisonhisside. Thisbeingthe case,asthe word_igMwasemployed,the wordpowermightperhaps,withoutanydeficiencyinthe sense,havebeenomitted. Onthe presentoccasionhowever,as inspeakingoftruststhiswordiscommonlymademoreuseofthanthe wordrigh2,itseemedmosteligible,forthesakeofperspicuity,toinsertthemboth.

It maybeexpectedthat,sincethe wordtru*lhasbeenhereexpounded,the wordspowerand¢i9M,uponthemeaningofwhichthe expositionofthewordgrus_is madeto depend,shouldbeexpoundedalso: andcertainit is,thatno twowordscanstandmoreinnecdofit thanthesedo. SuchexpositionI accordinglysetabouttogive,andindeedhaveactual]ydrawnup: hut the detailsintowhichI foundit necessaryto enterforthis pur-pose,wereofsuchlengthastotakeup moreroomthancouldconsistentlybeallottedtothemin thisplace.Withrespecttothesewords,therefore,anda numberofothers,suchas_oase*s/on,¢itle,andthelike,whichinpointofimportareinseparablyconnectedwiththem,insteadofexhibitingtheexpositionitself,I mustcontentmyselfwithgivinga generalideaoftheplanwinchI havepursuedinframingit : andas toeverythingelse,Imustleavetheimportofthemtorestuponwhateverfootingitmayhappento standuponin theapprehensionofeachreader.Powerandright,andthe wholetribeoffictitiousentg.iesofthisstamp,areall ot them,in thesensewhichbelongsto theminabookofjurisprudence,theresultsofsomemanifestationorotherofthelegis}ator'swillwithrmpectto suchorsuchan act.Noweverysuchmanifestationiseitheraprohibition,a command,ortheirrespectivenegations;viz.a permission,andthedeclarationwhichthelegislatormakesofhiswillwhenonanyoccasionheleavesanactun-commanded.Now,torendertheexpressionoftherulemoreconcise,thecommandingofapositiveactmayberepresentedbytheprohibitionofthenegativeactwhichisopposedtoit.Toknowthenhowtoexpoundaright,carryyoureyetotheactwhich,inthecircumstancesinquestion,wouldbeaviolationo!thatright:thel_wcreatestherightbyprohibitingthatact.Power,whetheroveraman'sownperson,oroverotherpersons,oroverthings,isconstitutedinthefirstinstancebypermission:butinasfarasthelawtakesanactivepartincorroboratingit,it iscreatedbypro-hibition,andby command: byprohibitionof suchacts(onthepartofotherpersons)_ arejudgedineomlmtiblewiththeexerciseofit; anduponoccasion,by commandofsuchact_as arejudgedto benecessaryfor theremovalofouchorsuchobstaclesofthenuml_roftho_ewhichmayoccurto impedetheexerciseof it. Foreveryrightwhichthelawcomersononeparty,whetherthatpartybeanindividual,asubordinateclassof

xvl.] Diviaion of Offences. =_5

boundto perform forthe benefitof another. Or, more fully,thus : A partyis said to be invested witha trust,when, beinginvested with a power,or witha rig_, there is a certain be-haviourwhich,in theexerciseof that power,orof that fight, heis bound to maintainfor the benefitof some other party. Insuchcase, the party firstmentionedis styleda trustee: for theother party,no namehas ever yet been found: for want of a

individuals,or thepublic,it therebyimposesonsomeotherpartyadutyorobl_o//o_.Buttheremaybelawswhichcommandorprohibitacts,thatis,imposeduties,withoutanyotherviewthanthebenefitof theagent:thesegeneratenorights: duties,therefore,maybeeitherextra-reoardirgor8df_eoardin0: extra-regardingr_verightstocorrespondto them:self-regarding,none.Thattheexpositionofthewordspowerandr_/_must,inordertobe

correct,enterintoagreatvarietyofdetails,maybepresentlymadeappear.Onebranchofthesystemofrightsandpowers,andbutone,arethoseofwhichpropertyiscomposed: tobecorrect,then,itmust,amongotherthings,beapplicabletothewholetribeelmodifiee,tionsofwhichpropertyiJsusceptible.Butthecommandsandprohlbitiorrs,bywhichthepowersandng/_thatcomposethoseseveralmodificationsarecre_ted,areofmanydifferentforms:tocomprisetheexpositioninquestionwithinthecompassofasingleparagraph,weuldthereforebeimpossible:totakea_manyparagraphsforitaswouldbenecessary,inordertoexhibitthesedifferentforms,wouldbetoengageinadetailsoample,thattheanalysisoftheseveralpossiblespeciesofpropertywouldcomposeonlynpartofit.Thislabour,uninvitingasitwas,Ihaveaccordinglyundergone:buttheresultofit,asmaywellbeimagined,seemedtoovoluminousandminutetobeexhibitedinanouthnelikethepresent.Happilyitisnotnecessary,exceptonlyforthescicntiflcpurposeofarrangement,totheunderstandingofanythingthatneedbesaidonthepenalbranchoftheartoflegistatiou.Inaworkwhichshouldtreatofthecivilbranchofthatart,itweuldfinditsproperplace:andinsuchawork,ifconductedupontheplanofthepresentone,itwouldbeindispensable.Ofthelimitswhichseemtosepa-ratetheoneofthesebranchesfromtheother,aprettyampledescriptionwillbefoundinthenextchapter:fromwhichsomefurtherlight_respect-ingthecoursetobet_kenfordevelopingthenotionstobeannexedtothewordsr_/_and!vower,mayincidentallybecollected.Seeinparticular,§3and4. Seeabepar.Iv.ofthepresentchapter.Imighthavecutthismatterveryshort,byproceedingintheusual

strain,andsaying,thata powerwusa faculty,andthatarightwasa privi-lege,andsoon,followingthebeatentrackofdefinition.Butthe inanityclenchamethod,incaseslikethepresent,hasbeenalreadypointedout':apowerisnot_--anything:neitherisarights-anything:thecaseiB,the_yImveneitherofthemanysuperiorgenus:these,togetherwithd_hy,oN_ya_,andamultitudeofothersofthesamestamp,beingofthenum-berofthosefic_.itimmentities,ofwhichtheimportcanbynoothermeansbeillustratedthanbyshowingtherelationwhichtheybeartorealenos.

t_ Flmgmsnt,ofGove._ment,ch.v.!6,note.mm'rmu_ Q

z_6 Divisi_o/O(e_ces. [cHAr.

name,thereseemstobenootherresourcethantogivea newandmoreextensivesensetothewordbeneficiary,ortosayatlengththepartytobebenefitedi.Thetrusteeisalsosaidtohaveatrustconferredorimposed

uponhim,tobeinvestedwithatrust,tohavehadatrustgivenhimtoexecute,toperform,todischarge,ortofulfil.Thepartytobebenefited,issaidtohaveatrustestablishedorcreatedin

hisfavour: andsoonthrougha varietyofotherphrases.o_en_ XXVI. Now it may occur, that a tr_st is oftentimes spokenagainsttrust,cos- of as a speciesof condition2: that a trust is alsospoken of as a

i Thefirstofthesepartiesisstyledin thelawlanguage,aswellas incommonspeech,by thenamehereg_ventohim. Theotherisstyled,inthetechnicallanguageofthe Enghshlaw,a¢_stuyquetrust: incommonspeech,aswehaveobserved,thereis,unfortunately,nonameforhim..ksto thelawphrase,it isantiquatedFrench,andthoughcomplex,it is stillelhptlcal,andto the highestdegreeobscure. Thephrasein fulllengthwouldrun insomesuchmanneras this : e,estuyal usedeq_tiletrust_tcrag: hetowhoseusethetrust orbenefitiscreated.In aparticularcase,a ¢estuyquetrustiscalledbythe Romanlaw,fidei-commissarius.In imi-tationofthis,I haveseenhimsomewhereor othercalledinEnglishafide-committee.Thisterm,however,seemsnotveryexpressive.A fide-coJr-mlttee,or,asit shouldhavebeen,afidei-committee,sccms,literallyspeak-log,to meanonewhoiscommittedto thegoodfaithof another. Goodfaithseemstoconsistinthe kc_pmgof apromise. But atrust maybecreatedwithoutanypromiseinthecase. It is indeedcommonenoughtoexacta promise,in orderthe moreeffectuallyto obhgeaman todo thatwhichhemmadetopromisehewilldo. Butthis ismerelyan accidentalcircumstance.Atrustmaybecreatedwithoutanysuchthing. Whatisit thatconstitutesalegalobligationinanycase? A command,expressorvirtual,togetherwithpunishmentappointedforthebreachofit. Bythesamemeansmayanobligationbeconstitutedinthiscaseaswellasanyother.Insteadofthewordbeneficiary,whichIfounditnec_rytoadopt,thesensewouldbebetterexpressedbysomesuchwordasbene-flciendary(awordanalogousinitsformationtorcferendary),wereitsuchanoneastheearcouldbringitselftoendure.Thiswouldputitmoreeffeettmllyoutofdoubt,thatthepartymeantwasthepartywhooughtreceivethebenefit,whetherheactuallyreceivesitorno:where_thewordbeneficiarymightbeunderstoodtointimate,thatthebenefitwasaefua//yreceived:whileinoffencesagainsttrustthemischiefcommonlyis,thatsuchbenefitisr_pednotbythepersonitwasdesignedfor,butbysomeother:forinstance,thetrustee.

J It is forshortn_' saketl_t thepropositionis statedas it standsinthe text. If criticallyexamined,it mightbefound,perhaps,tobescarcelyjustifiableby the l_wsof is_guage. For the fictitiousentities,charac-terisedbythe twoabstractterms,tvu_andcangitiog,arenot subalternatebutdisparate.Tospeakwithperfectprecision,weshouldsaythathewhoisinvestedwithatrustis,ontlmt_.0ount,spokenofasbei_inve_t_l

xvl.] .19ivision_ Offeneea ¢_7

speciesofproperty: andthataconditionitselfisalsospokenofdition,andinthesamelight. It maybethought,therefore,thatinthefirstPw_v_n_e_class,thedivisionofoffencesagainstconditionshouldhavebeen_n_toincludedunderthatoftheoffencesagainstproperty: andthatd'v_i°nLatanyrate,somuchofthefifthclassnowbeforeusascontainsoffencesagainsttrust,shouldhavebeenincludedunderoneorotherofthosetwodivisionsofthefirstclass. Butuponexami-nationitwillappear,thatnooneofthesedivisionscouldwithconvenience,norevenperhapswithpropriety,havebeenincludedundereitheroftheothertwo. It willappearat thesametime,that thereisanintimateconnectionsubsistingamongstthemall: insomuchthatofthelistsoItheoffencestowhichtheyarerespectivelyexposed,anyonemayserveingreatmeasureasamodelforanyother. Therearecertainoffencesto whichalltrustsassuchareexposed: toalltheseoffenceseverysortofconditionwillbefoundexposed: at thesametimethat par-ticularspeciesof theoffencesagainsttrustwill,upontheirappficationtoparticularconditions,receivedifferentparticulardenominations.It willappearalso,thatofthe twogroupsofoffencesintowhichthelistofthoseagainsttrustwillbefoundnaturallytodivideitself,thereisone,andbutone,to whichproperty,takenin its properandmoreconfinedsense,standsexposed: andthatthese,intheirapplicationtothesubjectofproperty,willbefoundsusceptibleofdistinctmodifications,towhichtheusageoflanguage,andtheoccasionthereisfordis-tinguishingtheminpointoftreatment,makeit necessarytofindnames.

Inthefirstplace,asthereare,orat leastmaybe(asweshallsee)conditionswhicharenottrusts1,sotherearetrustsofwhichtheideawouldnotbereadilyandnaturallyunderstoodtobeincludedunderthewordtonal/t/on: addtowhich,thatofthoseconditionswhichdoincludeatrust,thegreaternumberincludeotheringredientsalongwithit : sothattheideaofacondition,

withacondition:viz.theconditionofatrustee.WespeakoIthecondi-tionofatrusteeM wespeakoftheconditionofshusbandor_father.Iafra,Iv.

q2

228 Jl)ivisionof Offences. [c_P.

ifontheonehandit stretchesbeyondtheideaofa trust,doesontheotherhandfallshortofit. Oftheseveralsortsoftrusts,by farthemostimportantarethosein whichit is thepublicthatstandsintherelationofbeneficiary.Nowthesetrusts,itshouldseem,wouldhardlypresentthemselvesatfirstviewuponthementionofthewordcondition.Atanyrate,whatismorematerial,themostimportantoftheoffencesagainstthesekindsoftrustwouldnotseemtobeincludedunderthedenomina-tionofoffencesagainstcondition.Theoffenceswhichbythislatterappellationwouldbebroughtto view,wouldbe suchonlyas seemedto affectthe interestsof an individual:ofhim,forexample,whois consideredas beinginvestedwiththatcondition.But inoffencesagainstpubhctrust,it is theinfluencetheyhaveontheinterestsofthepublicthatconstitutesbymuchthemostmaterialpartoftheirpernicioustendency:the influencetheyhaveontheinterestsofanyindividual,theonlypartoftheirinfluencewhichwouldbereadilybroughttoviewbytheappellationofoffencesagainstcondition,iscom-parativelyasnothing.Thewordtrustdirectstheattentionatoncetotheinterestsofthatpartyforwhomthepersoninques-tionis trustee: whichparty,upontheadditionoftheepithetpublic,is immediatelyunderstoodtobethebodycomposedofthewholeassemblage,oranindefiniteportionofthewholeas-semblageofthemembersofthestate. Theideapresentedbythewordspublictrustisclearandunambiguous: it isbutanobscureandambiguousgarbthatthatideacouldbeexpressedinbythewordspubliccondi*ion.It appears,therefore,thattheprincipalpartoftheoffences,includedunderthedenominationofoffencesagainsttrust,couldnot,commodiouslyatleast,havebeenincludedundertheheadofoffencesagainstcondition.

It isevidentenough,thatforthesamereasonsneithercouldtheyhavebeenincludedundertheheadoI offencesagailmtproperty.It wouldhaveappearedpreposterous,andwouldhaveargueda totalinattentionto theleadingprincipleofthewholework,theprincipleofutility,to havetakenthemostmischievousandalarmingpartofthe offencesto whichthe

xvI.] Divigionof Offeneea. 2_9

publicstandsexposed,andforcedthemintothelistofoffencesagainstthepropertyofanindividual:ofthatindividual,towit,whoin thatcasewouldbeconsideredashavinginhimthepropertyofthatpubhctrust,whichbytheottencesinquestionis affected.

Norwouldit havebeenlessimpropertohaveincludedcon-ditions,allofthem,undertheheadofproperty: andtherebythewholecatalogueofoffencesagainstcondition,underthecatalogueofofiencesagainstproperty.Trueit is,thatthereareoffencesagainstcondition,whichperhapswithequalpropriety,andwithoutanychangein theirnature,ndghtbeconsideredinthelightofoffencesagainstproperty:soextensiveandsovaguearetheideasthatarewonttobeannexedtoboththeseobjects.Butthereareotherottenceswhichthoughwithunquestionableproprietytheymightbereferredtotheheadofoffencesagainstcondition,couldnot,withouttheutmostviolencedoneto lan-guage,be forcedunderthe appellationof offencesagainstproperty.Property,consideredwithrespecttotheproprietor,impliesinvariablyabenefit,andnothingelse: whateverobliga-t-ionsorburthensmay,byaccident,standannexedto it,yetinitselfit canneverbeotherwisethanbeneficial.Onthepartoftheproprietor,it iscreatednotbyanycommandsthatarelaidonhim,butbyhisbeingleftfreeto dowithsuchorsuchanarticleashelikes. Theobligationsit iscreatedby,areineveryinstancelaiduponotherpeople.Ontheotherhand,astocon-ditions,thereareseveralwhichareofamixednature,importingas wella burthentohimwhostandsinvestedwiththemasabenefit:whichindeedisthecasewiththoseconditionswhichwehearmostofunderthat name,andwhichmakethegreatestfigure.

Thereareevenconditionswhichimportnothingbutburthen,withoutanysparkofbenefit.Accordingly,whet,betweentwopartiesthereissucharelation,that oneofthemstandsin theplaceofanobjectofpropertywithrespecttotheother;thewordpropertyisappliedonlyononeside; butthewordconditio_isappliedaliketoboth: it isbutoneofthemthatis saidonthat

23o 1)ivisionofOffences. [char.accounttobepossessedofaproperty;butbothofthemarealikespokenofas beingpossessedo[or beinginvestedwithacon-dition:itisthemasteralonethatisconsideredaspossessingapro-perty,ofwhichtheservant,invirtueof theservicesheisboundto render,istheobject:buttheservant,notlessthanthemaster,is spokenofaspossessingor beinginvestedwitha condition.

Theeaseis, that if a man's conditionis ever spokenof asconstitutingan articleofhisproperty,it isinthesamelooseandindefinitesenseofthewordin whichalmosteveryotheroffencethat couldbe imaginedmightbe reckonedinto the list ofoffencesagainstproperty. If thelanguageindeedwereineveryinstance,in whichit madeuseof the phrase,objectof_operty,perspicuousenoughto point out under that appellationthematerialand reallyexistentbody, the1_ersonor the thing inwhichthoseacts terminate,by the performanceof whichthepropertyissaid tobe enjoyed;if,in short,inthe importgivento the phraseobjectofFfoperty,it madenootheruseof it thanthe puttingit to signifywhatis nowcalleda corporealobject,thisdifflcultyandthisconfusionwouldnothaveoccurred. Butthe importof the phraseobjectofproperty,andin consequencethe importof the wordproperty,hasbeenmadetotakea muchwiderrange. In almosteverycasein whichthe lawdoesanythingfora man'sbenefitoradvantage,menare aptto speakofit, on someoccasionor other, as conferringonhim a sortofproperty. At the sametime,foronereasonor other,it hasinseveralcasesbeennot practicable,or notagreeable,to bringt_view,undertheappellationoftheobjectofhisproperty,the thingin whichthe acts,by the performanceo{whichthepropertyissaid to be enjoyed,have their termination,or the personinwhomthey havetheir commencement.Yetsomethingwhichcouldbespokenof underthat appellationwasabsolutelyrequi-site1. The expedientthen has beento create,as it were,on

It istobeobserved,thatincommonspeech,inthephrasetheobjectofaman'sproperty,thewordstheobjectofarecommonlyleftout;andbyanellipsis,which,violentasitis,isnowbecomemorefamiliarthanthephra_at length,hey h_vemadetla_tpartofit whichconsistsofthewordsaman'oprcrpextyperformtheofficeofthewhole.Insomeea_esthenit

x_a.] /)ivm'_of Offences. 23ievery occasion, an ideal being, and to assign to a man this idealbeing for the object of his property: and these are the sort ofobjectsto which men of science, in taking a view of the opera-tions of the lawin this behalf, came, in process of time, to givethe name of incorporeal. Nowof these incorporeal objects ofproperty the variety is prodigious. Fictitious entities of thiskind have been fabricated almost out of every thing : not con-d/t/ons only (that of a trustee included), but even reputationhave been of the number. Even liberty has been considered inthis same point of view : and though on somany occasions it iscontrasted with property, yet on other occasions,being reckonedinto the catalogue of possessions, it seems to have been con-sidered as a branch of property. Some of these applications ofthe words property, objectof property (the last, for instance), arelooked upon, indeed, as more figurative, and less proper thanthe rest: but since the truth is,that where the immediate objectis incorporeal, they are all of them improper, it is scarce prac-ticable any where to drawthe line.

Notwithstanding all this latitude, yet, amongthe relations in

wasonlyon a partof the objectthat the actsin questionmightbe per-formed: andto say,on thisaccount,thattheobjectwasa man'sproperty,wasas muchasto intimatethattheymightbeperformedon anypart. Inothercasesitwasonlycertainparticularactsthat mightbeexercisedontheobject: andto sayof theobjectthat itwashisproperty,wasasmuchas to intimatethat anyacts whatevermightbe exercisedon it. Some-limesthe acts inquestionwerenot to be exercisedbutat a futuretime,northen,perhaps,butinthecaseofthehappeniugofa partaculaxevent,ofwhichthehappeningwasua_erta_:andto sayof anobjectthatit washisproperty,wasas muchas to intimatethat the actsin questmnmightbeexercisedon itat anytime. Sometimestheobjectonwhichtheacts inquestionwereto havetheirtermination,ortheircommencement,wasahumancreature: andtospeakofonehumancreatureasbeingthepropertyof anotheriswhatwouldshocktheeareverywherebutwhereslaveryisestablished,andeventhere,whenappliedtopersonsanany otherconditionthanthat ofslaves. AmongthefirstRomans,indeed,the_afehe,elfwasthepropertyof herhusband; thochild,ofhisfather; theservant,ofILiamaster. In thecivilisednationsofmoderntimes,the twofirstkindsofpropertyarealtogetherat an end: andthelast,unhappilynotyet at anend,buthoweververging,it isto behoped,towardsextraction.Thehus-band'spropertyisnowthecompany_ofhiswife;thefather'stheguardian-shipandserviceofhischild; themaster's,the serviceofhisservant.

t The¢o_ium,lay1the_l_b Law.

_3_ l_ivi_ ofOffe_ee,. [cHaP.virtueofwhichyouaresaidtobepossessedofacondition,thereisoneatleastwhichcanscarcely,bythemostforcedconstruc-tion,besaidtorenderanyotherman,oranyotherthing,theobjectofyourproperty.Thisistherightofperseveringina

i , certaincourseofaction;forinstance,intheexercisingofacertaintrade.Nowtoconferonyouthisright,inacertaindegreeatleast,thelawhasnothingmoretodothanbarelytoabstainfromforbiddingyoutoexerciseit.Wereittogofarther,and,forthesakeofenablingyoutoexerciseyourtradetothegreateradvantage,prohibitothersfromexercisingthelike,then,indeed,personsmightbefound,whoinacertainsense,andbyaconstructionratherforcedthanotherwise,mightbespokenofasbeingtheobjectsofyourproperty:viz.bybeingmadetorenderyouthatsortofnegativeservicewhichconsistsintheforbearingtodothoseactswhichwouldlessentheprofitsofyourtrade.Buttheordinaryrightofexercisinganysuchtradeorprofession,asisnottheobjectofamonopoly,importsnosuchthing;andyet,bypossessingthisright,amanissaidtopossessacondition:andbyforfeitingit,toforfeithiscondition.Afterall,itwillbeseen,thattheremustbecasesinwhich,

accordingtotheusageoflanguage,thesameoffencemay,s_ithmoreorlessappearanceofpropriety,bereferredtotheheadofoffencesagainstcondition,orthatofoffencesagainstproperty,indifferently.Insuchcasesthefollowingrulemayservefordrawingtheline.Wherever,invirtueofyourpossessingaproperty,orbeingtheobjectofapropertypossessedbyanother,youarecharacterised,accordingtotheusageoflanguage,byaparticularname,suchasmaster,servant,husband,wife,steward,agent,attorney,orthelike,therethewordcoati/t/onmaybeemployedinexclusionofthewordproperty:andanoffenceinwhich,invirtueofyourbearingsuchrelation,youarecon-cerned,eitherinthecapacityofanoffender,orinthatofapartyinjured,maybereferredtotheheadofoffences_gainstcondition,andnottothatofoffencesagainstproperty.Togiveanex-ample:Beingbound,inthecapacityoflandstewardtoacertain

X¥1] .Oi_isionof Offences. 233

person,tooverseetherepairingofacertainbridge,youforbeartodoso: inthiscase,astheservicesyouareboundtorenderareofthenumberofthosewhichgiveoccasionto theparty,fromwhomtheyaredue,tobespokenofunderacertaingene-ricalname,viz.thatoflandsteward,theoffenceofwithholdingthemmaybereferredtotheclassofoffencesagainstcondition.Butsupposethat,withoutbeingengagedin thatgeneralandmiscellaneouscourseofservice,whichwithreferencetoa par-ticularpersonwoulddenominateyouhislandsteward,youwerebound,whetherbyusageorbycontract,torenderhimthatsinglesortofservicewhichconsistsintheproviding,byyourselforbyothers,fortherepairingofthatbridge: in thiscase,asthereisnotanysuchcurrentdenominationtowhich,invirtueofyourbeingboundtorenderthisservice,youstandaggregated(forthatofarchitect,mason,orthelike,isnothereinquestion),theoffenceyoucommitbywithholdingsuchservicecannotwithproprietybereferredtotheclassofoffencesagainstcondition:itcanonlythereforebereferredto theclassofoffencesagainstproperty.

Bywayoffurtherdistinction,it mayberemarked,thatwhereaman,invirtueofhisbeingboundtorender,orofothersbeingboundtorenderhim,certainservices,isspokenofaspossessingacondition,theassemblageotservicesisgenerallysoconsider-able,inpointofduration,as to constitutea courseof con-siderablelength,soasona varietyofoccasionstocometobevariedandrepeated: andinmostcases,whentheconditionisnotofadomesticnature,sometimesforthebenefitofoneper-son,sometimesforthatofanother.Serviceswhichcometoberenderedtoa particularpersononaparticularoccasion,espe-ciallyif theybeofshortduration,haveseldomtheeffectofoccasioningeitherpartytobespokenofasbeinginvestedwithacondition.Theparticularoccasionalserviceswhichonemanmaycome,bycontractorotherwise,tobeboundto rendertoanother,areinnumerablyvarious:butthenumberofconditionswhichhavenamesmaybecounted,andare,comparatively,butfew.

_34 _iridonof O_e_ce_. [CHAF.

Itafterall,notwithstandingtheruleheregivenforseparatingconditionsfromarticlesofproperty,anyobjectshouldpresentitselfwhichshouldappeartobereferable,withequalpropriety,toeitherhead,theinconveniencewouldnotbematerial; sinceinsuchcases,aswillbeseenalittlefartheron,whicheverappel-lationwereadopted,thehstoftheoffences,towhichtheobjectstandsexposed,wouldbesubstantiallythesame.

Thesedifficultiesbeingclearedup,wenowproceedtoex-hibitananalyticalviewoftheseveralpossibleoffencesagainsttrust.

o_en_ XXVII.O_encesagainsttrustmaybedistinguished,in theagainsttrust--their firstplace,intosuchasconcerntheexistenceofthetrustinthe_nn_t}on_th_¢h handsofsuchorsuchaperson,andsuchasconcerntheexerciseother.

ofthefunctionsthatbelongtoitLFirstthen,withregardtosuchasrelatetoitsexistence.Anoffenceofthisdescription,

Weshallhaveoccasion,alittlefartheron,tospeakofthepersoninwhosehandsthetrustexists,underthedescriptionofthepersonwhopos-sesses,orisinpossessionofit,andthenceofthepossessmnofthetrustabstractedfromtheconsiderationofthepossessor.Howeverdif[erenttheexpression,theimportis inbothcasesthesame Soirregularand1roper-feetis the structureof languageon thishead,thatno onephrasecanbemadetosuittheideaonall theoccasionsonwhichit isrequm_teit shouldbebroughttoview: thephrasemustbecontinuallyshifted,ornewmodi-fied: sohkewisein regardtoconditions,andmregardto property..Thebeinginvestedwith,orpossessinga condition;the beinginposbessmnofanarticleofproperty,that is,if theobjectofthe propertybecorporeal;thehavinga legaltitle(defeasibleorindefeasible}tothephysicalpossessionofit, answerstothebeingm pos._essmuofatrust,orthe beingthepemoninwhosehandsntrustexists.In likemanner,to theexercbseofthefunolionsbelongingtoa tntst,ortoncondition,correspondstheen'joymentofanarticleofproperty;that is,if theobjectofit becorporeal,theoccupation.Theseverbaldiscussionsareequallytediousand indispensable.Strivingto cut8 newroadthroughthe wildsofjurisprudence,I findmyselfcon-tinuallydistressed,forwantoftoolsthatarefitto workwith.Toframescompleteset ofnewonesisimpossible.Allthat canbedoneis,to makehereandthereanewoneincasesofabsolutenecessity,andfortherest,topatchupfromtimeto timetheimperfectionsof theold.

As to the bipartitionwhichthis paragraphsets out with,it mustbeacknowledgednottobeofthenatureofthosewhichtoa firstglanceafforda sort of intmtJveproofoftheir beingexhaustive. Thereis not thatmarkedconnectionandoppositionbetweenthetermsofit,whichsubsistsbetweencontradictory,termsand betweentermsthat havethe samecommongenus. I imaginehowever,that uponexaminationit wouldbefoundtobeexhaustivenotwithstanding:and thatitmightevenbet emon-strstedsotobe. But thedemonstrationwouldleadus toofarout oftheordinarytrackoflanguage.

xvl.] Divi_io_ofOffe_eg. _35hke oneof anyotherdescription,if anoffenceit oughtto be,musttosomepersonorotherimportaprejudice.Thisprejudicemaybedistinguishedintotwobranches:I.Thatwhichmayfallonsuchpersonsasareor shouldbe investedwiththe trust:2.Thatwhichmay fallonthe personsforwhosesakeit is orshouldbe instituted,or onotherpersonsat large. To beginwiththeformerofthesebranches. Letanytrust beconceived.Theconsequenceswhichitisinthe natureofit tobeproductiveof to the possessor,must, in as faras they arematerial1,beeitherofan advantageousorofadisadvantageousnature: inasfar asthey areadvantageous,the trustmay beconsideredasabenefitorprivilege:inasfaras theyaredisadvantageous,it maybe consideredas a burthen2. To considerit then upon thefootingofabenefit. Thetrust eitheris ofthe numberofthosewhichoughtby lawto subsist3 ; that is,whichthe legislator

i Seeoh.vii.[Actions],iii.* Ifadvantageous,itwillnaturallybeoaaccountofthepowersormghts

thatareannexedtothetrust:ifdisadvantageous,onaccountofthedutzes.s Itmayseemasortofanachromsmtospeakonthepresentoccasionof

atrust,condition,orotherpo_eessmn,asoneofwhichitmayhappenthatamanoughtoroughtnottohavehadpossessiongivenhimbythelaw,for,theplanheresetoutuponistogivesuchaviewallalongofthelawsthatareproposed,asshallbetakenfromthemasonswhichtherearcformakingthem:thereasonthenit wouldseemshouldsub,tatbeforethelaw:notthelawbeforethereason.Noristhistobedenied: for,unques-tionably,upontheprmciIAeofutility,it maybesaidwithequaltruthofthoseoperationsbywhichatrust,oranyotherarticleofproperty,isinsti-tuted,asofanyotheroperationsofthelaw,thatitnevercanbeexpedienttheyshouldbeperformed,unlesssomereasonforperformingthem,deducedfromthatprinciple,canbeassigned.Togivepropertytooneman,youmustimposeobligationonanother:youmustobligehimtodosomethingwhichhemayhaveamindnottodo,ortoabstainfromdoingsomethingwhichhemayhaveamindtodo: inaword,youmustinsomewayorotherexposehimtoinconvemence.Everysuchlaw,therefore,mustatanyrateben_schievousinthefirstinstance; andifnogoodeffectscanbeproducedtosetagainstthebad,it mustbemischievousulmnthewhole.Somereasons,therefore,inthiscase,asineveryother,thereoughttobe.Thetruthis,thatinthecasebeforeus,thereasonsareoftoovariousandcomplicatedanaturetobebroughttoviewinananalyticaloutlinehkethepresent.Wheretheoffenc_tsofthenumberofthosebywhichpersonorreputationareaffected'thereasonsforprohibitingitlieonthesurface,andapplytoeverymanalike.Butproperty,beforeitcanbeoffendedagainst,mustbecreated,andat theinstantofitscreationdistributed,asit were,intoparcelsofdifferentsortsandsizes,whichreqlfiretobeassigned,sometoonemanandsometoanother,forreasons,ofwhichmanyliea littleoutofsight,andwhichbein8differentindifferentcases,wouldtakeupmore

_36 2_ivi_4o_of Offence*. [CHAr.

meantshouldbeestablished; orisnot. If it is,thepossessionwhichatanytimeyoumaybedeprivedof,withrespecttoit,mustat thattimebeeitherpresentortocome: iftocome(inwhichcaseitmayberegardedeitherascertainorascontingent),theinvestitiveevent,oreventfromwhenceyourpossessionofitshouldhavetakenitscommencement,waseitheraneventintheproductionofwhichthewilloftheoffendershouldhavebeeninstrumental,or anyothereventat large: in theformercase,theoffencemaybetermedwronffulnon-investmentoftrust."inthe lattercase,wroncffulinterceptionoftrust1. Ifatthe timeoftheoffencewherebyyouaredeprivedofit, youwerealreadyin possessionofit, theoffencemaybe styledwrongfuldivestmentoftrust.In anyofthesecases,theeffectoftheoffenceiseithertoputsomebodyelseintothetrust,ornot:if not, it is wrongfuldivestment,wrongfulinterception,orwrongfuldivestment,andnothingmore:ifitbe,thepersonputinpossessioniseitherthewrong-doerhimself,inwhichcaseitmaybestyledusurpationof trust; orsomeotherperson,inwhichcaseitmaybestyledwronfffidinvestmerg,orattribution,

roomthan couldconsistentlybeallottedto themhere. Forthe presentpurpose,it issufficientif it appear,that forthecarryingonof theseveralpurposesoflife,therearetrusts,and conditions,and otherarticlesofpro-port3,,whichmustbe possessedbysomebody:and that it is not everyarticlethai,can,noreveryarticlethat ought,to be.possessedby everybody. Whatarticlesoughtto be created,and towhat persons,and inwhatcasesthey oughtto be respectivelyassigned,arequestionswhichcannotbe settledhere. Nor is thereany reasonforwishingthat theycould,sincethesettlingthemonewayoranotheriswhatwouldmakenodifferenceinthenatureofanyoffencewherebyanypartymaybeexposed,on theoccasionofany suchinstitution,to sustaina detriment.

t In theformercase,it maybeobserved,theact isof thenegativekind:in thelatter, it willcommonlybe ofthe positivekind.

As totheexpressionnon,im_tmentqftru_,,I amsensiblethat it isnotperfectlyconsonanttotheidiomofthelanguage: theusageisto speakofa personasbeinginvested(thatis clothed}withatrust,notofa trustasof a thingthat is itselfinvzsV.dor put on. Thephraseat lengthwouldbe,Shenon-investme_of a _erse_with a trust: hutthis phraseis bymuchtoo long-windedto answerthe purposeof anappeLlative.I saw,therefore,nootherresourcethantoventaroupontheellilmishereemployed.Theancientlawyers,inthecoaqtructionoftheirappellatives,haveindulgedthemselvesin muchharsherellips_seswithoutscruple. Seeabove,xxr.note.It isalreadythe usageto speakof a tnmtasa thingthatvezta,andas a thir_ thatmaybedie.ted.

xvl.] Divi_o_ofO_e_ce#. _37oft_st.Ifthetrustinquestionisnotofthenumberofthosewhichoughttosubsist,itdependsuponthemannerinwhichonemandeprivesanotherofit,whethersuchdeprivationshallorshallnotbeanoffence,and,accordingly,whethernon-invest-ment,interception,ordivestment,shallorshallnotbewrongful.But theputtinganybodyintoit mustat anyratebeanoffence:and thisoffencemaybe eitherusurpationorwrongfulinvest-ment,asbefore.

Inthenextplace,toconsiderituponthefootingofaburthen.Inthispointofview,ifnootherinterestthanthat ofthepersonsliableto be investedwithit wereconsidered,it is whatoughtnot, uponthe principleof utility,tosubsist: if it ought,it canonlybeforthe sakeof the personsin whosefavourit is estab-lished. If thenit oughtnotonanyaccounttosubsist,neithernon-investment,interception,nordivestment,canbe wrong'ulwithrelationtothepersonsfirstmentioned,whatevertheymaybeenanyotheraccount,inrespectofthemannerinwhichtheyhappentobeperformed: forusurpation,thoughnotlikelytobecommitted,thereis thesameroomasbefore:solikewiseisthereforwrongfuli_vestment; which,inas far as the trust is con-sideredasaburthen,maybestyledwroncgeulimpositionoftrust.If the trust, being still of the bnrthensomekind, is of thenumberofthosewhichoug/_tosubsist,anyoffencethat canbecommitted,withrelationto the existenceof it, must consisteitherin causinga personto bein possessionof it, whooughtnottobe,or incausinga personnot tobein possessionofit whooughtto be : inthe formercase,it mustbeeitherusurpationorwrongfuldivestment,asbefore: in the latter case,the personwhoiscausedto be notin possession,is eitherthe wrong-doerhimself,orsomeother : if the wrong-doerhimself,eitherat thetimeofthe offencehe wasin possessionofit, or hewasnot : ifhe was,it maybe termedwro'#_ulabdicationof trust ; if not,un,omffulcletrectation1or non-asvaml_ion: if the person,whom

1I donotfindthatthiswordhasyetbeenreceivedintotheEnglishlangusge.In theI,ati_,however,it isveryexpressive,andisusedinalenseexa_dysuitsbletothesenseheregiventoit. Militiam&_rectare,

_38 l_visio_ofO._ee,. [c.AP.theoffencecausesnottobeinthetrust,isanyotherperson,theoffencemustbeeitherwrongfuldivestment,wrongfulnon-invest-ment,orwrongfulinterception,asbefore:inanyofwhichcasestoconsiderthetrustinthelightofaburthen,itmightalsobestyled_on_uZezemptionfromtrust.

Lastly,withregardto theprejudicewhichthepersonsforwhosebenefitthetrustisinstituted,oranyotherpersonswhoseinterestsmaycometobeaf[eetedbyitsexistingornotexistinginsuchorsuchhands,areliabletosustain.Uponexaminationitwillappear,thatbyeverysortofoffencewherebythepersonswhoareorshouldbeinpossessionofitareliable,inthatrespect,tosustainaprejudice,thepersonsnowinquestionarealsoliabletosustainaprejudice.Theprejudice,inthiscase,isevidentlyofaverydif[erentnaturefromwhatitwasofintheother: butthesamegeneralnameswillbeapplicableinthiscaseasinthat.If thebeneficiaries,orpersonswhoseinterestsareatstakeupontheexerciseofthetrust,oranyofthem,areliabletosustainaprejudice,resultingfromthequalityofthepersonbywhomitmaybefilled,suchprejudicemustresultfromtheoneortheotheroftwocauses: I. Fromaperson'shavingthepossessionofitwhooughtrottohaveit: or2.Fromaperson'snothavingitwhoought:whetheritbeabenefitorburthentothepossessor,isacircumstancethatto thispurposemakesnodi_erence.Inthefirstofthesecasestheoffencesfromwhichtheprejudieetakesitsrisearethoseofusurpationoftrust,wrongfulattributionoftrust,andwrongfulimpositionoftrust: inthelatter,wrongfulnon-investmentoftrust,wrongfulinterceptionoftrust,wrongfuldivestmentoftrust,wrongfulabdicationoftrust,andwrongfuldetrectationoftrust.

Somuchfortheottenceswhichconcerntheexistenceorpos-sessionoIa trust: thosewhichconcerntheexerciseofthefunc-tionsthat belongto it maybe thusconceived.Youareinpossessionofs trust: thetimethenforyouractinginitmust,onanygivenoccasion,{neglecting,forsimplieity'ssake,thethentoendeavourtoavoidservinginthearmy,isaphrasenotunfrequentlymetwithintheRon_nwri_m.

xvl.] Di_io_ of Offe_ees. 230

presentinstant)beeitherpastoryettocome. Ifpast,yourconductonthatoccasionmusthavebeeneitherconformabletothepurposesforwhichthetrustwasinstituted,orunconform-able: ifconformable,therehasbeennomischiefinthecase: ifunconformable,thefaulthasbeeneitherinyourselfalone,orinsomeotherperson,orinboth:inasfarasithaslaininyourself,ithasconsistedeitherinyournotdoingsomethingwhichyououghttodo,inwhichcaseit maybestyledneqativebreachoftrust; orinyourdoir_somethingwhichyououghtnottodo:ifin thedoingsomethingwhichyououghtnottodo,thepartytowhomtheprejudicehasaccruediseitherthesameforwhosebenefitthetrustwasinstituted,orsomeotherpartyat large:intheformerofthesecases,theoffencemaybestyled_ositivebreachof trust; in theother,abuseof trustx. In as farasthefaultliesinanotherperson,theoffenceonhispartmaybe styleddisturba_weof trust. Supposingthe timeforyouractinginthetrusttobeyettocome,theeffectofanyactwhichtendstorenderyourconductunconformableto thepurposesofthetrust,maybeeithertorenderitactuallyandeventuallyunconformable,ortoproduceachanceofitsbeingso. Intheformerofthesecases,it candonootherwisethantakeoneorotheroftheshapesthathavejustbeenmentioned.Inthelattercase,theblamemustlieeitherin yourselfalone,orinsomeotherperson,orinbothtogether,asbefore.If inanotherperson,theactswherebyhemaytendtorenderyourconductuncoa-

Whatisheremeantbyabuseoftrust,istheexerciseofa powerusurpedoverstrangers,underfavourofthepowersproperlybelongingtothetrust.Thedistractionbetweenwhatisheremeantbybreachoftrust,andwhatisheremeantbyabuseoftrust,isnotverysteadilyobservedincommonspeech: andinregardtopublictrusts,itwiUeveninmanycasesbeimperceptible.Thetwooffencesare,however,mthemselvesperfectlydistinct:sincethepersons,bywhomtheprejudiceissuffered,areinmanyeasesaltogetherdifferent.Itmaybeobserved,perhaps,thatwithregardtoabuseoftrust,thereisbutonespeciesheromentioned;viz.thatwhichcorrespondstopositivebreachoftrust: nonebeingmentionedascorre-spondingtonegativebreachoftrust.Thereasonoftinsdistinctionwillpresentlyappear.Infavouroftheparties,forwhosebenefitthetrustwascreated,thetrusteeisboundtoact; andthereforemerelybyhisdoingnothingtheymayreceiveaprejudice: butinfavourofotherpersonsatlargehetenotboundtoact:andthereforeitisonlyfromsomepositiveactonhiepartthatanyprejudiceoanensuetothem.

240 Divisionq' Off_neea. [eaA_.

formable,mustbeexercisedeitheronyourself,oronotherob-i_ts atlarge.Ifexercisedonyourself,theinfluencetheypos-sessmusteitherbesuchasoperatesimmediatelyonyourbody,orsuchasoperatesimmediatelyonyourmind. Inthelatterease,again,the tendencyofthemmustbe to depriveyoueitherof theknowledge,orof thepower,or o!theinclina-tion1,whichwouldbenecessarytoyourmaintainingsuchaconductasshallbeeonforn_bletothepurposesinquestion.Iftheybesuch,ofwhichthetendencyistodepriveyouofthein-clinationinquestion,it mustbebyapplyingtoyourwilltheforceofsomeseducingmotivez. Lastly,Thismotivemustbeeitherofthecoercive,oroftheallurinOkind; inotherwords,itmustpresentitselfeitherintheshapeofamischieforofanadvantage.Nowinnoneofallthecasesthathavebeenmen-tioned,exceptthelast,doestheot_eneereceiveanynewdel_oL-.i-nation; accordingtotheeventitiseitheradisturbanceoftrust,orar.abortiveattempttobeguiltyofthatoffence.Inthislastitistermedbr,_ery; andit istha_particularspeciesofitwhichmaybetermedactivebribery,orbrz_e-glvirud.In thisease,toconsiderthematteronyourpart,eitheryouacceptofthebribe,oryoudonot: ifnot,andyoudonotafterwardscommit,orgoabouttocommit,eitherabreachoranabuseoftrust,thereisnooffence,onyourpart,inthecase:ifyoudoacceptit,whetheryoueventuallydoordonotcommitthebreachortheabusewhichit isthebribe-giver'sintentionyoushouldcommit,youatanyratecommitanoffencewhichisalsotermedbribery:andwhich,fordistinctionsake,maybetermed_mssivebribery,orbr_be-_akings. Astoanyfartherdistinctions,theywilldepend

Seeinfra,liv. note; sad oh.xviiJ.[IndirectLegislation].t Seeeh.xi. [I)isposition_],xxix.

Tobribeatrustee,a_such,is infactneithermorenorlessthanto_durrnhimtobegufltyofabresehoranabuseoftrust.Nowsubornationisof_hehumherofthoseo#zessoryoffenceswhicheveryprincipaloffence,oneaswellas_nother,isliabletobeattendedwith.Seein/rs,xxxi.note;andB.I.tit. [Accessoryoffences].Thisparticularspeciesofsubornationhoweverbeingonethat, besidesits havings specificrmmeframedtoexpressit, isapt toengagea peculiarshareofattention,andtopresentit_el/toviewin companywithotherot][encesagainsttrust,it wouldhaveseemedanomissionnot tohaveincludedit inthatc_t_logue.

xvI.] .Di_,_io_of O.:e_es. _4Iuponthenatureof theparticularsortof trustin question,andthereforebelongnot to the presentplace. And thuswehavethirteensub-divisionsofoffencesagainsttrust: viz.I. Wrongfulnon-investmentof trust. 2. Wrongfulinterceptionof trust.3. Wrongfuldivestmentof trust. 4. Usurpationof trust.5. Wrongfulinvestmentor attributionoftrust. 6,Wrongfulabdicationoftrust.7.Wrongfuldetrectationoftrust. 8.Wrong-ful impositionoftrust. 9.Negativebreachof trust. Io. Posi-tive breachof trust. II. Abuseof trust. I2. Disturbanceoftrust. I3. Bribery.

XXVIII.Fromwhathas beensaid,it appearsthat thereProdigality• in trusteescannotbeanyotheroffences,onthe par_ofa trustee,bywhichdismta_edtoClaim8.a beneficiarycanreceiveonanyparticularoccasionanyassign-ablespecificprejudice.Onesortofacts,however,therearebywhicha trusteemaybe put in somedan_erofreceivingapre-judice,althoughneitherthe natureof theprejudice,northeoccasionon whichhe is in dangerof receivingit, shouldbeassignable.Thesecanbenootherthansuchacts,whatevertheymaybe,asdisposethetrusteetobeacteduponbyagivenbribewithgreatereffectthananywithwhichhecouldotherwisebeactedupon: orinotherwords,whichplacehimin suchcircum-stancesashavea tendencytoincreasethequantumofhissensi-bilitytotheactionofanymotiveofthesortinquestion1. Oftheseacts,thereseemto be noothers,thatwilladmitofade-scriptionapplicableto allplacesand timesalike,thanactsofprodigalityonthepartofthe trustee. Butinactsofthisnaturetheprejudiceto the be_ficiaryiscontingentonlyandunliqui-dated; whiletheprejudicetothe trusteehimselfiscertainandliquidated. If thereforeon anyoccasionit shouldbe foundadvisabletotreat it onthefootingofanoffence,it willfinditsplacemorenaturallyinthe classof self-regardingones.

XXIX.Astothesubdivisionsofoffencesagainsttrust, these_e __._ div_ionsorare perfectlyanalogoustothoseof offencesby falsehood, lne o_en_

trusttrustmaybeprivate,semi-pubhe,orpublic: it mayconcern_e_jjo. determinedproperty,person,reputation,orcondition; orany_woormorebythe

' Seeoh.vi.[Sensibility]ii.]HEll.AM R

a42 2)imion 9" Offowes. [cram

dJ_,o__ ofthose articlesat a time: as willbe moreparticularlyex-theVre-¢_ plainedinanotherplace. Heretootheoffence,inrunningover

the groundoccupiedby the threepriorclasses,willin someinstanceschangeits name,whilein othersit willnot.

com_'ion XXX. Lastly,ifit beasked,Whatsortofrelationtheresub-betweencffen_by sistsbetweenfalsehoodsononehand,andoffencesconcerningfalsehood•rdo_an_trustontheotherhand; theansweris,theyarealtogetherdis-agxir_tram. parate. Falsehoodis a circumstancethatmayenterinto the

compositionofanysortofoffence,thoseconcerningtrust,aswellasanyother: insomeasanaccidental,inothersasanessen-tial instrument. Breachor abuseof trustarecircumstances

' which,in thecharacterofaccidentalconcomitants,mayenterintothecompositionofanyotheroffences(thoseagainstfalsehoodincluded)besidesthoseto whichtheyrespectivelygivename.

§3. Generaof ClassLA_ XXXI. Returningnowto classthefirst,let uspursuetheIntogenerap_-B_anodistributionastepfarther,andbranchouttheseveraldivisionsfartherthauC_"L of thatclass,asaboveexhibited,intotheirrespectivegenera,

thatis,intosuchminuterdivisionsas arecapableofbeingcha-racterisedby denominationsof whicha greatpart arealreadycurrentamongthe people1. In this placethe analysismuststop. Toapplyit inthesameregularformtoanyoftheotherclassesseemsscarcelypracticable: to semi-public,as alsotopublicoffences,onaccountoftheinterferenceoflocalcircum-stances: to self-regardingones,onaccountof thenecessityitwouldcreateof decidingprematurelyuponpointswhichmayappearliableto controversy:to offencesby falsehood,andoffencesagainsttrust,on accountof thedependencethereisbetweenthis classandthe threeformer. Whatremainstobe donein thisway,withreferenceto thesefourclasses,will

: Intheenumerationofthesegenera,it isallalongto beobserved,thatoffencesofanaccessorynaturearenotmentioned;unlessitbehenandtherewheretheyhaveobtainedcurrentnameswhichseemedtoomuchinvoguetobeomitted.Accessoryoffencesarethosewhich,withoutbeingtheveryactsfromwhichthemischiefinquestiontakesitsimmediater_e,are,inthewayofcau_lity,connectedwiththoseacts. Seeoh.vii[Actions]_tiv.andB,1.tit.[Accessoryoffeneet].

XVI.] _ioi#iOnOfO:_'_CeS. 243

requirediscussion,andwillthereforebeintroducedwithmoreproprietyinthebodyofthework,thaninapreliminarypart,ofwhichthebusinessisonlytodrawoutlines.XXXII.Anact,bywhichthehappinessofanindividualOfreneu_mnst_

isdisturbed,iseithersimpleinitseffectsorcomplex.Itlndtvidu_l_. . may"Ms

maybestyledsimpleinitseffects,whenitaffectsmm inone_,=plein. thetreffeda.onlyofthearticlesorpointsinwhichhisinterest,aswenaveorcompl=,.seen,isliabletobeaffected:complex,whenitaffectshiminseveralofthosepointsatonce.Suchasaresimpleintheireffectsmustofcoursebefirstconsidered.XXXIII.Inasimpleway,thatisinonewayatatime,ao_sc_

man'shappinessisliabletobedisturbedeitherI.Byactions_t--referringtohisownpersonitself;or2.ByactionsreferringtotMsir_ner_'suchexternalobjectsonwhichhishappinessismoreorlessde-pendent.Astohisownperson,itiscomposedoftwodifferentparts,orreputedparts,hisbodyandhismind.Actswhichexertaperniciousinfluenceonhisperson,whetheritbeonthecorporealoronthementalpartofit,willoperatethereoneitherimmediately,andwithoutaffectingkiswill,ormediately,throughtheinterventionofthatfaculty:viz.bymeansoftheinfluencewhichtheycausehiswilltoexerciseoverhisbody.Ifwiththeinterventionofhiswill,itmustbebymentalcoerc/on:thatis,bycausinghimtowilltomaintain,andthenceactuallytomain-rain,acertainconductwhichitisdisagreeable,orinanyotherwayPernicious,tohimtomaintain.Thisconductmayeitherbepositiveornegative1:whenpositive,thecoercionisstyledcom-ptdsianorconstraint:whennegative,restraint.Nowthewayinwhichthecoercionisdisagreeabletohim,maybebypro-ducingeitherpainofbody,oronlypainofmind.Ifpainofbodyisproducedbyit,theoffencewillcomeaswellunderthisasunderotherdenominations,whichweshallcometopresently.Moreover,theconductwhichaman,bymeansofthecoercion,isforcedtomaintain,willbedeterminedeitherspecificallyandoriginally,bythedeterminationoftheparticularactsthem-selveswhichheisforcedtoperlormortoabstainfrom,or

ICh.vii.[Action]viii.

244 ./)iris/onof Offences. [en_P.

generallyandincidentally,bymeansofhisbeingforcedtobeornot tobe insuchorsucha place. Butif he ispreventedfrombeingin oneplace,heisconfinedtherebyto another. Forthewholesurfaceof the earth,like the surfaceof anygreaterorlesserbody,maybeconceivedto bedividedintotwo,aswellasintoanyothernumberofpartsor spots.If thespotthen,whichheisconfinedto,besmallerthan the spotwhichheisexcludedfrom,hisconditionmaybecalledconfinement: if larger,banish-ment1. Whetheranact, the etiectof whichis toexert a per-niciousinfluenceonthe personofhimwhosuttersbyit,operateswithor withoutthe interventionofan act of hiswill,the mis-chiefit produceswilleither be raortalor notmortal. If notmortal,it willeitherbe reparable,that is temporary; or irre.parable,that is perpetual. If reparable,the mischievousactmaybe termeda simplecorporalinjury; if irreparable,anirreparablecorporalinjury. Lastly,a painthat a manexperi- .enccsinhismindwilleitherbe apainof actualsufferance,or apain of apprehension.If a painof apprehension,either theottenderhimselfisrepresentedasintendingtobearapartintheproductionof it, orhe is not. In the formercasetheoffencemaybestyledmenacemerd:inthelatter case,asalsowherethepainisa painofactualsubstance,a simplemen_alinjury. Andthus wehaveninegeneraorkindsofpersonalinjuries; which,whenrangedin the order mostcommodiousfor examination,willstandas follows; viz.I. Simplecorporalinjuries. 5. Ir-reparablecorporalinjuries. 3. Simpleinjuriousrestrainment.4. Simpleinjuriouscompulsion2. 5- Wrongfulconfinement.

1Ofthese,andtheseveralotherlevelingexpressionswhichthereisocca-siontobringtoviewintheremainingpartofthisan_lyBis,ampledefini-tionswillbefoundinthebodyofthework,conceivedintermini_le_. Togiveparticularreferencestothesedefimtions,wouldbeencumberingthepagetolittlepurpose.

Injunousrestrammentatlarge,andinjuriouscompulsionatlarge,areherestyledsirap_e,inordertodistinguishthemfromconfinement,banish-ment,robbery,andextortion; allwhichare,inmanyoases,butsomanymodificationsofoneorotherofthetwofirst-mentionedoflrences.

Toconstituteanoffenceanactorsimpleinjariousrestrainment,orslmpleinjuriouscompulsion,itissufficientiftheinfluenceitBxertsbe,inthefirstplace,perniciou_; inthenextpl_ce,exertedonthepemonbythemedium

XVl.] Divigign of Offence,. _45

6. Wrongfulbanishment. 7. Wrongfulhomicide. 8. Wrongfulmenacement 1. 9. Simple mental injuries 2.

ofthe will: it isnot necessarythat that partofthe personon whichit isexertedbethe parttowhichit is pernicious: it isnot evennecessarythatit shouldimmediatelybepernicioustoeitheroftheseparts,thoughtooneorotherofthemit mustbeperniciousinthe long-rim,if it beperniciousatall. Anact in whichthe body,forexample,is concerned,maybeverydisagreeable,andtherebypernicioustohimwhoperformsit,thoughneitherdisagreeablenorpcermciousto hisbody: for instance,tostand or sit mpublicwith a label onhis back,orunderanyothercircumstancesofignominy.

It maybeobserved,that wrongfulmenscementisincludedaswellinsimpleinjuriousrestrainmentasin simpleinjuriouscompulsion,exceptintherarecasewherethemotive_bywhichonemanis preventedby anotherfromdoinga thingthat wouldhavebeenmateriallytohisadvantage,orinducedtodo a thingthat ismateriallytohisprejudice,areofthea/_wri_gkind

z Although,forreasonsthathavebeenalreadygiven(supraxxxi),nocompletecatalogue,northereforeanyexhaustiveview,ofeithersemi-publicor self-regardingoffences,canbeexhibitedin thischapter,it may beasatisfaction,however,tothe reader,to seesomesortoflist oIthem,ifxtwereonlyfor thesakeofhavingexamplesbeforehiseyP._.Suchfistscan-notanywherebe placedto moreadvantagethanunderthe headsoftheseveraldivisionsof privateextra-regardingoffences,to whichthe semi-publicand selLregardingoffencesin questionrespectivelycorrespond.Concerningthetwolatter,however,andthelastmoreparticularly,it mustbeunderstoodthat allI meanby insertingthem here,is to exhibitthemischief,ifany,whichit isofthenatureofthemrespectivelytoproduce,withoutdecidinguponthequestion,whetherit wouldbeworthlvhile[seech.xiii. Case_unmeet]ineveryinstance,for the sakeofcombatingthatmischief,tointroducetheevilofpunishment.In thecourseofthis detail,it willbeobserved,that thereareseveralheadsofextra,tegardiugprivateoffences,towhichthecorrespondentheads,eitherofsemi-publicor self-regardingoffences,orofboth,arewanting. Thereasonsofthescdeficien-cieswillprobably,in mostinstances,beevidentenoughuponthe faceofthem. Lesttheyshouldnot,theyarehoweverspecifiedin thebodyofthework. Theywouldtake up too muchroomwerethey to beinsertedhere.

I. Sm_-PvnLtco_P.Nczsthroughcalamity. Calamities,by whichtheperseusorpropertiesofmen,orboth,arehableto beaffected,seemtobeas follows: 1.Pestilenceorcontagion, z. Famine,andotherkindsofscarcity. 3-Mischiefsproducibleby personsdeficientin pointof under-standing,suchasinfants,idiots,andmaniacs,forwantoftheirbeingproperlytakencareof.4-Mischiefproduciblebytheravagesofnoxiousanimals,suchasbeastsofprey,locusts,&c.&c.5.CoUapsion,orfalloflargemassesofsolidmatter,suchasdecayedbuildings,orrocks,orrn_esofsnow.6.Inundationorsubmersion.7.Tempest.8.Blight.9-Con-flsgration,xo.Explosion.Inasfarasamanmaycontribute,byanyimprudentactofhis,togivebirthtoanyoftheabovecalamities,suchactmaybeanoffence.Inasfarasamanmayfailtodowhatisincumbentonhimtodotowardspreventingthem,suchfailuremaybeanoffence.IL8m_-_'_coFrm_czsofmorndelinquency.A wholenedghbour-

246 _ivi_ionof Offenee#. [CHAP.

O_enee XXXIV.Wecomenowtooitencesagainstreputationmerely._nstreputatm.Theserequirebut fewdistinctions. In point of reputation there

is but one way of suffering,which is by losinga portion of thegood-willof others. Now, in respect of the good-willwhichothers bearyou,you may bea loserin either of twoways: I. Bythe manner in which you are thought to behave yoursel_; and2. By the mannerin which othersbehave, or are thought to be-have, towardsyou. To cause peopleto think that you yourselfhave so behaved, as to have beenguilty of any of those actswhich cause a man to possess less than he did beforeof thegood-willel the community, is what may be styled defarnatitm.Butsuchistheconstitutionofhumannature,andsuchtheforceofprejudice,thatamanmerelybymanifestinghisownwantofgood-willtowardsyou,thougheversounjustinitself,andeversounlawfullyexpressed,mayinamannerforceotherstowith-drawfromyouapartoftheirs. Whenhedoesthisbywords,orbysuchactionsashavenoothereffectthaninasfarastheyhoodmaybemadetosuffer,I.Simplecorporalinjuries:inotherwords,theymaybemadetosufferinpointofhealth,byoffemiveordangerotJstradesorrnanu/sctures:bysellingorfalselypuffingoffunwholesomemedi-cinesorprovisions:bypoisoningordryingupofsprings,destroyingof_queduct_,destroyingwoods,walls,orotherfencesagsinstwindandrain..bysnykindsofaxtffieislscarcity;orbyanyothercslamitiesintentionallyproduced.2.and3.Simpleinjuriousrcstrainment,andsimpleinjuriouscompulsion:forinstance,byobligingawholeneighbourhood,bydintofthreateninghand-bills,orthreateningdiscourses,publielydehvered,tojsin,orforbeartojoin,inilluminations,_cclsmstious,outcries,invectives,sub-scriptious,undert_l_ng_,processions,oranyothermodeofcxpressingjoyorgrief,displeasureorapprobation;or,inshort,inanyothercourseofconductwhatsoever.4.and5.Confiaementandbanishment:bythespoilingofroads,bridges,orferry-boats.,bydestroyingorunwarrantablypre-occupy-mgpubl/ccarnages,orhousesofsccommodatiom5.Byreenactment:asbymcendiaryletters,andtumul_uotmassemblie_:byne,rspapemorhand-bills,.denouncingvengeanceagainstpersonsofIxtrtioulardenominstions:forexample,sgainstJewB,Catholic,Protes_nt_,8cotchmen,GasconB,Cstslonisns,&c.7.Simplementalinjuries:asbydistress/ul,terrifying,obscene,orirreligiousexhibitions;suchasexposureofsoresbybeggars,exposureofdeadbodies,exhibitionsorreportsofoounter_ei_witchorm_or&ppsrition_,exhibitionofobsceneorblasphemousprint_:obsceneorblas-phemousdiscoursesheldinpublic:spreadingfalsenewsofpublicdefe_t6inbattle,orofothermisfortnnoa.IH.Self-regardingoffencesagainstperson.I.Fasting.Abstinence

fromvenery,self-flagellation,self-mut/lation,andotherJog-denyingendself-tormentingprsctiee_.2.Gluttony,drunkenness,exOsssivevenery,andotherspecie6ofintempm'snee.$.Suicide.

xvI.] .l)ivlzio_of Offences. _47

standin theplaeeofwords,theoffencemaybestyledvilifica.tion. Whenit isdonebysuchactionsas,besidestheirhavingthiseffect,areinjuriesto theperson,theoffencemaybestyledapersonalinsult."ifithasgotthelengthofreachingthebody,acorparalinsuIt: ifit stoppedshortbeforeitreachedthatlength,itmaybestyledinsultingmenacement.Andthuswehavetwogeneraorkindsofoffencesagainstreputationmerely; towit,I. Defamation:and,2. Vilification,or Revilement1. Astocorporalinsults,andinsultingmenacement,theybelongto thecompoundtitleofoffencesagainstpersonandreputationbothtogether.

XXXV.Ifthepropertyofonemansuffersbythedehnquencyon'en¢_ofanother,suchpropertyeitherwasintrustwiththeoffender,_.oritwasnot: ifit wasintrust,theoffenceisabreachoftrust,andofwhatevernatureit maybeinotherrespects,maybestyleddissipationinbreachqftrust,ordissipationofpropertgintrust. Thisisaparticularcase: theoppositeoneis themorecommon: insuchcasetheseveralwaysinwhichpropertymay,bypossibility,becometheobjectofanoffence,maybethuscon-ceived.Offencesagainstproperty,ofwhateverkinditbe,maybedistinguished,ashathbeenalreadyintimated3,intosuchasconcernthelegalpossessionofit,orrighttoit,andsuchascon-cernonlytheenjoymentofit, or,whatis thesamething,theexerciseofthatright. Undertheformeroftheseheadscome,ashathbeenalreadyintimateds,theseveraloffencesofwroncffuInon.investment,wronvffulinterception,wronrffuldivestment,usurpation,andwrongfulattr_'bution.Wheninthecommissionofanyoftheseoffencesafalsehoodhasservedasaninstrument,andthat,asit iscommonlycalled,awilful,orasitmightmoreproperlybetermed,anadv/sed_one,theepithetfraudulentmaybeprefixedto thenameoftheoffence,orsubstitutedin theroomofthewordwronefful.Thecircumstanceoffraudulencythenmayservetocharacteriseaparticularspecies,comprisable

I. SEm-P_rBLICol_zNcr,s. L Calumniationandvilificationofpar-ticulardenominationsofpersons; suchasJews,Cathohcs,_tc.

]1".SELF-R_CJARDINGOFFENCI_S.I. Incontinenceinfemales.2. Incest.= Suprlx.rvii. = Ib. a Seeoh.ix. [Consciousness]ii.

g4 8 Divi_ior__ Off,_ee_'. [Call'.

under each of those genericheads : in likemannerthe circum-stance of torce,of which morea little farther on, may serve tocharacteriseanother. With respect to wrongfulinterceptioninparticular, the in_stitive eventby which the title to the thingin questionshould have accrued to you, and forwant of whichsuch title is,through the delinquencyofthe offender,asit were,intercepted,is either an act of his own, expressingit as his will,that you should be consideredby the law as the personwho islegally inpossessionofit, or it isanyother eventat l_rge: intheformer case,iI thething, ofwhich youshouldhavebeenput intopossession,is a sum of moneyto a certain amount, the offenceisthat whichhas receivedthe nameoI insolvency; which branchof delinquency,in considerationof the importanceand extentof it, may be treated on the footingof a distinct genusofitself _.

ray_w_t _ Thelightinwhichthe offenceofinsolvencyishereexhibited,mayperhapsat firstconsiderationbeapt to appearnotonlynovelbut im-proper. It maynaturallyenoughappear,that whenamanowesyouasumo1money,for instance,the rightto themoneyis yoursah'eady,andthatwhathewithholdsfromyoubynot payingyou,tsnot thelegaltitle toit, possessionof it, or poweroverit, but thephysicalposseesmnof 1_,or poweroverit, only. But upona moreaccurateexaminationthis willbelotmdnotto be thecase. Whatis meantby payment,isalwaysanactofinves_tivepower,asaboveexplained; anexpressionofan act of thewill,and nota physicalact : it _ an act exerciseda_/threlationindeedto thethingsaidto bepa/d,butnot ina physicalsenseexerciseduponlt_ A manwhoowesyoutenpounds,takesupa handfulofsilverto that _mount,and laysit downona tableat whJchyouaresitting. If thenbywords,orgestures,orany meanswhatever,addressinghimselfto you,heintimatesit tobehis_ thatyoushouldtakeup themoney,anddowithit asyouplease,heissaidto havepa/dyou: butifthesasewas,thathelaiditdownnotforthat purpose,butforsomeother,forinstance,tocountit andexamineit, meaningto takeit upagainhim-sell,orleaveit torsomebodyelse,hehas_ paidyou: yetthephysicalacts,exerciseduponthepiecesofmoneyinquestion,areinbothcasesthe_,me. Tillhedoesexpressa willtothatpurport,whatyouhaveisno_,properlyspeaking,the legalpossessionof themoney,or a rightto themoney,butonlya righttohavehim,orinhisdefauJtperhapsaministerofjustice,compelledtorenderyouthat sortofservice,by therenderingofwhichhe is saidto pay you: that is,to expresssuchwillas above-mentioned,withregardto somecorporealarticle,or otherofa certainspecies,andofvMueequaltotheamountofwhatheowesyou:or,inotherwords,toexerciseinyourfavouran actofinvestitivepowerwithrelationtosomesucharticle.

Trueit is, that in certaincas_ a nmamayperhapsnot bedeemed,accordingtocommonsceept_tion,tohavepa/dyou,withoutrenderingyoua furthersetofservices,andthoseofanothersort: a setofservices,which

xvx.] d)ivisio_0/ Off.eel. 249

Next,withregardto suchoftheoffencesagainstpropertyasconcernonlytheenjoymentoftheobjectinquestion.Thisobjectmustbeeitheraservice,orsetofservices1,whichshouldhavebeenrenderedbysomeperson,orelseanarticlebelongingto theclassofthinqs.Intheformercase,theoffencemaybestyledwroru2fulwithholdingofservice82.Inthelattercaseitmayadmitoffarthermodifications,whichmaybethusconceived:Whenanyobjectwhichyouhavehadthephysicaloccupationorenjoymentof,ceases,inanydegree,inconsequenceoftheactofanotherman,andwithoutanychangemadeinsomuchofthatpowerasdependsupontheintrinsicphysicalconditionofyourperson,tobesubjectto thatpower; thiscessationis eitherowingtochangein the intrinsicconditionof thethingitself,orinitsexteriorsituationwithrespecttoyou,thatis,to itsbeingsituatedoutofyourreach.Intheformercase,thenatureofthechangeiseithersuchastoputitoutofyourpowertomakeanyuseofit at all,in_vhichcasethethingissaidtobedestroyed,andtheoffencewherebyit issotreatedmaybetermedarerenderedbytheexercisingofcertainactsofa physicalnatureupontheverythingwithwhichheissaidtopayyou: to wit, bytransferringtilethingtoacertainplacewhereyoumaybesuretofindit, andwhereit maybe coavcnientforyouto receiveit. But theseservices,although_heobligationofrenderingthemshouldbeannexedbylawtotheobligationofrenderingthoseotherserviccsmthepertermaueoofwhichtheoperationofpaymentproperlycom_ists,areplainlyactsofa distinctnature:noraxetheyesscntialtotheoperation: by themsclvesthey donotconstituteit, anditmaybeperformedwithoutthem. It m_,stbe pefformcdwithoutthemwhereverthethingto bctransferredhappenstobealreadyasmuchwithinthereach,physicallyspeaking,ofthe creditor,as byanya_tofthedebtorit canbemadeto be.

Thismatter wouldhaveappearedin a clearerhghthadit beenprac-ticableto eaterhereintoa fullexaminationofthenatureofproperty,andtheseveralmodificationsofwhichit issusceptible:buteverythmgcannotbe doneat once.

I Supraxxvi.t Underwrongfulwithholdingofservicesis includedbreachofcontrae_:

fortheobligatmntorenderservicesmaybegroundedeitheroncontract,oruponether titles: in otherwords,the eventof a man'sengaginginacontractisoneoutofmanyotherinvestitiveeventsfromwhichtherightofreceivingthemmaytakeits commencement.Seeeh.xvii.[Limits],§iv.

Werethe wordserti_sto betakenm its utmostlatitude(negativein-eludedaswellaspositive)thisoneheadwouldcoverthewholelaw. Tothisplacethenareto be referredsuchservicesonly,the withholdingofwhichdoesnotcoincidewithanyoftheotheroffences,forwhichseparatedenomin_tionahavebeenprovided.

25° .Division_ Offences. [chAP.

wron_uldestruetfon: orsuchonlyas to rendertheusesit iscapableofbeingputtooflessvaluethanbefore,inwhichcaseit issaidtobedamaqed,or tohavesustaineddamage,andtheot_eneemaybe termedwron_ulendamaqeraent.Moreover,inas farasthevaluewhicha thingisof toyou isconsideredasbeingliabletobe insomedegreeimpaired,byanyacton thepartofanyotherpersonexerciseduponthatthing,althoughonagivenoccasionnoperceptibledamageshouldensue,the exer-ciseofany suchactis commonlytreatedon thefootingofanoffence,whichmaybe termedwron!l,fUlusi_W,or occupation.

If the causeofthe thing'sfailinginits capacityofbeingofusetoyou,liesin the exteriorsituahonof it withrelationtoyou,theoffencemaybestyledwrongfuldetainment1. Wrongfuldetainment,ordetention,duringanygivenperiodoftime,mayeitherbeaccompaniedwiththeintentionofdetainingthethingforever(thatisforan indefinitetime),ornot: if it be,andifit be accompaniedat the sametimewiththeintentionof notbeingamenabletolawforwhatisdone,it seemsto answertotheideacommonlyannexedtothewordembezzlement,anoffencewhichiscommonlyaccompaniedwithbreachoftrust2. Intheeaseofwrongfuloccupation,thephysicalfacultyofoccupyingmayhavebeenobtainedwithorwithouttheassistanceorconsentoftheproprietor,orotherpersonappearingtohavea rightto

IntheEnglishlaw,detinueanddetaine_: detinueappliedchieflytomovables;detainer,toJmmov_bles.Underdetinueanddetainercasesamalsocomprised,inwhichtheoffenceconsistsinforbe.sa'ingto transferthelegalpossessionofthething:suchcasesmaybeconsideredascomingundertheheadofwrongfulnon-investment.Thedistinctionbetweenmerephysicalpossessionandlegalpossession,wherethelatterisshort-livedanddefca_ible,seemsscarcelyhithertotohavebeenattendedto. Inamultitudeofinstancestheyareconfoundedunderthesameexpressions.Thecauseis,thatprobablyunderalllaws,andfrequentlyforveT goodreasons,thelegalpossession,withwhatevercertaintydefensibleupontheeventofata'isl,is,downtothetimeofthatevent,inmanycasesannexedtotheappe.arsaceofthephysical.

i Inattemptingtoexhibittheimportbelongingtothissadothernameso!offencesincommonuse,I musgbeunderstoodtospe_kallalongwiththeutmostdiffidence.Thetruthis,theimportgiventothemiscommonlyneitherdetermine,renoruniform: sothatinthenatm'eofthings,nodeft-nitiontlmtcanbegivenofthembyaprivatepersoncanbealtogptheranezaetone.Tofixthesenseofthembelongsonlytothelegislator.

xvI.] Bivi_io'aof OffeJwe_. 25I

affordsuchassistanceorconsent.Ifwithoutsuchassistanceorconsent,andtheoccupationbeaccompaniedwiththeintentionofdetainingthethingforever,togetherwiththeintentionofnotbeingamenabletolawforwhatisdone,theoffenceseemstoanswertotheideacommonlyannexedtothewordtheftorstealing.IfinthesamecircumstancesaforceisputuponthebodyoIanypersonwhouses,orappearstobedisposedrouse,anyendeavourstopreventtheact,thisseemstobeoneofthecasesin whichtheoffenceisgenerallyunderstoodtocomeunderthenameofrobbery.

If thephysicalfacultyinquestionwasobtainedwiththeas-sistanceorconsentofaproprietororotherpersonabovespokeuof,andstilltheoccupationofthethingisanoffence,itmayhavebeeneitherbecausetheassistanceorconsentwasnotfairlyorbecauseit wasnotfreelyobtained.If notfairlyobtained,itwasobtainedby fahehood,which,ifadv/sed,is insucha casetermedfraud: andtheoffence,ifaccompaniedwiththeinten-tionofnotbeingamenableto law,maybetermedfraudulentobtainmentordefraudmenta. Ifnotfredyobtained,itwasob-tainedbyforce: towit,eitherbyaforceput uponthebody,whichhasbeenalreadymentioned,orbya forceputuponthemind. Ifbyaforceputuponthemind,orinotherwords,bytheappficationofcoercivemotives2,itmustbebyproducingtheapprehensionofsomeevil:whichevil,iftheactisanoffence,mustbesomeeviltowhichontheoccasioninquestiontheonepersonhasnorighttooxposetheother. Thisisonecaseinwhich,iftheoffencebeaccompaniedwiththeintentionofde-tainingthethingforever,whetheritbeorbenotaccompaniedwiththeintentionofnotbeingamenableto law,it seemstoagreewiththe ideaofwhatis commonlymeantbyeztortio,.Nowtheparta mantakesinexposinganotherto theevilin

i Theremainingcasescomeundertheheadof usurpation,orwrongfulinvestmentof property.Thedistinctionseemshardlyhithertoto have..beenattendedto : it tramslikeanother,mentionedabove,upontheobs-tructionbetweenlegalpossessionand physical. Thesameobservationmaybeappliedto thecaseof ertortionhereafterfollowing.'Videsupra,xxvil.

_5_ 1_'vi_ionofOffencee. [chAr.question,mustbeeitherapositiveoranegativepart.Intheformercase,again,theevilmusteitherbepresentordistant.In thecasethenwheretheassistanceorconsentisobtainedbya forceput uponthebody,orwhere,if bya forceput uponthemind,theparttakenintheexposingamanto theapprehensionof theevilispositive,theevilpresent,andtheobjectofit hisperson,andifat allyratetheextortion,thusapplied,beaceom-partiedwiththe intentionofnotbeingamenabletolaw,itseemsto agreewiththe remainingcaseof whatgoesunderthe nameofrobbery.

Asto dissipationinbreachof trust, this, whenproductiveofa pecuniaryprofittothe trustee,seemstobeonespeciesofwhatis commonlymeantby peculation. Another,and the onlyre-mainingone,seemstoconsistinactsofoccupationexercisedbythe trusteeuponthethingswhichare theobjectsofthefiduciaryproperty,forhisownbenefit,andto the damageof thebenefi-ciary. Asto robbery,thisoffence,by the mannerin whichtheassistanceorconsentisobtained,becomesanoffenceagainstpro-pertyandpersonatthesametime.Dissipationinbreachoftrust,and peculation,may perhaps be mote commodiouslytreatedof undertheheadofoffencesagainsttrust1. Aftertheseexcep-tions,we have thirteen generaor principalkindsof offencesagainstproperty,which,whenrangedinthe ordermostcommo-diousforexamination,may stand as follows,viz. z. Wrongfulnon-lnvestmentofproperty. 2.Wrongfulinterceptionofpro-perty. 3-Wrongfuldivestmentofproperty. 4.Usurpationofproperty. 5. Wrongfulinvestmentof property. 6. Wrongfulwithholdingofservices.7.Wrongfuldestructionorendamage-ment. 8. Wrongfuloccupation. 9. Wrongfuldetainment.Io. Embezzlement._I. Theft. I2. Defraudment.I3. Ex-tortion_

i Usury,which,if itmustbeanoffence,isanoffencecommittedwithconsent,thatis,withtheconsentofthepartysupposedtobeinjured,oanonotmerita placein thecatalogueofoffences,unlesstheconsentwereeitherunfairlyobtainedorunfreely: inthefirstcase,it coincideswithdefraudmeng; intheother,withextortion.

I.S_m-PUBLIOOFFZNOZS.I.Wrongfnldivestment,interception,usur-l_tion,&c.ofvaluables,whicharethepropertyofacorporatebody; or

xvx.] Divisionof Offenee_. _53

Weproceednowto consideroffenceswhichare complexintheir effects. Regularly,indeed,weshouldcometo offencesagainstcondition; but it willbe moreconvenientto speakfirstof offencesbywhicha man'sinterestis affectedin twoofthe precedingpointsat once.

XXXVI.First, then, withregardto offenceswhichaffecto_enc_• a_att_t

personandreputationtogether.Whenanyman,byamoueo_per_nLnatreatmentwhichaffectsthe person,injuresthe reputationofre_u_ao,.another,Msendandpurposemusthavebeeneitherhisownim-mediatepleasure,orthat sortofreflectedpleasuxe,whichincer-taincircumstancesmaybereapedfromthe sufferingofanother.Nowtheonlyimmediatepleasureworthregarding,whichanyonecanreapfromthepersonofanother,andwhichat thesametimeiscapableofaffectingthe reputationof thelatter, isthepleasureofthe sexualappetites. Thispleasure,then,if reapedat all,musthavebeenreapedeitheragainstthe consentoftheparty,or withconsent. Ifwithconsent,theconsentmusthavebeenobtainedeitherfreelyandfairlyboth,orfreelybut notfairly,or elsenotevenfreely; inwhichcasethe fairnessisoutofthequestion.If theconsentbealtogetherwanting,theoffeneeis calledrape: if notfairlyobtained,seductionsimply: if notfreely,it maybecalledforcibleseduction.In anycase,eithertheoffencehasgonethelengthofconsummation,orhasstoppedshortofthat period; if it hasgonethat length,it takesoneorotherofthenamesjustmentioned: if not,it maybeincludedafikein allcasesunderthe denominationofa simplelasciviousinjury. Lastly,to takethe casewherea maninjuringyouinyourreputation,byproceedingsthat regardyourperson,doesitwhichaxeintheiadmcrimin_teoccupationofa neighbourhood; suchasparishchurches,altars,relies,andotherartieleaappropriatedtothepur-posesofreligion: orthingswhtchareintheindiscrlminatooccul_tionofthepublicatlarge;suchasmile-stone_,market-houses,exchanges,publicgsa-dens,andcathedrals.2.Settingonfootwhathavebeencalledbubb/e_,orfraudulentpsa'tcership,orgamingadventures; prol_g_tingfalsenews,toraiseorsinkthevalueof stocks,orof anyotherdenominationof

el>cote8ofprodigality.zSeeoh.v.[Pl_uresandPains].

forthesakeofthatsortofpleasurewhichwillsometimesresultfromthecontemplationofanother'spain.Underthesecircum-stanceseithertheoffencehasactuallygonethelengthofacor-poralinjury,orithasrestedinmenacement: inthefirstcaseitmaybestyledacorporalinsult;intheother,itmaycomeunderthenameofinsultingme_e'me_.Andthuswehavesixgenera,orkindofoffences,againstpersonandreputationtogether;which,whenrangedintheordermostcommodiousforcon-slderation,willstandthus: r.Corporalinsults.2.Insultingmenacement.3-Seduction.4. Rape.5.Forcibleseduction.6. Simplelasciviousinjuries1.

o_ XXXVII.Secondly,withrespecttothosewhichaffectperson_r_d andpropertytogether.Thata forceputuponthepersonofapmper_y.

manmaybeamongthemeansbywhichthetitletopropertymaybeunlawfullyt_kenawayoracquired,hasbeenalreadystated2. Aforceofthissortthenisacireumstancewhichmayaccompanytheoffencesofwrongfulinterception,wrongfuldi-vestment,usurpation,andwrongfulinvestment.Butinthesecasestheinterventiono[thiscircumstancedoesnothappentohavegivenanynewdenominationtotheoffence_. Inalloranyofthesecases,however,byprefixingtheepithetforcible,wemayhavesomanynamesofoffences,whichmayeitherbeconsideredasconstitutingsomanyspeciesofthegenerabelongingtothedivisionofoffencesagainstproperty,orassomanygenerabe-longingtothedivisionnowbeforeus. Amongtheoffencesthatconcerntheenjoymentofthething,thecaseisthesamewithwrongfuldestructionandwrongfulendamagement;asalsowithwrongfuloecupahonandwrongfuldetainment.Astotheoffenccofwrongfuloccupation,it isonlyinthecasewherethethingoccupiedbelongstotheclassofimmovables,that,whenaccom-paniedbythekindofforcehiquestion,hasobtainedaparticular

I. Slm-_uB_cO_cxs--aone.II. 8ma'-,_vn_a O_rz_czs. s. Sacrificeofvirginity.2. Inde-

cenciesnotpublic.' Supr_a Inthetecl_csl l_ugusgeoftheEnglishlaw,propertysoacquired

s_idtobee,cqairedbyd_r_.

XVl.] .Divi_io_of Offe_ees. 255

namewhichisincommonuse: in thiscaseit iscalledforcibleentry: forcibledetainment,asappfiedalsotoimmovables,butonlytoimmovables,hasobtained,amonglawyersat least,thenameofforcibledetainer1. Andthuswemaydistinguishtengenera,orkindsofoffences,againstpersonandpropertytogether,which,omittingforconciseness'saketheepithetwromfful,willstandthus: I. Forcibleinterceptionofproperty.2. Forcibledivestmentofproperty.3. Forcibleusurpation.4.Forcibleinvestment.5.Forcibledestructionorendamagement.6.For-cibleoccupationofmovables.7. Forcibleentry. 8. Forcibledetainmentofmovables.9. Forcibledetainmentofimmov-ables. Io. Robberyz.

XXXVIII.Wecomenowtooffencesagainstcondition,k o_eao_agamBtman'sconditionor stationin lifeis constitutedbythe legaleonaiuoo.-

SCon&tionsrelationhebearstothepersonswhoareabouthim; thatis,a dom_icwehavealreadyhadoccasiontoshow3,byduties,which,byormv_beingimposedononeside,givebirthtoriffhtsorpowersontheother. Theserelations,it isevident,maybealmostinfinitelydiversified.Somemeans,however,maybefoundofcircum-scribingthefieldwithinwhichthevarietiesof themaredis-played.In thefirstplace,theymusteitherbesuchasarecapableofdisplayingthemselveswithinthecircleofa privatefamily,orsuchasrequirea largerspace.Theconditionscon-stitutedbytheformersortofrelationsmaybestyleddomestic:thoseconstitutedbythelatter,cirC.

XXXIX.Asto domesticconditions,thelegalrelationsbym,-_i_.... oonditmnlwhichtheyareconstitutedmaybedistmgmshedroteI.Suchassrouadoaon

Appliedto movables,theeiroumstauoeof forceliasnever,at leastbythetechnicalpartofthelanguage,beent_kenroteaccount: nosuchcom-binationoftermsasforcibleoccutx_io_isincurrentuse. Theworddain_is appliedto movablesonly: and (inthelanguageofthe law)the_vordforc/b/ehasneverbeencombinedwithit. Thewordappliedto immov-shiesis detainer: thisis combinedwiththewordforcible: andwhatissingular,it isscarcelyin usewithoutthatword. It wasimpossibletosteeraltogetherclearofthistechnicalnomenclature,onaccountoftheinfluencewhichithasonthebodyofthelanguage.

I.Smm-rcBLmOFFm_CZS.LIncendiansn_2.Cr_mir_linundation.II. SrJ_-RZG_avr_GOFFSt_Clm_noao.sSupra,Xxv.note.

_56 ,Division of Offences. [cHaP.

r_t_tr_ are superadded to relations purely natural : and z. Such as,z'elal_iou-_pa without any such natural basis, subsist purely by institution.

Byrelations purely natural, I mean those which maybe said tosubsist between certain personsin virtue of the concernwhichthey themselves,or certain otherpersons,bavehad in theprocesswhich is necessary to the continuance of the species. Theserelationsmay be distinguished,in the firstplace,into contiguousand uncontiguous. The uncontiguoussubsist through theinter-vention of such as are contiguous. The contiguousmay bedis-tinguished,in the firstplace,into connubial,and post-connubial1.Those which may be termed connubial arc two : z. That whichthe male bears towards the female : 2. That which the fcmale

bears to the male2. The post-connubialare either productiveorderivative. The productive is that which the male and femaleabove-mentionedbear eachofthem towards theehildrcn whosrethe immediatefruit of their union; this is termedthe relationof

parentality. Nowas the parents must be, so the children maybe, of different sexes. Accordingly the relationof parentality

may be distinguishedinto four species : I. That which a fatherbears to his son : this is termed paternity. 2. That which a

By thetermsconnubialand/_o_t-connub/a/,allI meanat presenttobringto viewis,themerephysicalunion,apartfromtheceremoniesandlegalengagementsthatwillafterwardsbeconsideredasaccompanyingit.

a_- t Thevagueendundeterminednatureofthefictitiousentity,calledare_lt6"om, -,,,o re_atmn,is,onoccasionslikethe present,apt tobe productiveof agood

obJ_ dealof confusion.A relationis eithersaidto be borneby oneoI theobject_swhicharepartJesto it, to theother,orto subsistbetweenthem.The lattermodeof phraseologyis,perhaps,ratherthe morecommon.Insuchcasetheideaseemsto be,that fromtheeonsiderataonofthetwoobjectsthereresult_but onerelation,whichbelongsasit wereincommonto themboth. Insomecases,thisperhapsmayanswerthepurposeverywell: it willnot,however,inthepresentcase.Forthepresentpurposeitwill benecessaryweshouldconceivetworelationsasresultingfromthetwoobjects,andborne,sincesuchis thephrase,bythe oneof themto ortowardstheother: onerelationbornebythefirstobjectto thesecond:anotherrelationbornebythesecondobjecttothefirst. Thisisnecessaryon two_ccounts: z. Becausefor therelationsthemselvesthereare inmanyinstancesseparatenames:forexsmple,therelatiousofguardianshipandwardship: in whichcase,thespesXingof them_ it they werebutone,maybeproductiveofmuchconfusion.2.Becausethetwodifferentmlationskilmgivebirthtosomanyconditions: whiohconditionsaresofardifferent,thatwhatis predicatedandwillholdgoodofthe one,will,invariouspea_uJars,u weehsLIsee,notholdgoodoftheother.

xv,.] Divi_io_of O_'enee_. 257fatherbearsto hisdaughter: thisalsois termedpaternity.3. Thatwhichamotherbearstoherson: thisiscalledmater.nity. 4.Thatwhichamotherbearstoherdaughter: thisalsois termedmaternity.Uneontiguousnaturalrelationsmaybedistinguishedintoimmediateandremote.Suchasareimme-diate,axewhatonepersonbearstoanotherinconsequenceoftheirbearingeachofthemonesimplerelationtosomethirdperson.Thusthepaternalgrandfatherisrelatedtothepaternalgrandsonbymeansofthetwodifferentrelations,ofdifferentkinds,whichtogethertheybeartothefather: thebrotheronthefather'sside,tothebrother,bymeansofthetworelationsofthesamekind,whichtogethertheybearto thefather.Inthesamemannerwemightproceedtofindplacesinthesystemfortheint_nltelydiversifiedrelationswhichresultfromthecom-binationsthatmaybeformedbymixingtogethertheseveralsortsofrelationshipsby aster/,relationshipsbydescent,col.lateralrelationships,andrelationshipsby a_ni_y: whichh_tter,whentheunionbetweenthetwopartiesthroughwhomtheaffinitytakesplaceissanctionedbymatrimonialsolemnities,aretermedrelationshipsbyrr_rria_e.Butthis,asitwouldbeamostintricateandtedioustask,sohappilyisit, forthepre-sentpurpose,anunnecessaryone. Theonlynaturalrelationstowhichitwillbenecessarytopayanyparticularattention,arethosewhich,whensanctionedbylaw,givebirthtothecon-ditionsofhusbandandwife,thetworelationscomprisedundertheheadofpaxentality,andthecorrespondingrelationscom-prisedundertheheadoffilialityorfiliation.

Whatthenare therelationsof a legalkindwhichcanbesuperinducedupontheabove-mentionednaturalrelations?Theymustbesuchasit is thenatureoflawto givebirthto andestablish.Buttherelationswhichsubsistpurelybyinstitutionexhaust,asweshallsee,thewholestockofrelationshipswhichit is in thenatureof thelawto givebirthto andestablish.Therelationsthenwhichcanbesuperinduceduponthosewhicharepurelynatural,cannotbeinthemselvesanyotherthanwhatareofthenumberofthosewhichsubsistpurelybyinstitution:

sothatallthedi_ereneetherecanbebetweenalegalrelationoftheonesort,andalegalrelationoftheothersort,is,thatintheformercasethecircumstancewhichgavebirthtothenaturalrelationservesasamarktoindicatewherethelegalrelationistofix:inthelattercase,theplacewherethelegalrelationistoattachisdeterminednotbythatcir-cumstancebutbysomeother.Fromtheseconsiderationsitwillappearmanifestlyenough,thatfortreatingoftheseveralsortsofconditions,aswellnaturalaspurelyconventional,inthemostcommodiousorder,itwillbenecessarytogivetheprecedencetothelat_er.Proceedingthroughoutuponthesameprinciple,weshallallalonggivethepriority,nottothosewhicharefirstbynature,buttothosewhicharemostsimpleinpointofdescription.Thereisnootherwayofavoidingperpetualanticipationsandrepetitions.

Dos_tloXL.Wecomenowtoconsiderthedomesticorfamilyrela-r_llltlOU/iwhich_rotions,whicharepurelyoflegalinstitution.Itistothesein_lyor e_ect,thatbothkindsofdomesticconditions,consideredasth6_t_ta_on.workoflaw,areindebtediortheirorigin.Whenthelaw,no

matterforwhatpurpose,takesuponitselftooperate,inamatterinwhichithasnotoperatedbefore,itcanonlybebyimposingoblfgat{o_I.Nowwhenalegalobligationisimposedonanyman,therearebuttwowaysinwhichitcaninthefirstinstancebeenforced.Theoneisbygivingthepowerofenforcingittothepartyinwhosefavouritisimposed:theotherisbyreservingthatpowertocertainthirdpersons,who,invirtueoftheirpos-sessingit,arestyledministersofjustice.Inthefirstcase,thepartyfavouredissaidtopossessnotonlyar/_htasagainstthepartyobliged,butalsoapoweroverhim:inthesecondcase,ar/9_only,uncorroboratedbypower.Inthefirstcase,thepartyfavouredmaybestyleda_uper_or,andastheyarebothmembersofthesamefamily,adomest/cwuper/or,withreferencetothepartyobliged:who,inthesamecase,maybestyledadomeJt/cinferior,withreferencetothepartyfavoured.Nowinpointofpossibility,itisevident,thatdomesticconditions,orakind

t8e¢oh._ [Limits],|ill

xvI.] _ir/#/0_ofOffe,ee,. z59offictitiouspossessionanalogoustodomesticconditions,mighthavebeenlookeduponasconstituted,aswellbyrightsalone,withoutpowersoneitherside,asbypowers.Butinpointofutility1it doesnotseemexpedient: andinpointoffact,pro-xTwopersons,whobyanymeansstandengagedtolivetogether,can

neverlivetogetherlong,butoneofthemwillchoosethatsomeactorothershouldbedonewhichtheotherwillchooseshouldnotbedone.Whenthisisthecase,howisthecompetitiontobedecided_ Layingasidegene-rosityandgood-breeding,whicharethetardyandunccrtainfruitsoflong-establishedlaws,itisevidentthattherecanbenocertainmeansofdecidingitbutphysicalpower:whichindeedistheverymeansbywhichfarmlyaswellasothercompetitionsmusthavebeendecided,longbeforeanysuchofficeasthatoflegislatorhadexistence.Thisthenbeingtheorderofthingswhichthelegislatorfindsestabhshedbynature,howshouldhedobetterthantoacquiesceinit?Thepersonswhobytheinfluenceofcausesthatprevaileverywhere,standengagedtolivetogether,are,LParentandchild,duringtheinfancyofthelatter:2.Manandwife: 3.Childrenofthesameparents.Parentandchild,bynecessity:since,ifthechilddidnotlivewiththeparent(orwithsomebodystandingintheplaceoftheparent)itcouldnotliveatall:husbandandwife,byachoiceapproa.c.hingtonecessity:childrenofthesameparents,bythenecessityoftheirlivingeachofthemwiththeparents.Asbetweenparentandchild,thenecessitythereisofapowerontheparto[theparentforthepreservationofthechildsupersedesallfartherreasoning.Asbetweenmanandwife,thatnecessitydoesnotsubsist.Theonlyreasonthatappliestothiscaseisthenecessityofputtinganendtocompetition.Themanwouldhavethemeatroasted,thewomanboiled:shalltheybothfasttillthejudgecomesintodressitforthem?Thewomanwouldhavethechilddressedingreen;theman,inblue:shallthechildbenakedtillthejudgecomesintoclotheit?Thisaffordsareasonforgivingapowertooneorotheroftheparties:butitaffordsnoneforgivingthepowertotheoneratherthantotheother.How thenshallthelegislatordetermine? Supposingitequallyeasytogiveittoeither,lethimlookeversolongforareasonwhyheshould_veittotheoneratherthantotheother,andhemaylookinvain.Buthowdoesthern_tterstandalready?forthereweremenandwives(or,whatcomestothesamething,m_leandfemalelivingtogetherasmanandwife)beforetherewerelegislators.Lool_ngroundhimthen,hefindsalmosteverywherethemalethestrongerofthetwo;andthereforepossessingalready,byparelyphysicalmeans,thatpowerwhichheisthinkingofbestowingononeofthembymeansofIAw.How thencanhedosowellasbyplacingthelegalpowerinthesamehandswhicharebeyondcompari-sonthemorelikelyto'beinpossessionofthephysical? inthisway,fewtransgresmons,andfewcallsforpunishment:intheotherway,.perpe.tualtransgressions,andperpetualcallsforpunishment.Solonmsaldtohave itramsfer_dthesameideato thedistributionofstatepowers.Herethenw_ gs_za_" herewasthe workofgenius. Butin the disposalofdomesticpower,everylegislator,withoutanyeffortofgenius,hasbeenaSolon.Somuchforre_on_:addtowhich,inpointofmoti_,thatlegis-

tSocim,lmotlve_:_mlmthyforthcpublic: loveofrcputatlo_,&c.t_If.n_in_"m_tives:orso_slmotlves,whicharesocmlmalesse..r[ent:sympathy

forper*on*of•partleulat*dm_*Iptlon:pe.so_sofLhe_e _x,S2

_6o l_ivi_i_of Off,_oea. [chAP.bablyowingto theinvariableperceptionwhichmenmusthavehadofthe inexpediency,no suchconditionsseemevertohavebeenconstitutedbysuchfeeblebands. Ofthe legalrelation-shipsthen,whichare capableof beingmadeto subsistwithinthe circleof a family,there remainthose only in whichtheobhgationisenforcedbypower. Nowthen,whereveranysuchpoweris conferred,the endor purposeforwhichit wascon-ferred(unlessthe legislatorcanbe supposedto act withoutamotive)musthavebeentheproducingofabenefittosomebody:inotherwords,it musthavebeenconferredforthesakeofsome-body. Thepersonthen,for whosesakeit is conferred,musteitherbeoneof thetwopartiesjust mentioned,ora thirdparty:if oneofthesetwo,it mustbeeitherthesuperioror theinferior.Ifthesuperior,suchsuperioriscommonlycalledamaaer; andtheinferioristermedhissertura: andthepowermaybetermeda beneficialone. If it befor thesakeof theinferiorthatthepowerisestablished,the superioristermedag_ardian; andtheinferiorhisward:andthepower,beingtherebycoupledwitha trust,maybe termeda.fiduciaryone. If forthe sakeof athirdparty,the superiormaybetermeda superin*endent; andthe inferiorhissubordi_e. Thisthird partywilleitherbeanassignableindividualor set ofindividuals,ora setofunassign-ableindividuals.In this lattercasethe trust iseitherapublicor a semi-publicone: andthe conditionwhichit constitutesisnot ofthe domestic,but ofthe civilkind. In the formercase,thisthirdpartyor principal,as he maybe termed,eitherhasa beneficialpoweroverthesuperintendent,or hehasnot: if hehas,the superintendentishisservant,andconsequentlysoalsois the subordinate: if not, the superintendentisthe masterofthe subordinate; andalltheadvantagewhichtheprincipalhasoverhissuperintendent,it thatofpossessingaset ofrights,un-corroboratedbypower;andtherefore,as wehaveseen1,notfit

labor8_oemalltohavebeenofthemalesex,downtothedaysofC_therine.IspeakhereofthosewhoframelawB,notofthroewhotouchthornwithasceptre.

Supra,note,page259.

xvL] .Divisionof Offe_ces. 26x

toconstituteaconditionofthedomestickind. Butbethecon-ditionwhatitmaywhichisconstitutedbytheserights,ofwhatnaturecantheobligationsbe,towhichthesuperintendentiscapableofbeingsubjectedbymeansofthem? Theyareneithermorenorlessthanthosewhichamaniscapableofbeingsub-jectedtobypowers.It follows,therefore,thatthefunctionsofa principalandhis superintendentcoincidewiththoseofamasterandhisservant;andconsequentlythattheoffencesrela-tiveto thetwoformerconditionswillcoincidewiththeoffencesrelativeto thetwolatter.

XLI.Offencestowhichtheconditionofa master,likeanyo_euc_.... touchingtheotherkindofcondmon,_sexposed,may,ashathbeenalreadyconchtlonofintimated1,bedistinguishedintosuchasconcerntheexistenceama_t_r.oftheconditionitself,andsuchasconcerntheperformanceofthefunctionsofit,whilesubsisting.Firstthen,withregardtosuchasaffectitsexistence.It isobviousenoughthattheser-vicesofonemanmaybeabenefittoanother: theconditionofamastcrmaythereforebeabeneficialone.It standsexposed,therefore,to theoffencesofwro_z_fulnon-invest_nent,wrongfulinterception,usurpation,wrongfulinvestment,andwrongfuldi.vestment.Buthowshouldit standexposedto theoffencesofwrongfulabdication,wrongfuldetreciation,andwrongfulimposi.t/on? Certainlyit cannotofitself; forservices,whena manhasthepowerofexactingthemornot,ashethinksfit,canneverbeaburthen. Butifto thepowers,bywhichtheconditionofamasterisconstituted,thelawthinksfit toannexanyobliga-tiononthepartofthemaster; forinstance,thatofaffordingmaintenance,orgivingwages,to theservant,orpayingmoneytoanybodyelse; it isevidentthatinvirtueofsuchobligationtheconditionmaybecomea burthen. In thiscase,however,theconditionpossessedbythemasterwillnot,properlyspeaking,bethepureandsimpleconditionofamaster: itwillbeakindofcomplexobject,resolvableintothebeneficialconditionofamaster,andthebu_thensomeobligationwhichisannexedto it.Stillhowever,ifthenatureoftheobligationlieswithinanarrow

Videsupra,xxvii.

262 /_iv/_/onof Offe_,c_. [teAr.compass,anddoesnot,inthemannerofthatwhichconstitutesatrust,interferewiththeexerciseofthosepowersbywhichtheeonditionofthesuperiorisconstituted,thelatter,notwithstand-ingthisforeignmixture,willstillretainthenameofmastership1.Inthis casetherefore,but nototherwise,the conditionof amastermaystandexposedtotheoffencesofwron_ulabd/eation,wrancffuldetrect_tion,andwronffCu/imposition.Next as tothebehaviourofpersonswithreferencetothiscondition,whilecon-sideredas subsisting.In virtueofits beinga benefit,it isex-posedtodisturbance.Thisdisturbancewilleitherbetheoffenceofastranger,ortheoffenceoftheservanthimself.Whereit istheoffenceofa stranger,andiscommittedby takingthepersonofthe servant,incircumstancesinwhichthe takingofanobjectbelongingto the classof thingswouldbe anact of theft, or(whatisscarcelyworthdistinguishingfromtheft)anactof em-bezzlement: it maybetermedservant-stealing.Whereit istheoffenceof the servanthimself,it isstyledbreachofduty. Nowthe mostflagrantspeciesofbreachofduty,andthat whichin.cludesindeedeveryother,isthat whichconsistsin theservant'awithdrawinghimselffromthe placeinwhichthedutyshouldbeperformed.Thisspeciesof breachofdutyis termedelopement.Again,in virtueof thepo_;erbelongingto this condition,it isliable,on thepart of themasterto abuse. But this powerisnotcoupledwitha trust. Theconditionof amasteristhere-forenotexposedto anyoffencewhichis analogousto breachoftrust. Lastly,onaccountofits beingexposedtoabuse,it maybeconceivedtostand,inpointofpossihihty,exposedtobribery.Butconsideringhowfew,andhowinsignificant,the personsarewhoareliableto besubjectto thepowerhereinquestion,thisisanoffencewhich,o_accountofthe wantoftemptation,therewillseldombeanyexampleofin practice. Wemaytherefore

1Inmostc_vilizednationsthereisasortofdomesticcondition,inwhichthesuperioristermedamaster,whiletheinferioristermedsometimesindeedaservant,butmoreparticularlyandmorefrequentlyanapprentice.In thiscane,thoughthesuperioris,inpointofusage.'knownbynoothernameth_nthatofamaster,therelationshipisinpointoffactamixedono,compoundedoitha_ofmaz/eraaxdthatofg_ardiau.

xvx.] Diviaionof Offe_c¢8. _63

reckonthirteensortsof offencesto whichtheconditionofamasterisexposed; viz.I.Wrongfulnon-investmentofmaster-ship. z. Wrongfulinterceptionof mastership.3. Wrongfuldivestmentofmastership.4.Usurpationofmastership.5.Wrong-[ulinvestmentofmastership.6.Wrongfulabdicationofmaster.ship. 7. Wrongfuldetrectationof mastership.8. Wrongfulimpositionofmastership.9. Abuseofmastership.Io. Dis-turbanceof mastership.I1. Breachoi duty in servants.I2.Elopementofservants.I3. Servant-stealing.

XLII.Asto thepowerbywhichtheconditionofamasterisvinousmodo.sorconstituted,thismaybeeitherlimitedorunlim_ed.WhenitRervltude.isaltogetherunlimited,theconditionoftheservantis styledpureslavery.Butas therulesoflanguageareas farascanbeconceivedfrombeingsteadyonthishead,thetermslaveryiscommonlymadeuseofwhereverthelimitationsprescribedtothepowerof themasterare lookeduponas inconsiderable.Wheneveranysuchlimitationisprescribed,akindoffictitiousentityistherebycreated,and,inqualityofanincorporealobjectofpossession,isbestowedupontheservant:thisobjectisoftheclassofthosewhicharecalledrights: andinthepresentcaseistermed,inamoreparticularmanner,aliberty; andsometimesaprivilege,anim_nuni_y,oranexemption.Nowthoselimitationsontheonehand,andtheselibertiesontheother,may,it isevi-dent,beasvariousastheacts(positiveornegative)whichthemastermayormaynothavethepowerofobligingtheservanttosubmittoortoperiorm.Correspondentthentothe infini-tudeof theseliberties,is theinfinitudeofthemodificationswhichtheconditionofmastership(or,asit ismorecommontosayinsuchacase,thatofservitude)arlmitsof. Thesemodifi-cations,it isevident,may,indifferentcountries,beinfinitelydiversified.Indifferentcountries,therefore,theoffencescharac-terisedbytheabovenameswill,ifspecificallyconsidered,admitofverydifferentdescriptions.If therebeaspotupontheearthsowretchedastoexhibitthespectacleofpureandabsolutelyunlimitedslavery,onthatspottherewillbenosuchthingasanyabuseofmastership; whichmeansneithermorenorless

thanthatnoabuseofmastershipwilltherebetreatedonthefoot-ingofanoffence.Astothequestion,Whetherany,andwhat,modesofservitudeoughttobeestablishedorkeptonfoot_.thisisa que3tion,thesolutionofwhichbelongstothecivilbranchofthe art oflegislation.

o_n_ XLIII. Next,withregardtotheoffencesthat mayconcernLOUChlflgthe_ndi_onoftheconditionof aservant. It mightseemat firstsight,that aB _l'Vaat.

conditionQfthiskindcouldnothavea sparkofbenefitbelong-ingto it : that it couldnotbe attendedwithanyothercon-sequencesthan suchas renderedit a mereburthen. But aburthenitselfmaybea benefit,incomparisonofa greaterbur-then. Conceiveaman'ssituationthentobesuch,thathemust,at anyrate,beina stateofpureslavery. Stillmayit bemate-rialtohim,andhighlymaterial,whothepersoniswhomhehasforhismaster. Astateofslaverythen,underonemaster,maybea beneficialstatetohim,incomparisonwitha stateoislaveryunderanothermaster. Theconditionofa sen,antthenisex-posedto theseveraloffencesto whichacondition,invirtueofits beinga beneficialone,isexposedi. Morethanthis, wherethepowerofthe masterislimited,andthelinfitationsannexedtoit, and thencethelibertiesofthe servant,arc considerable,theservitudemayevenbepositivelyeligible.Foramongstthoselimitationsmaybesuchasare sufficienttoenablethe servanttopossesspropertyofhisown: beingcapablethenofpossessingpropertyofhisown,hemaybe capableofreceivingit fromhismaster: in short,hemayreceivewodles,or otheremoluments.fromhismaster; and the benefitresultingfromthesewagesmaybesoconsiderableastooutweighthe burthenoftheservi-

Itmayseematfirst,tl_tapersonwhoisintheconditionofa slave,couldnothaveitinhispowertoengageinsuchcourseofproceedingaswouldbenecessary,inordertogivehimonapparenttitletobereckoned_mongtheslavesotanothermaster.Butthoughaslaveinpointofr/gh_,it mayhJppenthathehaselopedforinstance,andisnotaslaveinpointoffan: or,supposehimaslaveinpointoffact,andeversovigilantly_uardcd,stillapersonconnectedwithhimbythetiesofsympathy,mightothatforhimwhich,thoughwillingandAssenting,hemightnotbeable

todotorhimself: mightforgea deedofdonation,forexample,fromtheonem_stertotheother,

xvl.] D_/8/onof O_e_e_. 255rude,and,bythatmeans,renderthatconditionmorebeneficialuponthewhole,andmoreeligible,thanthatofonewhoisnotinanyrespectunderthecontrolofanysuchpersonasamaster.Accordingly,bythesemeanstheconditionoftheservantmaybesoeligible,thathisentranceintoit,andhiscontinuanceinit,mayhavebeenaltogethertheresultofhisownchoice.Thatthenatureofthetwoconditionsmaybethemoreclearlyunder-stood,itmaybeofusetoshowthesortofcorrespondencythereisbetweentheoffenceswhichaffecttheexistenceoftheone,andthosewhichaffecttheexistenceoftheother.Thatthiscor-respondencycannotbutbeveryintimateisobviousatfirstsight.Itisnot,however,thatagivenoffenceintheformercataloguecoincideswithanoffenceofthesamenameinthelattercata-logue:usurpationofservantshipwithusurpationofmastership,forexample.Butthecaseis,thatanoffenceofonedenomina-tionintheonecataloguecoincideswithanoffenceofadifferentdenominationintheothercatalogue.Noristhecoincidenceconstantandcertain:butliabletocontingencies,asweshallsee,First,then,wrongfulnon-investmentoftheconditionofaser-vant,ifitbetheoffenceofonewhoshouldhavebeenthemaster,coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson,itinvolvesinitnon-investmentofmastership,which,providedthemastershipbeintheeyesofhimwhoshouldhavebeenmasterabeneficialthing,butnotother-wise,iswrongful.2.Wrongfulinterceptionoftheconditionofaservant,ifitbetheoffenceolhimwhoshouldhavebeenmaster,coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson,andthemastershipbeabene-ficialthing,itinvolvesinitwrongfulinterceptionofmaster-ship.3.Wrongfuldivestmentofservantship,ifitbetheoffenceofthemaster,butnototherwise,coincideswithwrongfulab-dicationofmastership:ifitbetheoffenceofastranger,itinvolvesinitdivestmentofmastership,which,inasfarasthemastershipisabeneficialthing,iswrongful.4.Usurpationofservantshipcoincidesnecessarilywithwrongfulimpositionofmastership:itwillbeapttoinvolveinitwrongfuldive,s_ment

266 Divi_io_ofOffe,zee_. [chAr.ofmastership: butthisonlyinthecasewheretheusurper,pre-viouslytotheusurpation,wasinastateofservitudeundersomeothermaster.5.Wrongfulinvestmentofservant,ship(theser-vantshipbeingconsideredasabeneficialthing)coincideswithimpositionofmastership; which,ifintheeyesofthepretendedmasterthemastershipshouldchancetobeaburthen,willbewrongful.6.Wrongfulabdicationofservantskipcoincideswithwrongfuldivestmentofmastership.7.Wrongfuldetrectationofservantship,withwrongfulnon-investmentofmastership.8.Wrongfulimpositionofservantship,ifitbetheo_enceofthepretendedmaster,coincideswithusurpationofmastership: ifit betheoffenceofastranger,it involvesinit impositionofmastership,which,ifin theeyesofthepretendedmasterthemastershipshouldbeaburthen,willbewrongful.Astoabuseofmastership,disturbanceofmastership,breachof dutyinservants,elopementofservants,andservant-stealing,theseareoffenceswhich,withoutanychangeofdenomination,bearequalrelationtobothconditions.Andthuswemayreckonthirteensortsofoffencestowhichtheconditionofaservantstandsex-posed: viz.I. Wrongfulnon-investmentof servantship.2.Wrongfulinterceptionofservantship.3-Wrongfuldivestmentofservantship.4. Usurpationofservantship.5. Wrongfulinvestmentofservantship.6.Wrongfulabdicationofservant-ship. 7. Wrongfuldetrectationofservantship.8.Wrongfulimpositionofservantship.9'Abuseofmastership.Io.Dis-turbanceof mastership,zI. Breachof duty in servants.zz. Elopementof servants,x3. Servant-stealing.

c_du_. XLIV.Wenowcometo theoffencestowhichtheconditionship,what-- ._..it_ot oIa guardianisexposed.A guardianisonewhois investedtheinil_tu-tio_- withpoweroveranother,livingwithinthecompassofthesame

family,andcalledaward; thepowerbeingtobeexercisedforthebenefitoftheward. Nowthen,whataretheeasesinwhichitcanbeforthebenefitofoneman,thatanother,livingwithinthecompassofthesamefamily,shouldexercisepoweroverkim_.Considereitherofthepartiesbyhimgelf,andsupposehim,inpointofunderstanding,tobeonalevelwiththeother,it8com.

xvl.] .Oivisio_of O_enees. _67

evidentenoughthatnosuchcasescaneverexista. Tothepro-ductionofhappinessonthepartofanygivenperson(in5kemannerasto theproductionofanyothereffectwhichisthere-sultofhumanagency)threethingsitisnecessaryshouldconcur:knowledge,inclination,andphysicalpower.Nowasthereisnomanwhoissosureofbeinginclined,onalloccasions,topromoteyourhappinessasyouyourselfare,soneitheristhereanymanwhouponthewholecanhavehadsogoodopportunitiesasyoumusthavehadofknowinqwhatismostconduciveto thatpur-pose.Forwhoshouldknowsowellasyoudowhatit is thatgivesyoupainorpleasure_?Moreover,astopower,it ismani.lestthatnosuperiorityinthisrespect,onthepartofastranger,could,foraconstancy,makeupforsogreata deficiencyashemustlieunderinrespectoftwosuchmaterialpointsasknow-ledgeandinclination.Ifthentherebeacasewhereit canbefortheadvantageofonemantobeunderthepowerofanother,it mustbeonaccountofsomepalpableandveryconsiderabledeficiency,onthepartoftheformer,inpointofintellects,or(whichisthesamethinginotherwords)inpointofknowledgeorunderstanding.Nowtherearetwocasesinwhichsuchpal-pabledeficiencyisknownto takeplace.Theseare,I. Whereaman'sintellectisnotyetarrivedatthatstateinwhichit iscapableofdirectinghisowninclinationinthepursuitofhappi-ness: thisisthecaseofinfancy3. 2.Wherebysomeparticularknownorunknowncircumstancehisintellecthaseitherneverarrivedatthatstate,orhavingarrivedatithasfallenfromit :whichis thecaseofinsanity.

Bywhatmeansthenis ittobeascertainedwhethera man'sintellectisinthatstateorno? Forexhibitingthequantityofsensibleheatinahumanbodywehaveaverytolerablesortofinstrument,thethermometer; butforextfibitingthequantity

x Considerthem to_etherindeed,take thesum of the two interests,and-theease,aswehaveseen(supra,xl),ie thenthereverse. Thatcase,it isto be remembered,proceedsonlyuponthe suppositionthat the t_opartiesareobligedto livetogether; forsupposeit to beattheiroptiontopart,thenecessityofestablishingthepowerceases.

' L'_.xvli.[Limits],§i.s Seeoh.xiii.[Casesunmeet],§iii.

_68 .Divigonof Offe_¢8. [CHAF.

ofintelligence,wehavenosuchinstrument.It isevident,therefore,thatthe linewhichseparatesthequantityofin_lS-gencewhichis sufficientforthepurposesofself-governmentfromthatwhichisno_sufficient,mustbe,inagreatmeasure,arbitrary.Wheretheinsufficiencyistheresultofwantofage,thesufficientquantityofintelligence,beit whatit may,doesnotaccruetoallat thesameperiodoftheirlives.It becomesthereforenecessaryforlegislatorstocutthegordianknot,andfixuponaparticularperiod,at whichandnotbefore,trulyornot,everypersonwhatevershallbedeemed,asfarasdependsuponage,tobeinpossessionofthissufficientquantity1. Inthiscasethena lineisdrawnwhichmaybethesameforeveryman,andin thedescriptionofwhich,suchas it is,whateverpersonsareconcernedmaybecertainofagreeing: thecircum-stanceoftimeaffordinga markbywhichthelineinquestionmaybctracedwiththeutmostdegreeofnicety.Ontheotherhand,wheretheinsufficiencyistheresultofinsanity,thereisnoteventhisresource: sothat,herethelegislatorhasnootherexpedientthantoappointsomepal_icularpersonorpersonstogivea particulardeterminationof thequestion,ineveryin-stanceinwhichit occurs,accordingtohisor theirparticularandarbitrarydiscretion.Arbitraryenoughitmustbeatanyrate,sincetheonlywayinwhichit canbe exercisedisbyconsideringwhethertheshareofintelligencepossessedbytheindividualinquestiondoesordoesnotcomeupto the looseandindeterminateideawhichpersonssoappointedmaychanceto entertainwithrespectto the quantitywhichis d_emcdsufficient.

1In certainnatlons,women,whethermarriedornot, havebeenplacedina state ofperpetualwardship: this hasbeenevidentlyfoundedonthenotionofadecidedinferioritympointofintellectsonthepartofthefemalesex,analogousto thatwhichis theresultofinfancyorinsanityonthe partof the male. ThisLSnot the onlyinstanex;in whichtyrannyhastakenadvantagcof its ownwrong,allegingas a reasonfor the dominationitexerches,animbecility,which,asfarasit hasbeenreal,hasbeenproducedbytheabuseofthat verypowerwhichit isbroughtto justify. Aristotle.fascinatedby theprejudiceofthetimes,dividesmankindintotwodistinctspecies,thatotfreemen,andthatof slaves. Certainmenwerebornto beslaves,andoughttobe slaves.--Why? Becausethey areso.

xvI.] Divisionof Offences. 269

XLV.Thefinethenbeingdrawn,orsupposedtobeso,it isvum_o_to_ , _. begivenexpedienttoamanwhocannot,withsafetytohimself,bete£_mit.hisownpower,thatheshouldbeplacedinthepowerofanother.Howlongthenshouldhe remainso? Justsolongashisin-abifityissupposedtocontinue: thatis,in thecaseofinfancy,tillhearrivesat thatperiodatwhichthelawdeemshimtobeoffullage: inthecaseofinsanity,tillhebeofsoundmindandunderstanding.Nowit isevident,thatthisperiod,inthecaseofinfancy,maynotarrivefora considerabletime: andin thecaseofinsanity,perhapsnever.Thedurationofthepowerbe-longingto thistrustmusttherefore,in theonecase,beveryconsiderable; intheothercase,indefinite.

XLVI.Thenextpointtoconsider,iswhatmaybetheextentP_*e_ts,tmay,andofit? forastowhatouqhttobe,thatisamattertobesettled,dutiesthat

notinageneralanalyticalsketch,butin ..... oughttobea parucmaranuclr-annexedcumstantialdissertation.Bypossibility,then,thispowermayt°it.possessanyextentthatcanbeimagined: itmayextendtoanyactswhich,physicallyspeaking,itmaybeinthepowerofthewardtoperiormhimself,orbetheobjectofifexercisedbytheguardian.Conceivethepower,foramoment,tostanduponthisfooting: theconditionof thewardstandsnowexactlyuponafootingwithpureslavery.Addtheobligationbywhichthepoweris turnedintoatrust: thelimitsofthepowerarenowveryconsiderablynarrowed.Whatthenisthepurportofthisobligation? Ofwhatnatureis thecourseof conductitprescribes? It issuchacourseofconductasshallbebestcal-culatedforprocuringtothewardthegreatestquantityofhap-pinesswhichhisfaculties,andthecircumstancesheisin,willadmitof: savingalways,inthefirstplace,theregardwhichtheguardianispermittedtoshowtohisownhappiness;and.inthesecondplace,thatwhichheisobliged,aswellaspermitted,toshowtothatofothermen. Thisis,infact,nootherthanthatcourseofconductwhichtheward,didhebutknowhow,ought,inpointofprudence,tomaintainofhimself: sothatthebusinessoftheformeristogovernthelatterpreciselyin themannerinwhichthis latteroughttogovernhimself.Nowtoinstruct

27o Di_o_ofO_e_e,. [c,_r.eachindividualinwhatmannertogovernhisownconductinthedetailsoflife,istheparticularbusinessofprivateethics:to instructindividualsinwhatmannertogoverntheconductofthosewhosehappiness,duringnonage,iscommittedto theircharge,is thebusinessoftheart ofprivateeducation.Thedetails,therefore,oftherulestobegivenforthatpurpose,anymorethantheactswhicharecapableofbeingcommittedinviolationofthoserules,belongnotto theart oflegislation:since,aswillbeseenmoreparticularlyhereafter1,suchdetailscouldnot,withanychanceofadvantage,beprovidedforbythelegislator.Somegeneraloutlinesmightindeedbedrawnbyhisauthority: and,inpointoffact,someareineverycivilizedstate. Butsuchre_lations,it isevident,mustbe liabletogreatvariation:in thefirstplace,accordingto theinfinitediversityofcivilconditionswhicha manmaystandinvestedwithinanygivenstate: in thenextplace,accordingtothediversityoflocalcircumstancesthatmayinfluencethenatureoItheconditionswhichmaychancetobeestablishedindifferentstates.Onthisaccount,thcoffenceswhichwouldbeconstitutedbysuchregulationscouldnotbecomprisedunderanyconciseandsettleddenominations,capableofapermanentandextensiveapplication.Noplace,therefore,canbeallottedto themhere.

o_e,_ XLVII.Bywhathasbeensaid,wearethebetterpreparedtouchin_thet_nditionofmrtakinganaccountoftheoffencestowhichtheconditioninisuard_,,questionstandsexposed.Guardianshipbeingaprivatetrust,

isofcourseexposedtothoseoffences,andnoothers,bywhichaprivatetrustisliabletobeaffected.Someofthem,however,onaccountofthespecialqualityofthetrust,willadmitofsomefurtherparticularityofdescription.Inthefirstplace,breachof thisspcciesof trust maybe termedmismanagementofguardianship:in thesecondplace,of whatevernaturethedutiesarewhicharecapableofbeingannexedtothiscondition,itmustoftenhappen,thatinordertofulfilthem,it isnecessarytheguardianshouldbe at s certainparticularplace. Mis-managementofguardianship,whenitconsistsinthenotbeing,

2 See ch. xvii. [Limits], §L

xv_.] Dividonof Offences. 27_

ontheoccasioninquestion,at theplaceinquestion,maybetermeddezertionofguardianship.Thirdly,Itismanifestenough,thattheobjectwhichtheguardianoughttoproposetohimself,intheexerciseofthepowerstowhichthosedutiesareannexed,is toprocureforthewardthegreatestquantityofhappinesswhichcanbe procuredforhim,consistentlywiththeregardwhichisduetotheotherintereststhathavebeenmentioned:forthisis theobjectwhichthewardwouldhaveproposedtohimself,andmightandoughttohavebeenallowedtoproposetohimself,hadhebeencapableofgoverninghisownconduct.Now,inordertoprocurethishappiness,it isnecessarythatheshouldpossessacertainpowerovertheobjectsontheuseofwhichsuchhappinessdepends.Theseobjectsareeitherthepersonofthewardhimself,orotherobjectsthatareextraneoustohim. Theseotherobjectsareeitherthingsorpersons.Astothings,then,objectsofthisclass,inasfarasaman'shappinessdependsupontheuseofthem,arestyledhisproperty.Thecaseis thesamewiththeservicesofanypersonsoverwhomhemayhappentopossessabeneficialpower,ortowhoseserviceshemayhappentopossessabeneficialright.Nowwhenpropertyofanykind,whichisintrust,suffersbythedelinquencyofhimwithwhomit is intrust,suchoffence,ofwhatevernatureit isinotherrespects,maybestyleddissipationinbreachoftrust:andif it be attendedwitha profitto thetrustee,it maybestyledpeculation1.Fourthly,Foronepersontoexerciseapowerofsaykindoveranother,it isnecessarythatthzlattershouldeitherperformcertainacts,uponbeingcommandedsotodobytheformer,oratleastshouldsuffercertainactstobeexerciseduponhimself.In this respecta wardmuststanduponthefootingofaservant:andtheconditionofawardmust,inthisrespect,standexposedtothesameoffencestowhichthatofaservantstandsexposed: thatis,onthepartofastranger,todi_rbance,which,inparticularcircumstances,willamounttot./_$: onthepartoftheward,tobreachofduty: which,inparticularcireumstanees,maybeeffectedbydoFemen_.Fifthly,

Supr_xx_v.

27_ Divi_onofO_ee,. [ca^P.Theredoesnotseemtobeanyoffenceconcerningguardianshipthatcorrespondstoabuseoftrust: Imeaninthesensetowhichthelast-mentioneddenominationhasbeenhereconfined1. Thereasonis,thatguardianship,beinga trustofa privatenature,doesnot_assuch,conferuponthetrusteeanypower,eitheroverthepersonsoroverthepropertyofanyparty,otherthanthebeneficiaryhimself.If byaccidentit confersonthetrusteeapoweroveranypersonswhoseservicesconstituteapartofthepropertyofthebeneficiary,the trusteebecomesthereby,incertainrespects,themasterofsuchservants3. Sixthly,Briberyalsoisasortofoffencetowhich,inthiscase,thereisnotcom-monlymuchtemptation.It isanoffence,however,whichbypossibilityiscapableoftakingthisdirection: andmustthere-forebeaggregatedto thenumberoftheoffencestowhichtheconditionofaguardianstandsexposed.Andthuswehaveinallseventeenoftheseoffences:viz.I.Wrongfulnon-investmentofguardianship.2. Wrongfulinterceptionof guardianship.3. Wrongfuldivestmentof guardianship.4. Usurpationofguardianship,5. Wrongfulinvestmentof guardiamlfip.6.Wrongfulabdicationof guardianship.7. Detrectationofguardianship.8. Wrongfulimpositionof guardianship.9-Mismanagementofguardianship.IO.Desertionofguardian-ship. II. Dissipationinprejudiceofwardship,Iz,Peculationinprejudiceofwardship.13.Disturbanceofguardianship.14.Breachofdutyto guardians.15. Elopementfromguardians.I6.Ward-stealing.17.BribelT inprejudiceofwardship.

o_ XLVIII.Next,withregardto offencesto whichthecon-touchingtheo..cordmo_ordmonofwardshipis exposed.Thosewhichfirstaffectthea_ existenceof theconditionitselfareas follows: I. Wrongful

non-investmentoftheconditionofaward.This,ifit betheoffenceofonewhoshouldhavebeenguardian,coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofguardianship: ifit betheoffenceofa thirdperson,it involvesin it non-investmentof guardian-ship,which,providedtheguardianshipis,intheeyesofhimwhoshouldhavebeenguardian,adesirablething,iswrongful.

Videsupra,n-v. 2Videsupra,x].

xvL] _BimionofOffeuee_. 273z.Wrongfulinterceptionofwardship.This,ifit betheoffenceofhimwhoshouldhavebeenguardian,coincideswithwrongfuldetreetationof guardianship: if it be the o_enceof a thirdperson,it involvesin it interceptionof guardianship,which,providedtheguarAianskipis,in the eyesof himwhoshouldhavebeenguardian,adesirablething,iswrongful.3.Wrongfuldivestmentof wardship. This,if it be the offenceoi theguardian,butnototherwise,coincideswithwrongfulabdicationof guardianship: if it bethe offenceof a third person,it in-volvesinitdivestmentofguardianship,which,iftheguardian-shipis,intheeyeseltheguardian,sdesirablething,iswrongful.4-Usurpationoftheconditionofaward:anoi_encenotverylikelytobecommitted.Thiscoincidesatanyratewithwrong-lulimpositionofguardianship;andiftheusurperwerealreadyundertheguardianshipofanotherguardian,itwillinvolveinitwrongfuldivestmentofsuchguardianshipI.5.Wrongfulinvestmentofwardship(thewardshipbeingconsideredasabeneficialthing):thiscoincideswithimpositionofguardianship,which,ifintheeyesofthepretendedguardiantheguardianshipshouldbeaburtb,en,willbewrongful.6.Wrongfulabdicationofwardship.Thiscoincideswithwrongfuldivestmentofguardianship.7.Wrongfuldetrectationofwardship.Thiscoin-cideswithwrongfulinterceptionofguardianship.8.Wrongfulimpositionofwardship.This,iftheoffenderbethepretendedguardian,coincideswithusurpationofguardianship:ifastranger,itinvolvesinitwrongfulimpositionofguardianship.Astosuchoftheo_encesrelativetothiscondition,asconcerntheconsequencesofitwhilesubsisting,theyareofsuchanaturethat,withoutanychangeofdenomination,theybelongequallyto theconditionofa guardianandthat of a ward. Wemay

'Thiseffectitmaybethoughtwillnotnecessarilytakeplace:sinceawardmayhavetwoguardians.Onemanthenisguardianbyright:anothermancomesandmakc_himscllsobyusurpation.Thismayverywellbe,andyettheformermaycontinuegLmrdiannotwithstanding.Howthen(itmaybea_ked)ishedivestedofhisguardianship7--Theansweris_Oertainlynotofthewholeofit : but,however,ofapartofit: ofsuchpartasisoccupied,itonemaysosay,tlmtis,dsuchpartofthepowersanddght_belongingtoit asareexercised,bytheusurper.

T

274 Divisio_tof Offence_. [caAP.

thereforereckonseventeensortsofoffencesrelativeto thecon-dit,ionofa ward: I. Wrongfulnon-investmentof wardship.z.Wrongfulinterceptionofwardship.3-Wrongfuldivestmentofwardship.4.Usurpationofwardship.5. Wrongfulinvest-mentofwardship.6. Wrongfulabdicationof wardship.7.Wrongfuldetrectationofwardship.8.Wrongfulimpositionofwardship.9-Mismanagementofguardianship.Io.Desertionof guardianship.II. Dissipationin prejudiceof wardship.xz. Peculationinprejudiceof wardship,x3.Disturbanceofguardianship.I4. Breachofduty toguardians.I5.Elope-ment fromguardians.I6. Ward-stealing.17. Briberyinprejudiceofwardship.

o_n_ XLIX.Wecomenowtotheoffencestowhichtheconditiontouchingthe¢omutmofofa parentstandsexposed: andfirst,withregardto thosebya parent.

whichtheveryexistenceoftheconditionisaffected.Onthisoccasion,inordertoseethemoreclearlyintothesubject,itwillbenecessarytodistinguishbetweenthenaturalrelationship,andthelegalrelationshipwhichissuperinducedasitwereuponthenaturalone. Thenaturalonebeingconstitutedbyaparticularevent,which,eitheronaccountofitsbeinga_readypast,oronsomeotheraccount,is equallyout ofthepowerof the lawneitheris,norcanbemade,thesubjectofanoffence.Isamanyourfather? It isnotanyoffenceofminethatcanmakeyounothisson. Is henotyourfather? It isnotanyoffenceofminethatcanrenderhimso. Butalthoughhedoesinfactbeaithatrelationtoyou,I, byanoffenceofmine,mayperhapssomanagematters,thatheshallnotbethoucfl_tobearit : which,withrespectto anylegaladvantageswhicheitherheoryoucouldderivefromsuchrelationship,willbethesamethingasifhedidnot. In thecapacityof a witness,I maycausethejudgesto believethat heis not yourfather,andto decreeaccordingly:or,inthecapacityofa judge,I maymyselfdecreehimnottobe yourfather.Leavingthenthepurelynaturalrelationshipasanobjectequallyoutofthereachofjusticeandinjustice,thelegalcondition,it isevident,willstandexposedtothesameoffences,neithermorenorless,aseveryothercondition,

xvI.] 1)ivisionof Offeneea _75

thatiscapableofbeingeitherbeneficialorburthensomc,standsexposedto. Next,withregardtotheexerciseofthefunctionsbelongingto thiscondition,consideredasstillsubsisting.Inparentalitytheremustbetwopersonsconcerned,thefatherandthemother.Theconditionofaparentinclude_,therefore,twoconditions; thatofafather,andthatofamother,withrespecttosuchorsuchachild.Nowit isevident,thatbetweenthesetwoparties,whateverbeneficiarypowers,andotherrights,asalsowhateverobligations,areannexedto theconditionof aparent,maybesharedinanyproportionsthatcanbeimagined.Butifintheseseveralobjectsoflegalcreation,eachofthesetwopartieshaveseverallyashare,andif theinterestsofallthesepartiesareinanydegreeprovidedfor,it isevidentthateachoftheparentswillstand,withrelationto thechild,intwoseveralcapacities: thatofamaster,andthatofaguardian.Thecon-ditionofaparentthen,inasfarasit is theworkoflaw,maybeconsideredasacomplexcondition,compoundedofthatofaguardian,andthatofamaster.Totheparentthen,inqualityofguardian,resultsa setofduties,involving,asnecessarytothedischargeofthem,certainpowers: to thechild,in thecharacterofaward,asetofrightscorrespondingtotheparent'sduties,andasetofdutiescorrespondingtohispowers.Totheparentagain,inqualityofmaster,asetofbeneficiarypowers,withoutanyothernecessarylimitation(so.longastheylast)thanwhatisannexedtothembythedutiesincumbentonhimin qualityofa guardian: to thechild,in thecharacterofaservant,asetofdutiescorrespondingtotheparent'sbeneficiarypowers,andwithoutanyothernecessarylimitation(solongastheylast)thanwhatisannexedto thembytherightswhichbelongtothechildinhiscapacityofward.Theconditionofaparentwillthereforebeexposedto alltheoffencesto whicheitherthatofaguardianorthatofamasterareexposed: and,aseachoftheparentswillpartake,moreorless,ofboththosecharacters,theoffencestowhichthetwoconditionsareexposedm_ybenominally,astheywillbesubstantially,thesame.Takingthemthenalltogether,theoffencestowhichtheconditionof

T2

_76 .Divisionof Offences. [c_.

a parentis exposedwillstandas follows: I. Wrongfulnon-invastmentofparelttality1.2.Wrongfulinterceptionofparent-alitv. 3.Wrongfuldivestmentofparentality.4.Usurpationofparentality.5.Wrongfulinvestmentofparentality.6.Wrong-fulabdicationofparentality.7. Wrongfuldetrectationofparentality.8. Wrongfulimpositionof parentality.9. Mis-managementofparentalguardianship.Io.Desertionofparentalguardianship.Ix.Dissipationinprejudiceof filialwardship.I2. Peculationin prejudiceoffilialwardship.I3. Abuseofparentalpowers.14.Disturbanceofparentalguardianship.x5. Breachofdutytoparents.I6. Elopementfromparents.17.Child-stealing.I8. Briberyinprejudiceoffifialwardship.

offon_ L. Nextwithregardto theoffencestowhichtheflialcon-touchingthe . ._o_n- ditlonz,theconditionerasonordaughter,standsexposed.The

principlestobepursuedin theinvestigationofoffencesofthis "descriptionhavealreadybeensufficientlydeveloped.It willbesufficient,therefore,to enumeratethemwithoutfurtherdis-cussion.Theonlypeculiaritiesbywhichoffencesrelativetotheconditioninquestionstanddistinguishedfromtheoffencesrelativetoalltheprecedingconditions,dependuponthisone

At firstviewit mayseema solecismto speakof the conditionofparent_lityas onewhicha mancanhaveneedto beinvestedwith. Thereasonis,that it isnotcommonforany ceremonyto berequiredasneces-sary to aman'sbeingdeemedin lawthefatherofsuchor sucha child.But the institutionof suchaceremony,whetheradvisableor not, is atleastperfectlyconceivable.Noraretherewantingeasesin whichit hasactuallybeenexemplified.Byanarticlemthe Romanlaw,adoptedbymanymodernnations,an illegitimatechildisrenderedlegitimatebythesubsequentmarriageofhisparents.If thenapriest,orotherpersonwhoseofficeit was,wereto refusetoloinamanandwomaninmatrimony,such

, refusal,besidesbeingawrongfulnon-investmentwithrespecttothetwomatrimonmlconditions,wouldbeawrongfulnon-investmentofI_rent_lityendfi]Jstion,totheprejuchceofanychildrenwhoshouldhavebeenlegltimated.

thseInEnglishwehavenowordthatwillservetoexpr_swithproprietypersonwhobearstherol_tlonopposedtothatofparent.Thewordchildisambiguous,beingemployed,inanothersense,perhal_morefre-quentlythaninthis-'morefrequentlyinoppositiontoa:_eraono.ffu_ale,anadult,thanincorrelationtoapatenS.Feztheconditionitselfwehavenootherwordthanfilia_ion: anill-contrivedterm,notanalogoustopaternityandmaternity:thepropertermwouldhaveb_nfllialiJy:thewordfiliationisasfrequently,perhaps,andmornconsistently,putfortheactofest_blishi_apersoninthepoae_ionoftheconditionoffiti_llty,

xvl.] Divisionof O'/J'enceg, _77

circumstance; viz.thatit iscertaineveryonemusthavehadafatherandamother: at thesametimethatit isnotcertainthateveryonemusthavehadamaster,a servant,aguardian,oraward.It willbeobservedallalong,thatwhereaperson,fromwhom,if alive,thebenefitwouldbetaken,or onwhomtheburthenwouldbeimposed,bedead,somuchofthemischiefisextinctalongwiththeobjectoftheoffence.Therestill,how-ever,remainssomuchofthemischiefasdependsuponthead-vantageordisadvantagewhichmightaccruetopersonsrelated,orsupposedtoberelated,intheseveralremoterdc_ees,tohiminquestion.Thecataloguethenoftheseoffencesstandsasfollows:z.Wrongfulnoninvestmentoffiliation.This,ifitbetheoffenceofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognisedastheparent,coincideswithwrongfuldetrectationofp_renta]ity:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson,itinvolvesinitnon-investmentofparentallty,which,proddedtheparentalityis,intheeyesofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognisedastheparcnt,adesirablething,is_rrongful.z.Wrongfulinterceptionoffilia-tion.This,ifitbetheoffenceofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognisedastheparent,coincideswithwrongfuldetrecta-tionofparentality:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson,itinvolvesinitinterceptionofparentality,which,proddedtheparentalJtyis,intheeyesofhimorherwhoshouldhavebeenrecognisedasparent,adesirablething,iswrongful.3.Wrongfuldivestmentofhliation.This,ifitbetheoffenceofhimorherwhoshouldberecognisedasparent,coincideswithwrongfulabdicationofparentalJty:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson,itinvolvesinitdivestmentofparentality;towit,ofpaternity,orofmaternity,orofboth;which,iftheparentalityis,intheeyesofhimorherwhoshouldberecognisedasparent,adesir-ablething,arerespectivelywrongful.4.Usurpationoffiliation.Thiscoincideswithwrongfulimpositionofparentality;towit,eitherofpaternity,orofmaternity,orofboth: andnecessarilyinvolvesinitdivestmentofparentality,which,iftheparentality ithusdivestedwere,intheeyesofhimorherwhoarethusdivestedofit,adesirablething,iswrongful5.Wrongful

278 1)i_,i_io_tof O_e_ee_. [caAe.

investmentoffiliation: (thefiliationbeingconsideredasabene-fieialthing.)Thiscoincideswithinlpositionofparen_lity,which,ifin theeyesofthepretendedfatherormothertheparentalityshouldbeanundesirabletiring,willbewrongful.6.Wrongfulabdicationoffiliation.Thisnecessarilycoincideswithwrongfuldivestmentofparentality;italsoisapttoinvolveinitwrongfulimpositionofparentality; thoughnotnecessarilyeithertotheadvantageorto theprejudiceofanycertainperson.Forifaman,supposedat firsttobeyourson,appearsafterwardsnottobeyours,it iscertainindeedthatbeis thesonofsomeotherman,butitmaynotappearwhothatothermanis.7.Wrongfuldetrectationof filiation.Thiscoincideswithwrongfulnon-investmentorwrongfulinterceptionofparentality.8.Wrongfulimpositionoffiliation.This,ifitbetheoffenceofthepretendedparent,coincidesnecessarilywithusurpationofpsrentality:ifitbetheoffenceofathirdperson,itnecessarilyinvolvesimpositionofparentality;asalsodivestmentofparentality:eitherorbothofwhich,accordingtothecircumstanceabovementioned,mayormaynotbe_'rongful.9'Mismanagementofparentalguardian-ship. _o.Desertionofparentalguardianship.H. Dissipationinprejudiceoffilialwardship.I2.Peculationinprejudiceoffilialwardship.I3.Abuseofl_rentalpower,x4.Disturbanceof parentalguardianship.15.Breachofduty to parents.I6.Elopementfromparents.I7.Child-stealing.I8.Briberyinprejudiceofparentalguardianship.

Couditionof LI. Weshallnowbe ableto applyourselveswithsomea hu_b_ad.-Powe_advantageto theexaminationoftheseveraloffencestowhichduties,andrights,th,tthemaritalcondition,orcondifionofahusband,standsexposed.maybean.hexestoit.Ahusbandisaman,betweenwhomandacertainwoman,who

inthiscaseiscalledhiswife,theresubsistsalegalobligationforthepurposeoftheirlivingtogether,andinparticularforthepurposeofasexualintercoursetobecarriedonbetweenthem.Thisobligationwillnaturallybeconsideredinfourpointsofview: I. Inrespectofitscommencement.2.Inrespectoftheplacingofit. 3.Inrespectofthenatureofit. 4.Inrespectofitsduration.Firstthen,it isevident,thatinpointofpo6sibility,

xvl.] 29ivi_ion_ Offences. 279

onemethodofeommeneeraentisasconceivableasanother:thetimeofitscommencementmighthavebeenmarkedbyonesortofevent(byonesortofs/qna!,asitmayherebecalled)aswellasbyanother.Butinpracticethesignalhasusuallybeen,asinpointofutilityitoughtconstantlytobe,acontractenteredintobytheparties: thatis,asetofsigns,pitcheduponbythelaw,asexpressiveoftheirmutualconsent,totakeuponthemthiscondition.Secondly,andthirdly,withregardtotheplacingoftheobligationswhicharetheresultofthecontract,it isevidentthattheymustresteithersolelyononeside,ormutuallyonboth.Onthefirstsupposition,theconditionisnottobedistinguishedfrompureslavery.In thiscase,eitherthewifemustbetheslaveof thehusband,orthehusbandofthewife. Thefirstofthesesuppositionshasperhapsneverbeenexempfified; theop-posinginfluenceofphysicalcausesbeingtoouniversaltohaveeverbeensurmom_ted:thelatterseemstohavebeenexemplifiedbuttoooften; perhapsamongthefirstRomans; atanyrate,inmanybarbarousnations.Thirdly,withregardtothenatureoftheobligations.If theyarenotsufferedtorestallononeside,certainrightsaretherebygiventotheother. Theremust,therefore,berightsonbothsides.Now,wheretherearemutualrightspossessedbytwopersons,asagainsteachother,eitherthereare powersannexedto thoserights,or not. Butthepersonsinquestionare,bythesupposition,tolivetogether: inwhichcasewehaveshown1,thatit isnotonlyexpedient,butinamannernecessary,thatononesidethereshouldbe powers.Nowitisonlyononesidethatpowerscanbe: forsupposethemonbothsides,andtheydestroyoneanother.Thequestionisthen,Inwhichofthepartiesthesepowersshallbelodged? wehaveshown,thatontheprincipleofutilitytheyoughttobelodgedin thehusband.Thepowersthenwhichsubsistbeinglodgedinthehusband,thenextquestionis,Shalltheinterestofonepartyonly,or ofboth,beconsultedin theexerciseofthem? it isevident,thatontheprincipleofutilitytheinterestsofbothoughtaliketo be consulted:sincein twopersons,

zSupra,_1.no_

28o Division_ O_e_ee. [c_AP.takentogether,morehappinessisproduciblethaninone.Thinbeingthecase,it ismanifest,that thelegalrelationwhichthehusbandwillbear to the wifewill be acomplexone: com-poundedof thatof masterandthat ofguardian.

offe,_ LII. Theoffencesthento whichtheconditionofa husbandtouchin_thecondlt,onofWi|lbeexposed,willbethesamof thosetowhichthetwocon-a husband.

ditionsof masterandguar_anareexposed. Thusfartheconditionofahusband,withrespecttothegeneralouthnesofit,sf_ndsuponthesamefootingasthatofaparent. Buttherearecert_iureciprocalservices,whichbeingthemainsubjectofthematrimonialcontract,.constitu_the essenceofthe twomatri-monialrelations,andwhichneitheramasternorguardian,assuch,noraparent,atanyrate,haveusuallybeenpermittedtoreceive.Thesemustofcoursehavebeendistinguishedfromtheindiscriminatetrainofservicesat largewhichthehusbandinhischaracterofmasteris empoweredto exact,andof thosewhichinhischaracterofguardianheisboundto render.Beingthusdistinguished,the offencesrelativeto thetwoconditionshave,inmanyinstances,inasfarastheyhavereferencetothesepeculiarservices,acquiredparticulardenominations.IntheErstplace,withregardtothecontract,fromthecelebrationofwMchthe legalconditiondatesits existence. It is obviousthat inpointof possibility,thiscontractm_ght,on thepart of eithersex,subsistwithrespecttoseveralpersonsofthe othersexatthesametime: thehusbandmighthaveanynumberofwives:the wifemighthaveanynumberof husbands: the husbandmightenterintothe contractwitha numberof wivesat thesametime: or,if withonlyoneat a time,he mightreservetohimselfa righto!engagingina similarcontractwithanynum-ber,orwithonlysuchorsuchanumberofotherwomenafter-wards,duringthe continuanceof eachformercontract. Thislatteraccordinglyisthe footinguponwhich,asis wellknown,marrJageisandhasbeenestablishedinmanyextensivecountries:particularlyin allthosewhichprofesstheMahometanreligion.In pointofpossibility,it isevidentthatthelikelibertymightbereservedon thepartofthe wife: thoughinpointof practiceno

xvt.] Dirid_ofO_e_ce_. _8Iexamplesof suchanarrangementseemevertohaveoccurred.Whichofallthesearrangementsisinpointofutilitythemostexpedient,isaquestionwhichwouldrequiretoomuchdis-cussiontoanswerinthecourseofananalyticalprocesslikethepresent,andwhichbelongsindeedtothecivilbranchoflegisla-tion,ratherthantothepenalI.InChristiancountries,thesolemnizationofanysuchcontractismadetoexcludethesolemnizationofanysubsequentoneduringthecontinuanceofaformer:andthesolemnizationofan)"suchsubsequentcontractisaccordinglytreatedasanoffence,underthenameofPolygsmy.Polygamythenisatanyrate,onthepartoftheman,apar-ticularmodificationofthatoffencewhichmaybestyledusurpa-tionoftheconditionofahusband.Astoitsothereffects,theywillbedifferent,accordingasitwasthemanonly,orthewomanonly,orboth,thatwereinastateofmatrimonyatthetimeofthecommissioneltheoffence.Ifthemanonly,thenhisoffenceinvolvesinitprotantothatofwrongfuldivestmentofthecon-ditionofawife,inprejudiceofhispriorwife2.Ifthewomanonly,thenitinvolvesinitprotantothatofwrongfuldivestmentoftheconditionofahusband,inprejudiceofherpriorhusband.Ifbothwerealreadymarried,itofcourseinvolvesboththewrongfuldivestmentswhichhavejustbeenmentioned.Andontheotherhandalso,theconverseofallthismaybeohscrvedwithregardtopolygamyonthcpartofthewoman.Secondly,Astheengagingnottoenterintoanysubsequentengagementofthelikekindduringthecontinuanceofthefirst,isoneofthecon-ditionsonwhichthelawlendsitssanctiontothefirst;soanotheris,theinsertingasoneofthearticlesofthisengagement,anundertakingnottorenderto,oracceptfrom,anyotherpersontheserviceswhichformthecharacteristicobjectofit:therenderingoracceptanceofanysuchservicesisaccordinglytreatedasanoffence,tinderthenameofadultery:underwhichnameisalsocomprisedtheofIenceofthestranger,who,intheiSeech.xvii.[Limits],§iv.tInthiscasealso,ifthewomanknewnotofthepriormarriage,itis

besidesaspeciesofseduction;and,inasfarasitaffectsher,belongstoanotherdivisionoftheoffencesofthisclass.Videsupra,xxxvi.

_82 Division_f Offences. [c_,AP.

commissionof the aboveoffence,is the necessaryaccomplice.Thirdly,Disturbingeitherofthepartiesto thisengagement,inthepossessionofthesecharacteristicservices,may,inlikeman-ner,bedistinguishedfromthe offenceofdistarbingthemintheenjoymentof themiscellaneousadvantagesderivablefromthesamecondition; andonwhicheversidetheblamerests,whetherthat of the par_y,or that of a thirdperson,maybe termeduwoncffulwithholdingofconnubaalservices.Andthuswehaveone-and-twentysortsofoffencestowhich,asthe lawstandsatpresentinChristiancountries,theconditionofahusbandstandsexposed: viz.I. Wrongfulnon-investmentoftheconditionofahusband. 2.Wrongfitlinterceptionof theconditionofahus-band. 3.Wrongfuldivestmentofthe conditionofa husband.4.Usurpationof the conditionof a husband. 5.Polygamy.6. Wrongfulinvestmentof the conditionof a husband. 7.Wrongfulabdicationofthe conditionofa husband. 8.Wrong-ful detreetationof the conditionof a husband. 9. Wrongfulimpositionofthe conditionofahusband.IO.Mismanagementof maritalguardianship.II. Desertionof maritalguardian-ship.I2.Dissipationinprejudiceofmatrimonialwardship.13.Peculationin prejudiceof matrimonialwardship. 14. Abuseof maritalpower. I5. Disturbanceof maritalguardianship.16.Wrongful_ithholdingofconnubialservices.17.Adultery.18.Breachofdutytohusbands.19.Elopementfromhusbands.20.Wife-stealing.zI. Briberyinprejudiceofmaritalguardian-ship1.

o_n_ LIII. Nextwithregardtotheoffencesto whichtheconditiontauchmgthe_d,tionorofa wifestandsexposed. Fromthepatternsthathavebeen, wire. exhibitedakeady,the coincidencesand associationsthat take

placebetweentheoffencesthat concerntheexistenceofthiscon-ditionandthosewhichconcerntheexistenceofthe conditionofahusband,mayeasilyenoughbeapprehendedwithoutfarther

I. STrm-PVBUcottences._Falsehoodscontesting,oroffencesagainstjusticedestroying,thevalidityofthemarriagesofpeopleo!certainde-scriptior_: such_s,Jews,Quakers,Hugonots,&c.&c.

II. 8_L_'-R_OABDINQoffences.--Improvidentmarriageonthel_rt ofminoiz,

xn.] Divi_noJOffeneea. _83repetitions.Thecatalogueofthosenowunderconsiderationwillbepreciselythesameineveryarticleasthecataloguelastexhibited.

LIV.Thusmuchfortheseveralsortsofoffencesrelativetotheseveralsortsofdomesticconditions:thosewhichareconsti-tutedbysuchnaturalrelationsasarecontiguousbeingincluded.Thereremainthosewhichareuncontiguous: ofwhich,aftersomuchashasbeensaidoftheothers,itwillnaturallybeex-pectedthatsomenoticeshouldbetaken. These,however,donotaffordanyofthatmatterwhichisnecessarytoconstituteacondition.Inpointoffact,nopowerseemsevertobeannexedtoanyofthem.Agrandfather,perhaps,maybecalledbythelawtotakeuponhimtheguardianshipofhisorphangrand-son: butthenthepowerhehasbelongstohimnotasgrand-father,butasguardian.In pointofpossibility,indeed,powermightbeannexedto theserelations,justas it mighttoanyother.Butstillnonewsortofdomesticconditionwouldresultfromit : sinceit hasbeenshownthattherecanbenoothers,that,beingconstitutedbypower,shallbedistinctfromthose.whichhavebeenalreadymentioned.Suchastheyare,how-ever,theyhavethisincommonwiththebefore-mentionedrela-tions,that theyarecapableof importingeitherbenefitorburthen: theythereforestandexposedtotheseveraloffenceswherebythoseoranyotherrelationsarcliabletobcaffectedinpointofexistence.It mightbe expected,therefore,thatinvirtueoftheseoffences,theyshouldbeaddedtothelistoftherelationswhichareliabletobeobjectsofdelinquency.Butthefactis,thattheyalreadystandincludedinit : andalthoughnotexpresslynamed,yetaseffectuallyas iftheywere. Ontheonehand,it isonlybyaffectingsuchorsuchacontiguousrela-tionthatanyoffenceaffectinguncontiguousrelationscantakeplace.Ontheotherhand,neithercananyoffenceaffectingtheexistenceof thecontiguousrelationsbecommitted,withoutaffectingtheexistenceofanindefinitemultitudeofsuchasareuncontiguons.Afalsewitnesscomes,andcausesit tobebe-lievedthatyouarethesonofawoman,who,in truth,isnot

_84 .Div:,'io_ofOff_ee*. [cH,P.yourmother. Whatfollows? Anendlesstribeofotherfalsepersuasions--thatyouarethegrandsonofthefatherandofthemotherofthissupposedmother: thatyouarethesonofsomehusbandofhers,or,at least,of somemanwithwhomshehascohabited: thegrandsonofhisfatherandhismother; andsoon : thebrotheroftheirotherchildren,if theyhaveany: thebrother-in-lawofthe husbaudsandwivesof thosechildren,ifmarried: theuncleofthechildrenofthosechildren: andsoon.--On the otherhand, that you are not the sonof yourrealmother,norofyourrealfather: thatyouarenotthegrandsonofeitherofyourrealgrandfathersorgrandmothers; andsoonwithoutend:allwhichpersuasionsresultfrom,andareincludedin,theoneoriginalfalsepersuasionofyourbeingthesonofthisyourpretendedmother.

It shouldseem,therefore,at firstsight, that noneof theoffencesagainsttheseuncontiguousrelationscouldevercomeexpresslyintoquestion: forbythesamerulethatoneought,soitmightseemoughta thousandothers: theoffencesagainsttheuncontiguousbeingmergedas it werein thosewhichaffectthe contiguousrelations. Sofar,however,isthis frombeingthe case,that inspeakingof anoffenceof thisstamp,it isnotuncommontoheara greatdealsaidofthisorthatuncontiguousrelationshipwhichit affects,at thesametimethat nonoticeatall shallbetakenofanyof thosewhicharecontiguous.Howhappensthis ? Because,to the uncontiguousrelationarean-nexedperhapscertainremarkableadvantagesordisadvantages,whileto all the intermediaterelationsnoneshallbe annexedwhicharein comparisonworthnoticing. SupposeAntonyorLepidustohavecontestedtherelationshipofOctavius(after-wardsAugustus)to CaiusJulius Caesar.Howcouldit havebeendone? It couldonlyhavebeenbycontesting,either0c-tavius'sbeingthe sonofAtia,or Atia'sbeingthedaughterofJulia,orJulia'sbeingthe daughterofLuciusJuliusC_esar,orLuciusJuliusC_esar'sbeingthe fatherofCaius. But tohavebeenthe sonof Atia,orthe grandsonof Julia,or thegreat lgran&onoiLuciusJuliusCs_sar,was,in comparison,ofsmall

xv_.] Diviei_of01fe_ce_. =85

importance.Thoseinte_'eningrelationshipswere,compara-tivelyspeaking,ofnootherusetohimthaninvirtueoftheirbeingsomanynecessarylinksin thegenealogicalchainwhichconnectedhimwiththesovereignoftheempire.

Astotheadvantagesanddisadvantageswhichmayhappentobeannexedtoanyofthoseuncontiguonsrelationships,wehaveseenalreadythatnopowersoverthecorrelativeperson,noranycorrespondingobligations,areofthenumber.Ofwhatnaturethencantheybe? Theyare,intruth,nootherthanwhataretheresulteitheroflocalandaccidentalinstitutions,orofsomespontaneousbiasthathasbeentakenbythemoralsanction.Itwould,therefore,beto littlepurposetoattempttracingthemoutapr/oribyanyexhaustiveprocess:allthatcanbedoneis,topickupandlaytogethersomeoftheprincipalarticlesineachcataloguebywayofspecimen.Theadvantageswhichagivenrelationshipisapt toimpart,seemtobereferablechieflyto thefollowingheads: I. Chanceofsuccessiontotheproperty,orapartoftheproperty,ofthecorrelativeperson.2. Chanceofpecuniarysupport,tobeyieldedbythecorrelativeperson,eitherbyappointmentoflaw,orbyspontaneousdonation.3. Ac-cessionoflegalrank; includinganylegalpri_dlegeswhichmayhappento beannexedtoit : suchascapacityofholdingsuchandsuchbeneficialoffices;exemptionfromsuchandsuchburthensomeobligations; forinstance,payingtaxes,servingburthensomeoffices,&c.&c.4.Accessionofrankbycourtesy;includingthesortofreputationwhichiscustomarilyandspon-taneonslyannexedtodistinguishedbirthandfamilyalliance:whereonmaydependthechanceofadvancementin thewayofmarriage,orinathousandotherwayslessobvious.Thedis-advantageswhichagivenrelationisliabletoimpart,seemtobereferablechieflyto thefollowingheads: x. Chanceofbeingobliged,eitherbylaw,orbyforceofthemoralsanction,toyieldpecuniarysupportto thecorrelativeparty. 2. Lossoflegalrank:includingthelegaldisabilities,aswellastheburthensomeobligations,whichthelawisapttoannex,sometimeswithin-j_tice enough,to the lowerstations.3. Lo_sof rankby

_86 Divi,rion of Offences. [cHxP.

courtesy: including the loss of the advantages annexed bycustom to suchrank. 4- Incapacity of contracting matrimonywith the correlativeperson, where the supposed consanguinityor affinity lieswithin the prohibited degrees x

i Inpursuanceoftheplanadoptedwithrelationtosemi-publicandsellregardingoffences,itmayherebepropertoexhibitsucha catalogueasthenatureofthedesignwilladmit,of theseveralgeneraorinferiordivisionsofpublicoffences.

L OFF_,_C_SagainsttheEXT_A.Ls_.cvmrrofthestate. LTreason(infavourofforeignenemies).It may bepe_itiveornegative(negativeconsisting,forexample,inthenotopposingthecommissionofpositive).2.Espionage(infavourofforeignrivalsnotyetenemies).3. InJuriestoforeignersat large(includingpiracy).4-Injuriesto privilegedforeignem(suchasambassadors).

II. OrFE_cr__ar_sv Josrm_. Offencesagainstjudicialtrust: viz.Wrongfulnon-investmentofjudicialtrust,wrongfulinterceptionofjudicialtrust,wrongfuldivestmentofjudicialtrust,usurpationofjudicialtrust,wrongfulinvestmentof]udlcialtrust,wrongfulabdicationofjudicialtrust,wrongfuldetrectationoflu(ticialtruet,wrongfuliml)osxtionofjudicialtrust,breachofjudicialtrust,abuseof judicmltrust,disturbanceofjudicialtrust,andbriberyinprejudiceofjudicialtrust.

Breachandabuseofjudicialtrustmaybeeitherintentionaloruninten-tional. Intentionalis culpableatanyrate. Unintentionalwillproceedeitherfrominadvertence,or frommis-suppo_al: if the inadvertencebecoupledwithheedlessness,ortherole-supposalwithrashness,itisculpable:ifnot,blameless.Focthopsrticularactsbywhlchthcexerciseofjudieialtrustmaybed_sturbedsecB.i. tit. [Offencesagainstjustice].Theyaretoomultifarious,andtooill providedwithnames,tobeexhibitedhere.

If a manfailsin fulfilhngthedutiesof thistrust,and therebycomeseitherto breakorto abuseit, it mustbethroughsomedeficiencyinthethreerequisiteandonlyrequisiteendowments,ofknowledge,inehnation,andpower. [Seesupra,xxvii.] A defiemncyin anyof thosepoints,ifanypersonbeinfault,mayproceedeitherfromhisownfault,orfromthefaultof thosewhoshouldact withor underhim. If personawhoareinfaultarepersonsinvestedwithjudicialtrust, theoffencecomesundertheheadofbreachorabuseoftrust: ifotherpersons,underthatofdisturb-anteoftrust.

Theilleffectsofanybreach,abuse,ordisturbanceofjudicialtrust,willconsistin theproductionofsomearticleor articlesinthe listof themis-chiefswhichit oughtto be theoriginalpurposeofjudmialproceduretoremedyoravert,andofthosewhichit oughtto betheincidentalpurposeofit toavoidproducing.Theseareeitherprimary(that isimmediate)orremote: remoteareofthe2nd,3rd,or4th order,andsoon.Theprimaryarethosewhichimportactualpaintopersonsassignable,andarethereforen_ischievousinthemselves: thesecondaryare,mischievousonaccountofthe tendencytheyhavetoproducesomearticleorarticlesinthecatalogueofthoseofthefirstorder; andarethereforemischmvousintheireffects.Thoseofthe3rdorderaremischievousonlyonaccountoftheconnectiontheyhavein thewayofproductivetendency,as before,withthoseof the2ndorder: andsoon.

Primarymeonvonieaces,whichitoughttobetheobjectofprocedureto

xvl.] I)ivigionof Offences. _87

LV.Wecomenowtocivilconditions: those,it maywellbeei_ueo_.• .i ...ditions.imagined,maybeinilnitclyvarious:asvariousas_neactswhich

provideagainst,are,x.Thecontinuanceof theindividualoffenceitself,and therebytheincreaseas wellascontinuanceof the mischicfof]t. 2.Thecontinuanceofthewholclmschieioftheindividualoffence.3.Thecontinuanceof a part ofthemischiefofthe individualoffence.4- Totalwantofamendson thepart ofpersonsinjuredbytheoffence.5. Partialwantofamendson thepartofpersonsinjuredby theoffence•6. Super-fluouspunishmentof delinquents. 7. Unjustpunishmentof personsaccused.8. Unnecessarylabour,expense,orothersufferingordanger,onthepartofsuperiorjudicialofficers.9. Unnecessarylabollr,expense,orothersufferingordanger,on thepartof ministerialorothersubordinatejudicialofficers. In. Unnecessarylabour,expense,orothersufferingordanger,onthepart ofpersonswhoseco-operationisrequisiteprorehaL4,in orderto makeup thenecessarycomplementof knowledgeand poweron thepartof judicialofficers,whoaresuchbyprofession.II. Unneces-sarylabour,expense,orothersufferingordanger,onthepartofpersonsatlarge,comingunderthe sphereof the operationsof the personsabove-mentioned.

Secondaryinconveniencesare,intheconsultative,pro-interpretative(orUr_lycivil)branchof procedure,I. Misinterpretationor adjudicatmn.

heexecutive(includingthepenal)branch. 2.Totaliml)unityof de-linquents: (as favouringthe productionof otheroffencesof the likenature). 3.Partialimpunityof delinquents.4. Appbeatmnof punish-mentimproperinspecie,thoughperhapsnot indegree(thislesseningthebeneficialefficacyofthe quantityemployed). 5.Uneconomicalapphca-tionofpunishment,thoughproper,perhaps,as wellinspecieasindegree.5.Unnecessarypecuniaryexpenseonthe partofthe sta_.

Inconveniencesofthe3rdorderaxe,L Unnecessarydelay.2.Unneces-saryintricacy,

Inconveniencesof the 4thorderare, I. Breach,2. Abuse,3.Disturb-ance,ofjudicialtrust,as above: viz.mas far astheseoffencesarepre-liminaryto anddistinctfromthoseofthe2ndand3rdorders.

Inconveniencesofthe5thorderare,Breachoftheseveralregulationsofprocedure,or otherregulations,maclcintheviewofobviatingtheincon-veniencesaboveenumerated: viz.if prehminaryanddistinct,as before.

III. O_FXNCESagainstthe _Iv'z_T_vzbranchof the PoI_c_. I.Offencesagainstp_hano-paranomi_trust: (_duo:,toprevent; _apavo/_u,an offence). 2. Offence,s against?hthano-symph_ictrust: (avpdbop_,acalamity).Thetwotrustsmaybetermedby thecommonappellationofpropI#yl_ic: (_pd,beforehand,and _uhh_rw,toguardagainst).IV.O_Fm_c_sagainstthePVSL]CFORCZ.L Offencesagainstnfilitary

trust,correspondingtothose,againstjudicialtrust.Mihtarydesertionisabreachofmihtaxyduty,orofmilitaryt_ust.Favounngdcsertionisadisturbanceofit.2.Offencesagainstthatbranchofpnbhctrustwhichconsistsinthemanagementoftheseveralsortselthingsappropriatedtothepurposesofwar:suchasarsenals,fortifications,dock-yaxds,shipsofwar,artillery,ammunition,militarymagazines,andsoforth.Itmightbetermed?olerawtameutic:from_6A_o_,war;and7a_v_, a steward_.

tAnuml_rofdifferentbranchesofpublictrm't,.oneofwhichhsveyetbeenpr0vldedwithappeUatJve_,haveherebeenbrought_view:whichthenwerebe_t?to_iunewna_me_/orthemoutoftheGreek;or,l.u_ o!a wordtomakeuseo[awhole_entence?In

288 .Oivi_io_zof Offe_oes. [c_AP.

a manmaybeeithercommandedorallowed,whetherforhisown benefit,or that of others,to abstainfromor to perform.

V.OFFZ._CgSagainstthePosrI1vEr_CRIASgoftheNATIO._ALF_LICrrY.I. Offencesagainstep_tsracqhreptwtrust: (_Trto-r_,know/edge; andTp;_o,,tonourishorpromote).2.Offencesagainsteuvrdaqo_ictrust:(_74wel];and_o_aTa_7¢_,toeducate).3.Offencesagainstnose-rein/a/trust:ff_¢or,adisease;and#o_i'o_,totakecamof).4.Offencesagainstn_ro-comw2trust: (_6po_,aninsaneperson).5.Offencesagainstptocho-corn/a]trust: (,roJXo;,the poor),6. Offencesagainstante_le_/ctrust:(dvc_Bd2_h_,tobestowinreparationofa loss).7.Offencesagainsthedo-narchictrust: (b_o_a;,plea6ures; and @Xol_at,to presideover). Theaboveaxeexamplesoftheprincipalestablishmentswhichshouldormightbesetonfootforthepurposeofmaking,insomanydifferentways,apositiveadditiontothestookofnationalfelicity.ToexhibitanexhaustiveanalysisoftheFeasibletotaloftheseestabhshmcntswouldnotbe_veryeasytask:noronthepresentoccasionisitanecessaryone:forbetheyofwhatnatureandinwhatnumbertheymay,_eoffencestowhichtheystandexposedwill,inasfarastheyareoffencesagainsttrust,beinpointofdenominationthesame:andastowhatturnsupontheparticularnatureofeachtrust,theywillbeoftoolocalanaturetocomewithinthepresentplan.Allthesetrustsmightbecomprisedundersomesuchgeneralnameas

thatofaga_ho-poie_ictrust:(dTaOovodo_,todogoodtoanyone),VI.Orz_._czsagainstthePUSLICW_aLLTH._.Non-paymentoffor-

feitures.2.Non-paymentoftaxes,includingsmuggling.3.Breachoftheseveralregulationsmadetopreventtheevasionoftaxes.4.Offencesagainstfiscaltrust:thesameasoffencesagainstjudicialandmilitarytrusts.Offencesagainsttheoriginalrevenue,notaccruingeitherfromt_xesorforfeitures,suchasthatarisingfromthepublicdemesnes,standuponthesamefootmgasoffencesagainstprivateproperty.5.Offencesagainstdemo_io-tam_e_dictxust: (_l_o_iu.thingsbelongingtothe public;andru_, a steward)viz.againstthattrust,ofwhichthe objectis toapplytotheirseveraldestinationssucharticlesofthepublicwealthasareprovidedfortheindiscriminateaccommodationofindividuals:suchaspublicroadsandwaters,publicharbours,pest-offlces,andpacketboats,andthestockbelongingtothem;market-places,andothersuchpublicbuild-into;race-grounds,publicwalks,andsoforth.Offencesofthisdescriptienwillbeapttocoincidewithoffencesagainstaqa/ho-po_u//ctrustasabove,urwithoffencesagainste2hno-pluti_tictrustherealtermentioned,accordingasthebenefitinquestionisconsiderediniteel/,orasresultingfromtheapphcationelsuchorsuchabranchorportionofthepublicwealth.

VII. OrFZ_CZSagainstPo_vz,a_o-_.x.Emigration.z. 8mcide. 3.Procurementofimpotenceorbarrenness.4.Abortxon._.Unproliflocoition.6.Celibacy.VWl.Oy_c_cr.sagainstthe_Arxol_ wss._Ta. L Idleness. _.

Breachoftheregulationsmadeinthev_ewofpreventingtheapplicationelindustrytopurposeslessprofitable,m prejudiceofpurposesmorepro-fitable.3.Offencesagainstelhno-plu_i_Wtrust: (_o_,thenationatlarge; n_o_r;_%toenrich).

IEa81i_,andinFrench,thsr_Isnooiharalternative:nomorethanha_' oftileOther tm_aiboralanwmnO*_,Itr_ wlth_ho_ _od_ermin_,

xw.] _vi,io_of O.ge_e_. _89As manydifferentdenominationsas there are of personsdistin-guishedwith a viewto such commands and allowances(those

IX. OFrENcssagainsttheSOVER_C,_rT.1.Offencesagainstsovereigntrust: correspondingtothoseagainstjudicialprophylactic,nulitary,andfiscaltrusts. Offensiverate]henincludeswrongfulinterception,wrongfuldivestment,tmurl_tion, andwrongfulrevetment,ofsovereigntrust,withthe offencesaccessorythereto. Wherethe trustis in a singleperson,wrongfulintemeption,wrongfuldivestment,usurpation,and wrongfulin-vestmentcannot,anyofthem,becommittedwithoutrebelhon: abdicationanddetrectationcanneverbe deemedwrongful: broachand abuseofsovereigntrustcan scarcelybe punished: no morecanbribe-taking:wrongfulimpositionofit is scarcepracticable.Whenthesovereigntyissharedamong_ number,wrongfulinterception,wrongfuldivestment,usurl_tion,andwrongfulinvestment,maybecomnfittedwithoutrobe]lion:noneoftheoffencesagainstthistrustareimpracticable: noristhereanyofthembutmightbepunished.Defeuslverebellionisdisturbanceof thtstrust. Politicaltumults,politicaldefamation,andpohtiealvilification,areoffencesaccessorytosuchdisturbance.

Sovereignpower(which,upontheprincipleofutility,canneverbeotherthanfiduciary)isexercisedeitherby ruleorwithoutrule: in thelattercaseit maybetermedautocratic: intheformercaseit isdividedintotwobranches,the/eq/_ativeandthe exeeutioe_. In eithercase,wherethedesignationoftheporennbywhomthepoweristobepossessed,dependsnotsolelyuponmerephysicalevents,suchasthat ofnaturalsuccession,but inanysortuponthewillofanotherperson,the latterpossessesanint_ztitit_power,orrightofinvestiture,withregardtothepowerinques-tion: inhkemannermayanypersonal._opossessadivestitivepower.Thepowersaboveenumerated,suchas judicialpower,militarypower,andsoforth,maythereforebeexercisableby a man,eitherdirectly,propri_rearm; orindirectly,mannal/ena_. Powerto beexercisedmannd/end

investitive,whichmayormaynotbesceoml_niedbydivestitive.Ofsovereignpower,whetherautocratic,legislative,or executive,theseveralpublictrustsabovementmnsdformsomanysubordinatebranebes.Anyofthesepowersmaybeplaced,either,Linanindividual;or,z.ina bodypolitic: whomaybeeithersupremeorsubordinate.Subordinationonthepartofa magistratemaybeestablished,_.Bytheperson'sbeingpanish-able:2.Byhisbeingremovable:3.Bytheordersbeingreve_sJble.X.O_It_c_sagainstBztzoxo,_.L Offencestendingtoweakenthe

forceofthereligioussanction:includingblasphemyandprofaneness.2.Offencest_ndingtomisapplytheforceofthereligioussanction:includin_falseprophecies,andotherpretendedrevelations;alsoheresy,wherethedoctr]nebroachedispernicioustothetemloralinterestsofthecommunity.3. Offences_gai_treligioustrust,whereanysuchisthoughtfittobeestablished.XI.O_zs_czsagainstthe_a_O_ALr_rrazSTingenera]._.Immoral

publications.2.Offencesagainstthetrustofanambassador;or,asitnnghtbetermed,prssbeut_ctrust,3.Offencesagainstthetrustofaprivy-counsellor; or, usit mightbe termed,syrabotdeut/etrust, 4. In

I fleeeb._viL[Limits],§ii;.SInIbeformerca_,theImwsrmlghtbetermedinassword,aulochiro_t_.Inliralatte_

h_iro_#. {a_r_,aman'sown; X_o,a band;dry, _notber'_).BJJ_H,LIS U

_9o .Divisio_of Offence3. [c_P.

denominationsonlyexceptedwhichrelateto theconditionsabovespokenofunderthenameofdomesticones)somanycivilconditionsonemightenumerate.Meanshowever,moreorlessexplicit,maybefoundoutofcircumscribingtheirinfinitude.

Whatthematerialsare,ifso theymaybecalled,ofwhichconditions,oranyotherkindoflegalpossession,canbemadeup,wehavealreadyseen: beneficialpowers,fiduciarypowers,beneficialrights,fiduciaryrights,relativeduties,absoluteduties.Butasmanyconditionsas importa powerorrightof thefiduciarykind,aspossessedbythepersonwhoseconditionisin question,belongto theheadof trusts. Thecatalogueoftheottencesto whichtheseconditionsareexposed,coincidesthereforeexactlywiththecatalogueofoffencesagainsttrust:underwhichheadtheyhavebeenconsideredinageneralpointofviewundertheheadofoffencesagainsttrust: andsuchofthemasareofadomesticnature,inamoreparticularmannerinthecharacterofoffencesagainsttheseveraldomesticcondi-tions. Conditionsconstitutedbysuchdutiesoftherelativekind,ashavefortheircounterpartstrustsconstitutedbyfidu-ciarypowers,aswellas rightsonthesideofthecorrelativeparty,andthoseofaprivatenature,havealsobeenalreadydis-cussedundertheappellationofdomesticconditions.Thesameobservationmaybeapphedtotheconditionsconstitutedbysuchpowersofthebeneficialkindoverpersonsasareofa privatenature: asalsotothesubordinatecorrelativeconditionscon-stitutedbythedutiescorrespondingtothoserightsandpowers.Astoabsoluteduties,thereisnoinstanceofa conditionthuscreated,ofwhichtheinstitutionisupontheprincipleofutilitytobejustified; unlesstheseveralreligiousconditionsofthemonastickindshouldbeallowedofasexamples.Thereremain,astheonlymaterialsoutofwhichtheconditionswhichyetre-maintobeconsideredcanbecomposed,conditionsconstitutedbybeneficialpowersoverthings; conditionsconstitutedby .pureormixedmonarchies,prodigalityonthepartof personswhoareabout ithepersonofthesovereign,thoughwithoutbeinginventedwlthanyspecific !trust. 5.Excossivcgamingonthepartofthes_meperBons.6.Tsking ,pre_cntsfromrivalpowersw_thoutleave, l

xvl.] Divi_iouof Offences. 29I

beneficialrightstothings(thatis,rightstopowersoverthings)orbyrightsto thoserights,andsoon; conditionsconstitutedbyfightstoservices; andconditionsconstitutedbythedutiescorrespondingtothoserespectivefights.Outofthesearetobetakenthoseofwhichthematerialsaretheingredientsoftheseveralmodificationsofproperty,theseveralconditionsofpro-pfietorship.Theseare theconditions,if suchfora momenttheymaybestyled,whichhavingbuthereandthereanyspecificnames,arenotcommonlyconsideredonthefootingofcondi-tions:sothattheactswhich,ifsuchconditionswererecognised,mightbeconsideredasoffencesagainstthoseconditions,arenotwonttobeconsideredinanyotherfightthanthatofottcneesagainstproperty.

Nowthecaseis,ashathbeenalreadyintimated1,thatofthesecivilconditions,thosewhicharewontto beconsideredunderthatname,arenotdistinguishedby anyuniformandexplicitlinefromthoseofwhichthematerialsarewonttobecarriedto theheadofproperty: asetof fightsshall,inoneinstance,beconsideredasconstitutingan articleofpropertyratherthana condition: while,inanotherinstance,asetofrightsofthesamestampisconsideredasconstitutingratheraconditionthananarticleofproperty.Thiswillprobablybefoundtobetheeasein alllanguages: andtheusageisdif-ferentagaininonelanguagefromwhatit isinanother.Fromthesecausesitseemstobeimpracticabletosubjecttheclassofcivilconditionstoanyexhaustivemethod: sothatformakinga completecollectionofthemthereseemstobenootherex-pedientthanthatofsearchingthelanguagethroughforthem,andtakingthemastheycome.Toexemplifythisobservation,itmaybeofusetolayopenthestructureasit wereoftwoorthreeoftheprincipalsortsorclassesofconditions,comparingthemwithtwoorthreearticlesofpropertywhichappeartobenearlyofthesamecomplexion: bythismeansthenatureandgeneration,ifonemaysocallit,ofboththeseclassesofidealobjectsmaybethemoredearlyunderstood.

J _upra,xvii.U2

agz _Oivi_io_of Offeneea. [e_Av.

Theseveralsortsofcivilconditionsthatarenotfiduciarymayall,oratleastthegreaterpartofthem,becomprehendedundertheheadofrank,orthatofprofession; thelatterwordbeingtakeninitsmostextensivesense,soastoincludenotonlywhatarecalledtheliberalprofessions,butthosealsowhichareexer-cisedbytheseveralsortsoftraders,artists,manufacturers,andotherpersonsofwhatsoeverstation,whoarein thewayofmakingaprofitbytheirlabour.Amongranksthen,aswellasprofessions,letus,forthesakeofperspicuity,takeforexamplessucharticlesasstandtheclearestfromanymixtureofeitherfiduciaryorbeneficialpower.Therankofknighthoodiscon-stituted,how?byprohibitingallotherpersonsiromperformingcertainacts,theperformanceofwhichis thesymboloftheorder,at thesametimethat theknightinquestion,andhiscompanions,arepermitted: forinstance,toweararibbonofacertaincolourinacertainmanner:tocallhimselfbyacertaintitle: touseanarmorialsealwitha certainmarkonit. Byhyingallpersonsbuttheknightunderthisprohibition,thelawsubjectsthemtoasetofduties: andsincefromthedis-chargeofthesedutiesabenefitresultsto thepersoninwhosefavourtheyarecreated,towit,thebenefitofenjoyingsuchashareofextraordinaryreputationandrespectasmenarewonttoyieldtoapersonthusdistinguished,todischargethemis torenderhimaservice: andthedutybeingadutyofthenegativeclass,adutyconsistingintheperformanceofcertainactsofthenegativekind1,theserviceiswhatmaybecalledaserviceofforbearance.It appearsthen,thattogeneratethisconditiontheremustbetwosortsof services: thatwhichis theimme-diatecauseofit,aserviceofthenegativekind,toberenderedbythecommunityat large: thatwhichis thecauseagainofthisservice,a serviceofthepositivekind,toberenderedbythelaw.

Theconditionofa professionalmanstandsuponanarrowerfooting.Toconstitutethisconditionthereneedsnothingmorethana permissiongivenhimonthepartofthelegislatorto

JSeeoh.vii.[Actions]viii.

xvI.] Divi,ionof Offences. 293

performthoseacts,intheperformanceofwhichconsiststheexerciseofhisprofession:togiveorsellhisadviceorassistanceinmattersoflaworphysic: togiveorsellhisservicesasem-ployedintheexecutingoroverseeingofamanufactureorpieceofworkofsuchorsuchakind: tosellacommodityofsuchorsuchasort. Herethenweseethereisbutonesortofservicerequisite; aservicewhichmaybemerelyofthenegativekind,toberenderedbythe law: theserviceofpermittinghimtoexercisehisprofession: a servicewhich,if therehasbeennoprohibitionlaidonbefore,isrenderedbysimplyforbearingtoprohibithim.

Nowtheidealobjects,whichintheeasesabovespecifiedaresaidtobeconferredupona manbytheservicesthatarere-spectivelyinquestion,areinbothcasesnotarticlesofpropertybutconditions.Bysucha behaviouronthepartofthe law,asshallbethereverseofthatwherebytheywererespectivelyproduced,amanmaybemadetoforfeitthem: andwhatheisthensaidtoforfeitis inneithercasehisproperty; butinonecase,hisrankor dignity: in theothercase,histradeorhisprofession: andinbothcases,hiscondition.

Othercasesthereareagaininwhichthelaw,byaprocessofthesamesortwiththatbywhichitconstitutedtheformerofthe twoabove-mentionedconditions,confersonhiman idealobject,whichthelawsoflanguagehaveplacedundertheheadofproperty.Thelawpermitsamantosellbooks: thatis,allsortsofbooksingeneral.Thusfarallthatit hasdoneis toinvesthimwitha condition:and thisconditionhe wouldequallypossess,althougheverybodyelseintheworldweret_sellbookslikewise.Letthelawnowtakeanactivepartinhisfavour,andprohibitallotherpersonsfromsellingbooksofacertaindescription,heremainingat libertyto sellthemasbefore.It thereforeconfersonhimasortofexclusiveprivilegeormonopoly,whichiscalleda eotoy-o_ht.Butbyinvestinghimwiththisright,it isnotsaidtoinvesthimwithanynew8ortof condition: whatit investshimwithis spokenofasanarticleofproperty; towit,ofthatsortofpropertywhichis

_94 Divisi_tof Offe_ee_. [c_AP.

termedincorporealI : andsooninthecaseofanengraving,amechanicalengine,amedicine; or,inshort,ofasaleablearticleofanyothersort. Yetwhenit gavehimanexclusiverightofwearingaparticularsortofribbon,theobjectwhichitwasthenconsideredasconferringonhimwasnotanarticleofpropertybuta condition.

Byforbearingtosubjectyoutocertaindisadvantages,towhichit subjectsanalien,thelawconfersonyoutheconditionofanatural-bornsubject:bysubjectinghimtothem,it imposesoilhimtheconditionofanalien: byconferringonyoucertainprivilegesorrights,whichitdeniestoaroturier,thelawcon-fersonyoutheconditionofaqentilhomme;byforbearingtoconferonhimthoseprivileges,it imposesonhimtheconditionofaroturier2. Therights,outoIwhichthetwoadvantageousconditionshereexemplifiedarebothofthemasit werecom-posed,havefortheircounterpartasortofservicesofforbear-ance,rendered,aswehaveseen,notbyprivateindividuals_butbythelawitself.Ast,othedutieswhichitcreatesinrenderingyoutheseservices,theyaretobeconsideredasdutiesimposedbythelegislatorontheministersofjustice.

It maybeobserved,withregardto thegreaterpartoftheconditionsherecomprisedunderthegeneralappellationofcivil,thattherelationscorrespondingto thosebywhichtheyarere-spectivelyconstituted,arenotprovidedwithappellatives.Therelationwhichhasaname,isthatwhichisbornebythepartyfavouredtothepartybound: thatwhichisbornebythepartyboundto thepartyfavouredhasnotany. Thisisa circum-stancethatmayhelptodistinguishthemfromthoseconditionswhichwehavetermeddomestic.Inthedomesticconditions,ifontheonesidethepartytowhomthepowerisgiveniscalledamaster; ontheotherside,thepartyoverwhomthatpoweris

Thereasonprobablywhyanobjectofthesorthereinquestionisre-ferredtotheheadofproperty,is,thatthechiefvalueofitari_ fromiLsbeingcapableof beingmadea sourceof propertyinthe moreordinaryacceptationsoftheword;tMtis,ofmoney,eomumablecommodities,andsofo_h. I

i TheconditionsthemselveshavingnothmgthatcorrespondstotheminEngland,it wasnecessarytomakeuseofforeignterms.

xvI.] Divisionof QO:enee*. 295

given,thepartywhois theobjectof thatpower,is termedaservant.In thecivilconditionsthisisnotthecase. Onthooneside,a man,invirtueofcertainservicesofforbearance,whichtherestofthecommunityareboundto renderhim,isdenominateda knightofsuchorsuchanorder: butontheotherside,theseservicesdonotbestowanyparticulardenomi-nationonthepersonsfromwhomsuchservicesaredue.Anotherman,invirtueofthelegislator'srenderingthatsortofnegativeservicewhichconsistsinthenotprohibitinghimfromexercisingatrade,investshimathisoptionwiththeconditionofatrader:itaccordinglydenominateshimafarmer,abaker,aweaver,andsoon: but theministersofthelawdonot,invirtueoftheirrenderingthe manthissortof negativeservice,acquireforthemselvesanyparticularname. Supposeeventhatthetradeyouhavetherightofexercisinghappenstobetheobjectofamonopoly,andthatthelegislator,besidesrenderingyouhimselfthoseserviceswhichyouderivefromthepermissionhebestowsonyou,obligesotherpersonstorenderyouthosefartherserviceswhichyoureceivefromtheirforbearingto tollowthesametrade;yetneitherdothey,invirtueoftheirbeingthusbound,acquireanyparticularname.

Afterwhathasbeensaidofthenatureoftheseveralsortsofcivilconditionsthathavenames,theoffencestowhichtheyareexposedmay,withoutmuchdifficulty,beimagined.Takenbyitself,everyconditionwhichisthusconstitutedbyapermissiongrantedto thepossessor,isofcourseofabeneficialnature: itis,therefore,exposedtoallthoseoffencestowhichthepossessionofabenefitisexposed.Buteitheronaccountofaman'sbeingobligedtoperseverewhenonceengagedinit, oronaccountofsuchotherobligationsasmaystandamlexedto thepossessionofit, or onaccountof thecomparativedegreeof disreputewhichmaystandannexedto it bythemoralsanction,itmaybyaccidentbeaburthen: it isonthisaccountliabletostandexposedtotheoffencestowhich,ashathbeenseen,everythingthatpartakesofthenatureofa burthenstandsexposed.Astoanyoffenceswhichmayconcerntheexerciseofthefunctions

_96 .Zh'ri_ion_ O0_enee_. lenA1,.

belongingtoit, if ithappenstohaveanydutiesannexedto it,suchasthose,forinstance,whichareconstitutedbyregulationstouchingtlleexerciseof a trade,it willstandexposedto somanybreachesofduty; andlastly,whatsoeverarethefunc-tionsbelongingto it, it willstandexposedat anyrate todisgurbance.

In the forminghoweverofthe catalogueoftheseoffences,exactnessisofthelessconsequence,inasmuchasanact,if itshouldhappennottobecomprisedinthiscatalogue,andyptisinanyrespectofa perniciousnature,willbesureto befoundinsomeotherdivisionofthesystemofoffences: if abakersellsbadbreadforthepriceofgood,it isa kindoffrauduponthebuyer; andperhapsaninjuryof thesimplecorporalkinddonetothehealthofanindividual,oraneighbourhood:if aclothiersellshadclothforgoodat home,it isa fraud; if toforeignersabroad,itmay,overandabovethe fraudputupontheforeignpurchaser,haveperniciouseffectsperhapsin the prosperityofthetradeat home,andbecometherebyanoffenceagainstthenationalwealth.Soagainwithregardtodisturbance.' if amanbe disturbedin theexerciseofhistrade,the offencewillpro-bab]ybea wrongfulinterceptionoftheprofithemightbe pre-sumedtohavebeeninawaytomakebyit : andwereit evento appearinanycasethat a manexerciseda trade,orwhatislessunlikely,a liberalprofession,withouthavingprofitinhisview,theoffencewillstillbereducibletothe headofsimpleinjuriousrestrainment,orsimpleinjuriouscorntnd_ion.

§4. Advantagesof thepreser_rrughod.C_lid_ LVI. A fewwords,forthepurposeofgivinga generalvie,tthe_othoahereOfthemethodofdivisionherepursued,andoftheadvantages_arsue_ whichit possesses,mayhavetheiruse. Thewholesystemof

offences,wemayobserve,isbranchedoutintofiveclasses.Inthethreefirst,thesubordinatedivisiousaretakenfromthesame [source; viz.fromthe considerationofthedifferentpoints,in I

respectwhereoftheinterestofanindividualisexposedtosuffer.Bythisuniformity,aconsiderabledegreeoffightseemstobe

xvl.] .Dividonof Offenee_. _97

thrownuponthewholesystem; particularlyupontheoffencesthatcomeunderthe thirdclass:objectswhichhaveneverhithertobeenbroughtintoanysortoforder.Withregardtothefourthclass,insettlingtheprecedencebetweenitsseveralsubordinatedivisions,it seemedmostnaturalandsatisfactorytoplacethosefirst,theconnectionwhereofwiththewelfareofin-dividualsseemedmostobviousandimmediate.Themisehievouseffect._ofthoseoffences,whichtendinanimmediatewaytodepriveindividualsoftheprotectionprovidedforthemagainsttheattacksofoneanother,andofthosewhichtendtobringdownuponthemtheattacksofforeignassailants,seemalikeobviousandpalpable.Themischievousqualityofsuchastendtoweakentheforcethatisprovidedtocombatthoseattacks,butparticularlythelatter,thoughevidentenough,isonelinkfartherottinthechainofcausesandeffects.Theilleffectsotsuchoffencesasareofdisserviceonlybydiminishingthepar-ticularfundfromwhencethatforceis tobe extracted,sucheffects,I say,thoughindhputab]c,arestillmoredistantandoutofsight.Thesamethingmaybeobservedwithregardtosuchasaremischievousonlybyat_ectingtheunivers_lfund.Offencesagainstthesovereigntyingeneralwouldnotbemischievous,ifoffencesoftheseveraldescriptionsprecedingwerenotmis-chievous.Norina temporalviewareoffencesagainstreligionmischievous,exceptinasfaras,byremoving,orweakening,ormisapplyingoneofthethreegreatincentivestovirtue,andcheckstovice,theytendtoopenthedoorto theseveralmis-chiefs,whichit is thenatureofallthoseotheroffencestopro-duce.Astothefifthclass,this,asha*_halreadybeenobserved,exhibits,atfirstview,anirregularity,whichhoweverseemstobeunavoidable.Butthisirregularityispresentlycorrected,whentheanalysisreturnsback,asitdoesafterasteportwo,intothepathfromwhichthotyrannyoflanguagehadforceditawhiletodeviate.

It wasnecessarythatit shouldhavetwopurposesinview:theone,toexhibit,uponascalemoreorlessminute,a syste-maticalenumerationoftheseveralpossiblemodificationsof

298 Division*of OtTe_ee,. [c_,tP.

delinquency,denominatedorundenominated;theother,tofindplacesin thelistforsuchnamesofoffencesaswereincurrentuse: forthefirstpurpose,naturewastosetthelaw; fortheother,custom.Hadthenatureofthethingsthemselvesbeentheonlyguide,everysuchdi_erenceinthemannerofperpetra-tion,andsuchonly,shouldhaveservedasagroundforadifferentdenomination,aswasattendedwithadii_erenceinpointofeffect.Thishoweverofitselfwouldneverhavebeensufficient; forasononehandthenewlanguage,whichitwouldhavebeenneces-sarytoinvent,wouldhavebeenuncouth,andinamannerunin-telligible: soontheotherhandthenames,whichwerebeforeincurrentuse,andwhich,inspiteofallsystems,goodorbad,musthaveremainedincurrentuse,wouldhavecontinuedunex-plained.Tohaveadheredexclusivelyto thecurrentlanguage,wouldhavebeenasbadontheotherside; forinthatcasethecatalogueofoffences,whencomparedto thatofthemischiefsthatarecapableofbeingproduced,wouldhavebeenaltogetherbrokenanduncomplete.

Toreconcilethesetwoobjects,inasfarastheyseemedtobereconcilable,thefollowingcoursehasthereforebeenpursued.Thelogicalwhole,eonstitutedbythesulntotalofpossibleoffences,hasbeenbisectedinasmanydifferentdirectionsaswereneces-sary,andtheprocessin eachdirectioncarrieddowntothatstageatwhichtheparticularideasthusdividedfoundnamesincurrentuseinreadinesstoreceivethem.AtthatperiodIhavestopped; leavinganyminuterdistinctionstobeenumeratedinthebodyofthework,assomanyspeciesofthegenuscharacter-isedbysuchorsucha name. If in thecourseofanysuchprocessIcametoamodeofconductwhich,thoughitrequiredtobetakennoticeof,andperhapshadactuallybeentakennoticeof,underalllaws,in thecharacterofanoffence,hadhithertobeenexpressedunderdifferentlaws,bydifferentcircumlocutions,withouteverhavingreceivedanynamecapableofoccnpyingtheplaceofasubstantiveinasentence,Ihavefrequentlyventuredsofarastofabricateanewnameforit,suchanoneastheidiom !ofthelanguage,andtheacquaintanceI happenedtohavewith

XVI.] Divisimzof Offe_zees. 299

it,wouldadmitof. Thesenamesconsistinginmostinstances,andthatunavoidably,oftwoorthreewordsbroughttogether,ina languagetoowhichadmitsnot,liketheGermanaudtheGreek,oftheirbeingmeltedintoone,canneverbeuponapar,inpointof commodiousness,withthoseunivocalappellativeswhichmakepartoftheestablishedstock.

Inthechoiceofnamesincurrentuse,carehasbeentakentoavoidallsuchashavebeengroundedonlocaldistinctions,illfoundedperhapsin thenationinwhichtheyreceivedtheirbirth,andat anyratenotapplicableto thecircumstancesofothercountries.

Theanalysis,asfarasit goes,isasapplicabletothelegalcon-cernsofonecountryasofanother:andwhere,ifithaddescendedintofurtherdetails,itwouldhaveceasedtobeso,thereIhavetakencarealwaystostop: andthenceit is thatit hascometobesomuchmoreparticularintheclassofoffencesagainstindi-viduals,thaninanyoftheotherclasses.O_eusethenofthisarrangement,ifit shouldbefoundtohavebeenproperlycon-ducted,willbeits servingtopointoutinwhatit is thatthelegalinterestsofallcountriesagree,andinwhatit isthattheyareliabletodiffer:howfararulethatisproperforone,willserve,andhowfaritwillnotserve,foranother•Thatthelegalinterestsofdifierentagesandcountrieshavcnothingincommon,andthattheyhaveeverything,aresuppositionsequallydistantfromthetruth1.

LVII.Anaturalmethod,suchasithathbeenhereattemptedtt3a_lvan-• . . rages.toexhibit,seemstopossessfourcapitaladvantages;nottomcn--l. Iti,convenienttionothersofinferiornote. Inthefirstplace,itaffordssuchrottheap-

prehensioJtassistancetotheapprehensionandtothememory,asthosefacul-andthetieswouldinvainlookforinanytechnicalarrangement2.Thatme_"°ry"arrangementoftheobjectsofanysciencemay,itshouldseem,

i Theabovehintsare,offeredtothe considerationof thefewwhomaybedisposedtobendtheirmindstodisquisitmnsofthisuninvibingnature:to siftthe matterto thebottom,andengageinthe detailsofillustration,wouldrequiremoreroomthancouldin thisplacebeconsistentlyallowed.

z SeeFragmentonGovernment,pref.p.xlv.edit. rTy6.--ptef,p. rdvii.edit.18z3.

3oo .Sivi,ffonof OffeTwe_. [craAI,.

betermedanaturalone,whichtakessuchpropertiesto charac-terisethemby,asmeningeneralare,by thecommonconstitu-tionofman'snature,independentlyofanyaccidentalimpressionstheymayhavereceivedfromtheinfluenceofanylocalorotherparticularcauses,accustomedtoattendto : such,inaword,asnaturally,that isreadilyandat fir§tsight,engage,andfirmlyfix,the attentionof allyoneto whomtheyhaveoncebeenpointedout. Nowbywhatothermeansshouldanobjectengageorfixa man'sattention,unlessbyinterestinghim? andwhatcircumstancebelongingtoanyactioncanbemoreinteresting,orratherwhatothercircumstancebelongingtoit canbeat allinterestingtohim,thanthatoftheinfluenceit promisestohaveonhisownhappiness,andthehappinessofthosewhoareabouthim? By whatothermarkthenshouldhemoreeasilyfindtheplacewhichanyoffenceoccupiesinthesystem,orbywhatotherclueshouldhemorereadilyrecallit _.

-_.It_,_s LVIII. In the nextplace,it notonlygivesat firstglancea_omfoFscherzipr_generalintimationofthe natureofeachdivisionofoffences,inp_it_ong,as faras thatnatureisdeterminedbysomeonecharacteristic

property,but itgivesroomforanumberofgeneralpropositionstobeformedconcerningtheparticularoffencesthatcomeunderthat division,in suchmanneras to exhibita varietyof otherpropertiesthatmaybelongtothemincommon.Itgivesroom,therefore,forthe framingofanumberofpropositionsconcern-ingthem,which,thoughverygeneral,becausepredicatedofagreatnumberofarticles,shallbeasgenerallytruei.

i Imagine what acondition asciencemustbein,when as yet thereshallbe nosuchthing as forminganyexteneivepropositionrelativeto it, thatshall be at the sametime a true one: where,if the propositionshall betrueof some of the partSeularscontainedunderit, it shall be falsewithregardto others. Whata state wouldbotany,for example, bein, if theclasseswez_socontrived,thatnocommoncharactersoouldbefoundforthem_Y'ctinthisstate,andnobetter,seemseverysystemofpen_llawtobe,authoritativeorunauthoritative,thathaseveryetappeared.Tryifitbeotherwise,forinstance,withthedd_a_imtaeApub//ca,andwiththeff_blicaardinaria,and_b//caextra-ordinariaoftheRomanlaw_.Allthistotwantofmethod: andhencethenecessityofendeavouringtomtrikeout• newone. [

/

it SeeHelnece,Elem,p. vii._79,Be. !

xvI.] .DivisionofOff*uces. 3el

LIX.Inthethirdplace,itissocontrived,thatthevery_lace_.I_poi,_" out,thewhichanyoffenceismadetooccupy,suggeststhereasonofitsreasonotthebeingputthere.ItservestoindicatenotonlythatsuchandsuchJaw.actsaremadeoffences,butwhytheyo_/_tobe.Bythismeans,whileitaddressesitselftotheunderstanding,itrecommendsitselfinsomemeasuretotheaffections.Bytheintimationitgivesofthenatureandtendencyofeachobnoxiousact,it accountsfor,andinsomemeasurevindicates,thetreatmentwhichitmaybethoughtpropertobestowuponthatactinthewayofpunish-ment. Tothesubjectthenit isakindofperpetualapology:showingthenecessityofeverydefalcation,which,forthese-curityandprosperityofeachindividual,it isrequisitetomakefromthelibertyofeveryother. Tothelegislatorit isakindofperpetuallesson: servingatonceasacorrectivetohispre-judices,andasacheckuponhispassions.Is thereamischiefwhichhasescapedhim_.ina naturalarrangement,if at thesametimean exhaustiveone,hecannotfailtofindit. Is hetemptedevertoforceinnocencewithinthepaleofgttilt? thedifficultyoffindinga placeforit advertiseshimofhiserror.Sucharetheusesofamapofuniversaldelinquency,laiddownupontheprincipleofutility: suchtheadvantages,whichthelegislatoraswellasthesubjectmayderivefromit. Abidebyit, andeverythingthatisarbitraryinlegislationvanishes.Anevil-intentionedorprejudicedlegislatordurstnotlookit in theface. Hewouldproscribeit, andwithreason: itwouldbeasatireonhislaws.

LX.In thefourthplace,anaturalarrangement,governedas-4.ni,ahkeapoh-it isbya principlewhichis recognisedbyallmen,willserve_bi,toth_

Noris thiswantofmethodto bewonderedat. A sciencesonewasthatofpenallegislation,couldhardlyhavebeeninanybetterstate. Tillobjectsaredistinguished,theycannotbe arranged.It isthusthattr_handerdergo onhandinhand. It is onlyin proportiona_thelormerisdiscovered,that thelattercanbe improved.Beforea certainorderis_stahlished,truthcanbebutimperfectlyannounced: butuntilacertainproportionof truthhasbeendevelopedandbroughtto light,thatordercannotbeestablished.Thediscoveryoftruthleadsto theestablishmentoforder:andtheestabli_kmentoforderfixesandpropagatesthediscoveryoftruth.

3oz Oivisio_zof Ol_e_zees. [ca^P.

l_of_l alikeforthe jurisprudenceofallnations.Ina systemofpro-llatlonlLposedlaw,framedinpursuanceofsuchamethod,thelanguagewillserveas a glossaryby whichall systemsofpositivelawmightbeexplained,whilethematterservesas astandardbywhichtheymightbetried. Thu_illustrated,thepracticeofeverynationmightbea lessontoeveryother: andmankindmightcarryona mutualinterchangeofexperiencesandim-provementsaseasilyin thisasineveryotherwalkofscience.Ifanyoneoftheseobjectsshouldinanydegreebcattained,thelabourofthisanalysis,severeasit hasbeen,willnothavebeenthrownaway.

§ 5. Charactersofthefiveclasses.chmctersLXI.It hasbeenmentionedI asanadvantagepossessedbyoftirecir. bowthismethod,andnotpossessedbyanyother,that theobjectsdeduciblefromthe comprisedunderit arecastintogroups,towhicha varietyofabove•_ethod.propositionsmaybeapphedincommon.Acollectionofthese

propositions,asappliedtothesew_alclasses,maybeconsideredasexhibitingthedistinctivecharactersofeachclass.8omanyofthesepropositionsascanbeapphedtotheoffencesbelongingto anygivenclass,somanypropertiesaretheyfoundtohaveincommon:somanyof thesecommonpropertiesas mayrespectivelybeattributedtothem,somanypropertiesmaybesetdowntoserveascharactersof theclass. A collectionofthesecharactersitmayherebepropertoexhibit.Themoreofthemwecanbringtogether,themoreclearlyandfullywillthenatureoftheseveralclasses,andoftheoffencestheyarecom-posedof,beunderstood.

c_a_ter8 LXII.CharactersofClassI ; composedofPRIVATEoffences,o_c_ r oroffencesagainstassignablei_divid_als.

x. Whenarrivedat theirlaststage(thestageofconsurama-tion2)theyproduce,allofthem,a primarymischiefas wellasa secondary3

2. Theindividualswhomtheyaffectin thefirstinstance4

Supra,lviii, t Ch.vii. [Action.s]xiv.BSeech.xii.[Consequences]iii. ' That is,by theirprimarymischief.

xvl.] .Divido_of Offence_. 3o3

areconstantlyas_ipnable.Thisextendstoall; toattemptsandpreparations,aswellastosuchashavearrivedatthestageofconsummation1.

3.Consequentlytheyadmitofcompe_ationz: inwhichtheydifferfromtheoffencesofalltheotherclasses,assuch.

4. Theyadmitaalsoofretaliation4; ia whichalsotheydifferfromtheoffencesofalltheotherclasses.

5. Thereisalwayssomepersonwhohasa naturalandpe-culiarinterestto prosecutethem. In thistheydifferfromself-regardingoffences: alsofromsemi-publicandpublicones;exceptinasfarasthetwolattermaychancetoinvolveaprivatemischief.

6. Thenfischieftheyproduceisobvious: moresothanthatofsemi-publicoffences: andstillmoreso thanthatofself-regardingones,orevenpublic.

7. Theyareeverywhere,andmusteverbe,obnoxioustothecensureoftheworld:moresothansemi-publicoffencesassuch;andstillmoresothanpublicones.

8.Theyaremoreconstantlyobnoxiousto thecensureoftheworldthanself-regardingoffences:andwouldbesouniversally,wereit notfortheinfluenceofthe twofalseprinciples; theprincipleofasceticism,andtheprincipleofantipathys.

9. Theyarelessapt thansemi-publicandpublicoffencestorequiredifferentdescriptions6indifferentstatesandcountries:inwhichrespecttheyaremuchupona parwithself-regardingones.

Io.Bycertaincircumstancesofaggravation,theyareliablei Seesupra,xxxinote,andB.I.tit. [Accessoryoffence_].2,Seeeh.xili.[CasesuumectJif. note.a I mean,that retaliationis capableof beingapphedin the casesin

questmn; not thatit oughtalwaystobeemployed.Norisit capableofbeingappliedineveryiTul_dualinstanceofeachoffence,butonlyin_omeindividualinstanceof eachspectesof offence.

d Seeoh.xv.[Properties]wiLi Ch.ft. [Principle_adverse].• It seemsto befromtheirp_sessingthesethreel&_tproperties,that

thecustomhasarisenofspeakingof them,orat lea_tofmanyofthem,underthenameofot_encesagainstthelawor'nature: a vagueexpressmn,and productiveo!a multitudeof inconveniences.Seeoh.ii.[PrinciplesadverseI x/v.note.

3o4 Di_,isiouof Offence_. [cliAP. i

to betransformedintosemi-publicoffences;_ndbycemdnothers,intopublic.

II. Therecallbenogroundforpmfishin_them,untiltheycanbeprovedtohaveoccasioned,ortobeabouttooccasion,someparticularmischieftosomep3rticularindividual.Inthistheydifferfromsemi-publicoffences,andfrompublic.

I2. In slightcases,compensationgivento the individualaffectedby themmaybe a sufficientgrou_ldforretail,ringpunishment: foriftheprimarymischiefhasnotbeensullicienttoproduceanyalarm,thewholeofthemischiefmaybecttrcdbycompensation.Inthisalsotheydifferfromsemi-publicoffences,andfrompublicones.

_,_e_r_ LXIII.Charactersof Class2; composedof SEMI-PUBLICoI Glass2.offences,oroffencesaffectinga wholesubordinateclassofpersons.

_t.Assuch,theyproducenoprimarymischief.Themischieftheyproduceconsistsofoneorotherorbothbranchesofthesecondarymischiefproducedbyoffencesagainstindividuals,withouttheprimary.

2. Inasfarastheyaretobeconsideredasbelongingto thisclass,ghepersonswhomtheyaffectinthefirstinstancearenotindividuallyassignable.

3. Theyareapt,however,to invo]veor terminateinsomeprimarymischietofthefirstorder; whichwhentheydo,theyadvanceintothefirstclass,andbecomeprivateoffences.

4. Theyadmitnot,assuch,ofcompensation.5. Norofretaliation.6.Assuch,thereisneveranyoneparticularindividualwhose

exclusiveinterestit is toprosecutethem: a circleofpersonsmay,however,alwaysbemarkedout,withinwhichmaybefoundsomewhohaveagreaterinteresttoprosecutethananywhoareoutofthatcirclehave.

7. Themischieftheyproduceisingeneralprettyobvious:notsomuchsoindeedas thatotprivateoffences,butmore8ouponthewholethanthatofself-regardingandpublicones.8.Theyareratherleasobnoxioastothecensureoftheworld

xvl.] l_vi_ioaofOffences. 305thanprivateoffences; buttheyaremoresothanpublicones:theywouldalsobemoresothanself-regardingones,wereitnotfortheinfluenceofthetwofalseprinciples,theprincipleofsympathyandantipathy,andthatofasceticism.

9.Theyaremoreaptthanprivateandself-regardingoffencestorequiredifferentdescriptionsindifferentcountries: butless8othanpubhcones.

Io. Theremaybegroundforpunishingthembeforetheyhavebeenprovedtohaveoccasioned,ortobeabouttooccasion,mis-chieftoanyparticularindividual; whichisnotthecasewithprivateoffences.

_I. Innocasescansatisfactiongiventoanyparticularindi-vidualaffectedby thembea sufficientgroundforremittingpunishment: forbysuchsatisfactionit isbuta partofthemischiefofthemthatiscured.Inthistheydifferfromprivateoffences; butagreewithpublic.

LXIV.CharactersofClass3; consistingofSELFREaARDISOOh_c_r_ofClaim_.offences: offencesagainstone'sself.

I. In individualinstancesit willoftenbe questionable,whethertheyareproductiveofanyprimary1mischiefatall:secondary,theyproducenone.

2. Theyaffectnotanyotherindividuals,assignableornotassignable,exceptinasfarastheyaffecttheoffenderhimself;unlessbypossibilityinparticularcases; andinaveryslightanddistantmannerthewholestate.

3. Theyadmitnot,therefore,ofcom_nsatioTt.4. Norofretaliation.5. Nopersonhasnaturallyanypeculiarinteresttoprosecute

them: exceptinasfarasinvirtueofsomeconnectionhemayhavewiththeoffender,eitherinpointofsympathyorofinterest2,amischiefofthederivativekindamayhappentodevolveuponh_n _.

I Becausetheperson,whoingeneralismostlikelyto be_nsibleto themischief(if thereis any)of anyoiIence,viz. the personwhomit mostai]ects,showsbyhisconductthatheis notsensibleofit.

mSeeeh.vi.[Sensibility]xxv.xxvi. t Seech.xii.[Consequences]iv.Amongtheoffences,however,whichbelongto thisclassthereat_

BE_TH.t_ X

306 Di_'i_io_ofOf_ce,. [c_Av.6. Themischieftheyproduceis aptto be tmoBvio_audin

generalmorequestionablethanthatofanyoftheotherelates1.7.Theyarehoweverapt,manyofthem,tobemoreobnoxious

tothe censureoftheworldthanpublicoffences; owingto theinfluenceofthetwofalseprinciples; the principleofasceticism,andtheprincipleofantipathy.Someofthemmoreeventhansemi-public,or eventhanprivateoffence

8. Theyarelessaptthanoffencesofanyotherclasstorequiredifferentdescriptionsin differentstatesandcountriesz.

9. Amongthe inducements3 to punishthem,antipathyagainstthe offenderis apt to have a greater share thansympathyforthe public.

zo. Thebest pleafor punishingthemis foundedona faintprobabilitytheremaybeoftheirbeingproductiveofamischief,which,if real,willplacethemintheclassofpublicones:chieflyin thosedivisionsof it whichare composedof offencesagainstpopulation,andoffencesagainstthe nationalwealth.

ChAracter,LXV.CharactersofClass4 ; consistingofPUBLICoffences,orotct_,4, offencesagainstthestateingeneral.

I. Assuch,theyproducenotanyprimarymischief;and thesecondarymischiefthey produce,whichconsistsfrequentlyofdangerwithoutalarm,thoughgreat invalue,isin specieveryindeterminate.

2. Theindividualswhomtheyaffect,inthefirstinstance,areconstantlyunassignable; exceptin as far asby accidenttheyhappentoinvolveor terminateinsuchor suchoffencesagainstindividuals.

3. Consequentlytheyadmitnotof compensation.4. Norof retatiation.

somewhichincertaincountriesitisnotuncommonforpersonstobedis-ofl_sedtoprosecutewithoutanyartificialirnlucement,andmerelyonaccountuantipathy,whichsuchactsaxeapttoexcite.Seecb.if.[Principles

adverse]xi.*Seenote*intheprecedingpage.*Accordingly,mostofthemaceapttoberankedamongoffencesagainst

thelawofnature.Videsupra,Charactersofthe[stclam,lxii.note.3 I meantheconsiderations,rightorwrong,whichinduceordisposethe

legislatortotreatthemonthefootingofoffences.

xvT.] Di_i#io__ Offences. 307

5.Noris thereanypersonwhohasnaturallyanyparticularinteresttoprosecutethem; exceptinasfarastheyappeartoaffectthepower,orinanyothermannertheprivateinterest,ofsomepersoninauthority.

6. Themischieftheyproduce,assuch,iscomparativelyun-obvious; muchmoresothanthatofprivateoffences,andmoresolikewise,thanthatofsemi-publicones.

7. Theyare,assuch,muchlessobnoxiousto thecensureoftheworld,thanprivateoffences; lesseventhansemi-public,oreventhanself-regardingoffences; unlessinparticularcases,throughsympathyto certainpersonsin authority,whoseprivateintereststheymayappeartoaffect.

8. Theyaremoreaptthananyoftheotherclassestoadmitofdifferentdescriptions,indifferentstatesandcountries. E

9"Theyareconstituted,inmanycases,bysomecircumstancesofaggravationsuperaddedtoaprivateoffence: andtherefore,in thesecases,involvethemischiefandexhibittheothercha-ractersbelongingto bothclasses.Theyarehowever,eveninsuchcases,properlyenoughrankedinthe4thclass,inasmuchasthemischieftheyproduceinvirtueofthepropertieswhichaggregatethemtothatelass,eelipsesandswallowsupthatwhichtheyproduceinvirtueofthosepropertieswhichaggregatethemtothe_st.

Io.Theremaybesufficientgroundforpunishingthem,with-outtheirbeingprovedtohaveoccasioned,ortoheabouttooccasion,anyparticularmischieftoanyparticularindividual.In thistheydifferfromprivateoffences,butagreewithsemi-publicones.Here,asinsemi-publicoffences,theextentofthemischiefmakesupfortheuncertaintyofit.

II. Innocasecansatisfaction,giventoanyparticularindi-vidualaffectedbythem,bea sufficientgroundforremittingpunishment.Inthistheyd_ferfromprivateoffences;butagreewithsemi-public.

LXVI.CharactersofClass5,orappendix: composedofMvt,-ChA_¢_TrFoRMorA_OMAI,OUSoffences;andcontainingoffencesby°tclu__._,LS_HOOV,andoffencesconcerningTRUEST.

iz2

308 Divisionof Offe_,ees.

I. Takencollectively,in theparcelsmarkedoutby theirpopularappellations,theyareincapableofbeingaggregatedtoanysystematicalmethodof distribution,groundeduponthemischiefoftheoffence.

2. Theymay,however,bethrownintosub-divisions,whichmaybeaggregatedtosuchamethodofdistribution.

3. Thesesub-divisionswillnaturallyandreadilyrankunderthedivisionsoftheseveralprecedingclassesofthissystem.

4. Eachofthetwogreatdivisionsofthisclassspreadsitselfinthatmanneroveralltheprecedingclasses.

5.In someactsoi thisclass,thedistinguishingcircumstancewhichconstitutestheessentialcharacteroftheoffence,willinsomeinstancesenternecessarily,inthechara¢terofacriminativecircumstance,intotheconstitutionoftheoffence;insomuchthat,withouttheinterventionofthiscircumstance,nooffenceat all,ofthatdenomination,canbecommitted1. Inotherinstances,theoffencemaysubsistwithoutit; andwhereit interferes,itcomesinasanaccidentalindependentcircumstance,capableofconstitutingagroundofaggravation2.

Instance,offencesbyfalsehood,inthecaseofdefl'audm_t.' Instance,offencesbyfalsehood,inthecaseofsimplecorporalinjuries,

andotheroffencesagainstperson.

CHAPTERXVII.

OF THELIMITSOFTHEPENALBRANCHOFJURISPRUDENCE.

§I. LimitsbaweenPrivateEthicsandtheArtofLegislation.

I. So.muchforthedivisionofoffencesingeneral.NowanI'seoftb,soffenceisanactprohibited,or(whatcomesto thesamething)chBp_.anactofwhichthecontraryiscommanded,bythelaw: andwhatisit that thelawcanbeemployedindoing,besidespro-hibitingandcommanding? It shouldseemthen,accordingtothisviewofthematter,thatwerewetohavesettledwhatmaybepropertobedonewithrelationtooffences,weshouldtherebyhavesettledeverythingthatmaybepropertobedonein thewayoflaw.Yetthatbranchwhichconcernsthemethodofdeal-ingwithoffences,andwhichistermedsometimesthecriminal,sometimesthepenal,branch,isuniversallyunderstoodtobebutoneoutoftwobrancheswhichcomposethewholesubjectoftheart of legislation; that whichis termedthec/v/lbeingtheotherI. Betweenthesetwobranchesthen,it isevidentenough,therecannotbutbeaveryintimateconnection; sointimateisit indeed,thatthelimitsbetweenthemarebynomeanseasytomarkout. Thecaseis thesameinsomedegreebetweenthewholebusinessoflegislatioll(civilandpenalbranchestakentogether)andthat ofprivateethics. Oftheseseverallimits

i Andtheconstitutionalbranch,whatisbecomeofit? Suchis theques-tionwhichmanya readerwillbe apt to put. Ananswerthat mightbegivenis--that thematterofit arightwithoutmuchviolencebedistributedunderthe twootherheath. But,as taras recollectionserves,that branch,notwithstandiagitsimportance,anditscapacityofbeinglodgedsoparate]yitemtheothermatter,hadat thattimesearcclyprcsenteditselftomy viewinthecharacterel a distractone : the threadofmyenquirieshad nota_yetreachedit. Butintheconcludingnoteofthissamechapter,inpara-graphsxrdi.tothecad,theomi_ionmaybeseeninsomemeasuresupplied.

3m Oftke Zimitaof tke [caaJ,.

howeveritwillbeinamannernecessarytoexhibitsomeidea:lest,ontheonehand,weshouldseemtoleaveanypartofthesubjectthatdoesbelongtousuntouched,or,ontheotherhand,todeviateonanysideintoatruckwhichdoesnotbelongtous.Inthecourseofthisenquiry,thatpartofitImeanwhich

concernsthelimitsbetweenthecivilandthepenalbranchoflaw,itwillbenecessarytosettleanumberofpoints,ofwhichtheconnectionwiththemainquestionmightnotatfirstsightbesuspected.Toascertainwhatsortofathingalawis;whatthepartsarethataretobefoundinit;whatitmustcontaininordertobeco_nple_e;whattheconnectionisbetweenthatpartofabodyoflawswhichbelongstothesubjectofprocedureandtherestofthelawatlarge"--allthese,itwillbeseen,aresomanyproblems,whichmustbesolvedbeforeanysatisfactoryanswercanbcgiventothemainquestionabovementioned.Noristhistheironlyuse:foritisevidentenough,thatthe

notionofacompletelawmustfirstbefixed,beforethelegislatorcaninanycaseknowwhatitishehastodo,orwhenhisworkisdone.

E_lic__ II. Ethicsatlargemaybedefined,theartofdirectingmen'sg¢lter/_,

_hffi,. actionsto theproductionofthegreatestpossiblequantityofhappiness,onthepartofthosewhoseinterestisinview.

Private III. Whatthenaretheactionswhichit canbeina man'sethics.

powertodirect? Theymustbeeitherhisownactions,orthoseofotheragents.Ethics,inasfarasit isthearto[directingaman'sownactions,maybestyledtheartqfse!f.governrnent,orl)rivateelhics.

_eartof IV.Whatotheragentsthenarethere,which,at thesamegoveHImenL:that iB,of timethattheyareundertheinfluenceofman'sdirection,arelegislationand_mm-susceptibleofhappiness? Theyareoftwosorts: z. Otheristratiotu

humanbeingswhoarestyledpersons.2.Otheranimals,which,onaccountoftheirinterestshavingbeenneglectedbythein-sensibilityoftheancientjurists,standdegradedintotheclasselthingsa. Astootherhumanbeings,theartofdirectingtheir

J.t_ofth_t UndertheGoateeandMahometanreligions,theinterestsoftheresti,._nor_tm_t_,-_o_lyoft__nim_Icreationscoretol_vemetwith8omeatten_mn.Why

xvll.] Pe_ml JBranek _ durislorudeuee. 3Ix

actions to the above end is what wemean, or at least the onlything which,upon the principle of utifity, weought to mean, bythe art of government : which, in as far as the measuresit dis-plays itself in are of a permanent nature, is generally distin-guished by the name of legislation : as it is by that of adminis-tration,when they are of at mporary nature, determined by theoccurrences of the day.

¥. Now human creatures, considered with respect to the ms- Artofedu-turity of their faculties, are either in an adu/t, or in a non-adulgcarl°m"state. The art of government, in as far as it concerns thedirection of the actions of permns in a non-adult ._tat_,m_y b¢

havethey not, universally,withas muchas thoseot humancreatures,,ql,c*,d_Uowancemadeforthe differencein point ofsensibility? Becausethe_:_o_lawsthataxehavebeenthe workofmutualfear; a sentimentwhichthelessrationalanimalshavenot hadthe samemeansasmanhasof turningto account._Vhyough_they not ? 1_0reasoncanbegiven. If the beingeatenwereall,thereis verygoodreasonwhyweshouldbesufferedtoeat,suchofthemasweliketoeat: wcarethebetterforit, andtheyarcneverthewor_e.Thcyhavcnoneofthoselong-protractedanticipationsoffuturemiserywhichwehave. Thedeaththey sufferin ourhandscommonlyis,andalwaysmaybe,aspeedier0andby thatmeansa lesspainfulone,thanthat whichwouldawaitthemin the inevitablecourBeof nature. If thebeingkilledwereall,thereis verygoodreasonwhyweshouldbesufferedtokillsuchasmolestus: weshouldbetheworsefortheirliving,and theyareneverthe worseforbeingdead. But is thereanyreasonwhy weshouldbesufferedto tormcntthem? :Notanythat I cansee. Arethereany whywe shouldno_besuffcredtotormentthem? Yes,several. SeeB.I.tit. [Crueltytoanimals].Thedayhasbeen,I grieveto sayin manyplacesit is notyet past,m whichthegreaterpartof the specms,underthedenominationofslaves,havebeentreatedbythelawexactlyuponthesamefootingas, inEnglandforexample,theinferiorracesof animalsaxestill. Thed_ymaycome,whenthe rest of the animalcreationmayquirethoserightswhichncvcrcouldhavebeenwithholdenfromthembutby the handof trranny. The Frenchhavealreadydiscoveredthat theblacknessoftheskinmnoreasonwhya humanbeingshouldbeabandonedwithoutredresstothecapriceofatormentor_.It maycoineonedayto berecognized,that the numberof the legs,the villosityof the skin,or theterminationoftheussacrum,arereasonsequallyinsufficientforabandon-inga sensitivebeingto thesamefate. Whatelseisit that shouldtracetheinsuperableline? Is it thefacultyofreason,or,perhaps,thefacultyofd_scourse? Butafull-grownhorseordogis beyondcomparisona morerational,aswellas amoreconversablcammal,thanan infantofa day,oraweek,orevenamonth,old. Butsupposethecasewereotherwise,whatwouldit avail? the questionisnot,C_ntheyreason?nor,Cantheytalk?but,Cantheysuffer?

i _ Le_ XIV_'_codeNolr.

312 O/g_eLi#zi_of g/_e [CH_.

termedtheartofduen_. Inasf_rasthisbusinessis_nt-rnstedwiththosewho,invirtueofsomeprivaterelationship,areinthemainthebestdisposedtotakeuponthem,andthebestabletodischarge,thisoffice,itmaybetermedtheartofprivcaeeduea.tion: inasfarasitisexercisedbythosewhoseprovinceitistosuperintendtheconductof thewholecommunity,it maybetermedtheartofyablieeducation.

Ethie_o_hi-¥I. Astoethicsingeneral,aman'shappinesswilldepend,bit,s ther_e,or, inthefirstplace,uponsuchpartsofhisbehaviourasnonebut1.Prudonce.• . " 'rl_.J'robit_.htmselfareinterestedm; 1 thenextplace,uponsuchpartsof&Benefl....ce._ Itasmayaffectthehappinessofthoseabouthnn. Inasfaras

hishappinessdependsuponthefirst-mentionedpartofhisbe-haviour,it is saidtodependuponhisdulytohimse!LEthicsthen,inasfarasit istheartofdirectingaman'sactionsinthisrespect,maybetermedtheartofdischargingone'sdutytoone'sself: andthequahtywhichamanmanifestsbythedischargeofthisbranchofduty(ifdutyit istobecalled)isthatofprudence.Inasfarashishappiness,andthatofanyotherpersonorper-sonswhoseinterestsareconsidered,dependsuponsuchpartsofhisbehaviourasmayaffecttheinterestsofthoseabouthim,itmaybesaidto dependuponhisdutytoothers; or,touseaphrasenowsomewhatantiquated,hisdu_ytohisneighbour.Ethicsthen,inasfarasitis theartofdirectingaman'sactionsin thisrespect,maybetermedtheartofdischargingone'sdutytoone'sneighbour.Nowthehappinessofone'sneighbourmaybeconsultedintwoways: L Inanegativeway,byforbearingtodiminishit. 2.Inapositiveway,bystudyingtoincreaseit.h man'sdutytohisneighbourisaccordingiypartlynegativeandpartlypositive: todischargethenegativebranchofit,isprobity."todischargethepositivebranch,beneficence.

Probitya,,dVII. It mayherebe_ked,Howit is thatupontheprin-howbene_e*"ee't_eycipleofprivateethics,legislationandreligionoutofthequestion,Connectwithprudence,a man'shappinessdependsuponsuchpartsofhisconductas

affect,immediatelyatleast,thehappinessofnoonebuthimself:thisisasmuchastoask,Whatmotives(independentofsuchaslegislationandreligionraaychancetofurnish)canonemanhave

xvu.] Penal.BranchofJuriaFrudenee. 313

toconsultthehappinessofanother?bywhatmotive,,or,whichcomesto thesamething,bywhatobligations,canhebeboundtoobeythedictatesofprobityandbeneficence? Inanswerto this,it cannotbutbeadmitted,thattheonlyinterestswhichamanat alltimesanduponalloccasionsissuretofindadequatemo-tivesforconsulting,arehisown. Notwithstandingthis,therearenooccasionsinwhichamanhasnotsomemotivesforcon-sultingthehappinessoIothermen.In thefirstplace,hehas,onalloccasions,thepurelysocialmotiveofsympathyorbenevo-lence: in thenextplace,hehas,onmostoccasions,thesenti-socialmotivesofloveofamityandloveofreputation.Themo-tiveofsympathywillactuponhimwithmoreorlesseffect,accordingtothebiasofhissensibility1: thetwoothermotives,accordingtoavarietyofcircumstances,principallyaccordingtothestrengthofhisintellectualpowers,thefirmnessandsteadi-nessofhismind,thequantumofhismoralsensibility,andthecharactersofthepeoplehehastodealwith.

VIII.Nowprivateethicshashappinessforitsend: andlegis-E,eryaa• . . whichisalataoncanhavenoother.Pnvateetkicsconcernsever)'member,properoh-thatis,thehappinessandtheactionsofeverymember,ofan)'_sec,_2e_l_=communitythatcanbeproposed; andlegislationcanconcernlesislati°n"nomore. Thusfar,then,privateethicsandtheartoflegisla-tiongohandinhand. Theendtheyhave,oroughttohave,inview,isofthesamenature.Thepersonswhosehappinesstheyoughttohaveinview,asalsothepersonswhoseconducttheyoughttobeoccupiedindirecting,arepreciselythesame. Theveryactstheyoughttobeconversantabout,areeveninagreatmeasurethesame.Wherethenliesthedifference.2In thattheactswhichtheyoughttobeconversantabout,thoughinagreatmeasure,arenotperfectlyandthrouyhoutthesame. Thereisnocaseinwhichaprivatemanoughtnottodirecthisowncon-ductto theproductionofhisownhappiness,andofthatofhisfellow-creatures: buttherearecasesinwhichthe legislatoroughtnot(inadirectwayatleast,andbymeansofpmfishmentappliedimmediatelytoparticttlarindividualacts)toattemptto

i Ch.vi. [Sensibility]iii.

314 Of l_e /A_dls¢' the [CHAP.

directtheconductoftheseveralothermembersofthecommu-nity. Everyactwhichpromisestobebeneficialuponthewholeto thecommunity(himselfincluded)eachindividualoughttoperformofhimself: butit isnoteverysuchactthatthelegis-tlateroughttocompelhimtoperform.Everyactwhichpromisestobeperniciousuponthewholeto thecommunity(himseLfin-cluded)eachindividualoughttoabstainfromofhimself: butitisnoteverysuchactthatthelegislatoroughttocompelhimtoabstainfrom.

Thelimits IX.Wherethenisthelinetobedrawn?--Weshallnothavebetweenthepro_no_offartoseekforit. Thebusinessis togiveanideaofthecasespravateethieaandinwhichethicsought,andinwhichlegislationoughtnot(inalegislation,markedoutdirectmanneratleast)to interfere.If legislationinterferesinby the ¢a_esunmeetforadirectmanner,itmustbebypunishment1. Nowthecasesinpun!shmontwhichpunishment,meaningthepunishmentof thepolitical

sanction,oughtnottobeinflicted,havebeenalreadystatedz.• Ifthentherebeanyofthesecasesinwhich,althoughlegislationoughtnot,privateethicsdoesoroughtto interfere,thesecaseswillservetopointoutthelimitsbetweenthetwoartsorbranchesofscience.Thesecases,itmayberemembered,areoffoursorts:I.Wherepunishmentwouldbegroundless.2.Whereitwouldbeinefficacious.3.Whereit wouldbeunprofitable.4.Whereit wouldbeneedless.Letus lookoverallthesecases,andseewhetherin anyofthemthereis roomfortheinterferenceofprivateethics,atthesametimethatthereisnoneiorthedirectinterferenceoflegislation.

1.Neither X.I. Firstthen,asto theeaseswherepunishmentwouldoughttoap-pJyw,erebe9roundlesa.In thesecasesit isevident,thattherestrictivepumshme_t_,_j,. interferenceofethicswouldbegroundlesstoo. It isbecause,

uponthewhole,thereisnoevilintheact,thatlegislationoughtnottoendeavourtopreventit. Nomore,iorthesamereason,oughtprivateethics.

I saynothingm thisplaceof reward: becauseit is onlyin a fewextraordinaryc_es that itcan beapplied,andbecauseevenwherei_isapplied,itmaybedoubtedperhapswhethertheapplicationofit c_n,pro-perlvsue_l_in%betermedanactoflegislation Seemira,§3-

- J fla.xiii.[0._ unmeet].

XVll.] Penal.Bra_ckof Juris/orudenee. 315

XI. z. Astothecasesinwhichpunishmentwouldbeine2_._nowr_rco,e .... private, zous._'These,wemayobserve,maybedividedintotwosetsethicscan.1 .... .- applyintheor classes,Thefirstdonotdependat allupon_nenaturecL_where

._ punishmentOftheact: theytttrnonlyuponadefectinthetimingof_newouldbepun]shment.Thepunishmentinquestionisnomorethanwhat,_'_'_""foranythingthatappears,oughttohavebeenappliedto theactinquestion.Itought,however,tohavebeenappliedatadifferenttime;viz.nottillafterithadbeenproperlydenounced.Thesearethecasesofanex-_ost-factolaw; ofajudicialsen-tencebeyondthelaw;andofalawnotsufficientlypromulgated.Theactshereinquestionthenmight,foranythingthatappears,comepro'perlyunderthedepartmentevenofcoercivelegislation: .ofcoursedotheyunderthatofprivateethics.Astotheothersetofcases,inwhichpunishmentwouldbeinefficacious;neitherdothesedependuponthenatureoftheact,thatis,ofthesortofact: theyturnonlyuponsomeextraneouscircumstan_s,withwhichanactofanysortmaychancetobeaccompanied.These',however,areofsucha natureasnotonlytoexcludetheappli-cationoflegalpunishment,butingeneralto leavelittleroomforthe influenceofprivateethics.Thesearethecaseswherethewillcouldnotbedeterredfromanyact,evenbytheextra-ordinaryforceofartificialpunishment: asin thecasesofex-tremeinfancy,insanity,andperfectintoxication: ofcourse,therefore,it couldnotbysuchslenderandprecariousforceascouldbeappliedbyprivateethics.Thecaseisin thisrespectthesame,underthecircumstancesofunintentionalitywithre-spectto theeventoftheaction,unconsciousnesswithregardtothecircumstances,andmis-supposalwithregardtotheexistenceofcircumstanceswhichhavenotexisted; asalsowheretheforce,evenofextraordinarypunishment,isrenderedinoperativebythesuperiorforceofa physicaldangerorthreatenedmis-chief.It isevident,thatin thesecases,ifthethundersofthelawproveimpotent,thewhispersofsimplemoralitycanhave.butlittleinfluence.

XII. 3. ,ksto thecaseswherepunishmentwouldbeunvro-3.nowiar,whereitfitable.Thesearetheca_eswhichconstitatethegreatfieldfor_ldb__-

316 Of tke Limitsq' tke [cJ_xP.

theexclusiveinterferenceofprivateethics.Whena punish-mentis unprofitable,orinotherwordstooexpensive,it isbecausetheevilofthepunishmentexceedsthatoftheoffence.Nowthecvilofthepunishment,wemayrememberrisdisl_n-guishableintofourbranches:I.Theevilofcoercion,includingconstraintorrestraint,accordingastheactcommandedisofthepositivekindorthenegative.2.Thee_-iloiapprehension.3.Theevilofsufferance.4.Thederivativeevilsresultingtopersonsinconnectionwiththosebywhomthethreeabove-men-tionedoriginalevilsaresustained.Nowwithrespecttothoseoriginalevils,thepersonswholieexposedtothemmaybetwo

•verydifferentsetsofpersons.Inthefirstplace,personswhomayhaveactuallycommitted,orbeenpromptedtocommit,theactsreallymeanttobeprohibited.Inthenextplace,per-sonswhomayhaveperformed,orbeenpromptedtoperform,suchotheractsastheyfearmaybeindangerofbeinginvolvedinthepunishmentdesignedonlyforthe"former.Butofthesetwosetsofacts,itistheformeronlythatarepernicious:itis,therefore,theformeronlythatitcanbethebusinessofprivateethicstoendeavourtoprevent.Thelatterbeingbythesup-positionnotmischievous,to preventthemiswhatit cannomorebethebusinessofethicstoendeavourat, thanoflegisla-tion.It remain_toshowhowitmayhappen,thatthereshouldbeactsreallypernicious,which,althoughtheymayverypro-perlycomeunderthecensureofprivateethics,mayyetbenofitobjectsforthelegislatortocontrol.

Wll,ehit Xlll.Punishmentthen,asappliedtodelinquency,maybema_"be,_.A,_t,ou_hunprofitableinbothoreitheroftwoways: I. Bytheexpenseconfinedtothegmlty.Itwouldamountto,evensupposingtheapplicationofit tobe

confinedaltogethertodelinquency:2.Bythedangertheremaybeofitsinvolvingtheinnocentin thefatedesignedonlyfortheguilty. Firstthen,withregardtothecasesinwhichtheex-.peaseofthepunishment,asappliedto theguilty,wouldout-weightheprofittobemadebyit. Thesecases,it isevident,dependupot_a certainproportionbetweenthe evilof the

*Seeoh.xiii.[Ca_eaunmeet],§iv.

xvII.] PenalBranekof ,lur_sprudenee. 317

.punishmentandtheeviloftheoffence.Nowweretheoffenceofsuchanature,thatapunishmentwhich,inpointofmagn/tude,shouldbut justexceedtheprofitofit, wouldbe sufficienttopreven%it,it mightberatherdifficultperhapsto findanin-stanceinwhichsuchpunishmentwouldclearlyappeartobeunprofitable.Butthefactis,therearemanycasesinwhichapunishment,inordertohaveanychanceofbeingefficacious,must,inpointofmagnitude,beraisedagreatdealabovethatlevel.Thusit is,wherevcrthedangerofdetectionis,or,whatcomestothesamething,islikelytoappeartobe,sosmall,astomakethepunishmentappearinahighdegreeuncertain.Inthiscase'it isnecessary,ashasbeenshownx,ifpunishmentbeat allappfied,toraiseit inpointofmagnitudeasmuchasitfallsshortinpointofcertainty.It isevident,however,thatall . 'thiscanbebutguess-work: andthattheeffectofsuchapro- .:portionwillberenderedprecarious,bya varietyof circum- r_stances: bythewantofsufficientpromulgationonthepartofthelaw2:bytheparticularcircumstancesofthetemptations :andby thecircumstancesinfluencingthesensibilityof theseveralindividualswhoareexposedto it4. Lettheseducingmotivesbestrong,theoffencethenwillatanyratebefrequentlycommitted.Nowandthenindeed,owingtoa coincidenceofcircumstancesmoreor lessextraordinary,it willbedetected,andbythatmeanspunished.Buttotthepurposeofexample,whieliistheprincipalone,anactofpunishment,consideredinitself,isofnouse: whatuseit canbeof,dependsaltogetherupontheexpectationit raisesofsimilarpunishment,infut_ecasesofsimilardelinquency.Butthisfuturepunishment,it isevident,mustalwaysdependupondetection.If thenthewantofdetectionissuchasmustingeneral(especiallytoeyesfasci-natedbytheforceoftheseducingmotives)appeartooimpro-babletobereckonedupon,thepunishment,thoughit shouldbeinflicted,maycometobeof nouse. Herethenwillbe twooppositeevilsrunningonatthesametime,yetneitherofthem

zCh.x-iv.[Proportion]xvfii.Rule7.' (_n.xiii.[Casesunmeet]§ifi.Appendtit.[Promulgation].' Ch.m.[Dislx_ition]xxxv,&o. ' Ch.vi.[_a_ibility].

318 Of theZirni__ the [cItAP.

reducingthequantumoftheother:theevilofthediseaseandtheevilofthepainfulandinefficaciousremedy.It seemsgobepartlyowingtosomesuchconsiderations,thatfornication,torexample,ortheillicitcommercebetweenthesexes,hascom-monlyeithergonealtogetherunpunished,orbeenpunishedinadegreeinferiorto thatin which,onotheraccounts,legislatorsmighthavebeendisposedtopunishit.

z Bye,- XIV.Secondly,withregardto thecasesinwhichpoliticalvelopingI_heinnocent, punishment,asappliedtodelinquency,maybeunprofitable,in

virtueofthedangertheremaybeofitsinvolvingtheinnocentin the fatedesignedonlyfortheguilty. Whenceshouldthisdangerthenarise? Fromthedifficultytheremaybeoffixingtheideaofthe_filtyaction: thatis,ofsubjectingit tosuchadefinitionasshallbeclearandpreciseenoughtoguardeffec-tuallyagainstmisapplication.Thisdifficultymayarisefromeitheroftwosources: theonepermanent,towit,thenatureoftlieactiansthemselves:theotheroccasional,I meanthequalitiesofthemenwhomayhavetodealwiththoseactionsinthewayofgovernment.In asfarasit arisesfromthelatterofthesesources,it maydependpartlyupontheusewhichthel_/s/atormaybeabletomakeoflanguage; partlyupontheusewhich,accordingto theapprehensionofthelegislator,thejudgemaybedisposedto makeofit. Asfaraslegislationisconcerned,it willdependuponthedegreeofperfectiontowhichtheartsoflanguagemayhavebeencarried,in thefirstplace,in thenationingeneral; in thenextplace,by thele#/s/a_orinpar-ticular.It istoasenseofthisdifficulty,asitshouldseem,thatwemayattributethecautionwithwhichmostlegislatorshaveabstainedfromsubjectingtocensure,onthepartofthelaw,suchactionsascomeunderthenotionofrudeness,totexample,ortreachery,oringratitude.Theattempttobringactsofsovagueandquestionablea natureunderthecontroloflaw,willargueeithera veryimmatureage,in whichthedifficultieswhichgivebirthto thatdangerarenotdescried; or a veryenlightenedage,inwhichtheyareovercome1

Incertaincountries,inwhichthevoiceofthepeoplehass more

xvrl.] PenalBranch0eJuri_pr_clozve. 3_9

XV,Forthesakeofobtainingtheclearerideaofthelimitsr,_lation}towfurhe-betweentheartoflegislationandprivateethics,itmaynowbecess_wfor• thesnforCe-timetocalltomindthedistinctionsaboveestablishedwlthmentorthe

/. dictatesofregardO)ethicsingeneral.Thedegreeinwhichprivateetmcs_.standsinneedoftheassistanceoflegislation,isdifferentinthethreebranchesofdutyabovedistinguished.Oftherulesofmoralduty,thosewhichseemtostandleastinneedoftheas-sistanceoflegislationaretherulesofprudence.It canonlybethroughsomedefectonthepartoftheunderstanding,ifamanbeeverdeficientinpointofdutytohimself.Ifhedoeswrong,thereisnothingelsethatit canbeowingtobuteithersomein-

• advertenge1or somemis.supposal1withregardtothecircum-stancesonwhichhishappinessdepends.Itisastandingtopicofcomplaint,thatamanknowstoolittleofhimself.Beit so:but_jt_ certainthatthelegislatormustknowmore_? It isplain,thatofindividualsthelegislatorcanknownothing: con-cerningthosepointsofconductwhichdependupontheparti-cularcircumstanceso| eachindividual,it isplain,therefore,thathecandeterminenothhlgtoadvantage.It isonlywithrespectto thosebroadlinesofconductinwhichallpersons,orverylargeandpermanentdescriptionsofpersons,maybeinawaytoengage,thathecanhaveanypretenceforinterfering;andevenheretheproprietyofhisinterferencewill,inmost

especialcontroloverthehandof the Isgislator,nothingcanexceedthedreadwhichtheyareunderofseeinganyeffectualprovlsmnmadeagainsttheoffenceswhichcomeunderthe headof de/'amat/on,particularlythatbrancho!it whichmaybestyledthepo/uhca/.Thindreadseemstode-pendpartlyupontheapprehensiontheymaythink it prudenttoentertainof a defectinpointof abilityor integrityon the paxtof the legislator,partlyupona similarapprehensionofa defectinpointolintegrityonthepartof thejudgo.Seech.ix.[Consciousness].zCh.xvi.[Division]hi.Onoccasionslikethisthelegislatorshouldneverlosesightofthewell-knownstoryoftheoculistandthesot.Acountrymanwhohadhurt

hiseymbydrinking,wenttoacelebratedoculistforadvice.Hefoundhimattable,withaglassotwinebeforehim.' Youmustleaveoffdrink-lag,'saidtheoculist.'Howso?' saysthecountryman.'Youdon't,andyetmethinksyourowneyesarenoneofthebest.'--'That'sverytrue,friend,'repliedtheoculist:*butyouaretoknow,I lovemybottlebetterthanmyeyeo.'

3_o Oftke Limit_of tke [etlAr.

instances,lieveryopentodispute.Atanyrate,hemustneverexpecttoproduceaperfectcompliancebythemereforceofthe

' sanctionofwhichheishimselftheauthor. Allliecanhopeto_._! do,istoincreasetheefficacyofprivateethics,bygivingstrength

anddirectionto the influenceof themoralsanction.Withwhatchanceof success,for example,woulda legislatorgoabouttoextirpatedrunkennessandfornicationbydintoflegalpunishment? Notallthetortureswhichingenuitycouldinventwouldcompassit: and,beforeliehadmadeanyprogressworthregarding,suchamassofevilwouldbeproducedbythepunish-ment,as wouldexceed,a thousand-fold,theutmostpossiblemischiefoftheoffence.Thegreatdifficultywouldbein theprocuringevidence; anobjectwhichcouldnotbeattempted,withanyprobabilityof success,withoutspreadingdismaythrougheveryfamily1,tearingthebondsofsympathyasunder2,androotingouttheinfluenceofallthesocialmotives.Allthathecandothen,againstoffencesofthisnature,withanypro-spectofadvantage,inthewayofdirectlegislation,istosubjectthem,incasesofnotoriety,toa slightcensure,soastherebytocoverthemwitha slightshadeofartificialdisrepute.

- Aptto_o XVI.It maybeobserved,thatwithregardtothisbranchoftoofarinthisreap_t,duty,legislatorshave,ingeneral,beendisposedtocarrytheir

interferencefullasfarasisexpedient.Thegreatdifficultyhereis,topersuadethemtoconfinethemselveswithinbounds.Athousandlittlepassionsandprejudiceshaveledthemtonarrowthe libertyof thesubjectin thisline,in casesin whichthepunishmentis eitherattendedwithnoprofitat all,or withnonethatwillmakeupfortheexpense.

-Particu. XVII.Themischiefofthissortofinterferenceismorepa_-laxlyin_at_r_of ticularlyconspicuousinthearticleofreligion.Thereasoning,r_i_on, inthiscase,isofthefollowingstamp.Therearecertainerrors,

inmattersofbelief,towhichallmankindareprone: andfortheseerrorsinjudgment,it is thedeterminationofa Beingof

Evil of apprehension:third branchof the evilof a panishment.Ch.xiii.§iv.iDerivativeevils:fourthbrancholtheevilofapunishmont.Ib,

xvn,] PenalBranch_ Juriqyrudenee. 3_x

infinitebenevolence,topunishthemwithaninfinityottorments.Butfromtheseerrorsthelegislatorhimselfisnecessarilyfree:forthemen,whohappentobeathandforhimtoconsultwith,beingmesaperfectlyenlightened,unfettered,andunbiassed,havesuchadvantagesoveralltherestoftheworld,thatwhenthey

• sitdowntoenquireoutthetruthrelativetopointssoplainandsofamiliarasthoseinquestion,theycannotfailto tindit. Thisbeingthecase,whenthesovereignseeshispeoplereadytoplungeheadlongintoanabyssoffire,shallhenotstretchoutabandtosavethem_.Such,forexample,seemstohavebeenthetrainofreasoning,andsuchthemotives,whichledLewistheXIVthintothosecoercivemeasureswhichhetookforthecon-versionofhereticsandtheconfirmationoftruebelievers.Theground-work,puresympathyandloving-kindness: thesuper-structure,allthemiserieswhichthemostdeterminedmalevo-lencecouldhavedevised1. Butofthismorefullyinanotherplace2.

XVIII.Therulesof_obityarethose,whichinpointofex--Hs__"henec_arypediencystandmostinneedofassistanceonthepartof_ r_rtheen-I sforcementoflegislator,andinwhich,inpointoflact,hisinterferencenathediea_

beenmostextensive.Therearefewcasesinwhichitwou/dbe°fpmbit_"expedienttopunishamanforhurtinghimself:buttherearefewcases,ifany,inwhichitwouldnotbeexpedienttopunisha

Idonotmeanbutthatothermotivesofalesssocialnaturemighthaveintroducedthemselves,andprobably,inpointoffact,didintroducethemselves,intheprogresso|theenterprise.Butinpointofpossibility,themotiveabovementioned,whenaccompaniedwithsuchathreadofrea-soning,issufficient,withoutanyother,toaccountforalltheeffectsaboveaUudedto.Ifanyothcrsinterfere,theirinterference,hownaturalsoever,maybelookeduponasanaccidentalandinessentialcircumstance,notne-cessarytotheproductionoftheeffect.Sympathy,aconcernforthedangertheyappeartobeexposedto,givesbirthtothewishoffreeingthemfromit:thatwishshowsitselfintheshapeofacommand:thiscom-mandproducesdisobedience:disobedienceontheonepartproducesdisap-pointmentontheothcr: thepainofdisappointmentproducesill-willtowardsthosewhoaretheauthorsofit.Theaffectionswilloftenmakethisi_ogre_inlesstimethanitwouldtaketodescribeit.Thesentimentofwoundedpride,andothermodificationsoftheloveofreputationandtheloveafpower,_Idfueltotheflame.A kindofrevcngeexasperatestheseveritiesofcoercivepolicy.tSeeB.I.tit.[Self-regardingoffences.]B_NTHAv y

3_z_z _" _heLimits _ _._e [c_Ae.

manforinjuringhisneighbour.Withregardto thatbranchofprobitywhichisopposedto offencesagainstproperty,privateethicsdependsin a mannerforits veryexistenceuponlegis-lation. Legislationmustfirstdeterminewhatthingsaretoberegardedas eachman'sproperty,beforethegeneralrulesofethics,onthis head,canhaveanyparticularapplication.Thecaseisthesamewithregardtooffencesagainstthestate. With-outlegislationtherewouldbe nosuchthingasa state: nopar-ticular personsinvestedwith powersto be exercisedfor thebenefitof therest. It isplain,therefore,that inthisbranchtheinterferenceofthelegislatorcannotanywherebedispensedwith.Wemustfirst knowwhatarethe dictatesoflegislation,beforewecanknowwhatarethe dictatesofprivateethics1

-of the XlX. Asto the rulesofbeneficence,these,asfarasconcernsdictatesofbensnoence,mattersofdetail,mustnecessarilybe abandonedin greatmea-

sureto the jurisdictionof privateethics. In manycasesthebeneficialqualityofthe act dependsessentiallyupon the dis-positionof the agent; that is,upon the motivesbywhichheappearsto havebeenpromptedtoperformit : upontheirbe-longingto theheadofsympathy,loveofamity,or loveofrepu-tation; andnottoanyheadof self-regardingmotives,broughtintoplayby the forceofpoliticalconstraint: ina word,upontheirbeingsuchas denominatehisconductfree and voluntary,accordingto oneofthe manysensesgivento thoseambiguousexpressions2. Thelimitsof the lawon this headseem,how-

t Butsupposethedictatesoflegislationarenotwhattheyo_?atobe:whatarethen,or(whatinthiscasecomestothesamething)whatoughttobe,thedictatesofprivateethics?Dotheycoincidewiththethctatesoflegislation,ordotheyoppesethem,ordotheyremainneuter?a veryinterestingquestionthis,butonethatbelongsnottothepresentsubject.Itbelongsexclusivelytothatofprivateethics.Principleswhichmayleadtothesolutionofit maybeseeninAFragmentonGovernment,p. xho,Lend.edit.1775---audp.114,edit,1823.

*If wemaybelieveM.Voltairex,therewana timewhentheFrenchladieswhothoughtthemselvesneglectedbytheirhusbands,usedtopetitionl_mr_treembeaoigr_es:thetechnicalword,which,hessys,wasappropriatedtothispurpose.Thissortoflaw-proceedingsseemsnotverywellcalcu-latedtoanswerthedesign:accordinglywehearnothingofthemnow-a-

t Quest.mrI'Eucyclop.tom.7.art.Impukuntnc_

xvlI.] Pe_alBranchofdl_risprude_ee. 323

•ever,tobecapableofbeingextendedagooddealfartherthantheyseemevertohavebeenextendedhitherto.Inparticular,incaseswherethepersonis indanger,whyshouldit notbemadet]aedutyofeverymantosaveanotherfrommischief,whenitcanbedonewithoutprejudicinghimself,aswellastoabstainfrombringingitonhim? Thisaccordinglyistheideapursuedinthebodyofthework1.

XX.Toconcludethisscotia,letusrecapitulateandbringtoI_macebetweenapointthedifferencebetweenprivateethics,consideredasanpnv_• . _hiesandartorscience,ontheonehand,andthatbranchof]unsprudenccthe_ otlegtrdationwhichcontainstheartor scienceoflegislation,ontheother,r¢capitu-Private'ethicsteacheshoweachmanmaydisposehimselfto_t_pursuethecoursemostconducivetohisownhappiness,bymeansofsuchmotivesasofferofthemselves: theart oflegislation(whichmaybeconsideredasonebranchofthescienceofjuris-prudence)t_acheshowamultitudeofmen,composingacom-munity,maybedisposedtopursuethatcoursewhichuponthewholeisthemostconducivetothehappinessofthewholecom-munity,bymeansofmotivestobeappliedbythele_slator.

Wecomenowtoexhibitthe limitsbetweenpenalandciviljurisprudence.Forthispurposeitmaybeofusetogiveadis-tinctthoughsummaryviewoftheprincipalbranchesintowhichiurisprudence,consideredinits utmostextent,iswonttobedivided.

§z. Jurisprudence,itsbranches.XXI.Jurisprudenceisafictitiousentity:norcananymean-Zu_pru-• _ dent_,ex-

ingbefoundfortheword,butbyplacingit incompanywithp_it_ry-somewordthatshallbesignificativeofarealentity. Toknow_

days. TheFrenchladiesof thepresentageseemto be undernosuchdifficulties.A woman'shead-drosscatchesfire: waterisathand: a man,instead

ofassistingtoquenchthefire,lookson,andlaughsatit. Adrunkenman,fallingwithhisfacedownwardsintoapuddle,isin dangerofsuffocation:liftinghisheadahttleononesidewouldsavehim: anothermanseesthisandlet8himlie. Aquantityol gunpowderliesscatteredabouta room: amanisgoingintoitw_thalightedcandle:another,knowingthis,let6himgoin withoutwarning.Whois therethat in anyofthesecaseswouldthinkptmishmentmisappliedT

Y2

324 OftheLimit_of tke [chAP.

whatismeantby jurisprudence,wemustknow,forexample,whatismeantbyabookofjurisprudence.Abookofjurispru-dencecanhavebutoneortheotheroltwoobjects:z.Toascer-tainwhatthelawais: 2.toascertainwhatitoughttobe.Intheformercaseitmaybestyledabookof_positoryjurisprudence;in thelatter,a bookofcensorialjurisprudence: or,inotherwords,a,bookontheartoflegislation.

Ex_iwr_ XXII.Abookofexpositoryjurisprudence,iseitherauthor/-jurlBpru-de,co,lu- tativeorunauthoritative.It is styledauthoritative,whenit isthontatwe--u_laathon-composedbyhimwho,byrepresentingthestateofthelawtobetanve, soandso,causethit sotobe; thatis,ofthelegislatorhim-

self: unauthoritative,whenit istheworkofanyotherpersonat large.

Sou_set XXIII.Nowlaw,orthelaw,takenindefinitely,isanabstractthedistine-tio_yetre-andcollectiveterm;which,whenitmeansanything,canmean_n_ns. neithermorenorlessthanthesumtotalofa numberofindi-

viduallawstakentogether_. It follows,thatotwhateverothermodificationsthesubjectofa bookof jurisprudenceis sus-ceptible,theymustallofthembetakenfromsomecircumstanceorotherofwhichsuchindividuallaws,ortheassemblagesintowhichtheymaybesorted,aresusceptible.Thecircumstancesthathavegivenrisetotheprincipalbranchesofjurisprudencewearewonttohearof,seemtobeasfollows: LTheextentofthelawsinquestioninpointofdominion.2.Thepoliticalqualityofthepersonswhoseconducttheyundertaketoregulate.

Theword/awiteelf,whichstandssomuchinneedofadefinition,mustwaitforitawhile(see§3):forthereisnodoingeverythingatonce.Inthemeantimeeveryreadierwillunderstanditaccordingtothenotionhehasbeenaccustomedtoannextoit.

InmostoftheEuropeanlanguagestherearetwodifferentwordsfordistinguishingtheabstractandtheconcrete,sensesofthewordlaw:whichwordsaxesowideasunder_ noteventohaveanyetymologicalaffinity.InLatin,forexample,thereis/ezfortheconcretesense,ju_fortheabstract:inItalian,leqgcanddiritto:inFrench,/o/anddruit:inSpanish,Icyandderecho:inGexman_gesetzandrecht. TheEnglishisatpresentdestituteofthisadvantage.IntheAnglo-Saxon,besldes/age,andseveralotherwords,Icethecon-

cretesense,therewasthewordr/g_,answeringtotheGermantee/a,fortheab6tractasmaybeseeninthecompoundfNc-r/g/_,andinotherin.stances.Butthewordr/9_havinglongagolostthissense,themodernEngl_hnolongerpossessesthisadvantage.

XVIL] PenMBra_c__ Jurizprude_ce. 3z5

•3. Thetimeoftheirbeinginforce. 4. Themannerinwhichtheyareez_se_.5.Theconcernwhichtheyhavewiththsarticleofyunishme_t.XXI_.Inthefirstplace,inpointofextent,whatisdeliveredJ,r_ru.dence,l_|

concerningthelawsinquestion,mayhavereferenceeitherto--u_e_Lthe]awsofsuchorsuchanationornationsinparticular,ortothelawsofallnationswhatsoever:inthefirstcase,thebookmaybesaidtorelateto local,in theother,touniversal,juris-prudence,

Nowof theinfinitevarietyof nationsthereareupontheearth,therearenotwowhichagreeexactlyintheirlaws: cer-tainlynotinthewhole: perhapsnoteveninanysinglearticle:andletthemagreeto-day,theywoulddisagreeto-morrow.Thisisevidentenoughwithregardtothesubstanceofthelaws: andit wouldbestillmoreextraordinaryif theyagreedin pointofform; thatis,if theywereconceivedinpreciselythesamestringsofwords.Whatismore,asthelanguagesofnationsarecommonlyditierent,as wellas theirlaws,it is seldomthat,strictlyspeaking,theyhavesomuchasasinglewordincom-mon.However,amongthewordsthatareappropriatedto thesubjectoflaw,therearesomethatinalllanguagesareprettyexactlycorrespondenttooneanother:whichcomestothesamethingnearlyasif theywerethesame.Ofthisstamp,forex-ample,are thosewhichcorrespondto thewordspower,r/ght,obliqation,hT_erty,andmanyothers.

It follows,thatif thereareanybookswhichcan,properlyspeaking,bestyledbooksofuniversaljurisprudence,theymustbelookedforwithinverynarrowlimits. Amongsuchasareexpository,therecanbenonethatareauthoritative: noreven,asfarasthesubstanceofthelawsisconcerned,anythatareun-authoritative.Tobesusceptibleofanuniversalapphcation,allthatabookoftheexpositorykindcanhaveto treatof,istheimportofwords:tobe,strictlyspeaking,universal,itmustcon-fineitselfto terminology.Accordinglythedefinitionswhichtherehasbeenoccasionhereandthereto interspersein thecourseofthepresentwork,andparticularlythedefinitionhere-

326 Of tileZimilaof t_e [cn,v.

aftergivenofthewordlaw,maybeconsideredasmatterbe-longingto theheadof universaljurisprudence.Thusfarinstrictnessofspeech: thoughinpointofusage,whereaman,inlayingdownwhatheapprehendsto bethe law,extendshisviewstoafewofthenationswithwhichhisownismostcon-nected,it is commonenoughto considerwhathewritesasrelatingtouniversaljurisprudence.

It is'inthecensoriallinethatthereisthegreatestroomfordisquisitionsthatapplytothecircumstancesofallnationsalike:andinthislinewhatregardsthesubstanceofthelawsinques-tionisassusceptibleofanuniversalapplication,aswhatregardsthewords.Thatthe lawsofallnations,or evenofany twonations,shouldcoincideinallpoints,wouldbeasineligibleasit is impossible: someleadingpoints,however,thereseemtobe,in respectofwhichthelawsofallcivilisednationsmight,withoutinconvenience,bethesame. Tomarkoutsomeofthesepointswill,asfarasit goes,bethebusinessofthebodyofthiswork.

--internalXXV.Inthesecondplace,withregardtothepoliticalqualityandinter-.atio.a;.ofthepersonswhoseconductis theobjectofthe law. These

may,onanygivenoccasion,beconsideredeitherasmembersoIthesamestate,orasmembersofdifferentstates: in thefirstcase,the lawmaybereferredto theheadofinternal,in thesecondcase,to thatofinternational1jurisprudence.

Nowastoanytransactionswhichmaytakeplacebetweenin-dividualswhoaresubjectsofdifferentstates,theseareregulatedbytheinternallaws,anddecideduponbytheinternaltribunals,oftheoneortheotherofthosestates:thecaseisthesamewherethesovereignoftheonehasanyimmediatetransactionswitha

The word iniernatlo_al,it must be acknowledged,is a newone;though,it ishoped,sufficientlyarr_logousandintelhglble.It iscalculatedtoexpress,in amoresignificantway,the branchof lawwhichgoescom-monlyunderthenameof thelawofnativns:anappellationsouncharac-teristic,that, wereit not for theforceofcustom,it wouldseemrathertoreferto interr_ljurisprudence.ThechancellorD'AguesseauhasalreoMymade,I find,a similarremark:hesaysthatwhatiscommonlycalleddraftdesg¢_,oughtrathertob_termed&o_entreleagens_.

ItEuvre8,Tom,ii.i_337,edft.x773,t2,no.

x_II.] Pe_alBra_etloJJuri,yrmdence. 327

privatememberof theother: thesovereignreducinghimself,proretazta,to theconditionofa privateperson,asoftenas hesubrn_tshis causeto either tribunal; whetherby claimingabenefit,ordefendinghimselfagainsta burthen. Therere-mainthenthe mutualtransactionsbetweensovereigns,assuch,forthe subjectof thatbranchofjurisprudencewhichmaybeproperlyand exclusivelytermedinternationalI.

Withwhatdegreeof proprietyrulesfortheconductof per-sonsofthisdescriptioncancomeundertheappellationoflama,isa questionthat mustresttill thenatureofthethingcalleda/amshallhavebeenmoreparticularlyunfolded,

It is 'evidentenough,that internationaljurisprudencemay,aswellasinternal,becensorialasweLlasexpository,unauthori-tativeaswellasauthoritative.

XXVI.Internaljurisprudence,again,mayeitherconcernalltheIntsrmlJa.rmprudenee.membersofa stateindiscriminately,orsuchofthemonlyasarenationaland.... erovinei_.connectedinthewayofrestdenee,orother_ase,withaparticular!sealorpar.• . , " ...... x;jCuJSrodistrict. Jurisprudence)saccordinglysometimesdistmgmshedinto no2ionaland provincial But as the epithetprovincialishardlyapplicableto districtssosmallasmanyof thosewhichhavelawsof theirownare wontto be,suchastowns,parishes,andmanors; the termlocal(whereuniversaljurisprudenceisplainlyoutofthe question)or the termparticular,thoughthis

I Inthet/meaofJamesI.ofEnglandandPhilipIII.ofSpain,certainmerchantsatLondonhappenedtohaveaclaimuponPhilip,whichhisambassadorGondemardidnotthinkfittosatisfy.Theyapphedforcoun-seltoSelden,whoadvisedthemtosuetheSpamshmonarchinthecourtofKing'sBench,andprosecutehimtoanoutlawry.Theydidso:andthesheriffselLondonwereaccordinglycommanded,intheusualform,totakethebodyofthedelendantPhilip,whereveritw_tobetoundwithintheirbailiwick,Astothesheriffs,Plfi]ip,wemaybelieve,wasinnogreatfearofthem: but,whatansweredthesamepurpose,hehappenedonhisparttohavedemandsuponsomeothermerchants,whom,_olongastheoutlawryremainedinforce,therewasnoproceedingagainst.Gondemardthemoneyt.Thiswasmternaljurisprudence:ifthedisputehadnbetwixtPhilipandJameshimself,itwouldhavebeeninternational.Astothewordtn_erna/mr_z/,fromth_work,orthefirstoftheworks

editedin:_enchb_Mr.Dumont'ithastakenroo_inthelanguage.Witnessrev/ewsandnewslmpers.

I Selden'sTable,Talk,tit.Law

328 Of gl_eZirail8of the [cHAP.

latterisnotverycharacteristic,mighteitherotthembemorecommodiousx

_ur_pru. XXVII.Thirdly,with respectto time. In a workoI theden_,

anc_nt- expositorykind,the lawsthatare in questionmayeitherbelivm_suchasarestillin forceatthe timewhenthe bookiswriting,orsuchashaveceasedto bein force. Inthe lattercasethesubjectofit mightbetermedancient; in theformer,prese_orlight'jurisprudence: that is,if thesubstantivejurisprudence,andnoother,mustatanyratebeemployed,andthatwithanepithetinbothcases.Butthetruthis,thatabookoftheformerkindisratherabookof historythana bookof jurisprudence;and,if thewordjuris_rudemebeexpressiveofthesubject,it isonlywithsomesuchwordsashistoryora_iquiti_ prefixed.Andas thelawswhichareanywhereinquestionaresupposed,if nothingappearsto the contrary,to be thosewhichareinforce,nosuchepithetas thatof gre_er_orliv/_3commonlyappears.

Whereabookissocircumstanced,thatthelawswhichformthesubjectofit,thoughinforceatthetimeofitsbeingwritten,areinforceno longer,thatbookisneitherabookoflivingjuris-prudence,norabookonthehistoryofjurisprudence: it isnolongertheformer,andit neverwasthelatter. It is evidentthat,owingto thechangeswhichfromtimetotimemusttakeplace,ina greaterorlessdegree,ineverybodyoflaws,everybookofjurisprudence,whichisotanexpositorynature,mustinthe courseofa fewyears,cometo partakemoreorlessofthiscondition.

Themostcommonandmostusefulobjectofahistoryofjuris-prudence,istoexhibitthecircumstancesthathaveattendedtheestablishmentof lawsactuallyinforce. Butthe expositionofthedeadlawswhichhavebeensuperseded,isinseparablyinter-wovenwiththatoIthelivingoneswhichhavesupersededthem.

'Thetermm_nlci1_lseomedtoanswerthopurposeverywell,tillitwastakenbyanEnglishauthorofthefirsteminencetosignifyinternallawingeneral,incontradistinctiontointvrnationallaw,andthcimaginarylawofnature.Itmightstillbeusedinthissense,withoutscruple,inanyotherlanguage.

xv11.] PeualBrat_eaof Juriatrmdenee. $29

Thegreatuseofboththesebranchesofso.we,istofurnishex-amplesfortheartoflegislation1

X_VIII.Fourthly,inpointofexpression,thelawsinquestionj._pru.deuce, sta.maysubsisteitherinthetormofstatuteorinthatofcustomarytutory--

oastomary.law.Asto thediiterencebetweenthesetwobranches(whichre-

spectsonlythearticleofformorexpression)itcannotproperlybemadeappeartillsomeprogresshasbeenmadeinthedefini-tionofa law.

XXIX.Lastly,Themostintricatedistinctionofall,andthatJ,_spru..... dence, clv]l

whichcomesmostfrequentlyonthecarpet,is thatwhichls-_,a_madeb_tweenthec_vdbranchofjurisprudenceandthepenal,whichlatteriswont,incertaincircumstances,to receivethenameofcrzminat.

Whatisapenalcodeoflaws?Whatacivilcode?OfwhatQucstio9COllCCrn,rl_naturearetheircontents? Isit thattherearctwosortsotthediStlnC-tion betwe_l_

laws,theonepenaltheothercivil,sothatthelawsinapenaltheci_,lbrmlchandcodeareallpenallaws,whilethelawsinacivilcodearealltheper_l.civillaws? Oris it,thatineverylawthereissomematter_ta_.whichisofapenalnature,andwhichthereforebelongstothepenalcode;andatthesametimeothermatterwhichisofacivilnature,andwhichthereforebelongsto thecivilcode? Orisit, thatsomelawsbelongtoonecodeortheotherexclusively,whileofllersarcdividedbetweenthetwo? Toanswerthesequestionsinanymannerthatshallbetolerablysatisfactory,itwillbenecessarytoascertainwhatalawis;meaningoneentirebutsinglelaw:andwhatarethepartsintowhichalaw,assuch,

zofwhatstamparetheworksofGrotius,Puffendoff,andBarlamaqui!Aretheypoliticalorethical,historicalorjuridical,expositoryorcensorial.*--Sometimesonething,sometimesanother: theyseemhardlytohavesettledthematterwiththemselves.AdefectthistowlLichallbooksmustalmostunavoidablybeliable,winchtakefortheirsubjectthepretendedlawofnature;anobscurephantom,which,intheimaginationsofthosewhogoinchaseofit,pointssometimesto_na_ners,sometimestolaws;isometimestowhatlawis,somctimestovehatitoucfl_ttobej. ._lontesquieusetsoatuponthecensorialplan: butlongbcloretheconclusion,asifhehadtorgothisfirstdesign,hethrowso_thecensor,andputsontheanti-quarian.TheMarquisBeccaria'sbook,thefirsto[anyaccountthatisuniformlycensorial,eoae]udesasitsetsout,withIenaljurisprudence.

I I_¢ CIl_p,]I. [PrinciplesAdver_]lw.

330 Of theLimit_of the [CHAp.

iscapableofbeingdisLinguished: or,inotherwords,toascer-tainwhatthepropertiesarethataretobefoundineveryobjectwhichcanwithproprietyreceivetheappellationof a law.Thisthenwillbethebusinessofthethirdandfourthsections:whatconcernsthe importofthewordcriminal,asappliedtolaw,willbediscussedseparatelyin thefifth1.

occ_o_an_ _Hereendsthe originalwork,inthestate intowhichit wasbroughtin_.n,_s,of_b,sNovember,178o. Whatfollowsis nowaddedinJanuary,1789.concla&ng,ou_ Ttlethtrd,fourth,andfifthsectionsintended,asexpressedinthe text,

to havebeenaddedto this chapter,willnot here,nor nowbe given;becauseto give themin a mannertolerablycompleteand satisfactory,mightrequirea considerablevolume. This volumewillforma workoflteelf,closingthcseriesofworksmentionedintheprcface.

Whatfollowsheremayservetogiveaslightintimatmnofthenatureofthetask,whichsucha workwillhavetoachieve: it willat thesametimefurnish,notanythinglikensatisfactoryanswertothequestionsmentionedin thetext, buta slightand generalindicat,on of thecourseto betakenforgivingthemsuchan answer.

By_z,_,t¢,¢ Whatisa law? Whatthe partsofa law? Thesubjectof thesequss-i_,o_m_ • tions,it isto be observed,isthe log_a/,the idea/,the intellectualwhole,

not thephysicalone: thelaw,andnot theatatutc.Anenquiry,directedtothelattersortofobject,couldneitheradmitofdiiticultynoraffordinstruc-tion. In this sensewhateveris givenfor lawby the personor personsrecognisedaspossessingthe powerof makinglaws,is/aw. The Meta.morphosesofOvid,if thusgiven,wouldbelaw.Somuchaswasembracedbyoneandthesameactofauthentication,somuchasreceivedthetouchofthesceptreat onestrokc,monelaw: a wholelaw,_ndnothingmore.A statuteof GeorgeII. maxleto substitutean or insteadof an andina formerstatuteisa eomliletelaw; a statutecontaininganentirebodyoflaws,perfectinallitsparts,wou]dnot bemoreso. By theword/awthen,asoftenasit occursinthe succeedingpagesis meantthe, ofwhichthepart, the whole,or the multiple,or an asfi/_rts.wholes,andmultiplesmixedtogether,isexhibitedby as_tute ; notthestatutewhichexhibit_them.

E,,_vh- h Everylaw,whencomplete,iseitherofacoerciveoranuncoercivenature.e,lheracorn. A coercivelawi_a cornmand.taand,ora,_,o,,_ooa Anuncocrcive,orrather,_d/*cocrcive,lawisthereveal/on,inwholeor_"_ inpart,ofa coercivelaw.A declaratoryWhathasbeentermedadeclaratorylaw,sofarasitstandsdistinguished_l_.or,p_-fromeitheracoerciveoradiscoercivelaw,isvetproperlyspeakingalaw.pc r,pcakmg, , : ....a'_. It is not theexpressmnof anact of thewillexercisedat the time: it zs

a merenotificationoftheexistenceofa law,eitherofthecoerciveor thediseoereivekind,as alreadysubsisting: oftheexistenceofsomedocumentexprc_ssivcofsomeactof thewill,exercised,notat thet/me,butst someformerperiod.If it doesanythingmorethangiveinformationofthisfact,viz.of thepriorexistenceofalawofeitherthccoerciveor thediscoercivekind,it ceasespro_a_oto bewhatis meantby a declaratorylaw,anda_sundngeitherthecoerciveor thediscoercivequality.

_coorc_eEverycoercivelawcreatesanoffence,thatis,convertsanactofsome

xvlI.] Penal.BranchofJuri_prude_ee. 33a,sort,orotherintoan offence,It isonlyby60doingthatit canim_sei,. c,._ ,_r - offence.obligation,that it can producecoercion.

A law confiningitselfto thecreationof anoffence,anda lawcorn- vl• . A ]aw cr taringmantlingapunishmenttobeadministeredineaseoftheeomnussmnOfa.oee,.....dsuchanoffencearetwodistinctlaws;notparts(astheysecmtohavebeen,mea_pom_mg• . puo cn,generallyaccountedhitherto)ofoneandthesamelaw.Theac,t_stheyared_t,._commandaxealtogetherdifferent;thepersonstheyareaddressedtoam_.w_.altogetherd;fferent.Imstance,Letnomansteal;and,Letthejud4ecausewhoeverisvon,_ctedof stealingtobehanged.

Theymightbestyled; theformer,a simplyimperativel_w; theotherapunitory:but thepunitory,ifJtcommandsthepunishmenttobeinflicted,anddoe8notmerelypernutit,isas trulyimperativeas theother:onlyit ispunitorybesides,whichthe otherisnot.

A lawof thedlseo_rcivekind,consideredinitself,canhavenopunitory .vHlawbelongingtoit : to receivetheassistanceand _upportofa l)un,tory_°_'_ _law,it mustfirstreceivethatofasimplyimperativeorcoercivelaw,andit nopu,i_o,y..... /. _ . . .. on_ appl_rtaln-istothinlatterthattimpumtorylawwallattachJtseiz,anono_tothe(sis-,.g,o,tbutcoerciveone. Example ' - ,I,roughu,v; disc(rdrclvelaw. Thesher_lThozpowertohanqcdl_tc._.tlo.otsucha,_the;udge,preceding,nduecourseof law,_hallorderhimto hamj. ¢c_tr¢]veoneExampleofa coercivelaw,madeinsupportoftheabovediscoerciveone.Letnomanh,nderthesher_ff"Dorahangingsuchas thej_qe, proceedingindue courseoflaw,shallorderhimtoharq. Exampleofa punitorylaw,madein supportof the abovecoerciveone. Let thejudgecausetobeimprisonedwhosoeverattemlZatohznderthesherilTfromhangingone,whomthe3udqe, peoeeed_ngin duecourseoflaw,hasorderedhimto_n 9.

But thougha simplyimperativelaw and thepunitorylaw_ttachedto vm' " But a punit_r]it, aresofardistinctlaws,that theformercontainsnothingof thelatter,,_.l._oJ,_s

and thelatter, in its directtenor, containsnothingof theformer; yett_e_,.plyt_ratlve o_ettby im_ication,and that a necessaryone,thepunitorydoesinvolveand_longsto.iaclndcthe importofthesimplyimperativelawtowhichit isappended.To say to the judge,Causetobehangedwhoeverin dueform of lawiscorn@tedof etezdi_uj,is,thoughnot a direct,yet as intelligiblea wayofintimatingto meningeneralthat they mustnot steal,as to saytothemdireetly,Donotsteal: andonesees,howmuchmorelikelytobecfllencious.

It shouldseemthen.that,wherevera simplyimperative]_wisto have _xThe sumpbyima punitoryoneappendedtoit, theformermightbesparedaltogether: mpc_t_¢o.e

whichease.savingtheexception(whichnaturallyshouldseemnotlikelytor_,c__e_-•• fc_ be _paren,bea frequentone}ofa lawCalmbleofanswering_tspurposewithoutsuchb,t_o*(t**x-

pos_tcr_anappendage,thereshouldbenooccasionmthewholebodyofthela 'for_,t_any otherthan pumtory,or in otherwordsthan perwd,laws. And this,perhaps,wouldbe the ease,wereit notfor the necessityof a largoquantityofmatteroftheexpos,torykind,ofwhichwecomenowtospeak,

It willhappenintheinstanceof manyorobablyof mostpossiblyofall. x• _ . . _ . _atu_e olsucncommandsenduedw_ththeforceofa pu'bliclaw,that,m the expression¢,_,_,tor_giventosucha command,it shahbenecessaryto haverecoursetotermsm_ttcr.too complexin theirsignificationtoexhibitthe requisiteideas,withoutthe assistanceof a greateror leasquantityof matter ofan expositorynature. Suchterms,likethe symbolsusedin a]gebraicalnotatmn,arerathersubstitutesand indexesto thetermscapableof themselvesofex-hibitingtheideasinquestion,thantherealandimmediaterepresentativesof thoseideas.

Takeforinstancethelaw,Thoushaltnotsteal. Suchacommand,wereit to rest there,couldneversufficientlyanswerthe purposeof a law.h wordofsovagueandunexphcitameaningeannootherwiseperlormthis

33z Ofthe/:/_aoft_ [c_.office,thanbygivingageneralintimationofavarietyofpropositions,eachrequiring,toconveyittotheapprehension,amoreparticularandampleassemblageofterms.Stealing,forexample(accordingtoadefinitionnotaccurateenoughforuse,butsufficientlysotorthepresentpurpose),is thetakingofa thtngwhw.hisanother's,byonewhohasno_rr_ sotodo,andis¢onaeio_o hishavi_¢none. Evenafter thisexposition,supposingitacorrectone,canthelawberegardedascompletelyexpressed_ Certainlynot. Forwhatismeantbyaman'shavin9aT__A_totakea thing?Tobecomplete,the law musthaveexhibited,amongsta multitudeof othorthings,twocatalogues:theoneofeventsto whichithasgiventhequalityof_/_rria9 tit/ein sucha ease; theotheroftheevent_towhichithasgiventhequalityoftakingitaway. Whatfollows? Thatfora mantohavestolen,foramantoharehadnot/t/etowhathetoo/c,eithernooneofthearticlescontainedinthefirstofthoselistsmusthavehappenedinhisfavour,orif therehas, someoneofthe numberofthosecontainedinthesecondmusthavehappenedto hisprejudice.

xl. Suchthenisthenatureofa generallaw,thatwhiletheimperativepartTheV_L_mCS$o.t_c_ffi . ofit, thepunctureaaliensasitmaybetermed,oI thisartificialbody,shallparst,__l__ootnot takeupabovetwoorthreewords,itsexpositoryappendage,withoutcuba!_o_,_u._. whichthatimperativeparLcouldnotrightlyperformits office,mayoccupycoau_,n_ a considerablevolume.

Butthismayequallybethecasewitha privateordergivenina family,Takeforinstanceonefroma booksellertohi_foreman,l_emove,fromthisshoptomynewone,mywholestock,arcordinqtothisprintedcatalogue.--Remove,fromthis shoptomynewone,mywholestock,is theimperativematter ofthisorder; thecataloguereferredtocontainsthe expo6itoryappendage.

XIL Thesamemassof exposttorymattermay servein commonfor,mayThes_mema.q_ _, -of_,to_ appertainm commonto, manycommands,manymassesofimperativem_Jte_n_w matter.Thus,amongstotherthings,thecatalogueofco//ativeandablative_ervcin com-.... re.... _ events,withrespecttottt/esabovespokenof(seeNo.IX.ofthisnote),willh-_ belongin commonto all ormostofthelawsconstitutiveofthevarious

offencesagaimtproperty.Thus,inmathematicaldiagrams,oneandthesamebaseshallservefora wholeclusteroftriangles.

xm. Suchexpositorymatter,beingofa complexionsodifferentfromtheim-TI_Im_ti_¢ & "Vcha_mcterDerta e it wouldbeno wonderif the connectionof theformerwiththe,_ert_ato lattershouldescapethe observation:which,indeed,is perhapsprettylaw,_ ap_to_¢_d i_generallythecase.Andsolongasany massoflegislativematterpresents_d_,ye,_- i_cff,whichisnotitselfimperativeorthecontrary,orofwhichtheconnee-tcr_ma_er,tionwithmatterofoneofthosetwodescriptionsis notapprehended,so

longandsofar thetruthof thepropodtion,Thateverylawis acommandoritsopposite,mayremainunsuspected,orappearquestionable; so longalsomaytheincompletenessofthegreaterpartofthosemassesoflegisla-tivemolter,whichwearthecomplexionofcomple_lawsuponthefaceofthem,alsothe methodto betakenforrenderingthemreallycomplete,remainundiscovered.

xw Acircumstance,thatwillnaturallycontributetoincreasethedifficulty'the conce_J. ,_,_t__,o_-o_thediscovery,isthegreatvarietyofwaysmwhichtheimperationofn_t_ ,o_],__._-lawmaybeconveyed_thegreatvarietyofformswhichtheimperativ.epart_r_l, ofalawmaymd_sonmmatelyussume:somemoredrectly,someles_directly_ _,,a. expressiveofthe imperativequality. Thoud_al¢notsteal. Letnomanevemattvris

shardbepunisltedsoand so. SteMi_ iswhereama_zdoesaoandso; CMlmnis_rne_for _ali_ujissoandso. Tojudgezsoand sonamed,andso

xw_.] Pe_al JBranek of J'uristn_ude_ee. 333

Andsoconstituted,beloW thecognizanceof suchand_tchofe_ea ; viz.stea/i_--andsoon. Thesearebutpartofa multitudeofformsofwords,inemyofwhichthecommandhywhichstealing]sprohibttedmightequallybe couched: andit is manifestto whata degree,in someofthem,theimperativequahtyis cloudedandconcealedfromordinaryapprehension.

.4.tterthisexplanation,a generalproposit%nor two, that maybelaid xv.down,n_yhelptoaffordsomelittleinsightintothestructureandcontents_r_f_¢ofa completebodyoflaws.--Somany(hfferentsortsofofl_ncescreated,so_'__"__oaohowdetermanydifferentlawsofthecoercivekind: somanye.rzeptionst_k_noutof_¢d.thedescriptionsofthoseoffences,somanylawsofthe dizcoercivekind.

To classo2_ces,as hathheenattemptedtobe donein theprecedingchapter,is thereforetoclasslaws: to exhibita completecatalogueof alltheoffencescreatedbytaw,includingthewholemassofexpositorymatternecessaryforfixingandexhibitingtheimportofthetermscontainedintheseverallaws,bywhichthoseoffencesarerespectivelycreated,wouldbetoexhibita completecollectionofthe lawsinforce: inaworda completebodyof law; alvannomt'_n,ifso it m_ghtbetermed.

• fl ' " " X_IFromthe obscurityin whichthelimit.,of a l_w and the dmtmetmn_ .' ...... _ . t.enemltoeabetwixta lawofthecivilorsimplylmper&hvekindanda pun]torylaw,ofthe_mlt_

a ciri betweena ct_darenaturallyinvolved,resultstheobscurityof thelimitsbetwixt , Ia=d•_-_anda penalcode,betwixta ci_ilbranchofthelawamlthepenal, co_

The question,V/hatpart_ofthetotalma,ssoflegislativematterbelonOtothecivilbvatwh,andwhattothe_nal? supposesthatdiverspoliticalstates,orat leastthatsomeonesuchstate,areto befound,havingaswellacivilcodeasa penalcode,eachofthemcompletein itskind,andmarkedoutby certainlimits. Butnoonesuchstatehaseveryet existed.

Topot a questionto whicha trueanswercan begiven,wemustsub-stituts totheforegoingquestionsomesucha oneasthatwhichfollows:

Supposetwomassesoflegislativematterto bedrawnup at thist_meofday,theoneunderthenameofa civilcode,theotherofa penalcode,eachmeantto becompleteinits kind--inwhatgeneralway,is itnatural tosuppose,thatthedrfferentsortsofmatter,asabovedistmgurshed,wouldbedistributedbetweenthem ?

To thiJquestionthe followinganswerseemslikelyto comeas neatasan_othertothetruth.

heciv//codewoulanotconsistofacollectionofcivillaws,eachcom-pleteinitself,aswella_clearofallpenalones:Neitherwouldthe_ena/code(sincewehaveseenthatitcou/dnot)

consistofacollectionofpunitivelaws,eachnotonlycompleteinit_elf,butclearofallcivilones. But

Thecivilcodewouldconsistchielly_o_cr_m_Je2Lo_Xp0si_o_rggtter, x_'H.• - • ---- _ ..... - -- - Coat t_eraThe_mperat]vema_.t_e.r,to w]_c_hthosema_sesofexpositorymatterre-_,_,__od_spectivelyappertained,wouldbefound--notinthatsameoode--notinthecivilcode--norina purestate,freefromalladmixtureof punitorylaws;butinthe_slcode--insstateofcombJnation--involvcd,inmannerassb_ain_I,'insomanycorrespondentpunitorylaws.Thepenalcodethenwouldconsistprincipallyofp_mitivelaws,involvingxvn_.CO_end,of a

theimperativematterofthewholenumberofcivil_aws:alongwithwhichp=__oa_wouldprobablyalsobefoundvariousmassesofexpositorymatter,apper-tainingnottothecivil,huttothepumtorylaws.Thebodyofpenallaw,enactedbytheEmpress-QueenMariaTheresa,agreesprettywellwiththis_coount.Thems_soflegislativematterpublishedinFrenchaswellasGerman,x]x.

" e lnt_ Codeandorthe auspicesof FrvderioI_Lof Pru_xa,by the nameof Cod _,_,_,_

334 Of tke LiraiO _ tke [chAP.

_,,',p,,_t,,,,Frederic.butneverestablishedwithforceoflaw_,appears,forexample,tocharacteris_o_tI_t,. bealmostwhollycomposedofmassesofexpositorymatter,therelationoi_,¢..the_zpos,orrwhichtoanyimperativematterappearstohavebeenbutveryimperfectly

apprehended.xx In thatenormousmassofconfusionand inconsistency,the ancientSo_lheRomantaw. Roman,or,as itistermed'bywayofeminence,thecivillaw,theimperative

matter,andevenal]tracesoftheimperativecharacter,seemat lasttohavebeensmotheredintheexpository.Estohadbeenthelanguageofprimmvalsimplicity:estohadbeenl,helanguageofthetwelvetables.By thetimeofJustinian(sothickwasthedarknessraisedbycloudsofcommentators)thepenallawhadbeencrammedintoanoddcornerofthecivil--thewholecatalogueof offences,and evenof crimes,lay buriedundera heapofobliqations--urdlwas]ridinopinion--andtheoriginalestohadtransformeditselfintovidetur,inthemouthsevenofthemostdespoticsovereigns.

xx[ Amongthe barbarousnataoasthat grewup outof theruinsof the1,the_,,b,. RomanEmpire,Law,emergingfromunderthe motmtainof expositoryrlancedisItsta,dsco,_p,rubbish,rcassumedfora whdethelanguageofcomn_nd: andtbenshehad¢_ smlphcltyatleast,ifnothingelse,to recommendher.

xxrL Besidesthecivilandthe Penal,everycompletebodyoflawmustcon-Co_lituttonalraina thirdbranch,thecortstitu_ional.code,itscon-._,o_,,th,l,eTIwconstitutionalbranchis chieflyemployedin conferring,on par-twoothers,ticularclassesofpersons,powers,to beexercisedforthegoodofthewhole

society,orofconsiderablepartsofit, and prescribingdutieatothepersonsinvestedwiththosepowers.

Thepowersarc principallyconstituted,in the first instance,by dis-coerciveor permissivelaws.operatingasexceptionstocertainlawsofthecoerciveorimperativekind. Instance: A tax-gatherer,assucl_,may,onsuchaT_suchan occasion,takesuchandsuchthiTqs,withouta_y otherT'ITL1g.

Thedutiesarecreatedbyimperaf,ivelaws,addressedto thepersonsonwhomthepowersareconferred.Instance:Onsuchandsuchan occlusion,suchandsucha tax-gatherershalltakesuchandsuchthings. Suchandsuchaju&jeshall,i_ts_w.Y_andsucha case,causepersonssoandsooffendin9tobehanged.

Thepartswhichperformthefunctionofindicatingwhotheindividualsaae,who,in everycase,shallbeeonmderedas belongingtothoseclasses,haveneithera permissivecomplexion,noranimperative,

Theyaxesomanymassesofexpositorymatter,appertainingincommonto alllaws,rotethetextureofwhich,thenamesofthoseclassesofpersonshaveoccasmntobeinserted.Instance;imperativematter:_Letthejndgecaueewhoever,induecourseq; law,is convictedof stealing,tobehanged.Natureoftheexpositorymatter:--Whois thepersonmeantby thewordjudge?Hewhohasbeeninvestedwiththa_officeinsucha manner: andinrespectofwhomnoeventhashappened,ofthenumberofthose,towhichtheeffectisoven,ofreducinghimtothecondibionofonedivestedofthatoffice.

xxm Thusitis,thatoneandthe samelaw,oneandthesamecommand,willrn_tb. haveitematterdivided,notonlybetweentwogreatcodes,ormainbranchesmatterofoneh-_, _ ofthewholebodyoithelaws,tbecivilandthepenal; butamongstthreeds_d_,_o_ssuchbranches,thecivil,the penn!,andtheconstitutional.

xxw. Incountries,wherea greatpartofthelawexistsinnoothershape,thanE.p_t_rr thatofwhichinEnglandiscalledcommonlawbutmightbemoreexpres-maut_,•i_reat

I MlrabeauturlaMonarchicPrussienae,Tomv.Lie.$.p.215.

X_L] Penal.Brano_ofJurisBrude_ee. 335

.slvelytermedjudicla_o,theremustbeagreatmultitudeoflaws,theira-q_n_tyorltportofwhichcannotbe " • - e,_t_,._-sufficlentlymadeoutforpraotme,wlthoutrefemng._,_l__otothiscommonlaw,formoreorlessoftheexpositorymatterbelongingtootherformthanxh_tofcommuathem.ThusinEnglandtheexpositionofthewordti_e,thatbasisofthe,,rj_c"_wholefabricofthelawsofproperty,isnowhereelsetobefound.And,asl,_.uncertaintyisoftheveryessenceofeveryparticleoflawsodenominated(fortheinstantit is clothedina certainauthoritativeformof wordsitchangesitsnature,and passesoverto theotherdenomination)henceit isthata greatpartofthe lawsinbeinginsuchcountriesremainuncertainandincomplete.Whatarcthosecountries_ Tothishour,everyoneonthesurfaceoftheglobe.

Hadthescienceofarchitecturenofixednomenclaturebelongingtoit-- xxv.weretherenosettlednamesfordistinguishingthedifferentsortsof build-_ac_t_• . . Piags,northedifferentuartsof thesamebuildingfromeachother--whatof,h,sden,e

..... of leb.:Lfl_auon,wouldit bet It would_ewhatthescienceoflegislation,consideredwithcoauderedmrespecttoits/otto,remainsat present. _t ofi_• fo_,

Weretherenoarchitectswhocoulddistinguisha dwelling-housefromabarn,oraslde-wallfroma coiling,whatwouldarchitectsbe?Theywouldbewhatalllegislatorsareat present.

Fromthis veryslightandimperfectsketch,may becollectednotan x×vt.answertothequeatiunsinthetextbut anintimationandthatbutanira-°5_*_". . ' anorum anperfectone,ofthecourseto betakentorgivingsuchananswerand at etempli_cauonany rate,someideaof thedifficulty,as wellas of thenece*sity,of the_ t_he_Id2_cultyta4_]r Im ortanceof

• , tb_b'ttmch ofIfitwere_houghtnecessarytorecurtoexperienceforproofselth_¢,,-

difficultyand thisnecessitytheyneednot belonuwmatln_ att©rnptsto' . P -- o e_. limittheTake,foramtanee,somanywell-meantendeavoursonthepartofpopular_._ of

bodies,and somanywell-meantrecommendationsia ingeniousbooks,to_p_.m_,p_o_,_t_,,,.orestrainsupremerepresent_tiveassembliesfrommakinglawsinsuchand_¢_t_t_.suchcases,_rtosuchandsuchaneffcct.Suchlaws,toanswertheinteudedpurpose,requirea perfeetmasteryinthescienceoflawconsideredinrespectofitsform--inthesortofanatomyspokenofintheprefaceto thiswork:but a perfect,orevenamoderateinsightintothatscience,wouldpreventtheirbeingcouchedinthoselooseandinadequateterms,iuwhichtheymaybeobservedsofrequentlytobeconceived; asaperfectacquaintanoewittlthedictatesofutilityonthatheadwould,inm_ny,ifnot inmost,ofthoseinstances,discounseltheattempt.Keepto theletter,andin attemptingtopreventthemakingofbadlaws,youwillfindthemprohibiringthemakingofthemostnecessarylaws,perhapsevenofall laws: qmttheletter,andtheyexproesnomorethanifeachmanweretoshy,Yourlauzehallbet.oraeipoofaaovoid,a._oftenas theycontainanylhin9whichisnot_omymind.

Ofsuohunhappyattempts,examplesmaybemetwithinthelegislationofmanynations: butinnonemorefrequentlythaninthatnewly-creatednation,oneofthemostenlightened,ifnotthemosteulightened,atthisdayontheglobe.

TakeforinstancetheDetYarat/onof Rights,enactedbythe Stateof xxvn.NorthCarolin_,inconvention,in oraboutthemonthofSeptember,1788,Ea_e_nn_._n:andsaidtobe copied,witha smallexception,fromonem Likem e d,¢_,_etmctedbytheStateofVirgini__. annr o_r_

Thefollowing,togo nofarther,is thefirstandfundamentalarticle:' Thattherearecertainnaturalrights,ofwhichmen,whentheyforma

socialcompact,cannotdepriveordivesttheirposterity,amongwhichm'e

i Reoluw_aurl_v-m_lTni_g_o,_7_8,voLLp._5_.

336 Lirniteof tke Penal Branch of YurieFrudenee.

the enjoymentnf lile and liberty,with the means ot acquiring,possessing,andprotectingproperty,andpursuingand obtaininghappinessand safety.'

Not to dwell on the oversightof confiningto posterity the benefitof therights thus declared, what follows? Thab---asagainst thosewhomthe pro-tection, thus meant to be afforded,includes--every law, or other order,dive_hn9 a man of _heenjoymentoflff'e or tfoerty, is void.

Therefore this i_ the ease, amongst others, with every coercive law.Therefore,as against the persons thus protected,every order,forexample,

to pay money on the score of taxation, or of debt from individual to indi-vidual, or otherwise, is void : for the effect of it, it eomphed with, is ' todepriveand d_vesth,m,' pro _anto,of theenjoyment o{liberty,viz, thelibertyof paying or noL paying as he thinks proper : not to mention the speciesopposed to imprisonment, in the event of such a mode of coercion's beingresorted to : hkewL_eof property, which is itseff a ' meana of acquiring,poasessing,and pro_ing pro_erly,and of _rauing and ohio,ninehappinessand _afety.

Therefore also, as againstsuch persons, every order to attack an armedenemy, ia time of wax, is also vend: for, the necessary effect of such anorder is ' to deprivesome of them of theenjoymerdof life.'

The shove-mentioned consequencesm_ysuffice for examples, amongstan endless tram of similarones t.

Leamng on hiselbow, in an attitude of profound and solemnmeditation,' What a multitude of things there are' (exclaimed the d_ncing-masterMaxcel_' in a minuet l '--May we now add ?---andin a/aw.

' The"YLr'_nianDeclarationofRights,mid,in theFrenchworkabovequoted,to havebeenenactedthexstofJune,17"]6,tsnetinsertedmthepubJicstmnentitled_TheConstitu.$ionsof thetoPe'attrUlelx,ndentstatezofAmerica,_c1"Publishedb_/orderofCongreJt.Ph_ladell_hlaprinted, lteprintedfor Sto_kdaleand IVaiker,Londo-a,I782:timughthatpublicationcontainBtheformof go_eramentenactedin thesameeonveuuon,I:retweeatile6,h ,)fMayandthe5!hofJulyintile_mie)ear.

ButInthatsam_publicationis containeda Declarationof RigMJ,oftheprovlneeofMa_sac_t_dls,datedmtheyears1779andx780, whichin itsfirstarticleis• little_milgr:aisooneoftheprovinceofPen_u_ylvania,datedbetweenJulylSthandSeptember_th, inwhichthestmda_ty_ rathermoreconsiderable.

Moreover,thefamou_Declaratiol*oflntlcpendera_,publishedbyCon_'emJulystb, 1776,aftere preambuLaropenlog,goesonintheewords: ' Wehold_ truthstob__df.._de_.thatidlmenarecreatedequal: thatthey.aren_lw.dbythecreatorwithcertainuachenabler*gha,thatamongttthroeurelife,hberty,andthepur_uitefhal_pines_."

The'_'irqinianDeclarationof]_ghtzisthat,itseems,whichclam,sthehonourofhavingservedasa modeltothoseoftheelectProvinces; endmrt_peetoftheaboveleadingarticle,atlea_t,totheabove-mentionedgeneralDeclarationofIndependence.Seel.lecheteho,&n.,i, _97-

Who_.nhelph_menti_g,thatw ration&laeatt_shouldberv_.eduponr_sooe,somuchfitter_obegetobjections,thantoremovethem?

Butwithmen,whoareunammousandI]eartyaboutmea_rer,nothingsoweakbutmayin thecharacterofa rea_n: noristhi_thefir_tinstancem theworld,wherethecon-

elu.,nonha_supportedthe.erembe_insteadofthepremisestheconclusion.

INDEX.

Absoluteduty,,eeDuty.AbtmeofTrust,seeTrust.Accessoryoffences,,eeOffences.Acquisihon,pleasureof,p.34.Ant,advisedandunadvised,89.-- and'_ctiondistinguished,82.-- continuedendtransient,74-

andrepeated,distinguished,74.ofdiscourse,what,73.divisibleandindivisible,75.

-- externalandinternal,73.-- ofthemind,what,97.-- mischievous,oftheconsequencesofa, 152-I69.-- negativeandpositive,7z.

illustratedintheeaseofoffencesagainsttrust,236n.-- absolutelyandrelativelynegative,72.-- negative,maybeexpressedpositiv/ely,72.-- overtoreat*riot,73n.-- repeated,andahabitorpracticeofaction,diptinguished,75.--simpleandcomplex,75.--a single,whatconstitutes--amblguityregarding,76.--an,generaltendencyof,howdetermined,7o,71.-- tTsnsitiveandintransitive,73and73_.

a distinctionrecognisedbygrammarians,73n.-- voluntary,immeaning,82a.Action,Human,ingeneral,7o-8L-- controlof,theprincipalendofpunishment,]70n.

whenexaminedwitha viewLopunishment;pointstobeconsidered,71.Acts,distinguished,7_-76.--whichrestpurelyintheunderstanding,98.Addison,hi_descriptionof religion,lzl n.Administration,abranchoftheartofGovernmentcon_rMtedwiththat

ofLegildafion,3II.Adult,31t.Adultery,theoffenceof,_St.Affeotion,enlarged,what,_LAm_ity,relationshipby,a57.Age,_ a secondarycircumstanceinfluencingsensibility,59'-- it, periodsdistinguished,59.Agency,rationalandirrational,distinguished,7LAgi_vation,stateofthecousciolmness,asfurnishingagroundof,95.-- groundsof,constitutedbyoffsetsaga_t trustandbyfahehood,3oS-

a_t_rR,t.M g

338 lnde_.

Alarm,• brlochofthesecondarymischiefofanact,I_3.--none.whenthepersontheobjectofattacknotdeterminate,162.--duetotheapparentmentalattitudeoftheactoratthetimeofanact,

x64.-- goodnessofthe motiveofanactdoesnotremove,16_.--natureofthemotive,howita_'ects,167.--disDo_tionoftheactor,howitaffectajx58.--anddanger,distinguished,157.

theirbranches,157.towhatcausesdue,157.

-- sometimes,dangerMwayscontingent,IS9.Alien,theconditionofan,howconstituted,294.Ambaaaador,thetrustofan,orpresbeutictrust,offenceaaffecting,289_.-- injuriestoan, 286n.Ambition,underwhatclassofmotivesit falls,lo9.

itsrelationto loveofpowerandtoloveofreputatiov,Ix].Amity,orself-recommendation,the pleasuresof,theirnature,35-orself-recommendation,thepl_suresof,motivescorrespondingto,xoS.

--thede,reoftpla_x_inthecla_ofgoodmotive_,119.howfarcoincidentwiththatofbenevolence,IS_.

wlthth_el"theloveofreputation,l_3.conformabletoutility,123.elsa_dasaeemi.seciMsewellasaself-regm'dlngmotive,12Lasa$_ndingtutelarymotive,considered,14.4.

--themotiveof,commonlynss_iatedwiththatofbenevolenceorsym-pathy,xo8.itsvaryingeffectsillustrated,Io8.howfarcoincidentwiththatofbenevolencejx23.

theple,Lsuresandpainsof,andthoseofbenevolence,distinguished,4! n.Anglo-SaxonWer.geld,aceWer.geld.Animals,crueltyto,seeCruelty.Animomale,meaningoftheexpression,9._n.Antipatheticbiasandsensibility,explained,._I.Antipathy,oecnsionMlycausesactionswithgoodeffect*,23.--neverarightgroundofaction,23.--re_ntmentmerelyamodificationof,23.--nsaninducementtopunishtheself-regardingoffence_,3o6.connexioninthewayof,a_influencingsensibility,55-theprincipleof,needsregulationbythatofutility,_3.

errsonthesideofseverity,2o.--andsympathy,theprincipleof,itsinfluenceinexcitingdisapprovalof

thevariousclnsselofoffences,3o3-3o5andn.,3o6.--#e_alsoSympathy.Apprehension,orexpectation,thepainsof,4Lorexpectation,thepainsof,sadthoseofsuifersuce,diBtinguiahed,

41n.Apprentice,_eeMuter.Ascetici_m.originoftheword,8_.--theprincipleof,what,9"

aparti_anof,who,9.whyfavouredbycertainmoralists.9.f,llowedunderthenameofreligion,I_3"oftenthegroundofapprul_tionordimpprobttianofaction,zo.it_wide-spreadinfluenceupondoctrine,_o.

X_ut_. 339Ascetieiem,theprincipleof--

itssmallinfluenceuponleglsI_t/on,I1, xa.religionspersecutioniv partd.eto, ILnotconsistentlyfollowedinmattersofgovernment,I[, I_.consistentpursuitofit impossible,x3.an exampleofa principleadversetoutility,8.limitedinpracticetoprivateconduct,I!.preventstheuniversalityofcensureoftheprivateoffences,303.

Ascetins,religiousandphilosophical,compared,io.Assignableindividual,an,whatmeantby, 20_m.Association,theprincipleof,xa4n.-- painsof,41--- ple_asuresof,analysedandillustrated,37.-- pleasuresandpainsofthemind,theresultof,_o9n.avarioe,theterm,anexampleofthefigt_tivesenseof thetermmotive,

99.--lndleat4mthe motiveof pecuniaryinterostwhenueedin a _ sensej

Io4.--underwhatela_ofmotivesit falls,lo4.-- whyproperly_ermedabadmotive,11B,x_9.--lust,vengeance,ther_trainingmotive_to,168,169.Awinvgrdneu,thep_inaof,analysed,3_

B°

Bad, properapplicationoftheterm,87.--intention,_e Intention.-- motive,seeMotive.-- tendencyofan act,howascertained,3L 3_.Baniahmont,nsa formofporsoual_njury,z44,245.--examplesofoffencesby, z46n.--asapunishment,considered,19t, 197.

whenun_uable,I9r.--asachronicalpunishment,2co.B_caria,hisworksnoticed,I79, 3_9n.Behaviour,good,remissionof punishmentfor,2oo.Bauefleenoe,a branchofdutyto others,3x2.-- howfara fitsubjectforlegiela_on,3z2,3z3.--motiv_whichpromptto,31a,M3.Beneficiary,benefleiendary,thetermssuggestedtoindicatetheperson

totakethebenefitofatrust,zz6n.Benevolence,plesstur_of,inwhattheyconsist,36.

underwhatcireumstn,ace_themotiveof maybe repugnant,to utility,122.

--imputedtotheDeity,in whatcause,lz5.enlarged,alonenecessarilyconformabletoutility,za2.

andprivate,examplesoftheiroperation,J_9.thedi_fion between,illustrated,x55, 143.

--pnEiosadprlv_te,contrasted,_az.a tutelarymotive,modeofits operationas,]43.

Bias,moral,religions,sympathet,ic,antipeth_ie,_e__'oral,e_Blasphemous,printingor Streaking.,underwhatchtssof offenc_it falls_

Blasphemy.a89mz_

340 Inde_.

Bodilyconditions,influencingsensibility,44,45-47,55,._?,58-Body,radicalframeortemperamentof,asaffectingsensibility,55,56.-- andmind,intimacyoftherelationbetween,56,57.

offencesaffectingthe,distinguished,243.Bonaparte,hisPenalCodenoticed,]80,.Branding,asa punishment,zoo.Bribery,natureoftheoffence,24o.-- active,or tmbe-giving,24oandn.-- passive,orbribe-taking,240, 289,_9o.naanoffencetowhichcert_nconditionsareexposed,262,272,274,276,

278,282,289n., 29on.--_sea/_oP'eosenta.Bubbles,orfraudulentcompanies,theoffenceofsettingup,253n.Burningalive,saa punishment,18xn.

C°

Calamity,a, what,26,2zl.-- offence_through,2II,245n., 246n.

breachesofsanitarycegulatione,anexampleof,21=.precautionagainst,justifiesthecausingof mischiefand makespuolsh-mentgroundiess_17_.

Capitalpuniahment,196,I97,2o0.Caprice,theprincipleof, 13n.--howfarcoincidentwiththatofsympathyandantipathy,13n.,15n.-- illustrationsofitsinfluence,13n.Catalogueofmotivescorrespondingtothat ofpleasuresandpains,Io5.

seeo2soMotives.CatMoguspersonarumprivilegiat_rum,itspurpose,68n.CatherineII ofRussia,attitudeofherministerstowardstrivialtheological

controversies,21n.Celibacy,as anoffense,howclassed,288n.Certainty,asa qualityofpunishment,,eePunishment.anduncertaintyofpleasureandpain,animportantingredientintheir

xMue,29.Characteristiealness,asa qualityof punishment,192, 193andn., 202ft.Clmrity,to whatclassofmotivesit belongs,H3.Child,theterm,as indicatinga legalrelation,consldered,276n.-- steMiug,as anoffence,276.Childlessness,asmodifyingsuaceptibilitytotheinfluenceoflaw,54n.Christianity,itsestablishmentduetotheascendancyoftheRoman

commonwealth,79n.Chromcalpunishments,examplesof,2c_o.Oircumstanoes,etymologyoftheterm,77n.-- what,75,77n.

attendingan act,defined,77n.reaJonsfortheirinvestigation,76,80.statesofwhichtheperceptivefacultyis susceptibleinregardto,7L

theirrelationtocons_uence_,modesof,77.illustrated,78,79andnn.limitedextentto whichperceptible,79,80.

attendinganevent,theauthor'smethodof_ualyeisapplicabletophysicalas wellastomoralscience,81n.

af_mv_tive,80,3o8.

Index. 34I

Clroumstances,com_pensative,9o,9I.-- eriminative,80,90,308.-- evidentiary,80.

exculpative,80.-- extenuative,80.

pecuniary,_eePecuniary.-- preventive,9o_91.-- influencing_nsibility,seeSensibility.Civil(3ode,seeCode,Law.Civilandpenallaw,_eeLaw.Civilandcriminal,seeProcedure.Civilconditions,seeCondit2ons.Class,offenceagainsta,Jo6.Climate,itseffectuponsensibility,45,6I.Code,acivil,its contenk%333.

acivil,thedifferenoebetweena penaland_examined,329.333.seaalsoL_w.

-- Frederic,the,referredto,333,334--- a penal,itscontents,333.

limitsbetweenit ands civil,examined,329,333.Coercionorrestraint,oneoftheevilsofpunishment,175.--orrestraint,aformofoffenceagainstthepe]_on_243.CoerciveLaw,330.Coining,asanoffence,18In.Collators,l, relationship,257.Command,' everylawa commandoritsopposite.'332.-- acoercivelawa, 33o.Commennursbility,a_a qualityofpanishment,19I, _02.Commonsense,theoryofa,asa moralstandard,anexampleoftlw

applicationoftheprincipleof_mpathyandantipathy,17n.Compamnon,towhatclassofmotfvesitbelongs,134.Compensationorsatisfactionforanoffence,asrenderingpunishment

groundless,or asareasonfori_ abatement,17J.aninsufficientpenaltyfortheftandrobbery,why,183andn.asasubordin-q_endofpunishment,17I_.

--tendencyto,assqualityofpuaJshmens,195,197.lueratiee,197.

subserviencyto,a qualityofpecuniarypunishment,197.vindictive,197.

--susceptibilitytoachuitof,asdistinguishingthevariousclassesofoffences,303-306.

Oomplexorcompound,andsimpleoffences.=H,_43.s_a/soOffenoee.

-- pleasuresandl_inJ,4zn.exampleofmssnalyshsof,4_n.

--condition,seeCondition.Compulsion,asagroundofimpunity,175.-- or eunatraiat,asa formofoffenceagainsttheperson,analysed,143.

simpleinjurious,anexampleoftheoffenceof,296.sometimesincludeswrongfulmenacemenL245n.

Condition,a,elementsintheconceptionof,21o,alln.,sag,23a,231,255,_56n.,_9o,a91,293,_94-

a,maybeeitherbeneficialorhurthensome,orbeth,tothepartyinvestedwithit,aJ9,294,295"

34_ I_e_,

Condltion,% impliesadi_tingaiahingappellationonthelaa'tofthepersoainvestedwithit, 232.

-- therightsanddutiesbelongingto,considerableinduration,233.-- ckaracterof the servicesconnectedwith,a distinguishingfeatureof,

233---des_tiptlonoftheservlce_constitutings, _3_.--therightstoservicesconnectedwith,andthoseundercontractorapper-

miningtoproperty,distiagaished_233.-- examplesofa, 232, 294,295.--howconstitutedbythelaw,292,293.--notanexclusiveright,293.-- andrelationsnotamountingto a,distinguished,232, 233,293.-- regardedasanobjectofproperty,aJo,2z7,23o, 231.-- c_)ntrastedwitha rightofproperty,2_9,293.

difficultyofdistinguishingpropertyand,29L--anoffenceagainst,what,21o.-- offencesagainst,255-296.

howto beclassed,227et seq.rulesfordistinguishingthemFromthoseagainstproperty,_32,233.andagainstproperty,sometimesaubetantiMlythe _me, 229,233,

234.whyimproperto classunderthonsagainstproperty,229.

--filial,offencesagatnst,276.-- trustas aspeciesof,226.--andtrust,theirrelations,227,aaS,29o.

public,a leasexpressivetermthanpublictrtmt,InS.--complex,thatofparenta, 27._,Conditions,properorderoftheirtreatment,258.--classedasdomesticandcivil,255.domesticorfamily,howconstituted,255.

thephysicalpowerofthedomesticsuperiortheirgroundwork,_59_.

the legalrelationstheyinvolveandtheirrationale,258, 259, 26%161.

offencestouching,161-266,270-186.civil,examined,287.

theirinfinitevariety,287.somefeatureswhichdistinguishthemfromthedomestic,294' 295.involveno correlativerelationswithdistinguishingappellations,

294,295.howconstituted,_92,293, 294.theirrelationto trusts,to domesticconditions,andto rlghtaof

ownership,zgo, 29I.non-fiduciary,292.professional,_92,a93-rank,nsoneof the,292.examplesof,294, 295.offencestouching,295,z96.

Confinement,asa formofoffenceagainsttheperson,_44.--exampleofoffencesby, 246_.Oonnnbialandpost-connubialrelations,2S6.--acealsoRelation,,.Connexion,inthe wayof sympathyandantipathy,seeSympathyand

Antipathy.

Index. 343

Ooneoiommeas,astovLrcume_ncesaccompanyinganact,whetmeantby,71•

falseaBtocircumstancesaccompanyinganact,what,71.-- the,orperceptivefaculty,itsrelationtotheconsequencesofso act,89.

variousstatesof,in regardto the circumstancesatk'ndingan act,89•

variousstatesof,illustrated,90--92.stateofthe,importanceoftheinvusti6_ationregarding,95,96.

itsrelationto intentionality,9z.to thesecondaryevilofanact,]64-

characterofthe consequencesofan actin greatmeasuredependentupon,95.

demandforpunishmentdependentup,)nit.qstate.95.Consent,onthepartofaninjuredpeaty,asrenderingpunishmentground-

less,I7I , 172.

presenceor absenceof, its relationto the offencesof theft,rap%seduction,etc.,251, z5a,253.

Consequences,theirplaceinrelationto thetendencyofacts.70.materi,q,what,70.

aloneworthregarding,70.-- primary,andsecondary,]Sz,153.

my bemischievousandseeondsrybeneficial,]_7.naturalsodartificial,x68,169.andintentionusuallycorrespond,_33.

Constitutionallaw,a branchofs completebodyoflaws,334.-- itsprovince,334"-- itsrelationtopenalandtocivillaw,334.

itsmatterhowtobedistributed,509n.Contract,breachof,underwhatcla_ ofoffencesit falls,249n,-- a, natureoftheconceptionindicted,279.

theutilitarianbasisofthematrimonialcondition,s79.thematrimonial,modificationsof whichit issusceptible,28o.

Contractualrelations,andthosedependentuponcondition,theirdiffer-encosexamined,233.

Copyrightjthe enjoyerof %not investedwitha conditionjbutwith"`speciesofproperty,293.

whyregardedasproperty,294s.Corporalinjuries,simpleandirreparable,244.

insult,acomplexoffence,affectingbothpersonandreputation,247.Corporatebody,offencesagainstthepropertyofa, 252n.Corporationspirit,attschment_tealor ' uF_/tdecorps,'xx3.Country"Bcene,a, thepleasuresof,analysed,42n.Cowarclioe,towhat_ ofmotives_tbelongs,116.Crime,tobereprobated,onpurelyutilitariangrounds,9_x3n.Crimm'`llaw,3o9,330.-- seea_soL'`w.Crimin'`tivocircumstan_,seaCircumstances.Cromwell,Oliver_hissupposedindifferencetosuffering,57.

easilymovedtotears,_7.Cruelty,damof motivesto whichitbelongs,r_4.

toanimals,rationaleoflegislationregeaximg,31!n.Gulp-,,meaningoftheterm,94,95,9-_n.

sinedole,9+lata,levis,leviafima,theexpressionscriticised,94.

344 I_e..

Cariosity,as amotive,Io7.its differenteffeet_illustrated,1o7.

D.

D'Aguesaeau,tileChancellor,hissuggestionofthe phrase' droitent_sleagens,"326n.

Danger,abranchofthesecondarymischiefofanact,z53.-- ofa misehievou_act, whenceit arisen,i55.-- andalarmdistinguished,157.-- ofanact,dueto therealmentalattitudeoftheactor,164.--physical,as impairingtheinfluenceofthepenalunction,]74,I75.Death,thepenaltyof,seeCapital:Punishment.Declaration,the,ofIndependenceof theUnitedStatesof America,336n-- the,ofRights,ofMa_achusette,336.

ofVirginia,335,336.of.NorthCarolina,335"

thephraseologyofthese imtrumentscriticised,335,336.Defamation,theoffenceof,its naturea_mly_ed,246.-- political,howclued, _89n.

rductaneeunderpopulargovermaenteto submitit to penallegis-lation,319n.

-- andsee:Reputation.Defraudment,the offenceof,251,308.Deity, the,qualitiesattributedto,125.Delegatusnonpurestdelegare,themaximridiculed,13n.DeUberation,asan indicationofthedispositionofanoffender.I_o.Delieta,publicset private,of Romanlaw,3oon.Delinquency,offencesofmere.211.-- andseeOffences,Semi-public.Denmark,a sectofreligiousenthusiaststherejnoticed,14o.Depravityof disposition,8esDisposition.Derivativeevilofanact,what0I53.--painsof sympathy,amongthepainsotpunishment,176.Dersoho,a Spanishtermforlawinabstract,314n.Descent,relationshipby,257.Desertion,military,theoffenceof,_87n.Desire, painof,a _peeie_of painofprivation,38--- physical,thegeneraltermfora certainmotive,Io5.-- sexuM,the neutraltermfora certainmotive,1o5n.Detainer,ofimmovables,a tells ofEngl/_hl_w,255andn.--seeal_oDotinue.Detection,whatmeantby,146.--fearof,a_anelementinthetutelarymotiveofself-preservation,147.

theforceofcertainstandingtutelarymotlve8dependsupon,146'147.

uncertaintyof,asdiminishingtheefficacyofthepenalsanction,3I7.Determinative,as a termfor' Motive,'98n.Detinue,anddetainer,u offencesofEnglishl_w,25on.,$$5andn.Detreomremilitiam,meaningof theexpre_ion,$37,_38".Dela'eet_tion,,ma term fora certainmodeof offence,_37,338n., _62

17_,_74.'Dictates' or' laws'ofparticularmotive_,convenienceoftheexpression,

I'_I.

lrulem. 345

Diet,soanty,why an efficaciouspunishmentforoffencesthroughthe_otiveofill-will,196.

Disabiement,asa resultofpunishment,JTo,]71n., I95,196, r97, 202.Disaploointment,painof,a speciesofpainofpriv_tion_38.Disooercivelaw,33o.Discottrse,actsof,seeAot.Disgrace,fearof,asamotive,to9.Dishonour,fearof,IO9.-- painsof,iceIll-name.Displeasure,themotiveof,placedinthe classofbadmotlves,I19.

underwhatcircumstancessocialinits effects,I_7.--a motivelessconstantin its operationthanthe motivesof the self-

regardingclass,167.Disposition,the,thegenera|subjectof, treated,131-I_I.

what,13I.gnelementindeterminingthegeneraltendencyofanact,7t.its influencein the productionof the secondarymischiefof an

act,J64.itsedit uponalarm,168.' thesumoftheintentions,'z42.penallawhowfarconcernedwith.r32.good,bad,depraved,virtuous,vicious,beneficenLmerlterioua_perel-

cio_,mischievous,sound,firm,applicationofthegermsto,I3L13z.indicationsconcerning,sffoldedby thestrengthoftsmptatiou,I4_-depravityof, indicatedby anoffence,rulesfor estimating_with

illustrations,149, 15o.indicationsof, affordedby the deliberationaccompanyingthe

offence,150.itscharactere matterofinference,]3a.the groundsof inferencer_gardingit examinedandillustrated,

133-x4I.itsinvestigation,whyimportant,xfil.

-- agood,coupledwitha mischievoushabit,impossible,x33n.Divisionofoffences,seeOffences.Dolus,the terminRomanlaw,94,95,and95n.Droit,a Frenchtermforlawinabstract,324n.

entreleege_,'insteadof' droitdesgens,'suggestedby the ChancellorD'Aguessoau,326n.

Drugs,saleofunwholesome,underwhatclassofoffencesit falls,246n.Drunkenness,itsplaceina classificationofoffences,_46n.

andseeIntoxication.Duol,refusaltofighta, whyassociatedwithcowardice,Io9na,briberyatanelection,munJliconceincharity,war,alikeresultsofa

singlemotive,l IO.Duelling,motivestoand_ga_n_t,examined,Iogn.Dumplers,a religio,_ssociety,noticed,x_.Duration,asanelementinple_ure,andpain,3o.

illustrated,32.Duress,a_4n--andseeCompulsion.Duty orobligation,impliedin theconceptionofrlghtj_24n., 2_5n.-- ahsolute,onewithoutreciprocityofright__9o.

relative,29o.breachof,asa termfora formofoffence,_6a,s63,a66,aT],a7_, H4,

a76,a78,_8_.

346 butex.

Eue,loveof,assmotive,]ST.asamotive,amongthosemostconRtantInthe;roperation,;67.differentactstowhichitcondoces,I17,IxS.as anoccasiooaltutelarymotive,J46.appropriatepunishmentforoffencesinducedby, 196.

Economicaleffectsofareligiouspersuasion,64_t,Education,a branchoftheart ofgovernment,31r.--public,3T2.-- private,zTo,313.-- physic_l,mental,6r,--asinfiuenc]ngsensibility,45.60,6v.-- as influencedby religiousprofeasion,64.Election,thedoctrineof,asasubstituteforamoralItandard,]7n.ELopement,asan offence,a62,27I, _72,274,276.Embezzlement,asan offence,250, 252.--appropriatepunishmentfor,]96.--breachoftrust,anelementintheoffenceof,25o.andtheft,thedifferentpenaltiesfor,theirrationalesuggested,]72s.

Emigration,a.qanoffence,288,I.Endamagement,anoffenceagainstproperty,250.--a_d_eeProperty.Enjoyment,pleasuresof,andthoseofexpectation,distinguished,36.37Enmity, painsof,analysed,39.-- painsof,andthoseofmalevolence,distinguished,41n.Ennui,natureofthepainindicatedbytheterm,analysed,39n.Enthusiasm,orenthusiasticzeal,]I x.Entry, forcible,254,255.Equabilityasa propertyofpunishment,19o, _9I.Equable,punishment,what,x9o.Equity,natural,asamoralstandard,17n.Errorofopinlon,fittingmodeof dealingwithit, ]77.--eulpabiliR,and otherphr_es, suggestedto indicatecertainmental

attitudes,95_Espionage,M apublicoffence,a85n.Espritde oorps,Englishequivalentsforthephrase,113-Ease,motivein,what,99,Ioo.Ethics,ingeneral,defined,3]o,3I_.-- private,what,270, 3o9,31o.

andlegislation,limitsbetween,3c9--$23.thelendingbranchesof_3Ia.placeof,in caseBunmeetforlegalpunishment,3_4-therulesof,theirdependenceuponprecedinglegislation,3_.

Events,the conseque_eesofacts,77-Evidentiarycircumstauces,8o.Evil andgood,ofa thirdorder,as theresultofanact,163_.Example,a leadingendofpunishment,why,17I, ]93,19_--- a moreimportantobjectin punkhmentthan the reformationof the

offender,aoo._x0itingcause,whatsotermed,44-Exeulpativecircumstances,what,80.Ex_utivo, the,a branchofsovereignpower,2_9_.

Indav. 347

"mxemplsrity,aaa propertyofpunishment,x93,I94, t95,2o0,tea.Exemptionfrompunishment,variousgroundsof, andtheir rationale

examined,173, 174, z74_, 175,176,177.Expectation,pleasuresof,analysed,36,37-

orapprehension,painsof,4I.Extenuativecircumstances,what,80,Extent,a_anelementinthevalueofpleasureandpain,3o.Extortion,theoffenceof,analysed,25I.Extra.regardingandself.regalingpleasuresandpains,4I,4!n.

F°

Fa28eeonSdou_e_,seeConsolonsnnm.--news, disselainationof, anexampleof a mm|-publleoffence,246n.,

a53n.Falaehood,asanelementinoffencaaag_in_property,_47.-- offencesby,oneofthedivisionsofmultiformoffence_208.

propermethodofcl_sifyiag,an7n., 223.theirdivisions,a2i, 2_2.theirsubdivisions,22_,223.theirpointsofagreementanddifference,22I,2_3.andconcerningtrust,theirconnexion,243.

unproductiveofmaterialresults,nooffence,223.Fame,loveof,aaa motive,seaReputation.Familyspirit,orattachment,_hemotivetowhichit belongs,_i3.-- spirit,orattachment,its influence.54.-- ordomesticrelations,255-286.

_aturai,_56,257,258.FanatlciJm,orfanaticzeal,motiveindicatedby theterms,I_L-- lackofrestrainingmotivesto,_68_.Fenundlty,orfruitfulness,anelementinthevalueof plesaureandpain,

30.Felton.hisa_u_sin_tionoftheDukeofBuckinghamusedtoillustratethe

relationborneto its consequencesby thecircumstancesattendinganact,78.

'Fiat jttstiti&rustcesium.'themaximridiculed,x4n.Fidei-oommiasariue,_6_.Filial condition,the,offencesconcerning,_76-_78.

offencesconcerning,featureswhichdisting_fishthemfromoffencesagainstotherconditions,_76,_77.

offencesconcerning,theircorresDondenc_with offencestouchingtheconditionofparentality,_77.

Flllallty,orfiliation,thetartanconsidered,_76a.therelationof,_57.

_Ume,seePnnlshment.pOOnniavy'.Flrmnes_ofmind,asinfluencingsensibility,48,48n.' Fitnessofthings,'the,asamoralatandsrd,anexampleoftheapplication

oftheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy,_7_.Forbesxanuo,serviceof,29_.Force,asanelementinoffonce__,_iastproper_y,_48.

in offencesagainsttheperson,_,_3-in thecomplexoffencesconcerningpropertyand persontogether,

_54,a55--- theelementof,a_distinguishingrobberyfromtheft,aSL

348 hMex.

Foroe,physieal,thegroundworkofthefamilyrelation%259n.thepublic,offencesagainst,21S,287n.

-- andseeOffences.Forcibleseduction,see8eduction.-- entry,seeEntry.-- detainer,seeDetinue,Detainer.Foreigners,offencesagaimt,285_t.Forgery,tileoffenceof,222.Formoflaw%its importatme,335_.--of laws,mischievou_resultsof its presentimperfectionillustrated,

335n.Fraud,theconceptionanalysed,25x.-- mercantile,its lenientpenaltreatmentin legalsystems,ascontrasted

withthatofotheroffencesof thesameclass,rationaleof suggested,172n.

-- againstthecoin,_8In., t83.-- saleofbadbreadanexampleof,296.Frauduleuey,as characterisinga speciesof offencesagainstproperty,

247.Fraudulent,theterm.whenappliedtooffencesagainstproperty,247.-- obt_ainmentordefraudmcn%25l.FzedericII ofPrussia,hisCode,333_.Frugality,asa qualityofpunishment,194,i95, i95, 2o2.

O.

Gaming,asan offence,253v...293n.Gentooreligion,regardshownby,fortheinterestsoftheinferioranimals,

3IOn.Oentilhomme,theconditionof,ilawhatit consists,294.Geaetz,its meaningcontrastedwiththatof Recht,3_¢n.Glory,loveof,xoS,IIO.-- seealsoReputation.God,thewillof,asa standardofrlghtandwrong,21,_2.-- _eealsoTheologicalprinciple.-- thefearof,theloveof,underwhatclassofmotivesthey fall,_tI.-- offencesagainst,distinctfromthoseagainstreli_on,22on.Oondemar,Spanishambassadorat theCourtofJamesI, 327_.Good,propersere ofthe_erm,3I,87.-- andbadsense,meaningofthephrases,1o3.-- ofa thirdorder,163n.

a_theresultofanactproducingprimarilyevil,exampl_of,157, 163n.producingprimarilygood,exampleof,t63_.

--intention,8u Intention.-- motive,seeMotive.

name,pleasuresofa, in whattheyconsist,3-_.asa motive,IO8.

differeuttermsfor,1o8.varyingeffectsof,illustra+_],1o9.

,eealsoReputation.-- tendencyofanact,howascertained,M, 32.--will,placedintheclassof'good'motives,ll9.

ch_ecl_ a purelysocialmotive,xax.standingtutelarymotive,I43,

Index. 349

Good.will,themotivemostconformabletoutility,[zr.underwhatcircumstancesitsdictatesmaybeadversetoutilit,y,12z.tendencytodepriveoftheservicesconsequentupon,tilegistof

an offenceagainstreputation,2Io.Government,the,what,_18.--itsnecessity,zx4n.itsend,7o.

-- theoperationsof,theirproperaim,215.formswhichattacksuponmayvateume,ax4,a:5, al7.

-- asaninfluenceuponsensibility,63.-- the educationalinfluenceof,63.-- operatesbypunishmentandreward,70.--theartof,whatmeantby,31o.

comprises]egislaticnandadministration,51I.--self,theprovinceofprivateethics,270.3Jo.Gratitude,towhatclassof motivesit belongs,113.Greek_omenclaturefor theclassificationof offences,itsconveniencead-

vocated,287,288.Grief,externalindicationsof,fallacious,$7-Orotius,hisworksnoticed,329n.Guardian,andward,therelationot,oneofthe familyconditions°26o.

andward,therelationof,its mtioanlc,266,267,268,269.--nature,extevt,anddurationofhispowersandduties,26%zTo, 27t.--devilofhispowerSinsusceptibleofexv.ctdefinitionbylegislation,270.pointsofresemblancebetweentheconditionof,andthatofparentaud

husband,275, 28o.-- theconditionof,offencesaffecting,Ho-a7a.Ouardis4_shig,aprivatetrust,zTo, 27a.m theperpetual,ofwomen,268n.offencesaffecting,27°'-s72.wholiabletobeplacedunder,a67,268.

H°

Habitorpractice,a, what,124_.-- orpractice,a, distinguishedfroma repetitionofacts,75.

distinguishedfroma repetitionof acts, and froman nggregateofacts,75n.

--of offending,to be consideredin the adjustmentof punishmenttooffences,I83,186

Itabitualoccupation,as influencingseuBibility,44,5x.offencesasa subjectofpunishment,183.

Happiness,inwlmtitconsists,70.gnnerMethicalrulesuponwhichitdepends,312.concurrentrequisitestotheproductionof,267.theprincipleofthegreatest,esaphrasealternativetothatoftheprincipleofutility,I_.

Hardinessofbody,asinfluencingasmfibility,44,46,47.Harmonyofaound,inlegalmaxims,preferredtosense,J4,I5"Hastings,Warren,referredto, I4n.Health,as influencingsensibility,44, 45.Heedle_ act,a, what,89.Heedlessness,a modeof tmadvised.uessasto thecircumstancesattending

an act,9s,

35o I_de_.

Heedlessness,Latinphrasesindicating,95n.-- its influenceupona/arm,165.-- intheexerciseofjudicialLrust,a86n.Holvetius,referredto, m4,.Hercules,hisdeliveranceofTheseusdiscussed,r13a.Heresy,asanoffence,z89n.Hindoo,seeGontoo.Homicide,itsplaceina classificationof offeneeBagainstthe pBrson,245.-- throughthemotiveofreligion,notthereforeinnocent,165n.Hungerandthirst,asmotives,,05 andn.Husband,what,$78.-- rationaleof tilepowerswi_hwhichheis invested,279.-- relationoftothe _s-ife,acomplexcondition,s8o.-- the conditiunof,its resemblanceto anddiffarencef_otathatof parent,

280.-- m_dwife,therelationof,examined,a78.

its utilitarianbasis,consent,s79.icvolvos_reciprocityofrightandduty,;79"differentrulesregardingit, in Mahommedanandin Christiancountries,280,_81.

offencesto whichtheconditionis liable,28o-a8;.modificationsofwhichthecontractbe_woe,,themissuscel_tible, 28o,

281.

I.

Idiosyncrasy,thetermexplained,56n.Idleness,asan offence,;53n., ;88 n.Ignominy,fearof,_ture of themotive,lo9.Ignoranceorknowledge,asiufluencingsensibility_47,48.Ignorant,whatmeantby,48.ILl-name,thepainsof,termsindicating,39.

analysed,39.positive,illustrated,39n.

Ill-will, s_ Malevolence.Imagination,pleasuresofthe,in whattheyconsist,36.-- p_insof the,4o,4LImmoralpublications,theoffenceofissuing,howclassed,;89n.Tmmovables,examplesofoffencesspeciallyconcerning,a45n., ;54, z55.Imperfection,bodily,asinfluencingsensibility,44, 47.Impey,SirElijah,referredto,14n.Imprisonment,asapunishment,I97.-- exampleofsomeof thee_ilsresultingfrom,42r,Imprudentia,a termforumglvisednesi,95n.Impunity,thegroundsof,z71-177.--seea_oPunishment,casesunmeet.Incendiariam,a8anoffence,181,., a55n.Incest,asanoffence,_47n.Inclination,bentof,as infltlencingsensibility,49"

andbiaaof sensibility,distinguished,49.Incontinence,asanoffence,247n.Incorporealobjects,regardedasproperty,a3z.-- property,copyrightanexampleof_;93, 294.

condition,reputation,libertyregardedas s/_ciesoF,;3x.

Indez. 35_Inducement,a morecomprehensivetermtlmnmotive,9}'n.Industry,paralysisof,amongtheevilsofa thirdorderresultingfroman

offence,_63n.-- stimulusto,amongthebeneficialconsequencesof a _ird orderflowing

froma goodaction,]63n.Ineflto_touenesSofpunishment,]7_-175,315.-- e_ dO ]pun4Rhment.Infamy,fearof,natureofthemotive,In9.In/'anoy,esimpairingtheefficacyofpunishment,]73,3r5•-- rationaleofitssubjectiontoguardiansbip,267.Informers,prejudieeagainst,irretionalandmischievous,t3o.Infortunium,meaningoftheterm,94.Ingratitudo,whethera fiteubiectforpenallegislation,3_8.Injury,simpleI_civious,andrape,distinguished,253.Inobeervantis,a termforunadvisedness,95n.In_,no,the,calculateconsequences,]88andn.rm_Jnlty,asa groundofimpunityj]73'-- _ affectingsensibility,5I.-- littlevarietyin,5].-- rationaleofitssubjection_ guardianship,267.Inscitl%*=,,legalterm,it_meaning,95n.-- ealpabilisandinculpabilis,theexpressionssuggested,95n.l.nsolvenoy,natureof,asanoffence,examined,_48andn.I.aiCruotion,theproperremedyforoffencesofopinion,177.Inmzlt,corporal,_ snoffence,247,_54.Insultingmenacement,247, 254.Intellectualpowek_,the,strengthof,asinfluencingsensibility,44,48.-- faculty,the,andthewill,eoutra_ted,97-Intention,whatit concerns,8_.-- identifiedwithtwill,'82.-- its relationtotheconsequencesofanset, 71+I33.-- andmotive,confused,93.-- motivesthecausesof, ]4s.-- thetermsgoodandbadasappliedto,consideredandillustrated,87,88,

9a, 9:3,I_o.-- good,thoughbothmotivetoandeanseqnencesoftheact,bad,93,94.-- innocent,whenmaybeantermed,94--- asdeterminingthecharacterofanoffence,fllustmted_2_o,25i.--absenceof,agroundofextemmt/ou,96.Intentional,itsmeaning,82.--whensynonymouswithvoluntary,82.Y.ntentionallt_,thetermsuggested,9fin.Ymtent4onslity,thegeneralsubjectof,examined,82-88.-- tm_ors minuteanalysisof,84n.

importanceoftheinvestigation,133.-- |tsconnexionwithoomeiousness,9J.

itsrelationto thevariousstagesof_nact,83.-- thementalattitudeinrespectof,minutelyanalysed,83n.-- i_referencetoanact,andtotheconsequencesofanaetjd_tlngulshed,

-- itsinfluenceuponthemischiefofanact,]63, £64.-- itsvariousmedea,84,8._.

IlluBtrated,85,86,87.lntentloni,theeomequenceofmotives,93,z4a.

352 hule_.Intentions:---- disposition,thesumofthe,142.Interest,self,theonlyadequatemotive,3x3.Interestingperceptions,a generalexpressionforpleasuresandpainst 33.Internaljurisprudence,seeJurisprudence.International,a novelterm,326.-- law,a phrasemoreexpressivethan'law ofnations,'326.

itsprovince,327.distinguishedfrominternal,327n.

Intoxication,asillustratingtheformswhichthemischiefofanactmayassume,I$9.

--atemporaryinsanity,173.-- as renderingpunishmentinefficacious,173,3x5.-- not a groundofabsoluteimpunity,t73n.Inundation,criminal,as a semi-publicoffence,_55n.Invasion,theoffenceofcontributingtobringabout,215'Invastitive event, or circumstanceconstitutingthe groundof title,

248-- anddiv_,titive,the terms,_89,.InvoluntarinessaBagroundofexemptionfromliability,175.Involuntaryact,an,whynotalarming,164.

illustrationof,89n.--_eealsoUnintentional.Irritability, inrelationtoscnsibility,what,46.-- contrastedwithhardiness,46.

withfmanesS,48.J.

James"f,hi_antip,_thytothe Arians,2on.-- hisbookagainst¥orstius,2on.-- his 'Counterbla_ttoTobacco,'2t,.Judge,the,hisoflfceingivingeffecttocircumstancesinfluencingsensi-

bility,65,x82.Judge-madelaw,English_itsintroductionintoIndiareprobated,14n.Judgment,'a,what,26n.Judicialsentence,beyondthelaw,asrenderingpunimhmentinefllo_cious,

173,3t5.Judicialtrust,seeTrust.Judiciaryorcommonlaw.xii,335n.Jurisprudence,itsbranches,323-33°.-- ancient,andpresent(orliving),328.--censorial,32+--civilandpenal,329.--exI_igo17,3_4,325•

authoritative,or unauthoritative,324,32.5.historyof,its uses,328,329.internal,itssubject-matter,327.

subdividedundernationalandprovincial,_27.distinctionbetweenitandinternational,illustrated,327,.

--local(orparticular),3_.5,327,328.-- municipM,sense_oftheterm,3a8n.--statuary madcuBtonmry,tecm_indic,_tlngthe modeof expreuionof

the L_ws,329.universal(orgeneral),355.

l_e_. 353

Jvx/sprudonoo, univer_l--exsmplesoftopicsfailingunder,xl.3z6.eircumstanceJdetelminiugthe distributionof it_subject-matter,

324.Jus, m_n_n_ofthet_rrncontrastedwiththa_of'Lex,'3_4n.Justice,thedictatesof,whet,z26n.-- lt_dictate,andthoseofbenevolence,supposedconflictbetween,i25,

z_6nn,--an offence_gsin,t,what,at3,z18.-- and_olico,intimatethoughdistinguiJhabloconnexionoftheirfunctions,310_.-- offencesug_inat,a86n.$mrtinian,hislegislationnoticed,3a4n.

w.Knowledge,Minfluencingsenslbility,44,47.gnlghthood,L.acivilcondition,theelemontSconJfitutingit, 292.

Y_

T._bour,pen_lor hard,_sareformatorypunishmentforcert_noffences,196.

asachron/celpunishment,nee.Lsgv,theAnglo-S_txonterm,itsmeaning,3s+X_sclv/ousnose,motireindicatedbytheterm,xo6.Ln.w,conceptionof,itsnecessaryimperativeness,howobecured,332.

implJe_thatofan offence,$33"-- icieacoof,i_ relatLontotheartoflegislation,xJil.

a branchofthe' logicofthewill,*xiii.-- s commandoritsoppesite,$32.-- oivil,i_ J_lationtopenal,vii,3o9,333---pemfl,itsunmethodicalcharacterin_temegenerally,3oon.

itssubject,7o.-- commonorjudieim'y,xil,335"

its necessaryun_rtainty,5._5.--eoomive,di¢ceemive,declaratory,simplyimperative,imnitory,their

featuregandrehttionsexpla_inedandillustrated,330,33r.--eome_tutiongl,anecessarybranchofacompletebodyoflaw,334"

irer_lationtotheotherbr_noht,ofthebodyoflaw,354.Itsprovince,334.

-- %sz_faao, punishmentinflictedby,inefl_c,soiomb_73,3_5.-- a, tmln'vmulg_ted,t73,MS.-- jadge-msde,14n.-- merdobligationofol)_diencotob_l, thequestionsuggested,32zn.

obligationth#nceesuryconsequenceoflsw initsoperation,_58.-- theterm,itsobstructandconcretesenSe_,3_4n.

temmindifferent_nguagesto indicate,5_4n.l_k oft- Englishwordtoezpre_thedistinction,3_4n.

-- _,what,33on.-- s, di_tiugui_edfroma statute,33° n.-- s deelsrstory,notstrictlya law,330n.-- the,whgindicatedbytheterm,3_4,Laws,theresultofmutmflfmr,3x]n.

354 ]_zdez.

Legge, theItaliantermforlawin conczete,324.Legislation,art of,abranchof thescienceofjudsFrudence,333.

a branchoftheartofgovernment.311.-- andadministration,distinguished,31I.-- virtuesandvicesassuch,whynota fitsubjectforpenal,316-323.-- andethics,theirrelation,thegener-dsubjecttreated,5o9-323.--theformof,itsimportance,335.

itspresentimperfection.335.resultsofitsunscientificcharacter,illustr,,ted,335.

--limitsofitsinterferenoewithhuman_tion,_7o,314.--religionasasubjectof,seeReligion.--thescienceof,schemeofacompleteseriesofworksupon,x.

whatitproperlycomprises,vii.itsaimorprovince,x7o,323.

T.ogislstive,the,sbranchofsovereignpower,289n.Leglsl&tor,rulestoguidehimintheadjustmentofpunishmenttooffences,

]Sz.Legitimationofchildren,bythesubsequentmarriageofparents,276.Ley, atermforlaw in concrete,324n.Ltbel_what,22In.-- seealsoDefamation.Liberty,regardedas anincorporealobjectofproperty,23x.-- a correspondingtermtoprivilege,immunity,exeJnption,263.Life,the loveof,amongthemotivesmostconstantin theiroperation,167.Lineage, see ]_tce.Loi,_termforlawinconcrete,324n.Love,varioussensesin whichthetermis employed,to6 n., 113.LoutsXIV, hi_religiouspersecutions,I4o.--his'CodeNoir,'3xx_.Lust,anunneutr_ltermforacertainmotive,Io4,ItS,tl9.neutralphraasforthemotiveindicatedbytheterm,what,Io._n.

--whyproperlytermedabadmotive,xlS,x19.

M,

M_en, &ee_lS_IIO.Magistrate,theparentakindofdeputyofthe,63.--the,akindoftutortothemembersoftheState,63.-- weealsoGovsrnmnnt.Mahommedaureligion,the,regardfortheinferioranimallshownby,

3[on._flevolen_o,synonymsfortheterm,36.-- ple,_svresof,in whattheyconsist,._6.

motivecorrespondingto. varioustermsfor,xz4.--themotiveof,examplesofthedifferenta_tionsproducedby,I14,t]5.asamotivenotalwaysindicativeofab_ddisposition,14L

--thepainsof,an_ly_d,40.Maloshims,meaningoftheexpreMion_9-_n"Mandeville,rsfarrelto,IS4_.MariaTh_r_, theEmpress,herpenalleg,s.'._tionnotice_t,333-Maritalcondition,m_tureoftheobligations_trevolves,_Tt_.-- seealJoHusband.Msrrtedstate,the,aminfluencingsensibility_54n.Ms,"rt_e,relationshipby,whatsotermed,_57.

Index. 355Marris&'e,natureofne relation,eTAmlned,ZTS.-SBI.-- iLabasi_,eoutra_t,279.--chanceof advancementthrough,amongthe advantagesincidentto

cert_nrelations,285.incapacityto contract,amongthedisadvantagesincidentto cert_n

relations,286.MMter,the,conditionof,26I-_63.

underwhatcircumstancesoneofobligation,261.pointsofresemblancebetweenitandthatofparent,andofhasband,

275,_o.involvesnofiduciarytel-floe,s62.offencestowhichit isexposed,26I-:64.offencesto whichit is expmed,theircorrespondencewiththose

touchingtheconditionofservant,565.-- andservant,ration_eof theirlegalrelations,260.

modesof therelation,_63.andapprentice,therelationof,a civilcondition,262m.

a mixedcondition,262n.Mast_arsh_p,seeMuter--theconditionof.Material,meaningoftheterm,70,77,98.-- circumstances,teeCircumstances.-- consequences,weeConsequenoea.Maternity,257, 276n.Matrimonialcontract,uSo.

relations,28o.-- seealtoHusbandnndwife.Mean,.,a man's,whet,comprisedundertheterm,,5_.-- therelationborneby,towants,constitutethe' pecuniarycircumstances,'

$_.Meohanioalinvention,asa eonasquenceof themotiveoftheloveofease,

HS.MemberofPsrliaanent,hischaracterwhylikelytobecomparativelygood,

s_4.Memory,pleasure_ofthe,36.-- painsofthe,4LMenace,seeMenaoement,_hreat.Menaeement,asn formofoffenceagainsttheperson,_44--- wrongful,545andn.

howrelatedtorutrsinmentandcompuhion,246n.e_mpl_ofsemi-publicoffeuce_by,246

-- lu_Itin_,n complexoffence,againstpersonandreputatioil,247, _54.Mentalconditionsasinfluencingsensibility,47,48,51,56.--injuries,simple,what,_44,245,s46n.-- _tltude_itsrelationto thesecondaryevilofanaot_I63,164,t65.Meroemtilefraud,seeFraud.• / . .Method,logl_,l,ztsu_flity,_o4n.-- thevaluedthatadoptedinthedivisionofoffences._99-3o2.Military,orpublicforce,the,offenceagltinah _17,_6 n.MIUtlamdetreetare,meaningoftheexpression,257n.Mind,_t ofthe_what,47.

radicalframeortemperamentof_he,u influenclagsensibility,55.-- andbody,bothalikeobjectsofoffenceagainsttheperson__43,245n.

theirintimaterelation,56.N._sdvlaedact,a,whah9o.

An2

356 Index.

Mis_Iviseflnes_astothecircumstancesaccompanyingsna_'t,mode*of,9o.

-- IaLtintermsfor,95n.-- its influenceuponsecondarymisohief,|65.Mischiefofanact.what,152.

primaryandsecondary,153,3on,3o4,3o$,3o6.eitheroriginalorderivative,z53,305•

thesecondary,ofwhatitconsiuts,x53.howinfluencedbydisposition,]68.whenatits maximum,165.itsfirstbranch(Maim)sometimes,itssecond(danger)Jdway_,

contingent,I_9.example,showingthevariousformsitmayMeuse,I54-examined,by referencetoits nature,itscause,thep_y theobject

ofit, andtheforu_itn_y assume,158, i59.le]J'-reg_dingLndextra-regarding,159.rivate,semi-public_public,T59.

formsillustrated,in ths caseof intoxicationand in thenon-paymentofa taz, I59, 16o.

-- of_noffence,affectedbythecharacterofthemotive,I3o,-- ofa thirdorder,astheconsequenceofanact,I63n.-- wherenone,punishmentgroundtem,x71.-- whereoutweighed,punishmentgroundJ,eBs,]71.-- underwhatcireu_nstancesit isoutweighed,i7a.-- none,whereconsentof thesufferergiven,I7I.-- characterofthe.causedbyoffence_ofthedifferentcheses,302-307.Mischievousact,consequencesof a, 152-169.--howonetendstoproduceanother,155.Mie-suppossl,&,what,9o.-- as I groundofextenuation,96.-- ormiBtake_ &groundof exemptionfrompunishment,174.--its influenceuponthesecondarymischiefofansot,_65.--importanceofitsinvestigation,I33.Mistake,seeMts-supposal.Monarohy,pureand mixed,zgon.Monasticcondition,s po_ibleexampleof n usefulrehtionof absolute

duty,a9o.Wtonopoly,a3a.-- copyrightaspeciesof,293.Montesquieu,hisworksnoticed,xSI,185 n., 192,329n.-- his lp_ulationlonthe theoryofpunishment,noticed,185n.Moralinfluence,#ee_.thics.--lesson,howpunishmentoperatesa__b184.--sLnction,the,#ee8suction.

pleasureof,seeOood-naxae,Relratstion.painsof,aceIll-name.

senJe,thetheoryof a,an emtmpleof theapplicationof theprincipleofsympnthyandsmtipathy,17n.

--principles,miechievo_,seeOpinion.--sensibility,what,49,5°.

_d morelbias,distinguished,_o.Morals,private,mrsl_.thioe.MorltUete,f_vourshownby someto theasceticprincipl%9"Morltvi_na,greligioussocietynoticed,It.

f_e_. 357

MotlonjLqrel_-_dtointent_omdity,83n.Motive,thegeneralsubjectof,conddered,97-x3o.-- the_neralsubjectof,utilityofitsinves_i_tio-,97,129,_3o.

theterm,i_ widestsense,97.m_biguo_sermeof,98.figurativeanduufigur_tiveBensesof,98.

findueemeut'a morecomprehensivetermfor,97n.merelyple_L_corpainoperativeinacertainmanner,IOl_..

--nooes_rilyreferstoaction,99'thecauseofintention,88,142.

-- modeofitsoperationsoastocaasea_tlon,99.practical,what,98.

--totheund_standing,howitmayinfluenoothewill,fez.--interiorandexterior,99.inprospectandins_se,99,_oo,IoL

--orcauseproductiveofaction,tobedistinguishedfromgroundofap-l)rovalofaction,22,23.

-- or_emptatioutoan act,whatconstitutesit, 4z.itstendencytocausea repetitionoflikesets,howcalculated,I67.

-- itsrotationto thegeneraltendencyofanset,7x.-- its placeinfurnishingindicationsasto thedisposition,examined,134-

I4I.--del_udoneeofthedisposiLionuponit,_4_.-- generale_cacyofa speciesof,howmeasured,t67.

thereformatorychaxac_erofpunishment,howrelatedto, I95.--good and bad,the termsa_appliedto, lOI,IO'_,1o2a., Io3,118, 119,

120,lJg, I$0,166,167.inconvenienceofsoclassing,H9noneconstantlyso,xoz-_o5.

--goodorbad.noneconstantlyso,demonstnttlenofthi_proposition,whydifllault,xo3.noseconstantlyso,ilInstr_tlonsoftheproposition,Io6._o7,z_8,

1o9,II0, II8.underwiltcircumstancesmotivesmaybesostyled,_o_,H8,_2o.onlybyreferencetoits effects_Io2.byreferencetotheresultingintention,_2o.whatmotivesn_ybesodistinguished,_19.

the_me,mayproduceanysortofaction,_o2,_o$,I18, I28.illustrationof this,Io6-z_8.

--relationof,tothes_condarymisckief(alarmandda_ger)ofanactorofanoffeec_x$o,_64,x65,_66.

-- goodnessof,doesnottakeawaybetsom_tlmesethancesthesecondarymischiefofanacLI65,J66andan.

-- badnessof,doesnottakeaw_ythesecondarygoodconsequence,_66.whena_aaggravationofthe mischievoumaessofanact,_66.thedegreeofaggravationproducedby,howcalculated,_67.

-- bad,sometimesproductiveofless_-ond_ mischiefthangood,_66,.Motives,withwhatdescriptionof,theanalysisi_concerned,98.

catalogueof,correspondingtotheseofpleasur_and psi,s,_o5-_2Lnamessppllcdto,oftenbegthequestionofthequalityofthe,_o4.

-- advantageofneutralappellationsfor,zo5n.coercive,whatmeantby,240.

--conflictamong,andillustrations,[_7, 128.whichmostfrequentlyinconflict,[_8,

358 I_le=.Motlves_

di_ocial,z_o,121.theirplaceintheorderofmotives,127.notnecessarily80in theiroriginandtendency,_27.actsofbadtendencycornmealXdueto themorto thoseof the_If-

regardingclass,128.actscommit,ted through,whylessalarmingthantholeactuatedby

self-regnrdingmotives.167andn.-- impelling,whatmeantby,I28.-- orderofpre-eminenceamong,121-127.--mostgenerallyoperative,which,167.-- restraining,whatmeantby,128.

theirforcehowweakenedbya pastoffence,15,5--- seducingorcon'opting,142.

illustratedin theeaseofbribery,24o.-- self-regarding,12o,12I.

theirplaceintheorderof,127.net. of badtendency,commonlydueto themorto thedi_oetal,

[_8.anactcommittedthrough,whymorealarmingthanoneactuated

bya di_ial motive,167.themostinfluential,167.

-- social,purelysocial,semi-soclal,12o,121.asstandingtutelarymotives,147, 148.

-- tutelary,presorvstory,orpreserving,]42.constantorstanding,143-145.

forceofthe,whateonbtitutesit, 155.oceasiona],142,145.

_hatola_sofmotivsecommonlyoperate_s, 145,_46-Movnblee,examplesofoffencesspeciallyaffecting,254, 255.Multiform_oranomalousoffences,seeOffenoen.Mutilation,asa punishment,200.

Nationalinterestingenera],offencesagainstthe,2t4,215,:389n,-- wealth,offencesagainstthe,288n., 296,306.

tendencyofself-regardingoffencestobecomesuch,3o6.Natural_aa'_ngementofthes_bject-matterofa science,299, see.-- -bornsubject,theconditionof,howconstituted,294.-- iestiee,a_a moralstandard,itsvalue,17n.

relations,whatmeantby,256.eontigoou6anduneontlgoous,a56.

Nature.thelawof,as a moralstandard,a formwhichthe prIncipleofsympathyandantipathyhasassumed,17n.

-- thelawof,sometimesregardeda_opposedto theprincipleof utility,l_rL

offencessg_nst,meaningofthephrase,303n.self-regardingoffences,whyregardedMoffencesa_inst,_o6and_.

-- repugnancyto,whatmeantby,17n.Neco_ity,a termsometimesappliedto _hemotiveof self-preservation.

ztT.Neighbourhood,offencen_,imtnj2o6.

Irdez. 359

Nomenolamm,theadoptionof a novel,in the classificationof offencesexplainedsaddefended,298.

-- deri_edfromtheGreek,foroffencesagainsttrust,287,288,289m,Novelty,thepleasuresof,underwhatcls_sof pleasure8theyfMl,34".

withoutcorrespondingPutativepains,39.

O.

Obli$1ttion,theconceptionof,224,225,358, 325,332.-- orduty,impliedintheco•captionofright,224,225.-- legal,howconstituted,226,.

theimpositionof,themodebywhichthelawoperates,358.-- howenforceable,258.Obliffatlone,theirplaceinRomanlaw,334.Oooup_tiot3,habitual,asinfluencingsensibility,$r.afro•as,wirer,3o_,309.-- thecreationofcoercivelaw,33o•., 331.

mi_hiefofan,in whatitco_ts, 4z.affectedbythenatureofthemotive,I3o.

Offenonsfaccessory,340, 30.--ahem&lens,seeMultiform.--classifiedbyreferencetothenumberanddeterminatenessofthepermone

the objectsof attack,as private,semi.public,andpublic,_o5,2o6sadn., 2o7.

-- affectingthebodyandthemind,distinguished,343.-- claasuof,theirdistinguishingfegture_,3o2--3o8.--throughcalamity,amodeofsemi-publicoffences,3It,3]_.

examplesof,245n.-- againsta clansorneighbourhood.2o5; _e u_soOff•nces,eemi.pubUo.-- complexorcompound,21x,340n., _43,253,354,_5.--co•earningcondition,adivisionofprivateoffences,2IO.

rulesfordistingui_ing,232,233.whynotclassedunderoffenOeeagainstproperty,227,229.trustandproperty,whypla_edunder_eparatedivisions,226-229.

theirconnexionconsidered,_2F.civil,295, 396.domestic,26z-256,370, _86.

--_ *eeConditions.--ab_Filial,Guardian,HuJbaud,Muter1Parent,Servant,Ward,

Wife.--eompensttlon,susceptibilitytoadmitof,asa ohaxaeteristlcof thedif-

ferentchumesof,3o3-3o6.inlieuofpunishmentfor,i• thedifferentclas$_of,304,305,307.

--divi_onof,thegenerMsubjecttreated,_o4-3o8.methodpur,uedinitexplainedsaditsadvantagesexhlhited,2o4m.

396,399,3oo,3oz,303.--delinquency,ofmere,amodeofsemi.publlcoffence_,21_,345n.

theircorrespondencewithprivateoffences,2ta.--extra-regarding,'_o6.m fa_hcod,by,a divisionofmultiformoranomalousoffences,_o7,_07n.,

3o8,307.theirplacein • ey_teamtiearm%,ementof offencescomddered,

307n.,_8.

$6o I_.

Offenoes,¢_hehoodjby--ns_umedifferentappellations_,ordivgtospecialeireams_ces,2_3.theirsub-divisions,_2, 223.theirresemblanceanddifferenceinter#e,2aI, 2J2andn.theirconnexionwithoffensesagainsttrust,242.somecharacteristicfeaturesof,308andn.

-- individuais,againstassignable,orpriv_tooffences,seeOffencee)PrJvsto.-- intransitiveandt]xnsi_ive,2o7.--justice, against,a divisionoftheclassofpublicoffences,213,:18.-- militaryforce,against,seebelow,Publicforce.--mischief,astute of,r.aasedbythe differentcl_ of,resp,_'tively,

30a-3o8.motive,importanceofitsinvut,igstioninrelationto,I3o.

-- MULTIFOaM,orheterogeneous,thefifthcla_ ofoffences,207.termedalsoanomalous,2o8n.irregularityoftheclass,208n.thepropermethodicalclassificationofthesubjectmatteroftheclefs

eonsidered,B.nds re-arrangementsuggested,207n.,3o8ands.characteristicfeaturesof theclassof,3o7,308.thedivisionsof,208.theirrelationtooffencesofotherclalaes,iUustr&ted,3o8andteeabe Fa_sehooct,r_rttst.

-- nationalinterestingeneral,against,,,divisionofpublicoffences,2]4,2I_,,221.

wealth,against,217,2I9.288n.,306.felicity,againstitsincrease,2]9, 288_.

-- nature,againsttheLawof,_eeNature.-- neighbeurhood,againsta,2o6.-- ofopinion,punishmentfor,whyneedleu,I77.-- person,againstthe,as a subordinatedivisionof theelatesof offences,

208,2xo,21r,243-245,2._3-a55.-- population,against,a divisionof thedue of publicoffenees_afT,_r9,

288.., 3o6.-- police,thepreventivebranchof,against,s divisionofthedaseofpublic

offences,2z6,218,287,i.-- P_IVAT'E,or _mlf, assignableindividuak,the firstleadingclau of

offences,2o5.theirdivision_,2o8-21I.analysisof,intogenera,zO-296.

whycarriednofur_erthanClassI, 24=.limitsbetween,sad semi-publicandpublicoffenom,dimoultto

tr_e,why,207n.distinguishedfzomtho_eofotherd_a_ inre_l_tof--

thepersonstheyaffect,3o2.thenatureandextentof themischieftheycause,302,3o3.theirsusceptibilitytoadmitofcompensation,3o3.theirwasceptibilitytoadmitof ret_istion,3o3.the moreor lessof leoalimmof theirfeatureswithaviewto

description,3o3.thenatureof thepreventiveor remedialmeasurestheyde-

umud,304.theextentofthedhutpprovaltheyexcite,303.theprt_eneeorabsenceorsspeclalinterestintheirprosecution

onthepartofindividualsorclasses,3o._.

i l_u/_, 36 IOffences,PalVA_,diztlnguiahedfromtheeofother_ inrespectof_

thecircumstanceswhichtransformthemintooffencesofothere]LeJee,3o3,3o4.

-- prosecutionof,motiveswhichcommonlypromptthe,166_.property,against,ass subordinatedivisionofthe elapsesof offences,208,aug,a47-25z,a54_z55_udn.

formsof,a47-aba, a54,a55andn.PUBLIc,or,_gaius_theState,thefourthl_dingeJa_sofoffences,_o7.

theirdivision_a13-a2[.theirgener&orinferiordivisionsdispllyed,z86n.-ago_.theirconnexionwithprlwteandsemi-publicoffences,an7mcharacteristicfeaturesof,306,3o7.andseeabove,Offences,Private,distinguished,etc.ormilitaryforce,a_inst,s divisionof thecla_ ofpublicoffences,

a17.zI9,a87_.wealth,Against,sdid•ionoftheclamofpublicofl_u,cee,afT,az9,

_88n.trot, _inJt, as8.teea/*oR'ruet.

religion,agtinst,as • diviBionof theclemof publieoffences,214,a]9,aao.J'_on., 289_.

-- seealso_Licion.-- reputttion,against,Asubordinatedivisionoftheclassesofoffences.and

theformstheyrosysmume,ale, a46, a47madn., a53,a54and_n.weea/4oReputation.Romanhw,theirplacein, criticised,334.

-- externalsecurityof the State,againstthe, t divisionofthe classofpubllooffences,al3, z86n.

-- SSLr-aZGASDrNO,thethirdleadingclassofoffences,:Io_,an?,21a.admitofdivisionssimilartotho_eofprivateoffences,212,al3.

whichconstitute,opentodispute,al3.examplesof suchoffences,241,_46_., a47_., z53 _., 254u.,

_San.theireharaeter_ticfeature,,305,3o6.

-- andseeabove,Offence,,,Private,di_tingulehed,etc.-- S_-PUBLIC, _.h@_econdleadingchumofoffences,whattheycomprise,

throughealamlty,al I.neoemsrLiyconcernfuturemise.hiAf,alX.theirdivkionJ,zxz,a_a.ofmeredclinqu_cy,z_z.,,_,,mplmof,a45n., _46n., a47n., aS=_-,aS3,a55n.theirchLraeteristiefeatures,a8a_., 304,305.and_eeabove,Offenoes,Private,distinguished,etax

sovereignty,againstthe, a d,riaionof the_ of publicoffence_,aX4,_18.

examplesof,*89n.Sta_e,againstthe,orpublico_eneee,seeOffences,]PubLic.

-- trust,affecting,s divisionoftheclaa_ofmultiformoffences,an7s.,an8.theirplacein a system•tieola_ifieationof offences,considered,

an7_., 308.public,asS.condition,andla'operty,afl'ect_g,theirrelationco_idered,_a7.affecting,Analysed,_34-a4a.

36e I_dez.Offenses,seealsoR_mst.-- uncontiguonsrelatiom,affecting,28_n., _83.Offender,thepositionof,Mrenderingponi_hmentinexpedient,x76, I77.Offensivetrzde,elasaofoffencesunderwhichitsexercisefalls,_,6n.'Or,' the paz*iolo,its ambiguoussignifieation,andthe importanceof a

preciseuseof,85n.Order,good,aa a moralstendsrd,an exampleof the applicationof the

principleof sympathyandantilmthy,J%_.Overtact,acehot.

P°

Painandpleasure,theendM wellastheinstrumentzofthelegislator,24-29.thefoursanctionsorsourcesof,24.modeofestimatingtheirvalue,29.certaintyasanelementin,29.durationM auelementin,a9.fecunditysaanelementin.3o.purityasanelementin,3o.

m thefearof,aanongthemotivesthemostconstantintheirinfluence,z67

Pedns,thesimple,enumerated,33,34--- ofsufferanceandofapprehension,cent.ranted,244.Pale.tot pleasuresandmotivesofthe,xo5.

s.soceeaionMtutelarymotives,I45.Paxent,then_tura]sadthelegalrelationof,distinguished,a74.--thenaturalrelationnotthesubjectofoffence,274.--theconditionof,acomplexone,involvingtherelationtothechildof

gua_xllanandmaster,andopentothecorrespondingoffences,a73.--andchild,therektionof,thereciprocityofrightauddutyitinvolves,

275.--offencesMfectingthe conditionof, examinedsad classified,274-276,

276n.--and husband,_e conditionof,pointsof resemblanceanddifference

betweentherelations,suggested,280.-- the,a_a sortofdeputyof themsg,istr_te,63.Psrentality,therelationof,O'rJtmln_, aS{_, 257.

wrongfulnon-inveitmentof.howtheoffencemayoccur,275n.Pm-tiaalty,towhatela_ ofmotivesit belongs,zJ3-Partyspirit,orzeal,towhatclassofmotivesitbelongs,I]3.Patentrightasanarticleofproperty,294.Paternity,therelationof,what,a56, 2S7, 276n.Patriotism,towhatclmmofmotivesitbelongs,Iz3.Payment,natureof,nsalegaltrmmaction_analysed,a48n.Peculation,theoffenceof,a52, _7I,27_, a74.Pecuniarycircumstances,elementscoztstitutinganalysed,5=,69 n.

oireumatsace6,_ iufluenciugsensibility,5a.--interest, a neutrMexpressionfor the motivecorrupondingto the

l_lotmuresofwealth,lo_n.thepassionof,themostapttocalculatecontmquenees,188.themotiveof,placedintheclamsofneutralmotives,i19.

itsvariouseffectsillustrated,io7, z45.

Indeed. 363P_unlaryinterest,themotiveof--

loveofgainandindustryalikeexamplesof.Io7.moregenerallyoperativethan that of revenge,

167n.offencesdueto,appropriatepunishmentfor, 196.

J punhhmect,eminentlyfrugal,why,I94.sometimesunequable,zgl.possessesthequalityofvariability,19r.subserviencytolucrativesatisfactiona qualityof,197.2oo.remissible,2o0.

-- qu_i,punishment,194.Penalcode,seeCoda.

labour,seeLabour.-- law,limitsofit*_ withdispceitlon,142.

Perjury,the offencesoft221,222.Parseoutton,amongtheresultsof miJtakennotionsas to thedictatesof

religion,126_I4o.Parson,offencesagainstthe,seeOffenses.Personation,theoffenceof.22I, 222.Parsons,theservicesof,coordinatedwiththings_ objectsofenjopnent,

ao9.-- andseeProperty.Phemtastioprinciple,seeCaprico.Philanthropy,towb_tcla_ ofmotive_itbelongs,ri3.Philip rrI of Spain,anecdoteconcerninghis debtto certainEnglish

merchants,inilhlstra_ionoftheprovinceofint*rnationaljurisprudence,327n.

PhyaiaMdesire,generaltermforthemotivecorrespondingtopleasuresofsense,Io5.nonamefarthemotiveof,inagoodsense,Io5.placedinthecl_sofneutralmotives,I19.amongthemostinfluentialmotives,167.

_netion,oneofthefoursanctionsp35.Piety,pleamuresof,analyeed_35"-- painsof,analysed,40.Piracy,a publicoffence,286n.Play,loveof,asa motive,xo7.Plemmraandpain,asmnctiona,24,29.

theend_ wellascauseofaction,a4.Pleasuresandp_iaa,modesofestimatingtheirvalue,29,3o.-- #eeal_oPains.

interestingperceptiona termfor,33.kindsof,33.law,howconcernedwiththem,41.howdependentupontherelationbornetoexternalobjects,209n.extra-regardingandself-regarding,4I.

-- thesimple,enumerated,33. ";ofskill,nomotivewitha specialappellationcorrespondingtothe,1o7.

Police,etymologyofti_eterm,aI6n.--thepreventivebranchofgovernment,215_. _?

funation_of,their intimatebut distinguishableconnexionwith those _ofj_tice, 216n.

-- offencesconcerningthe,seeOffeunes.L

31

364 Im/_.

Polittoalsanction,the,24,s5.-- theories,thedisseminationof erroneous,theremedyfor,z77.

andseeOpinion.-- tumu]t,geeTumult.Polyandry,thepracticeof,unknown,280,281.Polygamy,theoffenceof,_8[.Populaxprejudice,toberegardedby thelegislator,199.-- ormorals_netion,the,oneofthe four_nctions,_5.Popularityof an offenderas renderinghis punishmentunprofitable,

I77.-- a_aqualityofpunishment,I98.-- ofpunishment,favouredbyits characteristicalnes_,198.PopuLation,offencesagainst,_eeOffenees.Poaseesion,legalandphysical,distinguished,_48,s5]n.

confnsed,why,250_.pleasureof,its_ature,34-

Power,pleasuresof,theirnature,35.motivescorrespondingto,IlO.

w loveof,ase motive,If1.its relationto theloveofreputation,[If.placedamongtheneutralmotiveJ,179.

--and right,the concoptioosexaminedanddistinguished,s24n., 258,325.

-- coordinated¢Hthproperty,a_anobjectofvalue,2_:.-- thedomestic,ofhusbandandfather,itsutilitarianbasic,259s.,279.-- autocratic,s89u.-- executive,_89n.-- judicial,s89a.

legislative,289n.-- military,289_.

sovereign,289n.Powersolgovernment,theirneceutryexercimasjustlfylngthecausing

ofmischief,17n.-- foreign,t_eixdispleasure,asJometimesrenderingpunishmentunprofit-

able,I77.Preceptor,ass klndofdeputyofthemagistrate,63.Prejudice,seePopular.Presents,receiving,fromforeignpowers,theoffenceof,289_,, ago_.:Pride,seeROlmtation.Primarymischieforevilofanact,what,I53.-- seeMioehie£Principal,snappellationfors formofcivilcendition,2_.Principle,a,what,2n.Privateethlc_,sseEthic&-- o_'en_s,ae_Offen_e.Privation,painof,37,38,r54n.Privy counsellor,the truJtof,or symbou]eutlctrust,offenceagainst,

_89m.Probityt rulesof,s fit0uhjeetforlegislativeouforoomenb,32I.--rules of,homeofthemthevrc_iouoflegislation,3as.-- motiveswhichpromptto,3_3.Procedure,its relationto a bodyoflaw,necessarilysettledbefo_the

limitabetweenthecivilandpenalbraneheacanbedetermined,3_6.mi_hiefswhichitshouldbeit_provinceto obviate,286,287_a.

I_le_. 365Proeeduro,civilandcriminal,thelinebotweonindistinchx.Profaneno_,theoffenceof,howelnsecd,a89n.Profession,as a civilcondition,29a.

asa civilcondition,}lowconstituted,_9a, a93.-- religions,assReligion._flt, whLt,31.-- ofan offence,,79n.

itsimpellingmotive,I79n.1=jroperty,theconceptionexamined,52,zo9,anT,235andn.

elementsin,ao9,aag,23o,a32, 2.;5n.benefittotheproprietor,229.s corporealobjectorthing,zo9,230.dispositionsnd userunrestricted,229.obligationtonon-interferenceonthepartofothers,229,

a32,z35n.-- ' mature,'theirrelationto,52.--objectof,looseapplicationsofthephrase,_30,231,232.

condition_ an,_1o.227,_3I,copyrightas an,a93.incorporealobjectstrestedas,a3i.libertyasan,231.amonopolyasan,_32,_93.Itpatentrightas, 294.persons(inRomanlaw)asthe,231a.personsunderleg'slobligationregardeda_ z32.persons,serviceof,a_the,23I_., 249reputationasan,a3|.trust&san,23I.thephra_properlyrestrictedtoeorporealobjects,350.

-- offence,sb-_nst--- !relatedtotherulesofprivateethicsconcerningprobity,322.theirrationalelessobviousthanthoseagainstpersonandreputa-

tion,23_¢,Itndthoseagainstconditionandtrust,theirconnexion,227,229. .snaly_ oftheformstheym_yassume,247-_52.againstthe rightto,gadagainstthe actualenjoymentof,distin-

guished,a47, 248.theenjoymentof,anslysed,249,250,s51.therightortitleto,anaiysed,247,248falsehoodasandementin, 247.forceas _nelementin,251.thethirteenprincipalkindsor genera,named,_52. ;.a_dpersontogether,a54,z_5.send-public.252,253n. iself.regaxdlng,255n. ;,technicaltermforcertain,inEnglishlaw,255.

-- rightof,di.tinguishedfromphysioalpossession,248. i:_ratmnaleofits recognitionby legislator,beyondthe scopeof tha i_

work,_35,_36"lawconferring,itsprimaryaspect,mischievous,235n. _i',

lueeemionto,amongtheadvgatagee_ttendingcert&inrelations,a85.

-- valueofgaarticleof.elementsconstitutingthe,32.--.itri_tio.rJ__t%.lneof mliart_leof, i_ _lt_i_u_e, _2. ]!i

b!

._-

{

366 Irdex.

Prosecutionof offences,motiveswhichusttallypromptthe, t56n.Prosecutor,hismotivewhollyimmaterial,x3o.Provisions.unwholegome,theirsale,underwhatclassofoffencesit falls,

246.Prudence,adutyofprivateethics,312.--inlittleneedofaidfromlegislator,3t9.connexionof,withprobityandbeneficence,31_.

PubLic,the,what,2z3.--the,asthebeneficiaryinatrust,2_8.offences,JeeOffences.

--opinion,howrelatedtothepopularsanction,z5n.--spirit,aspromptingtheprosecutionofoffences,canvassedp166,

towhatclassofmotivesitbelongs,1_3.Publications,immoral,theoffenceofismuing,howclassed,_89_"Puffendorff,hisworksnotice,],329n.Puhm,the,asfurnishingareliableindicationofgrief,_7.Punishmentandreward,theinstrumentsbywhichgovernmentoporateg,

70.demandfor,as dependanton thestateofthecotmcioemnem,95-

asaffectedbythemotiveoftheoffender,abe.ieanexampleofaconsequence,primarilymischievoum,secondarilybeneficial,I57.

-- abatementof,compemmtionfortheoffence,asa groundfor,172.strengthoftemptationas a groundfor,t8o.

-- acute,200.--adjustmentoftotheoffence,seebelow,Proportion.--anartificialconsequenceofoffences,203.--apportionmentoftoeachportionofthemischief,tobeaimedat,why_

ilhmtrstionof thi_18]s.-- c_pital,considered,x96,197, 199.

c_,esunmeetfor,I7O-177.placeofethicsin,3t4.

-- certaintyof,its effect,I56, 183,184.charscteristicalnessasa propertyor, t92, I93, I94,_o_.

retaliationan exampleof,I93.exemplarityasaresultof,194.

-- ehronic_l,zoo.--compensatorinem,orBuMerviencytocompensation,apropertyof,z95,

197.pecuniarypenaltiesaspo_esalngthequality,_o2.

B_ Oleo _eonniL_.commensurabilityas a propertyof,t9T, 2o_.

its r_tion_le,19x, 202.modeofsecuring,_9_.

--theconsciousness,itsstateasaffectingthedemandfor,95.disablementasasubordinalepropertyof,xTl,195,x96,2oz.

--_ffectof,dependsuponthesensibility,19o.realandapparentcontrasted,193.

--equabilityasspropertyof,19o,191.--exemplaritya_apropertyof,I93,194.

itsrationale,193.my resultfromcharacteri_ticalne_mr194.i_a_m_eetheapparentmagnitudeof,t95.

Indem. 367Punishment,expenseof,thepropertieswhichtendtodiminish,no2.-- expensive,too,orunprofitable,seeUnprofitable.-- frugalitya_a propertyof,t94, 202.

a qualityofpecunmrypunishment,194.--frugalitycf_diminishesitsapparentm_nitude,I95.-- groundlesspunderwhatcircumstances,17I. I7_, 205,514.

placeofethicswhen,314.-- habitofoffending,whytobeconmderedinits_ljustmenttoanoffence,

183,184_-- ineffieacio_,underwh_tdreun_tancoo,172, 173, 315.

pla_eofethic_whe_315.-- justifiable,when,17o.-- leg_,defined,x69.

why in its adjustmenttheauxiliaryeffectof the mor_landreli-gioussanctionnecemarilydisregarded,186.

-- memorabl%198n.-- mischievousin theprimaryconseqneuce_beneficialin thesecondary,

x57.-- moralle_ionasfurnishedby,184.-- motiveofoffender,howit affect_thedemandfor,13o.-- mixedformsof,essential,inordertosecureperfectionin, 2o1.

necessm-yquantityof,whenit maybeexceeded,184.-- needlessorsuperfluous,underwh_tcircumstances,177, 189,19o,193.-- objActnof,17o".,178.-- pecuniary,.oePecuniary.-- subordinateobjectsof,17x,195,196,197.-- popularityan,a prol_n'tyof,198.

favouredby char_cteristiealnem,198.propertie6orchoiceof,thegeneralsubject,t89-2o3.

nosinglepunishmentpesseNesallthenecessary,act.epitomized,20I, ace.

ptefercneeforthelemerof twoeligibleoffencestobe aimedat in theLdjustmentof,18x.

--proportionbetween,ort_ljustmentof,tooffences,x78-188.offencesend,rulesforsecuring,179-I8s.

investigationof.itaresultssnmm_rit_186,I87.whynotuseless,187.

--profitoftheoffenceshouldbeoutweighedby,179,18o.theqaalitie*whichtendtoaugmentthe,2ca.

qu_i-pecuniary,194.remimfibilityaaa propertyof_199-2o2.

&qualityofpecuniarypenalties,ace.--remimfionof,forgoodbehaviour,2oo.remotenessoruncertaintyof,entailsseverity,183.reformatorytendency,u a subordinsteendof punishment,17o,s95,

196.foresof,to wh_tbranchofthemlsehiefofan a_tit is oppos_l,_57.

rewardand, theinstrumentsbywhichgovernmentoperate%7o.adjtatmentofto sensibility,nece_ry,67,I8_.superfluous,s_ above,Needless.simplicityofthepeaMs_stem,toberegardedinitsadjustmtmt,Ig5.strengthoftemptation,itsrelationto,179_t.,18o.

--_ sboTemptation.-- unver_ntyof,entaikneedforseverity,18_,I84.

368 I,d_,

PinCh.mont,unprofitable,ortooexl_nsive,when,175,176,3[5,3!6,3t7.placeofethics,when,315,ocoasionMcircumstanceswhichm_yrenderit sach,176, 177.

-- unprofitablenessof,ingeneral,tobeconsidaredinitschoice,I8._.-- unknown,inefficacious,172,I7_.

varisbi]ityesa propertyof,z89aqualityofpecunis_,penalt/el,I9z.

Purityasan ingredientin pleasureendpain,30.

O.Quakers,• rollgio_societynoticed,x1.Quarantine,offenceagainstrulesof,howclassed,zx2n.Qua_rl.peeumamypunishment,I91, 194.

R.

Race,orlineage,asinfluencingesnsihility.62Rank,orstationinlife,as influencingsensibility,rio.

as s civilcondition,itscomtituentelements,29_.-- acceslionof,amongtheadvantagesattendingthe unoontlguousrela-

tion, 285.itsadvantagasindicated,a85.

-- lossof,aaan efl'_ctofthe uncontiguonsrdations,a85._pe,asa_offence,253.]_slmees,what,92,95n.--inexerciseofjudJ_,ltrust,286n.-- secondarymischiefofane_zt,howaffectedby,x65.Rationalagency,se_Agency._vaiJlao, hisassassinationofHenryIVofFrance,135,I39, I66n.Reason,or 'rightreason,'asa morelstandard,17m,]_uons, giving,equivalentto suggestingmotivesto the understanding,

10I.

R4oolleetLon,_ Memory,]Regret,[_,inof,what,38.]_bellion,offensiveanddefensive,asoffences,a89n.

whenit losesthech_a'_etorofrobberyandsc,quix-_thittof hostility,_x7.

Rocht,a Germantermforlawinabstract,324n.'Relation,'stud'relatively,'thetermsexamined,209n., _56.-- pleasureandpain,modesin whichtheyaresaidtodependupon,_o9 _.._lations, connubialand_-¢onnubial,256andn.--contiguousandnncontiguous_256.--conventional,purdy,_58.--domestic,ofsuperiorityandinferiority,a58.-- family,ordomesticconditions,atlarge,255-_86.

powertheirhasiJ,259_.rationaleor,_59n.

-- naturalanda_isingbyinstitution,255-258.puffynatural,what,236.

--offencesduetospecial,euitablepuni.hmentfor_197.subjectof,orderofitstrestment_258.

--unoontiguotm,_85.advsntag_anddisadvsmtag_attending,illustrated,285.

I_z. 369

Relationl,uucontlguou_--arebeneficialorburthslllome,283,conditionsnotconstitutedby,283.immediateandremote,a83.nopowersa_tachedtothem,assuch,a83,285,offensestowhichlithle,283.

connexionofwiththoseaffectingthecontiguousrelations,_83,s84.

_,elationehip,byascent,descent,collaterM,andbyaffinity,_57.Reformation,oneoftheendsofpunishment,17oIt.--tendencyto,asaqualityofpunishment.195.

lessimportantthanexample,20o.Reformatoryforceofimprisonment,whatbranchoftheevilofoffencesit

controls,157n.-- aeealsoPunishment.-- qualityofcertainpuniBhmenta,196.]Relief,pletsuresof,what,37.Religion,thedictatesof,d/fficultyofdeterminingtheirplaceintheorder

ofmotives,124,125.theAsceticpHnclpleoftenfollowedM,_5,[39.mischievouseffectsofmistakesregarding.Ia6.theprincipleoflympathyandantipathypunnedunderthe

nameof,1_5"generallyintermingledwithprinciplesadversetoutility,I_6.thetheologicalprinciplefollowedas,I_6.theirtendencyto improve,Iz6.

-- |Mennotionsconcerning,theirmisohievonseffects,I26, 139.worsethannone,139, 14o.

-- legislativeinterferencewith_commongroundsof,320,3zI,3eln.itsmischievouseffects,3zl.

-- leg_lationconcerning,limitedtoite effecta_aninfluenceuponhumanaction_2zo'n.

-- themotiveof,irregularinite operation,_68.measureofitseffic_, ]68.oftenmorepowerfulthenmayother,168.evilact donethrough,moremischievousthan onec_medby that

ofm_devolenoe,]68.anactnotianoeentbecauseproceedingfrom,165.itsclaimtobeclassedasastandingtutelarymotive,considered,

144.mJagoodmotive,1t9.as asemi-social_ wellaaaeelf-regexdiugmotive,12].indicationsregardingthedlspoaitionaffordedby_I38,z39.productiveofeveryvarietyofresult,11_.

offeacoaagainst,therationaleof,ai9,a2o,297.exampl_of,289n.tobedisti_gaiBhedfromoffencesa_instGo_z=on.theirrelationtoother_ ofoffence%219,22o.

--painsof,s_PletT.-- thing_appropriatedtothepurposesof,offence_conoerning,howclmed,

a53n.l_li_onists, rationaleof the_voe_shownbythemto the a_eticprin.

eiple,9.Religiousandphilosophical_cetlescomlatred,1o.

_mrrm_ Bb

37° Zm/e_.

ReLigiousenthusiasts,n mischievou6Danishsectof,noticed,I4o.persecutions,#eePenmoutionL

-- profession,itseconomicMeffect,64n.its influenceuponeducation,64.asacircum_tm_influencingsensibility,45,63.

principles,erroneous,their dissomiaation,properremedyfor, seeOpinion,

--Banetion,oneofthefouz_netloas,orsourcesofl_inandpleasure,24,28.deterrentofthepracticeofdueLling,io9n.motivesbelongingto_!!L

theirvariousmoues,!II.theirvariousresults,illustreted,II2,

its ordinaxyweakneBansamotive,io9.seealsoflanotion.

--sensibility,what,50.andbias,distinguished,5o.

thecomparativeoffsetuponthemofgoodandb_dgovernment,63.

-- terrorsandsaperstitiou_terrors,distinguished,4o.Ramiasibilitygsa propertyof punishment,_99-202,--a_apropertyofpunishment,itsutility,aGO,SOl.

inan imperfectpeualsystem,2eLRemissionofpunishmentforgoodbeh_,viour,200..Remotenessorotherwiseofapleasureorpain,anelementinitsvMue,

_9.--ofpunishment,entailsseverity,183,184._Reputation,orgcod-n_me,theconceptionanalysed,21o.-- loveof,119.

a motive,howfarconformsbletoutitity,]22, x23.bothsemi-sociala_dself-residing,]2t.various name8 for_ |08-I1 I.itsvariouseffects,illustrated,Io9,xIo.duellingaqa resvltof'_Io9.

astandingtutelarymotive,143n.--a fictitiousincorporealobjectof property,2Io, 23x.--offencesagainst,theirnatureanalysed,2Io.

theirkinds,246, 247.modesofsemi-public,247n.

_ a_S0 Good-name._asntment. aceAntipathy.tl4sponeibllityortrust,offencesby personsin poaitlon8of,i_,tlonaleof

theirpenaltreatment,saggested_172n._ing motives,seeMotivM.l_teetrsinment,orrestraint,Ma formofpersonalinjury,244.--simpleinjuriou_the offenceof,_44,244_., 296.

confinement,b_mi_hment,robbery,extort.ion,formsof_a44n.]_ltl_tnt_orcompulsion,a_a groundofexemptionfrompunishment,ITS.-- orcoercion,oneof theevilsof punishment,]75.]_atBJ.i_tton,in thechoiceof punishments,considered,Ig&

asa punishment,_teristical, I9_.whenit mightberesortedto,195-

-- susceptibilitytoadmitof,_mdistinguishingthevat-ion,cbumesof_505-3o6.

I_le_. 37I

Revenge,a motivelesscommonandso leR dangerousthan that vfpecuniaryinterest.167n.

Right,analyldJof,unnecessaryinatrestleonpenal,eMentialinoneoncivillaw,225n.

-folc,324n.-- leg=l,theoutcomeofeommxndandprobibition_a_4_., _25n.

theereatareofa legistator'ewill,224n.conferred,impliesdutyorobligationimpo_ed,z24n.1225n.noteverydutycorrespondstoa,225n.noneimpliedinself-regardingduties,225n.

--andpower,theoonecptionsexamined,224_t.,225n.,258n.havenosuperiorgenus,225n.theiranalysis,inthetreatmewhyincomplete,224,225n.

ofproperty,seeProl_rty.-- ruleof,ess moralstandard,a formof theprincipleof sympethyanti

antipathy,z7n.andwrong,theterms,4.

havenomeaningapartfromutility_7.theirsupposedtes_,forthemostpartcoincidentwiththeprinciple

ofsympathys_dantipathy,z7n.Robbery,theoffenceof,what,25i,252.--acomplexoffence,25_, 255.--rebellion,hostility,connexionoftheideurepresentedbytheterms,

Romanorcivillaw,vituperated,354,Rotu_ter,theconditionof,constitutedbytheprivationofcertainprivileges,

294-8.

8snction,etymologyoftheterm,24n.a, what,_5m.

-- thepoliticalorlegal,what,25.itspreventivefores,howdiminishedbys pastcrime,I55, z56.

-- themoralorpopular,what,25.itspreventiveforce,howitoperates,156.wherenone,offencesfrequent,z56.

-- thephysical,what,=5-thegroundworkofthemoralandthepolitical,27.

--thereligious,what,_5.mayconcernthepresent_ wellasa futurelife,35.insofarasit concerns_ futurelifea matterofconjecture,27.its_-dinazyweaknessillustrated,to9 n.andthemorn.l,their in_uenoe,whynota groundof exemptionfrompunishment,I75s.

--/ee a/soReligious,blots1,etc.8snotions,thefern',as soux--_esofpainmudpleamtre,24-

iiluztrated,26.modesinwhichtheyfurnishmotivestoaction,25.theirintlnmteconnexion,27,28.convenienceof applyinga commonnameto the influencesso

termed,27.theinfluenesofeachtobetakenaecou.utofby thelegislator,z99.

8tnitezlVreg_tions_breachof,asanoffence,howdarned,2zz,_xaandn.,_46,a88n.

Bba

37_ ltde_.

Sstiafaotlon,orcompenastion,a collateralendof punishment,x71_,195.]97.

lucrative,ITIn,vindictive,17J_.

#eealJeCompensation.Second_r_rm_chief,seeMizohief.Security,external,ortheState,offencesagainst,seeOffenoem,Pub[iv.Seducingorcorruptingmotives,seeMotivos.Soduetion_asanoffence,a_3,254_s8l n.-- forcible,_ an offence,253,254.8¢1f,dutyto,abranchofethics,31a.-- -govemmect,theartof,orprivateethics,3ro.

-interest,theonlyuniversallyiafluentiaImotive,3]3.-preservation,motiveof, II3ji16.

difficultyofdistiog_shingit fromothermotives,Iz6.examplesofthevariousact_towhichitgivesribs,I16.II7.

plt_,dintheela_sof neutralmotives,119.asanoccasionaltutelarymotive,I46.

howit operate%]46.-recommendation,seeAmity.

-- .regardingduties,nocorrespondingrightsto,aa5_,.motives,8asMotives.offoneeg,seeOffoneos.pleasuresandl_ins,4I,4_n.

Soml-pub[iooffences,seeOffences.-- -socialmotivesjseeMotive_.Sanee,common,seeCommon.

moral,seeMoral.sexnL1,the,34,38.

motivecorrespondingto,io6.Borise,painsandpleasuresof,34,38n.flonsibilityjbiasorqualityof,what,43-

biasof,itsoffsctuponthemotiveorsympathy,3/3.circumstaneminfluencing',consideredatlargo,43-69.

i_lvontitioul,what,68.analyticalviewof the,68.cla_od,44. ]connate,what,68.effectsof,317-exterior,68.investigationof,itsutilityI64.legislation,howfaritcantake_unt of,65.methodsforgivingeffectto,67.occ_ionsdemandingconddemtionof,66.po_nM,wh_t,68.prlmm-y,what,68.theirimportanceintheapportionmentof punishment,66,67,J8a,

19o.effectof punithmentvariedby,]9o.secoachuT,what,68.

Itsdegree,wlmt,43-vsriatiomof,iUustraWd,43,44_

8enmudlty,termappliedin a beAsen_ tothemotiveof physles]dedre,Io5,

Iade_. 373Bentenee,_nultralegaJ,aarenderingptmi_hmentinefficacious,_73-Servant,theconditionof,in whatrespectaadvantageous,z64,265.-- offencestouching.264,265,266.

theircorrespondencewiththoeeaffeo_ theconditionof master,265.

ttealing,an offenceagainsttheconditionofm,mt_r,26a,263.-- _ndmaa_r,seeKMter.Servant.ship,ortheconrl/tionof servant,neeServmat_Bervicce,oonnubia,],282.

neealto_l"tulbandandWife.-- negativeandpositive,232, 292.-- ofPersene,asa epe_iesofproperty,231n.

as thesubjectofanoffenceagainstproperty,z49.-- wrnngfalwithholdingof,natureof theoffence,249.

includesbreachofcOntra_t,249_.ServiLity,ofwhatclassofmotivesit isanexample,Io8.Servitude,ortheconditionofsereneh iravariousmedea,263,

therationaleofitsmodo_belcng_tothecivilcode,z64.' Bervittmeervitutienoncloture'thephraseridiculed,T3n_lax,as&secondarycircumatanceinfluencingsensibility,58,305--- thefemale,m Women.8axes, the characteristicdifferencesof the twoin pointof sensibility,

compared,58,59.8ex'ua2.desire,a neuta'_ltermfora motive,zo6.Shame,Beaseof,andfearof,Io9.8laveaad free,Aristotle'sdivisionof mankindinto theclaeeee,noticed,

268n,glkill,thepleasm_of,34,35.-- theplemuresof,themotivecorrespondingto,nore.mefor,In7.Slavery,theconditionof,anaJysed,263,-- a :nodeoftherelgionofmasterandservant,_63.Smuggling,asanoffence,howclassed,288n.Socialmotives,*eeMotives.Bovoreign_the,orthesovereignty,what,ztS.

the,to whomthecharacterbelongg,in the RomanCOmmonwealth,intheUnitedProvinces,in theSwissandintheGennanlcbody,ques-tioned,2|8n.

the,offencesagainst,214,2J8,289n., 297.-- power,a truat,289n.

autocratic,what,_89n.i_sbranches,_89n.modeofiraaextuieition, 289r_

irae_eroiseordistribution,s89n.oflioer_exe¢uting,howcontrolled,289n.

8ovoroigna,the tranes_tioneof, interse, the subjcoL-matterof inter-aationLllaw,3_7.r_iesconcerningthem,howfarproperlyt_rmc,dlaws,3_7.

Bpeou.la_vemctives,seeMotivu.Bpte_,ue Eq)iotmge.8pontemeo_:m,meaningoftheterm,8an.Sport,loveof,ofwhatmotiveit isanexample,Io7.' BpringaofAction,the]'ablecfthe,'a workoftheauthor,cited,97a.State, the,the ¢onoep_,ionof, nooewailyimpliedin tl_t of legislation,

374 Inde_.

Otsto,the,howcanactanbedetrimen_lto,205-- theclassofoffencesagainst,_o Offenoee,Public.-- as_ffeotedbyself-regardingoffeecol,3o3.Stationinlifo,_ee]?amk.8tatua,ceeCondition.8teadine_t what,49,49n.Stealing,seeTheft.Strength,asa circumstanceinfluencingsensibLlity_44,46.-- andhardiness,distinguished,47.-- andhealth,distinguished,46.-- howmeaJured,46_t.-- dhtinguiJhedasgeneralandparticular,46n.-- oftemptation,aceTemptation.Suborn_tlon,aaanoffence,240n.Sufferance,painsof,4tn.Suicide,itsclassamongoffences,246n.-- aaanoffenceagainstpopulation,288*t.-- punishmentfor,inEnglishlaw,unequoble,_9]n.Superintendentandsubordinate,the relationof,as a civilcondition,

examined,26v,26LBuperior,258-260.--domestic,26o.

powerofthe,irarationale,_59n.Superstition,definedas 'observancesnot dictatedby theprincipleof

utility,'59'--oneof thet_'maappliedtothemotivebelongingto thereligiousunc-

tion,[II.OupOrstltiotmterror%seeBoLigiombSupport,pecuniary,chanceofobts,iningandliabilitytorender,among

correlatives,255.--ther_spectivosdvantsgesanddisadvantagesbelongingtocertainrela-

tions,285.Sympatheticbias,andsensibility,what,5o.5$mpsthyorbenevolence,themotiveof,itsrelationto8emdbility,313.

cennexionsinthewayof,aainfluencingsensibility,._3.-- lminBof,40.

amongthederlv_tiveevilsofpunishment,]75.-- pleasuresof,themotivebelongingto,varioustermstodenote,xl3.

examplesofthevariousactsresultingfrom,l !3, Iz4.-- andantipathy,theprincipleof,what,I5,16.

itsoppoJitiontothatofutility,IS.itsdk'tatessometimeacoincidentwiththoseof utility,z8.Itmerenegationofall principle,16.itsapplication,illtmtmted,16.thegroundofapprobationenddisapprobationofconduct,ta3.theoriesofthetoornletandaxdcommonlyreferribleto, J7- !formsunderwhichtheprincipleluteappeared,17_., _8_., [9n.oftenthefalsegrounduponwhichpunishmentis apportioned,I$I.oommunlyerrsonthesideofseverity,no.occasional]ytoolenientif theevilisremote,aI.oftenfollowedunderthenameofthedictatesofreligion,la5.

I_dex. 375

'_.'ableoftheSpring_ofAction,°&e_,a workofthe,Luther,cited,97u.Tax,non-peym_tofa, _nilhmtrationof theshapesinwhichthemischid

ofanactmayshowitselt_zfo.mischievous,why,r6o,tf[.it*fecundityofmischlef,162.moredangerousthinalarming,16_.offenceof,howclassed,_88n.

Tom.a,butslightlyindicativeofrea_grief,57n.-- OliverCromweLlprofusein,57.-- womenmorereadilymovedtothanmenp58.Temperament,s_eBody,Mind.Temptation,thestrengthof,whatmeantby,x47.

dispositionofanoffender,indicationsaffordedby,I48, XSO.themaximthatthepunishmentshouldrisewith,stated,x51.

r_tionMeofthispropositionexamined,179.disputeofit*trothridiculed,x79I*.groundofthedisliketoit,151,

TendenoyofanactorevenLhowesthnsted_3o,3I, 3_,70.circumstancesuponwhichitdepends,70,7z,152indicationsofthedispositionoftheactoraffordedby,examinedsadillosbrated,I33,I34-I4I.

mischievous,what,r52._eft orstealing,u an offenceagain*tproperty,theconceptionanalysed,

250,251,252.abeo_ceofconsentorofcooperationonthepar_oftheowner,

owneraas anelementin jSo, 251.--robbery,embezzlement,defi'audment,extortion,distinguished,_5o,

--robbery,andthelikeoffences,pens]labourwhyanappropriatepenaltyfOrjl9_

_hvologioa_principle,the.what._z.notreallydistinguishablefromthatofMceticism,sympathy,&c.,

orutility,_, _, a2n., r26.followed_sthedict_te_ofreligion,_26.

_hrmtt,influenceof,u agroundofexemptionfrompUni=hment,175.'Prude,righttoexercisea, _ a condition,232.

offensive,seeOffensive._'amfitiveandintransitive,seeActs,Offenoes.•l_taohery,whynota fitsubjectforlegalpt_ni,hment,318.Ta'e_on,theoffenceof,286n.

positiveandnegative,286n.rPreLtiae,the_it_origin_lde._gn,v,viii.-- inwhatrespeot_incomplete,vii.2_aet,a, theconceptionof,extmined,_._ etseq.

tm'm_usedtoexpresstherelationinvolvedin,225,_z6._6maybeeithera benefitoraburthen,_35.

beneficial,ofl'ence__,l_tt, 23_, 237.Mburthensome,offencesagainst,237, 238.theexistenoeof,natureot the resultingmischiefin an offence

_ma]yai_of._ offenceagainst,_5, _36.

376 Im/e_.

_h'ust,a,a promisenotnecessarilyimpliedin,225_.-- abuseof,239andn., 24a.-- braschof,a39, 247, 25:.

andabuseof,distinguished,239n.appropriateremedyin casesof,197.briberya speciesof,240.anelementinthe offenceofembezzlement,250.putativeandnegative,what,239.

-- ennuique,orbeneficiary,a26,:z26_a.-- conditionand,pointsofconnexionbetweenthemcoasidesed,eaT,aaS.

andproperty,compared,234_diaturbanceof,Man offence,239, a4o.

--exerciseof, or the officeof trustee,offenceaconnectedwith the,a34-_38.

-- fiscal,_88_.-- judicial,offencesagainst,286s.

natureofthemi._:hi_fconsequentupon,a86a.novelterminology(derivedfromGreek)forsomeformsof public,el6,

287_., 288n.,289_.-- offencesagainst,a divi,donofmultiformoffences,2o8,z23,etc.

classificationof,considered,2o7n.divisionsof,s,ndtheirconnexionwitheachother,234etesq.regardeds_prejudieialtothebeneficiary,238.

affectingtheexerciseof the functionof h'n_,ee,aM, o_.,238,etc.

theirsubdivisiom,epitomlsedja41.lubord_natediviBionlof,_a8.

private,semi-public,andpublic,241,_6o.gu_rdiamhipa.27o.

public,andpubliccondition,howfarequivalentconceptions,la8.variousformsof,and offencesagainst,=87-z89.

-- sovereignpower,a, 289n.Trustee,2_5,226,2_6_.-- offencesaffectingtheexerciseoftheofficeof,238et _q.-- prodigalityofa, theoffenceof,_41.

maybetreatedasa self-regsa'dingoffence,24LTruth,_ s supposedmoralst_ndaxd,_7n.Tumult,political,asanoffence,_89n.Tutelaryor pr_rvingmotiveS,seeMotives,tutelary._$rrol,SirW.,hiskillingofWilliamII usedinillustrationofthe_ariou_

posaiblemeat,elattitudes_t thetimeofan act,85-87,9o-9_,

Unadvisednnssofanact,89.--whentermed'heedle_ne_,'89.

Romanexpressionsindicating,94,95n.-- its effectuponsecondarymischief,164.Unoertaintyofpunishment,entailsseverity,_83,_84-ofpunishment,aneffectofitsunpopularity,199._eeM_ Punishment.

Unconsciousness,astocizcunmtance_attendingan_ct_what.71.

hu/e_. 377

Unoonsetousneu,astocircumstancesattendinganact--asa groundofexemptionfrompunishment,J74.

Understanding,the,as asupposedmoralstandard,]7n.-- sad thewill,asfa_ultieaofthemind,97.Unequablepunishment,what,J9o.U_ punishment,what,I94.

thedeathpenaltyane×smpleofan,I97.UnintenttonM,meaningoftheterm,82,95e.-- act_,whynotfeared,]64.Unintontlon,_lity,89,]74.Univer_uxljuri_prudeuee,seeJurisprudenoe.Unnatural,theexpressionexamined,]8n.Unpopuhtrityera punishment,its illeffects,]98.

aSourceofweaknessin thel_w,I98.conh_butestotheuncertaintyofitsapplication,]98.

Ure.ry,howfaranoffence,ix,af2n.'TheDefenceof,"s treatiseoftheeuthor,referredto,ix.

Utility,wimtmeantby,_.-- conformityto,whatmeantby,$.-- dictatesorlawsof,what.3"-- asthesoleactualgroundofapprob_tion,andasthesoletestofdeserving

approbation,distinguished,]9 n.-- It phrasepreferableto thoseof' goodorder,'' natura,I justice/andthe

llke,z7_.-- theprincipleof,conJistentpursuitof,rare,4.

itssupposeddangerousness,4_-directproofofits rectitude,impossible,4-disproofof,impossible,3,4.thedie_tesof,tho,_eofenlightenedbenevolence,I21.

oftencoincidewiththeseofsympathyandantipathy,I8.explained,2.followemof.stigmatizedasEpicurean,]o.phrasesMternativeto,]_.,5n-prejudicestg_in_t,methodofsurmounting,5,6.sp_ineiplehowopposedto,8.principlesalternativeto,8.punishment,fromitsj_ointofview,]7o-terms'ought,''fight,'wrong'intelligiblebyreferenceto,.z,4.

V.

Valueofpleasureandpain.modeofestimatingit, _9'Vanity,seeReputation.VariAbility,a_aqualityofpunishm_t,z89.

_ a/._oPunishment.Vengeance,as s motive,whyleu glarmlngthan thatof pecuniary

i_terezb x67,.Vestanddivest,theexpressesasspptiedtotrusts,236s,Vise,asa subj_tforlegislativeinterference,518,32o.Villfl_tlonorrevilement,asanoffence,246, 247. i-- political,289_'Volenttnonfit injuris,'HI, ]Ta. iVoluntary,varioussensesoftheterm,82e, i

378 Isdex.

W.

Ward,conditionof,whenit becomesoneofpureslavery.269.-- andguardian,limiteoftheirreciprocalfightsandduties,269.-- _ u_oGuardian.-- .chip,offencesaffectingtheconditionof,:72-274.

theircoincidencewit&thoseagainstgaardi_nship,272-373.

-- perpetual,ofwomen,seeWomen.Wante,a man's,circumstancesuponwhichtheydepend,52.Ware,Holy,ther_ultoffalsenotionsofreligion,126,I4o.Weakneas.inrefereocetosenaibili_,whatmeantby,46_.Wealth,thep]caauresof,whatmeantby,54.

motivescorrespondingto,zo7.-- loveof,amongthemostinfluentialmotives,167.-- national,the,what,217.

an offenceagainst,wh_t,sl 7andthepublic,thedistinctionbetween,noted,277n.

-- thepublic,includespecansandthings,=l7.anoflhnoeagainst,what,2I7.

-- offencesagainstthenationalandpublic,a88n.Waddorburn,Sir A. (afterwardsLord_lyn), hisremarksuponthe

priueipleofutility,criticised,5. iWar-gold,an exampleof an imperfectadjustmentof pnnl.hmenttooffence,J99n. [

Whipping,u apanishment,_oo. (Wife,conditionof,whenit becomesoneofpureslavery,279.

whenit becomesoneofpureslavery,historicalexamplesof,279.offencestowhichit i.,_liable,282. I

Will, the,actofthe,apositiveact,98n.andintention,thetermsusedinterchangeably,82,89.andtheunderstanding,contrasted,88,92.

-- asa mentalfaculty,sueseptibleofcoercion,243.--it_ state,in referenceto action,an elementin intenttonalltyas to

conaequences,71.Wives, pluralityof, in Mahommedancountries,an illustrationof the

modificationofwhichthemarriageeontrartissueeeptJble,28o.Women,theirdifferencefrommeninpointofeensibility,._8,59.-- theperpetualtutel&geof,268n.-- theirsupposedmentalimbecility,368_.Wrong,rightand,theirmeaning,4-

g.

Zeal, 'corporltion,'or npirit,as a motive,renderedin Frenchin theexpression'espritdecorpe,'H3,

-- national,partyr public,asmotives,II3.-- enthusiastic,fanatic,religious,superetitious,JI!.

OXFOR_

PRIMTEDAT THECLARENDORPRIS8

BY HORACE HART, M._

PRINTERTO T_ _NI_E_rF_