An international environmental study programme: the International Baccalaureate Environmental Systems course

Ž .The Environmentalist 19, 349�360 1999� 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. Manufactured in the Netherlands.

An international environmental study programme: theInternational Baccalaureate Environmental Systems course

PATRICK ARMSTRONG* AND JILL RUTHERFORDDepartment of Geography, Uni�ersity of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, 6907.

Summary. This paper describes the relatively new, university entry level examination offered by theInternational Baccalaureate Organisation in the subject of Environmental Systems. The programme hasan integrated, holistic approach, and a strong international focus. The authors are Chief Examiner andDeputy Chief Examiner for this examination.

Introduction

The aim of this paper is to describe a unique,integrated university-entrance level environmen-tal study programme, that is truly international,both in scope and in the range of students forwhich it caters. While university level courses inenvironmental science, and in environmentalplanning and management have previously been

Ždescribed in this journal see, for example,.Conacher et al., 1993 and elsewhere, it is be-

lieved that the course here described, at pre-uni-versity level, has some attributes, particularly inits international approach and systems focus, thatmay be of general interest. As the syllabus hasrecently been revised and revitalised, it was con-sidered that this might be an appropriate time tobring it to more general notice.

The International Baccalaureate

The International Baccalaureate�conceivedoriginally as ‘‘an international university entrance

*Dr Patrick Armstrong is Senior Lecturer in Geography at theUniversity of Western Australia, and Deputy Chief Examinerin the Environmental Systems subject area for the Interna-tional Baccalaureate. Dr Jill Rutherford was until recently apart-time Lecturer in the Department of Continuing Educa-tion of the University of Hull, and is Chief Examiner inEnvironmental Systems for the International Baccalaureate.She has taught in schools in the UK and Hong Kong. Herpresent address is: Fgling Hall School, Robin Hood’s Bag,North Yorkshire, YD 22 4QD, UK.

examination which could be taken in any countryŽ .and recognized in any country’’ Peterson, 1972

�had its origins at the International School inGeneva in 1962. Teachers had found the need toprepare university-bound pupils for several differ-ent entrance examinations, in some cases in verysmall groups, time-consuming, expensive andwasteful. The recombining of students into na-tional groups for examination preparation seemedto run against the ideals of an international school.Between 1962 and 1970, with the funding supportof UNESCO, the Twentieth Century Fund andthe Ford Foundation, preliminary planning wasundertaken by senior educators from a number ofcountries and the ‘International Schools Exami-nation Syndicate’ came into existence in 1965, asa distinct legal entity�an Association under theSwiss Civil Code. Atlantic College, in Wales, thefirst of a then projected, and now extant, chain of

Ž .United World Colleges now ten in number , waslinked to the project from an early time.

The name of the organisation was changed tothe International Baccalaureate Office in 1967.ŽIt later changed to the International Baccalaure-

Ž .ate Organisation IBO , but the educational foun-dation that forms the legal entity remains based

.in Geneva. About 350 students at seven schoolsin six countries took examinations on a trial basisin May 1968. The first official examinations weretaken by 650 candidates in about 20 schools innine countries in 1970.

The examination procedures, and the educa-tional programmes supporting them, fulfilled a

Armstrong and Rutherford350

Ž .real need, for there are now 1998 some 770Žparticipating schools in nearly 100 countries. This

includes schools offering the Middle Years Pro-gramme for 11�16 year olds, introduced in 1992,and the Primary Years Programme, for those

.aged 3�12 years, added in 1997. Because of itsbalanced, integrated curriculum, and commitmentto high standards of assessment, the organisationhas evolved beyond its provision of a service tothe internationally mobile community, particu-larly through international schools, and now theInternational Baccalaureate Organisation servesschools within national education systems onmany continents.

The educational philosophy of the IBO is givenin its mission statement, adopted in 1996, asfollows:

Through comprehensive and balanced curric-ula coupled with challenging assessments, the

Ž .International Baccalaureate IB Organisationaims to assist schools in their endeavours todevelop the individual talents of young peopleand teach them to relate the experience of theclassroom to the realities of the world outside.Beyond intellectual rigour and high academicstandards, strong emphasis is placed on theideals of international understanding and re-sponsible citizenship, to the end that IB stu-dents may become critical and compassionatethinkers, lifelong learners and informed partic-ipants in local and world affairs, conscious ofthe shared humanity that binds all people to-gether while respecting the variety of culturesand attitudes that makes for the richness of

Žlife. International Baccalaureate Organisa-.tion, 1997a

The Diploma Programme

Ž .The International Baccalaureate IB DiplomaProgramme is a rigorous, academic, university-en-

Žtry course, assessed largely by examinations al-though there is a moderated school-based inter-

.nal assessment element that is designed for highlymotivated school students between 16 and 19years. It represents a two-year curriculum thatallows those who complete it to fulfill the require-ments of many national education systems. It isnot based on the pattern of any one single coun-

try, but incorporates some of the best elements ofa number. The IB Diploma Programme is avail-

Žable in English, French and Spanish. Some stu-dents who are not native speakers of one of theselanguages are successful in gaining an IB Diploma,or a Certificate�a pass in a number of individual

.subjects. Holders of the Diploma gain admissionto selective universities, including some of the

Žmost prestigious including Oxford, Cambridge,.Yale, Harvard and the Sorbonne throughout the

world. Only schools authorised by the IBO, afteran on-site inspection and exhaustive enquiries arepermitted to teach the IB Diploma Programme.

The Programme has a number of special fea-tures. Running through all aspects of the pro-gramme is the holistic approach which was laiddown at the IBO foundation, and which remainsits strongest feature. Students undertake a liberaleducation through a course that offers a choice ofsubjects within a framework of taking two lan-guages, a mathematics or science unit, an arts orhumanities subject, as well as a core programme.Inherent in the Diploma programme is the re-quirement of a concurrency of learning across abreadth of subjects as well as an in-depth study ofthree or four. International citizenship, and anunderstanding of the cultures of others are princi-ples that the IBO has to face and to teach.

Ž .The Theory of Knowledge TOK is compulsoryfor Diploma candidates. It is an interdisciplinarycourse intended to stimulate a critical reflectionon knowledge and experience�gained inside andoutside the classroom. The course encouragesstudents to challenge and question the bases ofknowledge, to be aware of subjective and ideolog-ical biases, and to develop a mode of thoughtbased on the careful analysis of evidence andrational argument. The course is one of the keyelements in the IBO’s philosophy, seeking to de-velop a coherent approach to scholarship whichtranscends traditional acedemic subjects, unifieslearning and encourages an understanding of avariety of cultural perspectives. Assessment of theTOK course is evaluated through the submissionof two 1000�1500 word essays which are evalu-ated by teachers but moderated by the IBO.

Ž .The Community, action, ser�ice CAS elementemphasises the importance of work outside theclassroom, attempting to provide ‘‘a refreshingcounterbalance to the academic self-absorption

An international environmental study programme 351

some may feel within a demanding school pro-gramme. The goal of educating the whole personand fostering a more compassionate citizenrycomes alive in an immediate way when students

Žreach beyond themselves and their books’’ Inter-.national Baccalaureate Organisation, 1997a . Par-

ticipation in sports, community service or theatri-cal productions encourages individual talents anddevelops awareness, social concern and a capacityto work in cooperation with others. The expecta-tion is that students devote some three or fourhours per week to CAS activities. Self-evaluationexists to aid understanding of the value of timespent on CAS, both to themselves, and to others.A Diploma may not be awarded to candidateswho pass all other aspects of the programme, butfail to participate in CAS activities.

The third important and distinctive part of the‘core’ programme is the Extended essay. This is arequirement to submit a research paper of some4000 words. It represents a study of a limitedtopic, within one of the 60 subject areas offeredby the IB. The emphasis is on the process ofpersonal research on a topic that interests thestudent, and the coherent communication of ideas.It is recognised that the paper may not containoriginal research, but the quality of many ex-tended essays is at tertiary level. Students areexpected to spend 40 hours in researching andwriting this essay and are supervised by a teacher,Each year a number of students write on environ-mental subjects.

The academic part of the Diploma Pro-gramme is often displayed in the shape of a

Figure 1. The IB Diploma Hexagon. Candidates for the Diploma, as well as completing the ‘core,’ have to take one subject fromŽeach of the six groups. These comprise: Group 1, Language A1 a candidate’s first language�includes study of selections from

. Žworld literature ; Group 2, Language A2, B, a second modern language; Group 3, Individuals and societies history, geography,.economics, philosophy, psychology, social anthropology, business and organisation , information technology in a global society,

Žhistory of the Islamic world; Group 4, Experimental Sciences biology, chemistry, physics, design technology, environmental. Ž . Žsystems ; Group 5, Mathematics several different programmes are offered ; Group 6, Arts and Electives art and design, music,

theatre, Latin, classical Greek, computer science, a third modern language, a second subject from groups 3 and 4, or a school-based.syllabus approved by the IBO .


Ž .hexagon Fig. 1 , with six academic areas sur-Ž .rounding the core described above . Diploma

candidates have to select one subject from eachof the six subject groups, with either three or four

Ž .being taken at higher level HL and the others atŽ .standard level SL . This provides a compromise

between the early specialisation preferred in someŽ .national systems e.g. the UK ‘Advanced’ level

Žand the breadth found in others e.g. France,.Australia, USA . Each subject is graded on a

Ž .scale of 1 minimum to 7. For the award of theDiploma students are required to achieve a total

Žof 24 out of 45 points a grade 7 representing 7points, and three points being allocated to TOK

.and CAS activities . The programme is currentlyoffered by 720 schools in 94 countries. In the May1997 examination, 8592 candidates were success-fully awarded the Diploma out of an entry of10869. A total of 27471 were examined, manycompleting just a part of the full Diploma pro-

Ž .gramme IBO, 1997b . The May 1998 total wasabout 30000.

The Diploma Programme is expanding rapidly:Ž .currently 1994�1998 by about 12 percent per

annum. The rapid take-up rate by schools acrossthe world is indicative of the quality of theDiploma programme, and appreciation of the factthat it offers more than a means of assessment.There are four distinctive aspects that are valuedby schools.

1. A philosophy of education the includes anappreciation of both breadth and depth ofstudy in an international context;

2. The range of programmes for study. Thereare over 100 subject areas offered at higheror standard level, including 55 languages inGroup 1;

3. The support offered to participating schoolsand teachers. For example regular teacherworkshops are held in all parts of the world.The programme guides contain not only As-sessment Statements, but suggestions for allo-cating contact time, practical advice and re-source lists.

4. The external examination system offers aunique standard across the world, and a policyof transparency in assessment that is muchvalued by schools.

A part of the success of the programme maybe due to the fact that candidates take exactly the

same syllabus, and are examined in precisely thesame way, wherever they are in the world. Exami-nations are held in both May and November, sothat they can be conveniently accommodatedwithin both the northern and southern hemi-sphere academic years.

The Environmental Systems Course

Background

The course was originally developed as a school-based subject at the Atlantic College, Wales, inthe 1970s. A new syllabus was brought in during1996, with new assessment procedures being usedfor the first time in May 1998. In May 1997, the

Ž .subject offered at standard level only was takenby 677 candidates; in May 1997, by 856. Thisrepresents a current total entry of about 1000 peryear, including the November examination, thelatter running at about 100 entrants. These candi-dates come from 62 schools in 30 countries.Countries submitting the greatest number of stu-

Ž .dents include the UK, USA, Hong Kong China ,Indonesia, Norway and Chile. A number ofschools in Ecuador, Chile, Argentina and Mexico

Ž .take the programme and are examined in Span-ish. The institutions where the programme istaught vary greatly. Some are truly international

Žschools in major cities Jakarta, Vienna, Singa-.pore, Santiago, Hong Kong with a multicultural

and multinational student body and teaching staff.Others are national schools which teach the IBprogramme to a predominantly national studentbody. These include ‘magnet’ inner city schools inthe USA, where the hope is that the group ofstudents will rise to the challenge of the IBDiploma programme. In Florida, the State Educa-tion Department actively encourages participa-tion by providing extra funding for successfulstudents.

Obviously resources available in and aroundschools vary. The Environmental Systems Pro-gramme is designed to allow for practical pro-grammes that can be run using a minimum ofresources in a range of ecosystems.

Philosophy

The general philosophy behind the course is mostappropriately summarised by quoting the first few


paragraphs of the En�ironmental Systems SubjectŽ .Area Programme Guide IBO, 1996a :

The prime intent of this programme is to pro-vide students with a coherent perspective onthe environment that is essentially scientificand above all enables them to adopt an in-formed and responsible stance on the widerange of pressing environmental issues theywill inevitably come to face.

It is thus intended that students should beable to gain a more profound understanding ofthe environment than a merely journalistic ap-preciation; one rooted in the underlying princi-ples of science. The programme consequentlyprovides a perspective that pays full deferenceto the value of empirical, quantitative and ob-jective data in describing and analysing envi-ronmental systems.

The intent, while first and foremost lying inthis provision of academic material appropri-ate to the experimental sciences, clearly ex-tends beyond the academic. The programmehas been designed with the express purpose ofrequiring, and thus developing, moral and po-litical responses within the participants.

While this is possible to an extent in allscience programmes, environmental systemsmost easily, and necessarily, leads itself to theeducational development of these domains.

The programme content is such that stu-dents’ attention can be constantly drawn totheir own relationship with their environmentand the significance of choices and decisionsthey make in their own lives. Furthermore, ona broad scale, since the resolution of the majorenvironmental issues rests heavily upon inter-national relationships and agreements, theprogramme naturally leads students to an ap-preciation of the nature and values of interna-tionalism.The course is divided into core and options,

the former encompassing the full conceptualscope of the subject, the latter providing moredetailed study of particular aspects. Both allowfreedom for schools to employ appropriate, per-haps local or specific national, exemplary mate-rial. The core presents the fundamental structureand functioning of natural systems, and the gen-eral nature of human impacts upon them. Thefirst three options include methodologies for theinvestigation and modelling of ecosystems: each

student must study one of terrestrial, freshwaterand marine environments�whichever is the mostconvenient for practical study. The other threeoptions, of which each candidate must study two�look at environmental issues of both global andlocal significance.

A principal theme running though the wholecourse is the systems approach. The very natureof environmental issues requires that they betreated holistically. Ecosystems, in particular,function as integrated units and the traditional,reductionist approach of science tends to under-emphasise this important quality. Also, this is anapproach that is emphasised in many disciplinesŽincluding geography, economics, politics, psy-

.chology, anthropology and the life sciences , andso its adoption here facilitates the integration of avariety of discipline-based perspectives. This isseen as particularly important, as the incompati-bility of the different viewpoints has sometimesbeen an obstacle in the resolution of environmen-tal problems. Thus, while this course has its roots

Ž .with Experimental Sciences IB Group 4 it is aninterdisciplinary subject that touches all disci-plines involved in making decisions about theenvironment. As such it may be one of the fewcourses that show students that the real world isnot conveniently divided in timetables, subjectsand periods.

Another theme running, through the syllabusis the balance between local and global material.The ‘local’ activity allows students to identify withtheir immediate environment, and perhaps be-come actively involved in it, the global one pro-vides a counterbalance, giving the broader con-text, appropriate both from the point of view ofthe nature of environmental problems, and aneducational scheme that aims to be internationalin scope.

To maintain credibility as an experimentalŽscience within Group 4 of the IB scheme, see

.Fig. 1 the approach has to be strongly quantita-tive and empirical; appropriate manipulation andanalysis of quantitative and graphical data andthe testing of models are expected of all candi-dates. This is, for example, emphasised in thestatement in the notes on the ‘Suggested teaching

Žapproach’ in the Programme Guide IBO, 1996a,.p. 6 : ‘‘In order to ensure the scientific nature of

the subject it will be important throughout thesyllabus, even in the more discursive areas to


provide candidates with named and testable ex-emplar material with valid quantitative data andgraphical models as far as possible.’’ But as manyenvironmental influences are too complex to beadequately dealt with by such a treatment, verbalreasoning, within the systems framework, is alsoemphasised. Thus while the philosophy of thecourse remains firmly embedded in the rigourprovided by conventional scientific method, it ex-tends beyond it, the systems approach linking thesubject with certain non-science disciplines.

Aims and objecti�es

It is an aspiration of all those associated withŽ .Group 4 IB subjects Fig. 1 that students should

become aware of the way in which scientists workand communicate throughout the world. The ‘sci-entific method’ takes on a variety of forms, but italmost universally involves the formation, testingand modification of hypotheses, through observa-tion and measurement, under the controlled con-ditions of an experiment. It is this imperative thatdistinguishes the programmes in Group 4. Thusall IB experimental science programmes aim to:

� provide opportunities for scientific study andcreativity within global contexts that will stim-ulate and challenge

� provide a body of knowledge and methodswhich characterise science

� enable students to apply and use a body ofknowledge and methods that characterisescience

� develop an ability to analyse, evaluate andsynthesise scientific information

� engender an awareness of the need for, andvalue of, effective collaboration and commu-nication during scientific activities

� develop experimental and investigative skills� raise awareness of the moral and ethical, so-

cial, economic and environmental implica-tions of using science and technology

� develop an appreciation of the possibilitiesand limitations associated with science andtechnology

� encourage an understanding of the relation-ships between scientific disciplines and theoverarching nature of scientific method.

It is the intent of all IB experimental scienceprogrammes that students should be able to:

1. demonstrate an understanding of� scientific facts and concepts� scientific methods and techniques� scientific terminology� methods of presenting scientific informa-

tion2. apply and use

� scientific facts and concepts� scientific methods and techniques� scientific terminology� methods of presenting scientific informa-

tion3. construct, analyse and evaluate

� scientific facts and concepts� scientific methods and techniques� scientific terminology� methods of presenting scientific informa-

tion4. demonstrate the personal skills of cooperation,

perseverance and responsibility appropriate foreffective scientific investigation and problemsolving

5. demonstrate the manipulative skills to carryout scientific investigation with precision and

Ž .safety IBO, 1996a .

Course content

Core

The core of the Environmental Systems course,the part that has to be taken by all candidates,encompasses four ‘topics’: Systems and models,The ecosystem, Global cycles and physical systems,Human population and carrying capacity.

The systems approach adopted by the coursehas already been stressed, and it will be of littlesurprise to note that the statement of the firsttopic syllabus commences with the assessmentstatement: ‘‘Outline the concept and characteris-

Žtics of a system.’’ The definition used is: anassemblage of parts and their relationships form-

.ing a functioning entity or whole. The distinc-tions between open, closed and isolated systemsfollow, together with the relevance of the firstand second laws of thermodynamics to environ-

Žmental systems. The nature of equilibria stable,


.steady state, static and dynamic , and the princi-ples of positive and negative feedback are integralto the systems approach; so too are the conceptsof transfer and transformation. Students are alsoexpected to be able to ‘‘Distinguish between flowsŽ . Ž .inputs and outputs and storages stock in rela-tion to systems.’’ This part of the syllabus endswith the statement that candidates should be ableto: ‘‘Construct and analyse diagrammatic andquantitative models involving flows and storagesin a system.’’

Although, because of its importance, the partof the syllabus dealing with systems and modelscomes first, it is not assumed that it will necessar-ily be taught first. It is appreciated that some ofthese concepts would be appropriately taught inthe context of particular examples, such as those

Ž .provided by topic 2 The ecosystem . This sectionof the syllabus is divided into components empha-sising the structure, function and changes of eco-systems. Under structure is included the distinc-tion between biotic and abiotic components of anecosystem, tropic levels, food chains and webs,

Žecological pyramids of numbers, biomass and.energy and their significance, the terms species,

population, community, niche, habitat and biome,with examples. Also included under ecosystemstructure are the various types of population in-teractions, such as competition, parasitism, mutu-alism, predation and herbivory�together with ex-amples. Function includes the role of producers,consumers and decomposers, the nature of photo-

Žsynthesis although biochemical details are not.required , together with the transfer of energy

and materials through an ecosystem. Students arealso expected to understand the terms gross andnet productivity, primary and secondary produc-tivity, and to explain the terms negative and posi-tive feedback in relation to ecosystems. Thechanges section commences with the requirementthat students should be able to explain the con-cepts of limiting factors and carrying capacity,leading to an explanation of ‘S’ and ‘J’ curves.Students are expected to be able to distinguishbetween ‘r’ and ‘K’ selection. and to use theseconcepts in describing the processes of successionin a named habitat. They are expected also to beable to explain the changes in energy flow, grossand net productivity, diversity and mineral cycling

change through succession, and to describe thenature of climax communities.

Topic 3, ‘Global cycles and physical systems,’commences with the requirement that candidatesare able to: ‘‘Describe how the atmosphere, litho-sphere and hydrosphere interact to form the eco-sphere.’’ The nature of the atmosphere, its struc-ture, energy budget and circulation provides thebasis for a discussion of the major atmosphericcirculation patterns, broad climatic regions andthus biomes. The problems of ozone depletion,global warming and acid deposition are includedunder this heading. The hydrosphere is consid-

Žered in terms of its composition seas, lakes,.rivers, atmosphere, ice caps, ground water , the

role of the oceans in the transfer of energy, andin the regulation of climate. The lithosphere ismore briefly considered, but students are ex-pected to be able to ‘‘Describe the structure ofthe Earth’s internal zones and give an expla-nation of plate tectonics,’’ and to ‘‘Explainhow plate activity has influenced evolution andbiodiversity.’’

The general tone of topic 4, ‘Human popula-tion and carrying capacity,’ is set by the openingassessment statement: ‘‘Describe the nature, andexplain the implications of exponential growth inhuman populations.’’ Candidates are expected tobe able to define, explain and calculate from datathe values of crude birth rate, crude death rate,fertility, doubling time and natural increase rate,and to construct and analyse age�sex pyramidsand demographic transition models. They are ex-pected to be able to distinguish between renew-able, replenishable and non-renewable resources,explaining the concept of resources in terms ofnatural capital. An important section deals withthe concept of sustainability. The relationshipsamongst some of these concepts are brought outin a section headed ‘‘Limits to growth.’’

Options

Candidates are required to study one option onanalysing a particular category of ecosystemŽ .marine, terrestrial or freshwater . The syllabusstatements for each are couched in very similarterms and each commences with the statement‘‘The objectives of this option can only be achieved


satisfactorily if it is taught by means of a substan-tial amount of fieldwork.’’ Teachers are expectedto show candidates how to apply some of theconcepts of the core course, very much in apractical observational setting. Each of the threeoptions has the following subheadings:

1. Measuring physical components of the system2. Measuring biotic components of the system3. Measuring the productivity of the system4. Measuring changes in the system5. Comparative study of ecosystems.

Under marine ecosystems, for example, theprogramme guide or syllabus directs that, forŽ .1 candidates should be able to ‘‘List the variousphysical factors of a marine ecosystem,’’ and ‘‘De-scribe and evaluate methods for measuring atleast 3 physical variables within a marine system.’’

Ž .Under 2 it is suggested that students should befamiliar with simple keys, and be able to usemethods for estimating the abundance of organ-

Ž .isms, and their diversity. For 5 it is suggestedthat students should be able to compare the char-acteristics of two different ecosystems within theoption selected: for marine the alternatives arepelagic, neritic, bathyal, littoral, mangrove, coralreef; for terrestrial: tropical forest, temperate for-est, temperate and tropical grassland, desert andtundra; for freshwater: lakes, rivers, bogs, swamps,marshes and estuaries.

In addition to one option on specific types ofecosystem, candidates are expected to tackle twoothers. The option of Impacts of resource exploita-tion has subsections on the exploitation of energyresources, food resources and the environmentaldemands of human populations: this includes theecological footprint model for assessing the de-mands that human populations make on the envi-ronment; candidates are expected to be able tocalculate this from simple data.

The Conser�ation and biodi�ersity option com-mences with the requirement that students shouldbe able to give definitions of the terms: biodiver-sity, genetic, species and habitat diversity, and toexplain natural selection as a driving force forspeciation, along with the role of isolation. Underthe subheading of Vulnerability to extinction, can-didates are expected to be able to discuss currentestimates of the numbers of species, rates ofextinction and the factors that make species more

or less prone to extinction. The reasons for pre-Žserving diversity ethical, aesthetic, genetic, com-

.mercial, life support aspects , are included�theIB emphasises the importance of social, politicaland moral aspects of science. Methods for pre-serving diversity mentioned in the syllabus in-clude UN Agencies, Greenpeace and the World-wide Fund for Nature, carrying this point forward.Students are expected to be able to ‘‘Describe thecriteria used to design reserves,’’ as well as toevaluate the strengths and weaknesses of thespecies-based approach to conservation. Casestudies are emphasised throughout.

The option on Pollution is also distinctly prac-tically oriented, emphasising methods of mea-surement of pollution, and the form and use ofenvironmental impact statements. The differ-ences between point- and non-point-sources ofpollution are emphasised. Topics for special studyinclude pollution from transport sources, domes-tic waste, agricultural and industrial sources.

Time allocation

It is expected that this material could be pre-sented by teachers in about 150 hours of teachingtime, over the two academic years. The core isanticipated to consume about 60 percent of the

Žtime 65 hours of ‘Theory’ and 15 hours of ‘Inves-. Ž .tigations’ practical and fieldwork and, the op-

Žtions most of the remainder 20 hours each, made.up 15 of Theory and 5 of Investigations . In

addition the curriculum model allows for 10 hourson a ‘Project’ as do all the Group 4 IB subjects,and students are expected to work together ininterdisciplinary cooperation. It is the processesof using scientific method rather than the resultthat is emphasised. Examples of appropriate top-ics might include: How could you rid the environ-ment of chewing gum? How can the school saveenergy?

External assessment

Seventy-six percent of the assessment marks areallocated to to three externally assessed examina-

Ž .tion papers. Paper 1 45 minutes is made up ofmultiple choice questions testing the candidate’sknowledge of the core. The questions are care-fully framed so as to test ability to evaluate and


manipulate data, and to draw conclusions, as wellas, for example, knowledge of important defini-tions.

Ž .Paper 2 60 minutes , tests student’s knowledgeof the core in greater depth. There is always adata-based question, which will test skills such asthe analysis, manipulation and drawing of infer-ences from data further. This may include thedrawing of graphs, and the interpretation of nu-merical and graphical data. There are also a

Žnumber of short-answer questions testing bothfactual knowledge and interpretation and analy-

.sis , and a single extended answer question, re-quiring writing some continuous paragraphs ofcarrying out a substantial piece of analysis orevaluation. A number of marks are allocated herefor the structure and organisation of the re-sponse, emphasising the importance of communi-cation in science.

Ž .Paper 3 75 minutes tests knowledge of thethree options selected, by means of a combinationof short answers and structured questions.

Internal assessment

This accounts for 24 percent of the total mark.Students spend about 25 percent of course timeon practical activities and continuing investiga-tions, which are assessed by the teacher, anddevised according to the needs of the students,available resources and local teaching styles.There is no minimum number of experiments,and the best schemes include both short practi-cals and longer-term activities. Quantitative in-vestigations and fieldwork are encouraged. It ishoped that the practical programme will be con-ducted over a period, rather that during a one-week field course. The flexibility that this part ofthe course gives to teachers to devise a practicalprogramme that suits local resources gives itstrength, be these in the schoolyard, park orrainforest. The best investigations involve:

� quantitative modelling rather than qualitativedescriptions

� students working with living material and nat-ural ecosystems

� being part of a holistic investigation of one ora few ecosystems

� enabling teachers to assess relevant practicalskills.

Each student keeps a portfolio of investiga-tions which includes data analyses made in thefield or laboratory, write-ups, and worksheets.They may also keep a log-book for jottings, rawdata, etc.

There are eight internal assessment criteria,which are related to the fundamental course ob-

Ž .jectives IBO, 1996b .

Ž .� Planning a : Defined problems and formu-lated hypotheses.

Ž .� Planning b : Designed realistic procedures toinclude appropriate apparatus, materials andmethods.

� Data collection: Observed with precision, andrecorded in an organised way.

� Data analysis: Transformed, manipulated andpresented data in a variety of appropriateways for effective communication.

� Evaluation: Evaluated the results, and proce-dures, suggested modifications where appro-priate.

� Manipulative skills: Carried out techniquesproficiently and safely, following instructions.

Ž .� Personal skills a : Worked as a team, recog-nising the contributions of others, and en-couraging.

Ž .� Personal skills b : Approachedexperiments�investigations in a problem-solv-ing manner, ethically, with self-motivation andperseverance paying due attention to environ-mental impacts.

Ž .Each skill may be assessed from level 0 lowestŽ . Ž .to level 3 highest . A total of up to 24 3�8

may be awarded for the summation judgment ofthese skills. They may also be used formativelyduring the course: for example a particular exer-cise may be undertaken where skills of planning,data collection, data analysis and evaluation areassessed. Students can be given a formative mark,with a view to improving skills in subsequentpractical exercises.

Extended essays in Environmental Systems

A number of candidates write their extendedessay on an Environmental Systems theme. Re-


cent examples have included:

� The effect of altitude on the ecology of MountKinabalu, Sabah.

� Comparison of the distribution of organismson a rock and a muddy shore in Hong Kong.

� Field burning in the Wilamette Valley of Ore-gon: economic benefits versus public healthand safety.

� An investigation into the energy conversionefficiency of commercial feeds for Tilapiapopulations

� The problems of community woodlots inIndia.

While extended essays may be either survey- ortheoretical model-based, the better essays are of-ten those that are experimental data-based andwhich address a local issue. All essays admittedunder this subject are expected to adopt a systemsapproach, and marks are lost if this is lacking.The IBO publishes detailed guidelines for stu-dents on the writing of extended essays. Particu-lar attention is paid to plagiarism and cases thatare proved are considered malpractice.

The course in practice

Inherent in this programme, as in all IB pro-grammes, is the importance placed on feedbackfrom teachers. At all stages teachers are con-sulted and their views seriously considered beforeany changes are made. Assessment proceduresare as transparent as possible and teacher ob-servers are regularly invited to curriculum review

Žand grade award meetings i.e. the final examin-.ers’ meeting after each examination session .

During the course, teachers are also asked fortheir predicted grades for each student, and wherethe actual grade appears to be significantly belowthese, special ‘at risk’ procedures apply so thatthe candidate can be given special consideration.

ŽEach subject group in the case of Environ-.mental Systems, Group 4, Experimental Sciences

is in a five-year cycle of review. Each coursesyllabus runs for five years, and is reviewed dur-ing the last three years of this period. This allowsmodifications to be made, mistakes corrected,and, if appropriate, overload reduced. It also al-lows a period of stability, assisting medium-term

planning by schools. Senior examiners, practicingteachers and external consultants are broughttogether at curriculum review meetings so thatcourses devised remain at the forefront of peda-gogic thought and subject content. A new option,in urban ecology, is currently being considered atthe request of teachers.

The destination of most IB Diploma studentsis university, and most entrance systems recognisethat the IB produces individuals with breath ofknowledge, good study skills and critical thinking.Some candidates taking the Environmental Sys-tems course have continued to study for an envi-ronmental science degree, or for some other sci-ence degree, but others do not continue withtheir formal science education. It is perhaps forthese that this course is most valuable. If thecourse aims are fulfilled, at least in part, then itproduces a group of scientifically literate individ-uals with some knowledge of pressing global envi-ronmental issues.

The International Baccalaureate Organisation,with its Headquarters in Geneva, Curriculum andAssessment Office in Cardiff, and regional offices

Žin Buenos Aires, New York, and Singapore aswell as representatives in Stockholm, Yokohama,Mumbai, Amman, Sydney, Mexico, Moscow and

.Nairobi attempts to provide support for teacherson the ground as far as reasonably possible. Withan international team of examiners it is wellplaced to undertake this, and workshops are regu-larly held at convenient centres in all continents.These workshops are for teachers new to IBteaching, or for experienced teachers who wish toshare and gain ideas on teaching strategies, re-sources and assessment. Many teachers of IBcourses are also examiners, extended essay mark-ers and internal assessment moderators. Oftenthese persons are workshop leaders, and can ex-plain the complete picture to new IB teachers.

Ž .The very detailed Programme Guide syllabusgives a list of resources available, and of possibleprojects and practical work. A very detailed re-port on the performance of all candidates is is-sued to schools after each examination, and re-

Ž .ports on individual schools and even candidatesŽ .are available for a fee if required. Recently the

IB has commenced producing a series of teachers’booklets to assist teachers in particular areas of

Ž .the subject Rutherford and Armstrong, 1998a,b .


Discussion and conclusion

Courses with a strong emphasis on fieldwork arenot new. John Sevens Henslow was a passionateadvocate of their importance at a variety of edu-cational levels from the level of the local villageschool to Cambridge University, in the middle

Ždecades of the nineteenth century Russell-Geb-.bett, 1977 , and it was partly the ‘walks with

Henslow’ that developed Charles Darwin’s inter-Ž .est in natural history Desmond and Moore, 1991 .

Arthur Tansley was among the first to integratefieldwork into formal courses in ecology: he ran acourse in field methods in northern France in the

Žfirst years of the twentieth century Armstrong,.1991 . It is of note that a report documenting the

expansion of, and emphasising the importance offield studies in UK schools and universities in the1960s was published under the auspices of The

ŽTansley Club Study Group on Education and.Field Biology, 1963 . Field studies are now an

established element in school and universitycourses in many countries, although their impor-tance varies. In the IB Environmental Systemscourse they are central.

The systems approach was an importantparadigm in a number of disciplines, notably ge-ography and the environmental sciences in the1960s and 1970s, and to cater for these, texts such

Ž .as that of Chorley and Kennedy 1969 werepublished. Such an approach was encouraged bythe development of rigorous methods of analysis

Ž .of systems by Forrester 1968 , and the use ofsuch approaches, in, for example, the Club ofRome Project on the Predicament of MankindŽ .Meadows and Meadows, 1972 . A ground-break-ing interdisciplinary course, with a strong ecologyŽ .but small fieldwork emphasis was one by the

Ž .UK’s Open University OU , entitled Systems Be-Žha�iour the course text was eponymous, Beishon

.and Peters, 1972 . This had a substantial moduleentitled The structure and management of ecosys-

Ž .tems Morris, 1977 , and attracted many hundredsof students. The strong, systems focus, emphasison quantitative methods and broad educationalobjectives have analogies with the IB course, al-though the OU was at a slightly higher level. Thesystems approach fell somewhat into disfavour asan educational paradigm in the 1980s, althoughthe publication of White, Mottershead and Harri-

Ž .son’s 1984 En�ironmental Systems: An Introduc-tory Text, and its attraction of a following, indi-cates that the approach was still valued by someteachers, the appearance of a second edition in1992 perhaps signalling something of a resur-gence.

The IB Environmental Systems course offersthe advantages of the holistic approach of someof these courses, with the insight into problemsolving that the systems approach can sometimesprovide for slightly younger students. With itsstrong field-work emphasis, rigorous scientificframework and its international dimension, it hasclaims to be unique.

References

Ž .Armstrong, P. H. 1991 Arthur George Tansley: 1871�1955.Geographers: Bibibliographic Studies. 13, 93�100.

Ž .Beishon, J. and Peters, P. 1972 Systems beha�iour. MiltonKeynes and London: Open University Press and Harper &Row.

Ž .Chorley, R. J. and Kennedy, B. A. 1969 Physical geography: asystems approach. London: Prentice Hall.

Conacher, A., Armstrong, P. H., Milton, D. and Wilson. B.Ž .1993 A course in environmental planning and manage-

Ž .ment. En�ironmentalist 13 3 , 189�98.Ž .Desmond, A. and Moore, J. 1991 Darwin. London: Michael

Joseph.Ž .Forrester, J. W. 1968 Principles of systems. Cambridge, MA:

Wright-Allen.Ž .International Baccalaureate Organisation 1996a En�iron-

mental Systems subject area programme guide. Geneva; In-ternational Baccalaureate Organisation.

Ž .International Baccalaureate Organisation 1996b Experimen-tal Sciences internal assessment. Geneva; International Bac-calaureate Organisation.

Ž .International Baccalaureate Organisation 1997a Educationfor life. Geneva; International Baccalaureate Organisation.

Ž .International Baccalaureate Organisation 1997b Statisticalbulletin. Geneva; International Baccalaureate Organisa-tion.

Ž .Meadows, D. H. and Meadows, D. L. 1977 The limits togrowth: a report on the Club of Rome’s project on thepredicament of mankind, London and Sydney: PotomacAssociates and Pan Books.

Ž .Morris, R. M. 1977 The structure and function of ecosystems;systems beha�iour module 6, 2nd ed. Milton Keynes: OpenUniversity Press.

Ž .Petersen, A. D. C. 1972 The International Baccalaureate:an experiment in international education. London; GeorgeHarrap.


Ž .Study Group on Education and Field Biology 1963 Scienceout of doors. London; Longmans.

Ž .Russell-Gebbett, J. 1977 Henslow of Hitcham. Lavenham;Terence Dalton.

Ž .Rutherford, J. and Armstrong, P. H. 1998a Systems, Environ-mental Systems Teachers Booklet 1. Geneva; InternationalBaccalaureate Organisation.

Ž .Rutherford, J. and Armstrong, P. H. 1998b Impacts of re-source exploitation, Environmental Systems Teachers Book-let 2. Geneva; International Baccalaureate Organisation.

Ž .White, I. D., Mottershead, D. N. and Harrison, S. J. 19842nd ed., 1992 En�ironmental systems: an introductory text.London; George Allen and Unwin.

Documents

An international environmental study programme: the International Baccalaureate Environmental Systems course