1

An Integrated Taranaki Ecosystem Model (ITEM):

A research programme proposal for consideration by

Dr George Mason, 18 Sutton Road, Omata, New Plymouth

Theme: Functioning of terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems in Taranaki – an

integrated ecosystem model

Our aim is to produce the first integrated ecosystem model of Taranaki, using state-of-the-art micro-

chemical and isotopic techniques. We believe that we can use the long-term chemical records of key

forest areas to demonstrate the historic connection of marine productivity to freshwater and

terrestrial ecosystems in Taranaki. We are focused on understanding the pattern, process and

functioning of Taranaki’s present-day ecosystems but have as our baseline the pre-human condition

in order that we can understand the nature and extent of change and what might be needed to

maintain and conserve the original character of these ecosystems. For example, in the recent past,

seabirds were widespread and abundant on the Taranaki mainland from the coastal shores to the

inland uplands and upper mountain slopes. These birds added nitrogen and phosphorus to the

predominant forest ecosystems of the region in the form of guano, providing a major contribution of

these key nutrients in a form that was readily available to the forest ecosystem. The forests

themselves were established after natural disturbances such as volcanic eruption, debris flows and

landslides with significant inputs of nitrogen from the main native colonising pioneer nitrogen-fixing

species tutu (Coriaria spp.), which supplied 45–192 kg N/ha per annum depending on bioclimatic

zone. The European farmers complained of having to dig out the massive lignotubers (tupaki; Esler

2004; Esler and Esler 2006) of Coriaria arborea on parts of the Egmont ring plain when converting

scrub and fernland to pasture without recognising that the tutu provided the kick-start and ongoing

recycled nitrogen that maintained the ecologically highly productive rainforests. Native forests were

conservative and efficient users of nutrients through storage and recycling in forest litter. When the

forests were cleared and burned and the first ryegrass and clover pastures planted in the ash, the

nutrients that had accumulated from many generations of forest trees were being harvested in an

instant.

These newly engineered ecosystems have replaced forest productivity with grasslands that require

continuous inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus to maintain production. Recommended application

rates of urea for dairy farming equate to 150-200 kg N/ha per annum and farmers frequently apply

double this rate. Addition of P through superphosphate can be about 35 kg P/ha per annum, so

nutrient inputs under current agro-ecosystem practices are generally significantly higher than in the

original system. Many of the detrimental impacts and general degradation of water quality in

intensively farmed landscapes are caused by the combination of continuous applications of imported

fertiliser and increased numbers of farm animals that these practices permit.

The loss of forests and introduction of mammalian predators have also significantly reduced nutrient

inputs from roosting seabirds that once transported a marine subsidy from the ocean to the land.

Overfishing and habitat loss have further disrupted the connection from the ocean to the sea. We

need to understand the new ecosystem order and the new regime of ecosystem processes and

function to plan for the restoration of the connectivity between the ocean and Taranaki’s land and

freshwaters.

2

Research team

We have assembled a team of University of Waikato researchers with a strong track record of

research in Taranaki (CVs and proposed budget attached). The team is led by Professor Bruce

Clarkson who has 36 years’ research experience and was recently awarded the prestigious Royal

Society of New Zealand Charles Fleming Medal for environmental achievement. His expertise is in

terrestrial ecosystems. Professor Brendan Hicks, recipient of the 2016 KuDos Environmental Science

award, will lead the freshwater ecosystems component and Professor Chris Battershill, Bay of Plenty

Chair in Coastal Research and recipient of the Science Communicator Medal 2015 will lead the

coastal and estuarine ecosystems component. Dr Beverley Clarkson (Landcare Research and

Honorary Lecturer, University of Waikato), who also leads the MBIE-funded national wetland

research programme, will lead the terrestrial wetlands component.

In addition, we have made provision in the budget for a postdoctoral fellow and three PhD students.

We anticipate that at least six Master of Science students and six summer scholarship students will

also be brought into the team over the four years to contribute to the research programme, but the

University of Waikato will provide the funding for that component.

Below, we describe the main research strands which together will be integrated to provide a

regional-scale model of ecosystem functioning from the coast to the mountain tops.

Connections between Taranaki marine and freshwater environments

Streams and estuaries as corridors linking the sea and the land

Freshwater ecosystems in Taranaki are intimately connected to the marine environment by the

migrations of freshwater fish species between the sea and freshwater. This process, known by the

collective term diadromy, occurs during the life cycle of freshwater fish that require the ocean

environment for their juvenile stages. Adult eels (Anguilla spp.), by far the largest of New Zealand’s

native freshwater fish, migrate from streams to tropical oceans in order to spawn. Their juveniles

must then migrate thousands of kilometres back to Taranaki estuaries to take up life in connected

up-catchment streams.

Taranaki estuaries are among the most spatially limited in the world, because of their incised

volcanic geomorphology, with most constituting an abrupt discharge point for river water to the sea

(Battershill 1980; Battershill and Venus 1980; Kibblewhite and Bergquist 1982). Despite this, their

role is critical as the pathway for many migratory fish species (e.g., whitebait, eels, torrentfish,

bullies, and kokopu), and a number of taonga species that utilise the estuaries at certain times of the

year for reproductive purposes (e.g., lamprey, Geotria australis Gray 1851). Taranaki rivers are

known to be a particular hotspot for the lamprey. Taranaki estuaries have, however, become

degraded with substantial loss of riparian vegetation and seagrass habitat. The consequences of this

for both estuarine (salt wedge) fauna and flora together with impacts on migratory fish species are

unknown. Fish migrations can be traced with otolith microchemistry using inductively coupled

plasma mass spectrometry (e.g., Hicks et al. 2005a, 2013); using this technology, we will establish

the lifetime migrational history of key native fish species. Examination of data from ongoing

migratory fish species research (whitebait) and sampling of important habitat characterising species

such as lamprey will substantiate the significance of river/sea connectivity in the Taranaki region and

further understanding of how these species adapt to the limited spatial extent of estuaries in the

region.

We will also revisit a representative sample of sites monitored by Hicks in 1978-1982 as part of the

baseline environmental assessments of Taranaki Ring Plain streams that supported the Taranaki

3

Catchment Commission’s assessment of the impacts of petrochemical development. These records

are part of the New Zealand Freshwater Fish Database (https://nzffdms.niwa.co.nz/).

Seabirds connect the sea to land

Stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen have been used to trace linkages between environments. The

analysis of changes in the ratios of the stable isotope pairs 13C/12C and 15N/14N, expressed as δ13C and

δ15N, is a highly sensitive tool for tracing the flow of carbon and nitrogen through ecosystems.

Consumers show small but reliable increases in the relative abundances of the rarer isotopes (13C

and 15N). This technique is particularly useful to trace connections between terrestrial and aquatic

ecosystems (e.g., Rounick and Hicks 1985; Hicks 1997), as the abundance of 13C and 15N is

substantially greater in marine ecosystems (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Stable isotopes and energy flow (Source: Hicks 2010).

These isotopic differences can be exploited to determine the contribution of marine carbon and

nitrogen to freshwater ecosystems (e.g., Hicks et al. 2005b). For example, petrels feeding on marine

foods formerly roosted in Mt Taranaki forests at locations such as Goat Rock in the Kaitake Range,

where the vegetation is relatively well known (Clarkson 1985). We hypothesise that soil and

vegetation at key sites will still show evidence of marine nitrogen inputs through elevated δ15N that

will verify the contribution from petrels feeding at sea and returning to roost in Taranaki forests. A

small colony of grey-faced petrels has been protected at Rapanui, Taranaki, by a predator-proof

fence (Taylor 2013), and this will make an ideal site to investigate marine contributions to Taranaki

forest ecosystems that have been largely extirpated by mammalian predators. We will use stable

isotope analyses in a full suite of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystem components to

investigate the connections between these habitats. All analyses will be performed by the Waikato

Stable Isotope Unit (Appendix 1).

Coastal marine connectivity and biogeography

The Taranaki coast is one of the most exposed in New Zealand. It is characterised by an extensive,

very shallow shelving slope. Despite the intensity of wave energy and high sediment loads, the

4

Taranaki marine environment supports one of the most diverse assemblages of encrusting species in

New Zealand (Battershill 1980, 1991; Battershill and Venus 1980). The sponge fauna in particular is

especially dynamic (Battershill and Page 1996), with a very large biomass, frequently in close

proximity to river mouths. This abundance is unusual as there is clearly a high sediment loading on

these systems, which normally limits the extent of biogenic reefs. Secondly, the species assemblage

is unusual, with both cold temperate and warm subtropical affinities. The presence of a number of

species with east Australian affinity suggests that from time to time, eddies peel off from the East

Australian current and impinge on the Taranaki Coast (Battershill 1993). There are two major areas

of unexplored interest that will be addressed in this proposal.

1. What is influencing the biogeography and ecological character of nearshore reef systems

around the Taranaki ring plain? Are we seeing a change due to shifting ocean currents,

particularly interplay between the D’Urville Current, Tasman Front and West Auckland

Current, and what does this mean for nearshore biogenic community ecology?

2. What is the significance of the very high biomass of marine encrusting organisms in

nearshore regions around the Taranaki ring plain? Does the character of discharged

sediments and detritus from Taranaki rivers influence certain taxa by providing elements

for skeletal development along high-energy coasts?

A detailed species inventory (including invasive species) around Taranaki will be undertaken with a

focus on marine encrusting invertebrates such that species assemblages will be characterised and

their affinities with other New Zealand and Australian reef systems identified. A possible

biogeographic discontinuity in South Taranaki will be explored, and the first detailed biogeographic

boundary monitoring exercise will be established for future tracking (for climate change-related

changes in major oceanic and coastal current hydrology). This programme is in the unique position

of being able to draw on 40 years of Taranaki biodiversity and coastal ecology information (Maui,

TCC and DSIR Oceanographic projects involving core University of Waikato staff); hence a decadal

scale comparison of biodiversity and coastal ecological trends is simultaneously possible.

Using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICPMS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM),

X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and next generation sequencing (NGS) coupled with ecological and

microsymbiont research, we will determine the connectedness of nearshore river-associated reef

assemblages with river-borne nutrient and mineral loading. Of special interest is the ecophysiology

of Taranaki benthic species evidenced by the abnormally high incidence of production of (defensive)

bioactive metabolites (Battershill and Page 1996; NCI 1996). This is possibly due to

metazoan/symbiont interactions in a fast changing and challenging marine environment; this is one

hypothesis that will be examined in this research package. This element of research (investigation of

links between the biogeography of benthic marine organisms and the influence of terrestrial sources

of sedimentary elements) is novel and will shed light on the dynamics of the connection between

the land and the sea in shaping Taranaki marine benthic biogeography.

The seabed mapping programme developed under the Te Puke Ariki programme will be extended to

provide a broad geographic dynamic to the more focused study of a representative selection of

river/coastal interplays. The 3D multi-beam survey in Te Puke Ariki ground-truthed the use of

remote sensing technologies for large-scale identification of categories of biogenic community

structure (initially focusing on the Parininihi Marine Reserve). This profiling will be extended to

examine a selection of key river mouth/reef systems around Taranaki in order to provide the

backdrop to the more intensive connectivity studies (Nichol et al. 2012; Przeslawski 2014; Sturgess

2015; Sturgess et al. 2016a, 2016b).

5

Lake restoration ecology

Restoration of the aquatic ecology and ecosystem function of Lake Rotokare

European perch (Perca fluviatilis) dominate the fish community in Lake Rotokare, and we believe

that the biomass and density of eels are low because of perch predation and possibly recruitment

limitations (Hicks and Tana 2013). Perch also threaten native banded kokopu in the lake and most

likely contribute to algal bloom development through the consumption of zooplankton. Algal blooms

in summer, especially of cyanobacteria, can restrict contact recreation by swimmers and other lake

users. We will deploy a state-of-the-art lake buoy

with a depth profiler (Figure 2 and Appendix 2) to

collect high-frequency water quality data

(temperature, fluorescence, and dissolved oxygen;

see Figure 3) in order to establish the conditions that

lead to algal bloom formation. Previous attempts at

perch control and removal have targeted large

individuals that are easy to remove with gill nets.

Removal of adults alone generally serves only to

increase recruitment of juveniles, which is the

opposite of the intended effect. We will develop a

new method, using fish aggregation devices (FADs), to

count and control juvenile perch. Fish aggregation devices are ideal for citizen science as they can be

set and retrieved by volunteers with limited field experience and equipment. We will involve

members of the Rotokare Scenic Reserve Trust in the monitoring and fish removal programme, and

the results will provide rigorous scientific results at the same time as removing juvenile perch. We

will begin this work this year with a Waikato Summer Scholarship. The abundance and size structure

of the perch and eel populations will be established by mark-recapture techniques. Lake water

quality will be monitored with a lake buoy and stable isotope analyses of the food web will form part

of the suite of ecosystem responses investigated to evaluate the outcome of restoration.

Figure 2. Lake buoy on Lake Whangape, Waikato.

Figure 3. Annual dissolved oxygen (DO) profile downloaded from a University of Waikato Limnotrack lake buoy. Note

low DO (blue) due to stratification at bottom far left.

6

Terrestrial restoration ecology

Wetland function

More than 95% of original wetlands in Taranaki have been destroyed (Ausseil et al. 2008). Those that

remain are under threat from nutrient enrichment, drainage, and weed and pest invasion, most

associated with land-use change. Nutrients are fundamental in determining wetland structure and

function, and ultimately wetland type. Additional inputs of externally-derived nutrients have the

potential to negatively impact natural processes of wetlands by changing the nature of the nutrient

limitation. For example, bogs typically have plant N:P ratios greater than 16, indicating P limitation,

while swamps have N:P ratios less than 14, indicating N limitation (Verhoeven et al. 1996). Previous

studies in Waikato wetlands using stable isotopes (Clarkson et al. 2005, 2009) show δ15N is also an

indicator of P limitation; low values indicate P limitation.

We will test the nature of the limitation of N and P, the two most important nutrients for plant

growth, in a range of both intact and modified wetlands in Taranaki to assess the impacts of

productive landscapes on nutrient dynamics. Intact wetlands include Lake Rotokare, Potaema, and

Ahukawakawa, and modified wetlands include Barrett Lagoon, Rawhitiroa School Swamp Forest, and

Ngaere ‘Swamp’. We will use plant species that are widespread and typical of Taranaki wetland

ecosystems, such as manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and waiwaka (Clarkson 2014) or swamp

maire (Syzygium maire). We will establish permanent plots, survey the vegetation, measure physical

parameters such as water table and pH, and analyse soil and foliage nutrients (N, P, K, C) following

the wetland condition handbook methodology (Clarkson et al. 2004). We will collect foliage samples

for N and C stable isotope analysis at the Waikato Stable Isotope Unit (Appendix 1). There is

potential to include research on other ecosystem processes that are also known to be affected by

nutrient inputs, such as litter decomposition (Clarkson et al. 2014), soil microbial respiration, and soil

microbial biomass.

Coriaria nitrogen fixation and its role in the establishment of forest, and tussock grassland

Coriaria spp. are nexus or keystone species in many New Zealand environments because they are

capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and facilitating vegetation succession (Clarkson et al. 2002;

Walker et al. 2003). Stable isotope analysis of 15N will be used to understand and quantify the role of

Coriaria spp. in the succession and development of primary forest on alluvial terraces of the

Hangatahua (Stony River) and tussock grasslands of Taranaki. A series (chronosequence; Walker et al.

2010) of different-aged alluvial terraces of the Hangatahua will be measured to determine the

contribution of tutu (Coriaria arborea) to development of forest and in particular how nitrogen is

accumulated, how far it travels to adjoining forest patches, and how it is cycled within forest stands.

In the subalpine zone of Mt Taranaki, the focus will be on the distinctive patches/aggregations of

vegetation containing the summer green subshrubs Coriaria pteridoides and/or C. plumosa (Clarkson

1986). Again, the aim will be to determine a nitrogen budget and assess the impact on rates of

vegetation change and on the performance of individual species associated with the patches. For

example, Celmisia gracilenta individuals are larger inside than outside of Coriaria patches. The size

and phenology of Celmisia and other species will be assessed along nitrogen and microclimate

gradients.

Priority effects in alpine herbfields

Colonising species can determine future community assembly by controlling niche space, a phenomenon known as priority effects (Leopold et al. 2015). If a community has been strongly influenced by priority effects, older lineages are expected to be more abundant, having competitively excluded later colonists through niche pre-emption (Silvertown 2004; Silvertown et al. 2005). The priority of earlier colonists for niche space is implicated in controlling rates of species radiation, as traits required for microhabitat adaptation diverge early in clades, increasing diversity

7

within genera (Ackerly et al. 2006; Tanentzap et al. 2015). Alpine habitats in New Zealand are geologically very young (Heenan and McGlone 2013), yet support many highly endemic and diverse plant species (Tanentzap et al. 2015), which therefore evolved over a short period (Winkworth et al. 2005). Lee et al. (2012) and Leopold et al. (2015) used data from the Murchison Mountains in the Southern Alps to determine if niche pre-emption of older lineages contributed to the pattern of assembly in those communities. Their results indicated the older lineages had higher community abundance, suggesting niche pre-emption was a priority effect that influenced assembly through ecological and evolutionary time. Priority effects may be responsible for the pattern and process influencing radiation and diversity within the New Zealand alpine flora. Mount Taranaki is the youngest alpine habitat in New Zealand, offering an interesting site in which to test historical effects on community assembly, compared to the older communities in the South Island.

The priority effect studies initiated by Theresa Moore (George Mason Scholarship recipient) will be expanded on Taranaki and extended to include the Pouakai Range, as the herbfield there may reveal priority effects not evident on the younger and more regularly disturbed volcanic cone of Taranaki.

Conclusion

We have outlined an ambitious research programme that seeks to bring understanding of Taranaki ecosystems to a new level, contributing to better management and restoration. We feel that Taranaki has missed out on cutting-edge research in recent years, partly because it lacks a research-intensive tertiary provider and partly because government funding has persuaded Crown Research Institutes to take a more national approach. Without our proposed integrated programme of research, Taranaki as a region will continue to suffer from lack of a cohesive ecological framework to direct ecosystem management and restoration and to mitigate adverse effects of current resource use practices.

References

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Ausseil AGE, Gerbeaux P, Chadderton WL, Stephens T, Brown D, Leathwick J. 2008. Wetland ecosystems of national importance for biodiversity. Landcare Research Contract Report LC0708/158.

Battershill CN. 1980. Marine Ecology: water resource investigations – Tikorangi. Taranaki Catchment Commission, Stratford Confidential Report.

Battershill CN, Page MJ. 1996. Preliminary Survey of Pariokariwa Reef, North Taranaki. A report prepared for the Department of Conservation Wanganui. NIWA, Wellington. 1996/10-WN. 15pp.

Battershill CN, Venus GC. 1980. Estuarine biological investigations: water resource investigations: petrochemical development, Tikorangi. Taranaki Catchment Commission Stratford, NZ. 46pp.

Clarkson BD. 1985. The vegetation of the Kaitake Range Egmont National Park, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 23: 15-31

Clarkson BD. 1986: Vegetation of Egmont National Park. National Parks Scientific Series No. 5. DSIR Science Information Publishing Centre, Wellington. 95pp. ISBN 0-477-06787-5.

Clarkson BR, Moore TR, Fitzgerald NB, Thornburrow D, Watts CH, Miller S 2014. Water table regime regulates litter decomposition in restiad peatlands, New Zealand. Ecosystems 17(2), 317-326.

Clarkson BR, Schipper LA, Moyersoen B, Silvester WB 2005. Foliar 15N natural abundance indicates phosphorus limitation of bog species. Oecologia 144, 550-557.

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Clarkson BR, Schipper LA, Silvester WB. 2009. Nutritional niche separation in coexisting bog species demonstrated by 15N-enriched simulated rainfall. Austral Ecology 34(4), 377-385.

Clarkson BR, Sorrell BK, Reeves PN, Champion PD, Partridge TR, Clarkson BD. 2004. Handbook for monitoring wetland condition. Coordinated Monitoring of New Zealand Wetlands. A Ministry for the Environment Sustainable Management Fund Project. 74pp. Available: http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/publications/researchpubs/handbook_wetland_condition.pdf

Clarkson BR, Walker LR, Clarkson BD, Silvester WB. 2002. Impact of Coriaria arborea on seed banks during primary succession on Mt Tarawera, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 40, 629-638.

Clarkson WM. 2014. Waiwaka: Taranaki’s forgotten swamp tree. WM Clarkson, 4 Camden Street, New Plymouth.

Esler, Alan. 2004. Wild plants in Auckland: Auckland University Press.

Esler A, Esler W. 2006. The lignotuber of tutu (Coriaria arborea). Auckland Botanical Society Journal 61: 63-64.

Hicks BJ. 1997. Food webs in forest and pasture streams in the Waikato region: a study based on analyses of stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen, and fish gut contents. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 31, 651-664.

Hicks BJ. 2004. Flow evaluation for the Manganui River, Taranaki, downstream of Tariki Road, between the Mangaotea and Mangamawhete Streams. CBER Contract Report No. 34. Confidential client report prepared for Kingett Mitchell Ltd, Christchurch. Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology Research, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Hamilton. 18pp.

Hicks BJ. 2010. Box 11.3: Stable isotopes and energy flow. In: Collier KC, Hamilton DP (Eds), The Waters of the Waikato: Ecology of New Zealand’s longest river, p.222. Environment Waikato, Hamilton. Environment Waikato and the Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology Research (University of Waikato), Hamilton.

Hicks BJ, Bell DG, Duggan I, Wood S, Tempero G. 2013. Aquatic ecology of Lake Rotokare, Taranaki, and options for restoration. ERI report number 14. A report prepared for the Rotokare Scenic Reserve Trust. Environmental Research Institute, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Waikato, Hamilton, NZ.

Hicks BJ, Tana R. 2013. Life history analysis of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) from lakes Mapourika and Paringa, West Coast, South Island, New Zealand, by otolith microchemistry. ERI Report No. 24. Client report prepared for West Coast Fish and Game Council. Environmental Research Institute, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Waikato, Hamilton, NZ.

Hicks BJ, West DW, Barry BJ, Markwitz A, Baker CF, Mitchell CP. 2005a. Chronosequences of strontium in the otoliths of two New Zealand migratory freshwater fish, inanga (Galaxias maculatus) and koaro (G. brevipinnis). International Journal of Particle Induced X-ray Emission 15(3-4), 95-101.

Hicks BJ, Wipfli MS, Lang DW, Lang ME. 2005b. Marine-derived nitrogen and carbon in freshwater-riparian food webs of the Copper River Delta, southcentral Alaska. Oecologia 144, 558-569.

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Nichol S, Heap A, Anderson T, Presowlski R, Battershill C. 2012. Submerged subaerial dunes colonised by corals, Ningaloo Reefs. In: Harris PT, Baker EK (Eds), Seafloor Geomorphology as Benthic Habitat: GeoHab Atlas of seafloor Geomorphic Features and Benthic Habitats. Elsevier Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385140-6.00027-X.

Parkyn SM, Collier KJ, Hicks BJ. 2001. New Zealand stream crayfish: functional omnivores but trophic predators? Freshwater Biology 46(5), 641-652.

Przeslawski R, Alvarez B, Battershill C, Smith T. 2014. Sponge biodiversity and ecology of the Van Diemen Rise and eastern Joseph Bonaparte Gulf, northern Australia. Hydrobiologia 730(1), 1-16. DOI: 10.1007/s10750-013-1799-8

Rounick JS, Hicks BJ. 1985. The stable carbon isotope ratios of fish and their invertebrate prey in four New Zealand rivers. Freshwater Biology 15, 207-214.

Silvertown, J. 2004. The ghost of competition past in the phylogeny of island endemic plants. Journal of Ecology 92, 168-173.

Silvertown J., Francisco-Ortega J., Carine M. 2005. The monophyly of island radiations: an evaluation of niche pre-emption and some alternative explanations. Journal of Ecology 93, 653-657.

Sturgess N. 2015. MSc: Mapping the ecological and biophysical character of seabed habitats of the Parininihi Marine Reserve, Taranaki, New Zealand. 114 pp. (Chief Supervisor C Battershill)

Sturgess N, Ross P, Battershill C. 2016a. Remote Sensing Habitat Mapping on the north Taranaki Coast New Zealand: Proxies for Biodiversity Assessment. In preparation for Estuarine and Coastal Shelf Marine Science.

Sturgess N, Ross P, Battershill C. 2016b. Factors affecting the spatial distribution and abundance of marine species in a high diversity sponge characterised environment on a high energy Taranaki Coast, New Zealand. In preparation for Marine Ecology Progress Series.

Tanentzap AJ, Brandt AJ, Smissen RD, Heenan PB, Fukami T, Lee, WG. 2015. When do plant radiations influence community assembly? The importance of historical contingency in the race for niche space. New Phytologist 207, 468-479.

Taylor GA. 2013. Grey-faced petrel. In: Miskelly CM (Ed), New Zealand Birds Online. http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/species/grey-faced-petrel

Teirney LD, Jowett IG. 1990. Trout abundance in New Zealand rivers: an assessment by drift diving. New Zealand Freshwater Fisheries Report No. 118. Freshwater Fisheries Centre, MAF Fisheries, Christchurch.

Verhoeven JTA, Koerselmann W, Meuleman AF. 1996. Nitrogen- or phosphorus-limited growth in herbaceous, wet vegetation: relations with atmospheric inputs and management regimes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:494–497.

Walker LR, Clarkson BD, Silvester WB, Clarkson BR. 2003. Colonization dynamics and facilitative impacts of a nitrogen-fixing shrub in primary succession. Journal of Vegetation Science 14, 277-290.

Walker LR, Wardle DA, Bardgett RD, Clarkson BD. 2010: The use of chronosequences in studies of ecological succession and soil development. Journal of Ecology 98, 725-736.

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Appendix 1. The Waikato Stable Isotope Unit

Director: Prof Brendan Hicks

The Waikato Stable Isotope Unit (WSIU) is part of the Faculty of Science and Engineering at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. The WSIU provides cost-effective analyses of (1) analyses of stable isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen and (2) analyses of elemental content of carbon and nitrogen in natural materials such as plant and animal tissues, soils, and gases for staff and students at the University of Waikato and their collaborators. We do this by cross-subsidising analyses for internal (university) users with income from analyses for external commercial customers. We rely on full-time, permanent technical management to achieve high-precision, accurate, timely, and consistent results. Returning customers confirm our high-quality analytical services. Since 1997 at least 37 peer-reviewed publications and student theses have been produced with analyses from the WSIU.

The WSIU has two isotope-ratio mass spectrometers (IRMSs). A PDZ Europa 20/20 Stable Isotope Analyzer IRMS fitted with an ANCA-NT GSL inlet and preparation system, now supported by Sercon in the UK, was commissioned in December 2002. In 2012, we added an IsoPrime100 Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer and an Elementar Vario Pyro cube as the elemental analyser and preparation system.

The WSIU’s IsoPrime100 Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer and Elementar Vario Pyro cube.

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Appendix 2. The lake buoy: a high-frequency, real-time instrument for measuring lake

profiles

Chris McBride and the LERNZ team have completed design, construction, and installation of a number of solar-powered, high-frequency meteorology and water-quality monitoring buoys. They transmit quarter-hourly data in near real-time for a range of variables. Meteorological variables include wind speed and direction, air temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure, and precipitation. Water-quality variables include surface- and bottom-dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll fluorescence and phycocyanin (indicative of phytoplankton and cyanobacteria biomass respectively), water temperature at regular intervals through the water column, pH, light absorption, and bottom nitrate concentration.

Bay of Plenty Regional Council has funded monitoring stations in the Rotorua lakes and the collection and management of data is in partnership with local company iQuest. So far, there are lake monitoring buoys on Lakes Rotorua, Rotoiti, and Tarawera, and there will soon be another on Lake Rotoehu.

Monitoring buoys have also been installed at lakes Tutira and Waikaremoana in Hawkes Bay, and Lake Ngaroto in Waikato. Outside New Zealand, a buoy was installed on Lake Taihu, China, in 2007, and another was deployed on a reservoir in Singapore in June 2010.

The live data for the Rotorua lake stations and our weather station near Lake Tarawera and can be

found on Bay of Plenty Regional Council's telemetry webpage.

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Appendix 3. Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

Director: Associate Professor Allan Hogg

The Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory is part of the Faculty of Science and Engineering at the University of Waikato in Hamilton, New Zealand. It is an international radiocarbon facility undertaking both Standard Radiometric Dating and Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Dating (AMS).

For more than 35 years, we have been providing radiocarbon assays for scientists from around the world. We have been at the forefront of research into the technique and its application in the disciplines of palaeoclimate and archaeology.

The Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory has a commitment to customer service and providing expert advice on all aspects of radiocarbon analysis.

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Areas of expertise

The Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory is headed by scientists with active fieldwork and research interests. Their achievements over the last 35 years have resulted in the following areas of expertise:

Development of the SHCal13 calibration curve Specialists in bone pretreatment and calibration Experts in marine shell dating Palaeoenvironmental research Dating the earliest archaeological evidence for colonisation of the Pacific Tephras Improving the radiocarbon dating technique