AN EXAMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION ON …

AN EXAMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF

GLOBALIZATION ON GHANA’S FOREIGN POLICY

SINCE THE END OF THE COLD WAR

BY

HILDA AMOAKOA GYASI

(10301695)

THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY

OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

LEGON JULY 2019

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh

i

DECLARATION

I, Hilda Amoakoa Gyasi, do hereby declare that, except for references made to other people’s

work, this dissertation is the result of an original research conducted by me under the supervision

of Dr. Boni Yao Gebe and no part of it has been submitted anywhere else for any other purpose.

All sources of information and materials used have been duly acknowledged and referenced in

the bibliography.

…………………………….….. ….….………………………….

HILDA AMOAKOA GYASI DR. BONI YAO GEBE

(STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR)

DATE: …………………………. DATE: ……………..………….


ii

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to the Almighty God, for his continuous guidance, wisdom and

strength in completing this work; to my caring and loving father, Apostle Kingsley Gyasi, for his

constant prayers, encouragement and great support throughout my period of study: to my sweet

mother, Mrs. Joyce Oye Gyasi, who always corrected and guided me in every area of life; to my

lovely husband, Emmanuel Boakye-Yiadom, for his patience and support in ensuring that I

complete this work.

Thank you to all who supported and encouraged me throughout my period of study.

God bless you all.


iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My profound appreciation goes to the Almighty God for granting me wisdom, favour and

strength in successfully completing my graduate studies at LECIAD.

Again, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Boni Yao Gebe, for his guidance in

completing this work and for going through and correcting my work several times to make sure I

did the right thing.

I am also grateful to my parents, Apostle Kingsley Gyasi and Mrs. Joyce Gyasi for their support

and encouragement that helped me complete this course successfully. I would like to say thank

you to my husband, Emmanuel Boakye-Yiadom for his immense help in completing this work.

I further acknowledge Dr. Philip Attuquayefio for his help in selecting my research topic and his

constant encouragement throughout my stay at LECIAD. I also appreciate Mrs. Cynthia

Attuquayefio for her great help during my data collection and research work. Thank you to all

my siblings for their prayers. I appreciate all the ten (10) respondents who sacrificed their time to

grant me an interview for my data collection.

Finally, I would like to thank all my friends and colleagues at LECIAD for their constant

encouragement and for being each other’s keeper.

I appreciate you all in my life. May God continue to keep you and bless you all.


iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BPM - Bureaucratic Politics Model

ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States

FPDM - Foreign Policy Decision Making

GATT - General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs

GBM - Governmental Barging Model

GEPA - Ghana Export Promotion Authority

GPM - Governmental Politics Model

MDAs - Ministries, Departments and Agencies

MFARI - Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration

MNCs - Multinational Corporations

MOTI - Ministry of Trade and Industry

NEPAD - New Partnership for African Development

OPM - Organisational Process Model

RAM - Rational Actor Model

SOPs - Standard Operating Procedures

WTO - World Trade Organization


v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………………..i

DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………..ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………..iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………….………iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………….v

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………..….…....viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………………….…………….….…….1

1.0 Background to the Study…………………………………………….……………..….…..1

1.1 Statement of the Research Problem………………………………….……………..……..3

1.2 Research Questions………………….....…………………………………………...……..4

1.3 Research Objectives…………….....……………………………………………...……….4

1.4 Scope of the Study…………………………………....…………………...………………5

1.5 Rationale of the Study……………………………....……………………………………..5

1.6 Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………………5

1.7 Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………12

1.7.1 Defining Globalization…………………………………………………………………..12

1.7.2 Defining Foreign Policy…………………………………………………………………16

1.7.3 Relationship between Globalization and Foreign Policy………………………………..19

1.8 Sources of data……………………………………………………………………………20

1.9 Research Methodology……………………...……………………………………………20

1.10 Ethical Considerations…………………………………………………………………...22

1.11 Limitations of the Study…………………………………………………………………23


vi

1.12 Organisation of Chapters…………………………………….…………………………..23

Endnotes………………………………………………………….…………………………..….24

CHAPTER TWO: AN OVERVIEW OF GLOBALIZATION AND FOREIGN POLICY

DECISION MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………............…………26

2.1 Globalization……………………………………………………………….…………….26

2.2 Historical Perspective of Globalization………………………………………………….27

2.3 Dimensions of Globalization……………………………………………………….……29

2.3.1 Political Globalization………………………………………………..……………...….30

2.3.2 Economic Globalization…………………………………………………………..…….31

2.3.3 Cultural Globalization………………………………………..…………………………32

2.3.4 Technological Globalization………………………………………………………..…..33

2.4 Foreign Policy……………………………………...…………………………………...34

2.5 Objectives of Ghana’s Foreign Policy…………………………………………………..34

2.6 Foreign Policy Decision Making and Implementation………………………………….37

2.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………40

Endnotes………………………………………………………………………………………..41


vii

CHAPTER THREE: THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON GHANA’S FOREIGN

POLICY

3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..48

3.1 Economic Diplomacy………………………………………………………………...48

3.1.1 International Trade……………………………………...…………………………….53

3.2 Regional Integration…………………………………………………………………..55

3.3 Culture……………………………………………………………………………...…57

3.4 Positive effects of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy…………………………..60

3.5 Negative effects of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy………………………....61

3.6 Conclusion………………...……………………………………………………….…63

Endnotes…………………………..………………………………………………………….64

CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..66

4.1 Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………………...66

4.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………69

4.3 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………70

Bibliography…………………………..……………………………………………………...75

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………..81


viii

ABSTRACT

The emergence of globalization has made the world a global village. It has thus made

interactions between states easier to conduct as the world has become a smaller place.

Consequently, it has made states to fashion their foreign policy in such a way that follows the

current trends of the world. The purpose of this research is to examine how globalization has

influenced Ghana’s foreign policy in terms of its decision making and implementation in the area

of economic diplomacy, regional integration and culture. The research discovered that Ghana’s

foreign policy has not changed in its tenets since it is part and parcel of the constitution of

Ghana. However, in pursuing the foreign policy agenda it has been influenced from time to time

as the process of globalization intensifies. The research used a purposive sampling technique to

collect data from ten (10) respondents who are knowledgeable in the area of globalization as well

as Ghana’s foreign policy. The study found out that globalization has made economic diplomacy

easier to practice. It also discovered that some aspects of Ghana’s culture has been influenced in

the area of music, clothing, dance, arts as well as education. The research further made some

recommendations to help Foreign Policy Practitioners to improve upon Ghana’s foreign policy in

the light of the trends in globalization.


1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background to the Study

With the advent of globalization, especially since the end of the Cold War, the world has become a

much smaller place. In other words, the world has developed virtually into a single village with

people increasingly becoming connected on a daily basis. Interactions between different countries

has brought about the condition in which a particular country’s economy, development as well as

her domestic and foreign policies are not in the hands of the ruling government only but also

influenced highly by external forces in the international system.1

Prior to the advancement of globalization, between 1947 and 1991, the world witnessed a struggle

between two fundamentally opposed values and social systems: communism and liberal

democracy.2 The two protagonists in this struggle were the Soviet Union and the United States

(U.S). However, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the international system witnessed an increasing

growth in the development of nation states.3 Thus, the outcome of this development is the

intensification of interactions among these nation states.

Ghana, as a country and, to a large extent, the entire African continent is faced with a variety of

outer contest to ruling arising from the joint impact presented by outcomes of the post-Cold War

era and the force of globalization as seen by the spread of “the third wave” of democratization on

the region of Africa from the 1990s.4 “The third wave of democratization was a global democratic

revolution which occurred between 1974 and 1990 in more than thirty countries in Southern

Europe, Latin America, East Asia, Eastern Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa”.5 It was a period in


2

which most countries in the world moved away from the practice of autocratic governance to the

practice of democratic governance.6

These stages have not only changed the interaction of local politics, such as the restoration of

multi-party democracy of independent African states but significantly, has changed the building of

the very form and composition of foreign policy in Africa of which Ghana is part.7 With no

country being an island, states continue and may forever continue to be dependent on one another

and at the core of that continuous interaction among states is the national interest.8

Every country desires to enter into relations that will inure to the general good of its citizenry and

this basically has concerns and aspirations in the areas of security, trade, welfare, independence,

culture, among others. The level of interactions among countries in the international system is

greatly determined by a country’s foreign policy. Leaders of states are therefore obliged to pursue

such policies that will help in realizing the fundamental aim of improving the quality of life of its

citizens.

The concept of foreign policy, however, highlighted by globalization, indicates that the focus and

the object is changing from the concentration of interstate relations to the inclusion of a number of

other actors such as Multinational Corporations, International Governmental Organizations and

Non-Governmental Organizations. This, therefore, means that globalization is influencing the

foreign policy conduct of nations and the effect of it has therefore placed tremendous challenge on

the traditional view of foreign policy, conveyed by classical international relations theorists who

perceived the concept to be purely a state centered affair.9

Moreover, foreign policy has occupied a central position in international relations more than ever

before due to the gradual borderless society induced by globalization, resulting in new means of


3

interdependence emerging from the internet to satellite communications technology and to global

financial networks.10 “Globalization itself is neither inherently good nor bad”.11 Therefore,

governments may not be able to avoid its influence on their citizens. And this can occur without

depriving them of its benefits. However, they can mould it to suit their national interest.12 Thus,

the opportunities and benefits of globalization can be used to shape the decision making and

implementation process of foreign policy, especially in the case of Ghana. A state can, therefore,

define its level of engagement with the rest of the world through its foreign policy.

Consequently, one can argue that the concepts of globalization and foreign policy are not in

isolation, but closely connected or interrelated. It is for this reason that the study seeks to examine

the influence that globalization has on the foreign policy of Ghana.

1.1 Statement of the Research Problem

The concepts of globalization and foreign policy play significant roles in the field of international

relations. These concepts are, therefore, relevant in the field of international relations, and as such

require a deeper understanding of their nature and components.

The forces of globalization have not only become new sources of challenges, but have in the

process become forces that inform the foreign policies of African states.13 That is to say that, there

are contemporary issues that shape the foreign policies of states and these issues arise as a result of

state to state interactions in the international system.

Globalization serves as a ground for change in the behaviour of states and through this

phenomenon, states take decisions with regards to their foreign policy that will serve the interest of

the people which is ultimately geared towards a change and improvement in the lives of people.


4

Thus, foreign policy decisions taken by the government of Ghana has impact on the citizenry as

well as the state as an entity. Hence, the influence or effect of globalization on the foreign policy

of a country may be social, economic and partisan (political) or may take other forms.

In addition to the available information on globalization and foreign policy in the literature, this

study aims to identify and examine some of the factors of globalization that have shaped the

foreign policy process of states. It is on the basis of the above that this research seeks to explore

globalization within the scope of international relations. Thus, this study seeks to examine how

globalization influences Ghana’s foreign policy.

1.2 Research Questions

The study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the objectives of Ghana’s foreign policy?

2. What are the features of globalization?

3. How has globalization influenced the foreign policy of Ghana?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main aim of the study is to examine the influence of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy.

Specifically, the study is guided by the following objectives:

1. To find out the objectives of Ghana’s foreign policy.

2. To examine the features of globalization.

3. To examine how globalization has influenced Ghana’s foreign policy.


5

1.4 Scope of the Study

The study is designed to examine the influence of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy decision

making and implementation in the areas of economic diplomacy, regional integration and culture.

The period under review is after the end of the Cold War which has been characterized by a great

advancement in globalization.

1.5 Rationale of the Study

The significance of this study is to help take a more proactive action in decisions that will protect

Ghana’s foreign policy goals. It will also serve as a guide to scholars, politicians, members of

academia, as well as workers in the field of international affairs to better understand the effects of

globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy.

The study can be used to provide empirical basis to conduct further studies on globalization and its

influence on foreign policy. Furthermore, it will augment the existing literature on globalization

and foreign policy, specifically the influence of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

The concept of globalization has a dividing stand in its relation in the world of global politics.14

Over the last decades, the concept has undergone series of ontological mutations and slowly

moving its main idea of the ontological interregnum.15 In the view of Clark, while there is no lack

of recent overviews of the globalization debate, not much concern has been dedicated to the idea of

globalization from other viewpoints than those provided by globalization theory itself”.16 This


6

means that much has been written about the theoretical basis of globalization but that of its

conceptual ideas have been few.

This study is hinged on the conceptual framework of the globalization process and three main

conceptual notions of globalization are discussed according to the work of Bartleson (2000). In his

work on the Three Concepts of Globalization, Bartleson explains globalization as a concept of

transference, a concept of transformation and a concept of transcendence.

Globalization as transference or exchange refers to “an intensified transference or exchange of

things between units, be they political, economic or cultural. Thus conceived, globalization

signifies a process of change that originates at the level of the unit, mainly in terms of the

unintended consequences of the interaction between units”.17 It is ontologically individualistic, that

is reducible to observable changes at the state level and means a change across existing frontiers

and between units and systems. Nonetheless, the units and the systems do not change during the

stages of globalization. As a result, changes take place in the nature of interaction and differs

according to the intentions and strategies of the organization but without a change in the nature and

boundary of the units themselves. While individual firms are getting territorially disembedded,

internationalization of enterprise still implies that national economies are the main components of

the world economy as trade and business exchange take place between countries. The state stays as

the main agent of globalization recording its progress. As such, very little differentiates it from

internationalization and interdependence.18 However, there is a difference in the sense that

globalization is not simply an existing condition but also that which generates change.

As a transformation, globalization is the process that occurs at the systems level, and it affects the

system as much as it affects the identity of the units. It takes the transference or the exchange view


7

to another level. Here, globalization is not seen as an exchange between pre-existing units but an

agent of change that has an effect on the identity of the units and agents as it shows changes that

take place in the systematic level. Both the system and the states become the unit of analysis.19

Thus, while states remain the same in terms of their physical form, their core capacities are

changed, leaving the option for global governance centered on the interaction between them and an

authority (global order) outside the states.

Finally, in his transcendence sense, globalization implies the dissolution of those distinctions that

together condition unit, system and dimension identity. It is a concept that dissolves the divide

between inside and outside. Bartleson is of the view that, this concept tries to “despatialize and

detemporalize human practices as well as the conditions of human knowledge, and it projects them

onto the global as a condition of its existence”.20 Here, the network of organization is exchanged

by a network of flows. Globalization is not only about changes in the attributes of the units but

changes to the unit itself. It provides a template for understanding the changes taking place in a

system as well as functioning as a mediating concept between old-world experience, current

circumstances and a future of possibilities. It blends the conditions of experience with the

condition of expectation.

In the light of the above, the choice of states to flow with all or any of these three globalization

concepts in their dealings and relations with other states and organisations as discussed is

connected with the kind of foreign policy decision that it makes towards these states. These foreign

policy decisions serve as a basis to the form of globalization ideal that states would prefer to have

with other states or organisations in the global world.


8

Mintz and DeRouen (2010), assert that Foreign Policy Decision Making deals with the “choices

individuals, groups and coalitions make that affect a nation‘s actions on the international stage”.21

They further added that, it is the study to understand what goes into decision that presages

activities and events.22 In the view of Goldstein and John Pevehouse, it is “a steering process in

which adjustments are made as per the feedback from the outside world”.23 This means that

decisions are carried out by actions taken to change the world, and then information from the

world is mentioned to assess the outcomes of those actions. The foreign policy process is also a

process of decision making and states take actions because people in government and decision

makers choose those actions. These policies are aimed by governments to be translated from

political vision into outcomes so the effect of change will be seen in the real world.24

In having a better understanding of the foreign policy decision making process by states and how

these decisions guide the activities of states, organisations and groups in the area of globalized

transference, transformation and transcendence among each other, it is useful to elaborate some of

the models of foreign policy decision making which guide the actions of states in the global arena.

Three major types of foreign policy decision making shall be discussed comprising of the

organizational process model, the rational actor model and the bureaucratic politics model. These

theories were advanced by Graham Allison and outlined in his book, The Essence of Decision:

Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis.25

According to Graham, Rational Actor Model refers to “the leader who takes decision the way it

should have been taken without any bias or influence”.26 The model is considered as the best way


9

to solve issues of political concern. Giving a definition to rationality, Graham states that rationality

refers to a “consistent value-maximizing choice within special fiend constraints”.27 Therefore,

rational actor model of policy making is the process of making the appropriate choice in order to

gain state goal by evaluating all possible substitutes and its effects. The rational actor model also

depends on the interrelationship that a single state has with other states and government entities.

This serves as a basis for analysis and supposedly tries to provide a reliable and a complete

information to decision makers for optimization.28 In this type of decision making process, the

actions of people are in order and with reason.

There are four main steps in the rational actor’s decision-making process comprising problem

identification, defining desired outcomes, evaluating the consequences of potential policy choices

and finally making the most rational decision to maximize beneficial outcomes.29 In view of this,

the rational actor state, leader or organisation aims at taking decisions that will be in the interest of

its members and as such will weigh options of information before taking decisions. Countries with

such leaders will therefore engage in the transference or exchange of goods and services with other

states only if the outcome of such engagements will be to the benefits of its members by weighing

the consequences. The aim would also be to ensure that a positive transformation has taken place

within its system and in the lives of its people. The model is useful to understanding the goals and

intentions behind a foreign policy action. However, critics of this model believe it does not account

for instances when complete information may not be available, as well as the relatively subjective

concept of rationality or factors that might inhibit rational decision making.30


10

The Organisational Process Model (OPM), on the other hand, according to Graham, deals with

policy decision not resulting from reasoning but “the outcome of a large organizational discourse

which is continuously involved in formulating policies within a standard operating procedure”.31

Hence, decision making in government involves large numbers of inter-branch organizations that

are linked with each other and function under a well laid procedure of operation. As a result,

government organisations and agencies in dealing with global issues ensure that activities are done

within the ambit of laid down procedures or rules of the state or the agencies. Decisions taken are

to ensure that desirable changes and outcomes favour both the state and the structures working

within its system from the activities it had with other state units.

Under this model, foreign policy decision making is assessed in line with strict bureaucratic

arrangements. Actions are also taken with appropriate approval and observance to command

hierarchy and a respect for established procedures. Opponents of this model, however, are of the

view that this model restricts persons’ capacity to act. This leads to a fall in understanding.

Nevertheless, using this theory has the possibility of simplifying decision making through the

creation of pattern rules for some events with probable results.32 Hence, the model foresees the

calculated rate of rigid activities and aims at establishing rules that can be fully implemented in

times of an emergency.

Finally, the Bureaucratic Politics Model (BPM), also referred to as the Governmental Politics

Model (GPM) is the last theory of decision making. In this theory, the result of decision is “a

product of bureaucratic interactions and elite politics, rather than the result of rational thinking or

organizational discourse”.33 The model believes policies as the result of negotiations made by

government officials who are the players and also is seen engaging in selfish bargains with the


11

government in order to increase their group interest using different rigid platforms. This model

examines policies on the basis that actions are carried out in a specific state by an autonomous

number of challenging units which presents ideals to the process of policy formulation. Also,

entities have the sole aim of attempting to fulfil its objectives through achievable bargains and a

consensus building among each other. Elements that influence decision making include the extent

of relevance of particular objectives and the political beliefs represented by each units.

This approach is also mostly employed as a way of providing some form of clarification as to the

reason behind states sometimes acting unreasonably. Nonetheless, some critics debate on the

failure of the model in giving enough answers as to why some parties or units acquire a lot of

intense power over others. An example is the Executive arm of the United States government.

Again, it also seems to be U.S biased and has some challenges in its application by other

governments with different leadership styles.34

This concept is very relevant to the study considering the impact globalization has had on Ghana’s

foreign policy. This is because, the current state of Ghana has undergone so many changes. The

growth of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and transportation with the huge

boost in international flow of capital, the exchange of goods and services with other states,

decisions on monetary issues, the infiltration of foreign culture, the political atmosphere of other

states in the global system among others, are all hinged on these global concepts of transformation,

transference and transcendence which has had an impact on Ghana’s foreign policy decisions in

the area of politics, economics, culture and the social environment at large. The frontiers of culture

are being taken off by development in global travel, internet and others. This study, therefore,

seeks to find out the extent the surge in globalization has impacted Ghana’s foreign policy.


12

1.7 Literature Review

There abound several literature on scholarly views on globalization and foreign policy in the field

of international relations. This literature review seeks to look at the relevant literature on the

subject and link globalization to foreign policy as well as fill in the gaps in the process. Thus, these

literature express various views on the subject of globalization, foreign policy and its relation with

each other.

1.7.1 Defining Globalization

The concept of globalization has been defined and redefined by many scholars in the past years.

Aside the definitions, other prominent scholars have expressed their views on the emergence of

globalization and its contemporary nature. O’Rourke and Williamson assert that the 19th century

contained “a very big globalization bang”35 whereas Thomas Friedman is of the view that the Post-

Cold War era could be termed as the “age of globalization”.36 The exact meaning of the term is

not specifically clear though heavily used in the field of political and economic discourses. This

therefore leads to the various definitions of globalization for the purpose of the study.

Sheffield et al view globalization as the growth in the sizes of social systems and the increase in

the complexity of inter-societal links. They reveal that globalization may be regarded as a process

connecting the past, the present and the future. That is, a sort of bridge between the past and the

future.37 In view of this, globalization can be seen as a tool that tends to establish and build the

relationships that exist among human institutions as well as their interactions and associations.

Shalmali defines globalization “as a widely used term to describe a variety of economic, cultural,

social and political changes that have shaped the world over the past 50 odd years, from the much


13

celebrated revolution in information technology to the diminishing of national and geo-political

boundaries…” 38 Alternatively, globalization can be referred to as the integration of the global

economy due to an immense advancement in information and communication technology across

the world. He further asserts that globalization is both a result and a force of modernization and

capitalist expansion, entailing the integration of all economic activity into a global market place.39

Held et al argue that globalization has been going on for centuries although it is of a different

nature and scale in contemporary times.40 They posit that globalization is about the connections

between different regions of the world and the way they change and increase over time.41 Thus,

they define globalization in terms of an encompassing human activity and they sum up the concept

and write that, “… globalization can be thought of as the widening, intensifying, speeding up and

growing impact of world-wide interconnectedness”.42 This definition encompasses the various

aspect of globalization which include: political, economic, cultural, military, social and religious

globalization, among others.

According to Keohane and Nye, they posit that globalization emerged as a buzzword in the

1990s.43 They see globalization as an increasing phenomenon hence their definition of

globalization as the increase of globalism. They further explain globalization as a state of the

world involving networks of interdependence at multicontinental distances which includes flows

and influences of capital and goods, information and ideas, and people and forces.44

Scholte, asserts globalization as a “process whereby social relations acquire relatively distanceless

and borderless qualities, so that human lives are increasingly played out in the world as a single

place”.45 With regard to his definition, one can view globalization as the network of human

bonding where there are no limitations as to how humans relate and deal with each other on daily

basis. Thus, it is a world-wide integration of all human activities. With the world becoming a


14

smaller place as time goes by, many countries are finding it more beneficial to be in alliance with

other states and international actors.

Moreover, in the view of Gunter and Hoeven, globalization is taken to mean “the gradual

integration of economies and societies driven by new technologies, new economic relationships

and the national and international policies of a wide range of actors, including governments,

international organisations, business labour and civil society”.46 This view by the two scholars

gives a clear indication of the globalization process being inseparable in the political, social and

economic dimensions in which it appears. There is therefore that strong connection it presents with

the political, economic and social activities humans are engaged in due to its existence.

McGrew, on the other hand, asserts that, “globalization can be understood as the stretching,

deepening and speeding up of global interconnectedness,” which constitutes “the multiplicity of

networks, flows, transactions and relations which transcend the states and societies which

constitute the contemporary global system”.47.

Cerny furthermore suggests that globalization redefines the relationship between territoriality and

authority and shifts authority from the level of the state to supranational and subnational units. He

mentions that globalization is defined as a “set of economic and political structures and processes

deriving from the changing character of the goods and assets that comprise the base of the

international political economy and in particular the increasing structural differentiation of those

goods and assets”.48

Larsson, in his book, ‘The Race to the Top: The real story of Globalization’ added his view to the

concept as he explained globalization as “the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting

shorter, things moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side


15

of the world can interact, to mutual benefit, with somebody on the other side of the world”.49 This

definition of Larsson tells one that globalization can mean that the vast world is coming closer and

shorter to each other in terms of how humans relate and interact with one another and their

activities with the aid of technological advancement and modern communication tools.

Similarly, Oman posits globalization as “the growth, or more precisely, the accelerated growth of

economic activity across national and regional political boundaries. It finds expression in the

movement of tangible and intangible goods and services, including ownership rights, via trade and

investment, and often of people, via migration”.50 He continues to explain that, the process is

being facilitated by lowering government impediments to that movement by technological

progress, mainly in transportation and communication.51 In view of this, it will take the actions of

individual economic actors, firms, banks and people among others to drive it usually in pursuit of

profit. One can, therefore, see his view of the concept as a process of economic outreach and a

microeconomic phenomenon among humans.

In reviewing all of these definitions, it is clear that globalization is a complex and a multifaceted

phenomenon with no single definition. One can, therefore, conclude by viewing the concept as a

process that encompasses a world of interconnection, closeness or bonding among humans and

nations in the fields of political, economic, social and cultural activities and the consequences that

these activities create from the interactions that exist among them. Moreover, it is important to

note that the concept means almost everything ranging from economics, politics, technology,

communication among others. It is, therefore, important to look at the different aspects of the term

when dealing with it. This is what leaves a gap in the process of literary review as scholars such as,

Oman and Shalmali, in their review tend to limit the concept of globalization mainly to the

economic sphere and therefore throws more light on the economic aspect of globalization with a


16

limited attention to how the process mostly affects other aspects such as culture, diasporas or

technology. The researcher therefore sought to close this gap by reviewing and addressing the

impact that globalization has on the foreign policy making of Ghana, and in other aspects of life

aside the economy.

1.7.2 Defining Foreign Policy

The term foreign policy was first introduced in the 19th century to mean the conduct of government

business in external affairs.52 The term, in its introduction, was used to reference a state’s

relationship with the external world and although foreign policy is still viewed in this sense, it is

seen to cover much more complex inter-state relations than it was previously. Numerous

definitions of the term emerged over the period. However, no one definition satisfies the

complexities of the term.

In the views of Brian White, he thinks that foreign policy is the area of government activity which

concerns its relations with states and other actors in the international system.53

K.B. Asante, in his book, Foreign Policy Making in Ghana: Options for the 21st Century, explains

foreign policy as:

The principles and course of action adopted by a government in its international relations.

The principles may be derived from an ideology or more generally from the conception of

the national interest.54

He further states that “foreign policy is decided upon by government with the approval of the

elected representatives of the country and executed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the

Diplomatic Missions abroad”.55 Foreign policy can be said to be the objectives and goals of a state


17

laid out by a government in pursuit of its national interest in relations with other states. K. B

Asante’s work is relevant to the study so as to establish a foundation on which to identify Ghana’s

foreign policy objectives, formulation and execution.

In the work of Yao Gebe, he posits that foreign policy constitutes a critical component of a

country’s conduct of public policy as it relates to other actors in the larger international system or

the external environment.56 He states that, the different categories of actors and their relations,

which includes states and international actors have entered the matrix of foreign relations.57

That is to say, foreign policy is geared towards relations with states and international actors which

include international organizations, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations

and development agencies. Gebe’s work is also of relevance to the study so as to have an

appreciable knowledge of Ghana’s foreign policy at independence. This will help to establish a

relationship between the foreign policy as at independence through the Post-Cold War era to

contemporary times. He however, did not link globalization to foreign policy, hence this study

attempts to fill in the gap in this literature.

According to the work, Ghana’s Foreign Policy Guideline, “a nation’s foreign policy is defined in

terms of a sovereign state’s interactions with other states.”58 The article posits that, “some analysts

have defined foreign policy as the external manifestation of the domestic factors and objectives of

the nation, whereas others define it as an extension of domestic policy”.59 It however stated that,

“Irrespective of ones perception of foreign policy, the common denominator is, the

evolution of a set of objectives employed by a nation in advancing its own interest,

including its survival and prosperity within a common global security system and

development”.60


18

Foreign policy can, therefore, be defined as the strategies which a country adopts in its relations

with other countries with the main aim of maximizing its national interest. Therefore one can say

that, the underlying principle of a state’s foreign policy is its national interest.

Gilbert, K. Bluwey opines foreign policy as the “decisions, steps, measures and actions which the

officials of a state take in their relations with other states” in pursuance of the national interest.61

He states that the constituent of foreign policy is the “series of interrelated decisions and actions

taken by government to enhance its own national values or attain specific and general goals in the

international sphere”.62

In his work, Bluwey observes that states seek to exercise power in order to control and direct the

behavior of other states. The state, therefore, seeks to pursue its own national purposes irrespective

of the conditions of the international system.63 One can, therefore, argue that the national interest

of a state is fundamental to its foreign policy in relation to other states.

According to Goldstein, foreign policy is “the rational pursuit of a set of national objectives”.64 He

argues that the “pursuit”, as used in his definition, suggests the actions, steps and roles that will

delineate the attitude or behaviour of a state in the external context.65 He, therefore, concludes by

viewing foreign policy as a means to an end. In addition, Henderson defines foreign policy as “a

pattern of behaviour that one state adopts in relating with others”.66 Clearly, from the above

definitions given by both scholars, one would agree that foreign policy is a tool used in managing

relations with other states to the benefit of the said state in question.


19

1.7.3 Relationship between Globalization and Foreign Policy

Donald Omagu in his work argues that critics of globalization posits that the involvement of a

complex interactive process that internationalizes domestic foreign policy making, subjects foreign

policies to growing domestic pressures.67 Hence, contemporary states have learned and continue to

learn, to share some sovereignty with regional and global institutions.68 He further asserts that

“technological change and economic integration have pushed the nations of the world in the

directions of greater conformity and adoption of global standards and behaviours”.69

Aran asserts that “foreign policy is usually seen as a boundary activity at the interface between the

domestic and external spheres”.70 He further argues that these spheres have never been completely

separate, thus, the boundary between them according to him seems to have become more porous as

a result of globalization.71 He also wanted to ascertain whether integrated states and societies that

need to deal with “foreignness” are producing the exact opposite outcome, hence, making foreign

policy more relevant, in terms of determining the scope, nature and impact of globalization.72

Consequently, he argues that “the relationship between foreign policy and globalization might

have significant implications of the subject matter of international relations”.73

One can, therefore, posit that due to the globalizing nature of the world today, national

governments are formulating their foreign policies in such a way that adheres to the globalizing

trends.


20

1.8 Sources of Data

Data for the study was drawn from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was

gathered through semi-structured interviews with Ghanaian public officials or civil servants at the

Ministry of Foreign affairs, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture,

and experts from the Chinese and United States Embassies as well as academicians in the field of

international relations. The sample size for the interview was ten (10). Out of the ten respondents,

three of them were females and seven were males. This however, was based on their availability

and willingness to be interviewed. Secondary sources were ascertained from text books, journal

articles, news publications and internet sources at LECIAD and the Balme library, both at the

University of Ghana, Legon.

1.9 Research Methodology

This research was done using the qualitative method of enquiry. The approach was selected as a

way of conducting an interpretative, explanatory and insightful study of the research topic.

Although quantitative method tends to produce some form of validity and reliability,74 the

researcher discovers that, the use of qualitative method in this study will help in gaining and

providing a better understanding of globalization and its influence on the foreign policy decision

making of Ghana. Hence, in his work on” Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative

Research”, Nahid Golafshani states that whiles quantitative research aims at finding “causal

determination, prediction and generalization of findings”, qualitative research has that basic

responsibility of seeking to provide “illumination, understanding and extrapolation of findings to

similar situations”.75


21

Again, qualitative approach allows a researcher to achieve a broad and a deeper insight of events in

order to explain political, economic and social issues. They also help researchers to seek answers

to the ‘hows’ and ‘whys’ of human actions, opinions and experience.76 It is for this reason why the

qualitative research method was used in this study to explore and understand the influence of

globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy decision making with other countries on the global

platform.

In choosing a sampling technique for this study, the researcher opted for the purposive and

snowball sampling techniques. This is because the researcher targeted institutions and people from

whom certain relevant information relating to the objectives and research questions could be

acquired and also through whom other stakeholders were got by her to be interviewed in the course

of the study. Purposive sampling also represents “a type of non-probability sampling technique

and is also known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling”.77 It was also chosen for the

study because the sample being investigated is quite small and it was an appropriate way to reach

experts in the field of study. The sample size for this study was 10 and composed of the Ministry

of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ministry of Tourism,

Arts and Culture, The Chinese Embassy in Ghana, The Embassy of United States of America in

Ghana, The Legon Center for International Affairs and Diplomacy (LECIAD) at the University of

Ghana, which is the department responsible for the teaching and training of students of

international affairs among others. An expert was interviewed from the above mentioned

institutions.

The study also used a semi-structured interview where data was collected from the 10 participants

encountered. The design was both explanatory and descriptive in nature and a snowballing

sampling was used by the researcher who depended on her first respondent to refer her to other


22

experts that formed part of the study. The use of these sampling methods provided much support

with respect to the reliability and validity of data and findings gathered from the research. The data

collected was recorded with the consent of the participants and manually transcribed to have an

accurate analysis of the information provided.

In addition, the researcher, in analyzing the data collected employed the qualitative content

analysis method to analyse information generated from the study. In the words of Luo (2019),

content analysis is “a research method used to identify patterns in recorded communication”. It is

used to identify the purposes and effects of communication content and also provide inferences

about the audience and producers of the texts analysed by researcher. This is mainly done by

analyzing text data from books, magazines, internet, newspapers, interviews among others and

then drawing conclusions from the analysis done.

1.10 Ethical Considerations

Respondents in the interview were fully briefed on the essence and conduct of the research and

their participation was voluntary. The researcher conformed to the rules and regulations of the

research. The researcher also confirmed that information collected was with the consent of all

respondents. Participants were assured of their confidentiality of information shared. Whereas

some of the respondents agreed to have their name mentioned in this research, some preferred to

remain anonymous. Thus, the term an ‘official’ or an ‘expert’ is used to refer to respondents who

wanted to remain anonymous.


23

1.11 Limitations of the Study

The study faced a few challenges during the data collection process. One major challenge was that,

the time allocated to conduct this study was limited. Another challenge was the accessibility and

availability of participants hence affects the sample size derived for the study.

1.12 Organization of the Study

The study is organized into four chapters as follows:

Chapter one constitutes the Introduction. It gives a detailed background to the study, statement of

the problem, the research questions, research objectives and scope of the study as well as the

rationale of the study. The chapter also highlights the conceptual framework on which the study is

based on. It further provides the literature review, sources of data, research methodology, ethical

considerations, limitation of the study and ends with the organization of the study.

Chapter two is an overview of globalization and foreign policy decision-making and

implementation in the international system. Chapter three examines and analyses the influence of

globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy. Chapter four constitutes the summary of the research

findings, conclusions and suggest some recommendations.


24

END NOTES

1 Konyeaso, U. F. (2016). Impact of globalization on Nigerian economy. Pyrex Journal of Business

and Finance Management Research. Vol. 2(10), p. 109.

2 Wenger, A. & Zimmerman, D. (2003). International Relations: From the Cold War to the

Globalized World. Lynne Reinner Publishers, USA, p. 3. 3 Bojang. A. S. (2018). The Study of Foreign Policy in International Relations. Journal of Political

Sciences & Public Affairs, Vol. 6(4). Ege University, Turkey. 4 Luard, E. (1990). The globalization of politics, the changed focus of political action in the

modern world. Macmillan: London, p. 165.

5 Huntington, S. P. (1991). The third wave: Democratization in the late 20th century. University of

Oklahoma: USA, pp. 20-21.

6 Ibid.

7 Luard, E. op. cit. 8 Martin, C. N. (1966). Understanding foreign policy. London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Incorporated, pp. 4-5.

9 March, J. G. & Olsen, J. P. (1998). The institutional dynamics of international political orders.

The National Organization. Vol. 52(4), p. 943.

10 Ibid. 11 Talbott, S. (1997). Globalization and Diplomacy: A practitioner’s Perspective. Foreign Policy,

(108), p. 71. 12 Ibid. 13 Akokpari, J. K. (2001). Post-Cold War International Relations and Foreign Policies in Africa:

New Issues and New Challenges. AJIA Vol. 4(1&2), p. 35. 14 Ferguson, M. (1992). The Mythology about Globalization. European Journal of

Communication, 7(1): 69–93. 15 Bartelson, J. (2000). Three Concepts of Globalization. International Sociology. Vol. 15(2),

London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi, pp. 180-196. 16 Clark, I. (1997). Globalization and Fragmentation: International Relations in the Twentieth

Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 17 Bartelson, J. op. cit. p. 184. 18 Scholte, J. A. (2000). Globalisation: A Critical Introduction. New York, St. Martins Press. pp.

480-482. 19 Ganguly, R. (2010). Globalization in India: New Frontiers and Emerging Challenges. PHI

Learning Private Limited. New Delhi, pp. 32-35. 20 Bartelson, J. op. cit. 21 Mintz, A. & DeRouen, K. Jr. (2010). Understanding Foreign Policy Decision Making. New

York: Cambridge. p. 3. 22 Ibid.


25

23 Goldstein, J. S. & Pevehouse, J. C. (2010). International Relations, 9th ed. New York: Pearson,

p. 105. 24 Stein, J. G. (2008). Foreign Policy Decision-Making: Rational, Psychological, and

Neurological Models, in Foreign Policy: Theories, Actors, Cases. Edited by Steve Smith, Amelia

Hadfield and Tim Dunne. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 102. 25 Allison, G. & Zelikow, P. (1999). Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis,

(2nd Edition). New York: Addison-Wesley Longman, p. 18. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 Norwich University Online. (2017). 5 Key Approaches to Foreign Policy Analysis. Retrieved

from https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/resources/5-key-approaches-to-foreign-

policy-analysis on April 29, 2019. 29 Allison. G & Zelikow, P. op. cit. 30 Norwich University Online. op. cit. 31 Allison. G & Zelikow, P. op. cit. 32 Norwich University Online. op. cit. 33 Allison. G & Zelikow, P. op. cit. 34 Norwich University Online. op. cit. 35 O’ Rourke, K. H. & Williamson, J. G. (2002). When did Globalization begin? European Review

of Economic History, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 6 (1). 36 Friedman, T. L. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century. Farrar, Straus

and Giroux (NY). 37 Jim S., Andrey, K. & Leonid, G. (2013). Globalization: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow.

Emergent Publications, Litchfield park, USA, p. xix. 38 Shalmali, G. (2007). Globalisation. Development in Practice, Vol. 17(4/5), p. 523. 39 Ibid. 40 David, Held et al. (1999). Globalization. Global Governance, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Vol.

5(4), p. 484. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Keohane, R., & Nye, J. (2000). Globalization: What’s New? What’s Not? (And So What?).

Foreign Policy, (118), p. 104. 44 Ibid. p. 105. 45 Scholte, J. (1997) “The Globalisation of World Politics” in Baylis, J. and Smith, S. (eds). The

Globalisation of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, (Oxford: Oxford

University Press). 46 Gunter, B. & Hoeven, R. (2004). The Social Dimension of Globalization: A review of the

literature, working paper. International Labour Review, 143. 47 McGrew, A. G. Human Rights in a global age: coming to terms with globalization. In Human

rights fifty years on, a reappraisal. Edited by Tony Evans. (1998). Manchester University Press. p.

189. 48 Cerny, G.P. (1997). Paradoxes of the Competition State. The Dynamics of Political

Globalization. Government and Opposition. Vol. 32(2). 49 Larsson, T. (2001). The Race to the Top: The Real Story of Globalization. US: Cato Institute, p.

9.


https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/resources/5-key-approaches-to-foreign-policy-analysis


26

50 Oman, C. (1996). “The Policy Challenges of Globalisation and Regionalisation”. OECD

Development Centre, Policy Brief No. 11, p. 5. 51 Ibid. 52 Hill, C. (2000). “Foreign Policy” Oxford Companion to Politics of the World, Krieger, J. (ed),

New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 290-291. 53 White, B. (1994). Understanding Foreign Policy – The Foreign Policy Systems Approach. Hant:

Edward Elger Publishing Company, p. 1. 54 Asante, K. B. (1997). Foreign Policy Making in Ghana: Options for the 21st Century. Friedrich

Ebert Foundation, Ghana Office, p. 49. 55 Ibid. p. 59. 56 Gebe, B. Y. (2008). Ghana's Foreign Policy at Independence and Implications for the 1966 Coup

D'état. Journal of Pan African Studies, 2(3), p. 162. 57 Ibid. 58 Ghana’s Foreign Policy Guideline. Retrieved from https://mfa.gov.gh/index.php/foreign-

policy/ghanas-foreign-policy-guideline/ on 19th September, 2018. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 Bluwey, G. K., (2003). Understanding International Relations. Accra: Yamens Press Ltd., pp.

25-26. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. p. 24. 64 Goldstein, J. (2001). International Relations. New York: Longman. 65 Ibid. 66 Conway, W. H (1998). International Relations: Conflict and Cooperation at the turn of the 21st

Century. Boston: McGraw Hill. 67 Omagu, D. O. (2012). State, Politics and Globalisation. Journal of the Historical Society of

Nigeria, Vol. 21, p. 71. 68 Ibid. 69 Ibid. 70 Aran, A. (2011). Foreign Policy and Globalization Theory: The case of Israel.

International Politics, 48(6), p. 2. 71 Ibid. 72 Ibid. pp. 2&3. 73 Ibid. p. 3. 74 Winter, G. (2000). "A comparative discussion of the notion of 'validity' in qualitative and

quantitative research." The qualitative report 4.3: 1-14. Retrieved from

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2078&context=tqr on July 2, 2019.

75 Golafshani, N. (2003). "Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research." The

qualitative report 8.4: 597-606. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51087041.pdf on

July 2, 2019. 76 Neuman, W. L. (2013). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Pearson education. 77 Bernard, H. R. & Harvey R. B. (2012). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative

approaches. Sage.


https://mfa.gov.gh/index.php/foreign-policy/ghanas-foreign-policy-guideline/


https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2078&context=tqr

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51087041.pdf

26

CHAPTER TWO

AN OVERVIEW OF GLOBALIZATION AND FOREIGN POLICY

DECISION MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION IN THE

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM

2.0 Introduction

This chapter gives a general overview of globalization and foreign policy decision making and

implementation. It highlights vital and relevant definitions and explanations. It covers

globalization, historical perspective of globalization, dimensions of globalization, the concept of

foreign policy, the objectives of Ghana’s foreign policy in addition with foreign policy decision

making and implementation and conclusion.

2.1 Globalization

Globalization as a concept is widely used to describe “a variety of economic, cultural, social and

political changes that have shaped the world, from the much-celebrated revolution in information

technology to the diminishing of national and geo-political boundaries in an ever-expanding,

transnational movement of goods, services and capital”.1 It is the process or act of making things

global which includes the economy.2 In this case, a global economy is one in which all parts of the

globe are part of a single economy.3

Globalization can therefore be viewed as a multifaceted development in which the world evolves

into a kind of linkage. Consequently, in terms of space and time, the world has recoiled and


27

become small with short distances. Globalization, therefore, symbolizes a moving world giving

people the necessary materials needed in acting as humans with new methods in a world changing

at a fast rate. To this end, the strength and the force involved in the phenomenon are improved by

advanced communication and travels that are extensively quick.

In every country, internal politics, policies of economics as well as international relations is seen to

have been affected by the force of globalization either directly or indirectly.4 Consequently,

globalization is considered as a multifaceted occurrence that encompasses all levels of integration

across the globe. It is seen as the development of prospects in the economic, political, social, as

well as technological sphere of all nations of the world.

2.2 Historical Perspective of Globalization

Some scholars are of the view that globalization is not something new and have, therefore, traced

the emergence of globalization several millennia back in history. This is to say that the art or

practice of globalization has been on-going for a long time. The history of globalization is a topic

that has been widely discussed by scholars both within the academia and public spheres. There are

some scholars who view globalization as very modern whereas some historians trace globalization

from ancient times. Others are also of the view that the concept began long ago with colonization

where foreign powers with colonies received raw materials from those they colonized as they

ventured into industrialization.5 The output was then sold in the colonized countries. The world

was therefore brought closer to each other through the interconnection states in the world

developed from its linkage.


28

Although the term globalization is quite modern, the process of globalization itself started a very

long time ago. The interactions among people across the world increased as nations interchanged

ideas and products.6 This growth of interactions has, however, been made possible by developing

technology in the field of communication as well as transportation. Three main divisions with

regards to the emergence of globalization are therefore looked at. These include the pre-modern

globalization, modern globalization and post-modern globalization.

Pre-modern literally means before modernity. Pre-modern globalization, as asserted by Thomas

Friedman, can be situated between 1492 and 1800.7 This era of globalization had to do with the

strength of countries and how they could utilize that strength. This was the key agent and dynamic

force which drove the process of global integration.8

Rothschild posits that globalization really emerged during the era of the Napoleonic Wars.9 He

posits that “It was a period of extraordinary turmoil in politics and political thoughts, including in

thought about democracy”.10 His assertion reveals that before the twentieth century, global politics

was already in existence. Through these developments, globalization is asserted to have advanced

gradually to what it is in this modern era.

The modern era of globalization is noted to have survived approximately from 1800 to 2000 with

distraction from the Great Depression and World Wars I and II.11 From this period, a greater part

of the world became connected through new ideas in applied sciences, transportation, information

technology as well as communications.12 Also in this era, multinational companies were the key

agent and dynamic force in driving global integrations. These multinational companies were

initiated first by the enlargement of joint-stock companies in England and Holland in addition to

the Industrial Revolution.13 The Industrial Revolution occurred due to a shift in the techniques of

the production of goods and services. Machines were invented and this eased the difficulty


29

associated with hand-made productions. The increased efficiency in production also led to an

increase in the total output of goods produced. Consequently, this led to the search for new

markets for the abundant goods that were being produced at the time. In the beginning quarter of

this phase of globalization, global integration was powered by a decline in transportation costs

which was as a result of the development of the steam engine and the railroad.14 Whereas in the

second quarter, global integration was powered by a decline in telecommunication cost which was

as a result of the spread of telegraph, telephone, computer, fiber optic cable and the first brand of

the World Wide Web.15 Furthermore, global markets were established and trade regulations were

also put in place. For instance, there was the establishment of the General Agreement on Trade and

Tariffs (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) during this era. Thus, nations sought to

interrelate and interconnect with other nations which in the end enhanced the growth and

advancement of globalization.

The period from the year 2000 until now can be termed as the post-modern globalization. With an

improvement in telecommunication and transportation, many regions and people of the world have

been integrated into an almost unilateral system of conduct assisted by a high level of technology.

2.3 Dimensions of Globalization

Although there are various aspects of globalization, four are distinct and can encompass all the

other dimensions of globalization. These include political, economic, cultural and technological

globalization. These different aspects of globalization have important implications for human

existence.


30

2.3.1 Political Globalization

Political globalization can be termed as the integration of the world’s political system. It is viewed

as an increase of political discourses across national frontiers. The term can also be viewed as “an

increasing trend toward multilateralism, an emerging ‘transnational state apparatus’, as well as the

emergence of national and international non-governmental organizations that act as watchdogs

over governments and have increased their abilities and influence”.16 The term has also been

defined by Collins Crouch with regards to the increasing power of supranational organizations. He

writes:

“Political globalization refers to the growing power of institutions of global

governance such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF)

and the World Trade Organization (WTO). But it also refers to the spread and

influence of international nongovernmental organizations, social movement

organizations and transnational advocacy networks operating across borders

and constituting a kind of global civic society”.17

These definitions therefore suggests that political globalization integrates nation states into a

‘unified political system’. The emergence of supranational organizations like the International

Criminal Court, the World Trade Organization and the European Union, among others have

interchanged replaced or extended the national purpose to enable conformity among states.

The political dimension of globalization “takes into account the processes that raise an important

set of political issues pertaining to the principle of state sovereignty, the growing impact of

intergovernmental organizations, and the future prospects for regional and global governance,

global migration flows, and environmental policies affecting our planet”.18 It consequently deals

with a world of society that is represented by supranational political structures.


31

Political globalization is, therefore, seen to encompass the enlargement of the political system

across the world. These political systems include: nation states, international norms and laws, state

sovereignty and intergovernmental organizations, international organizations and treaties,

nationalism as well as international disputes and war.

2.3.2 Economic Globalization

Economic globalization can be defined as “the increasing economic integration and

interdependence of national, regional and local economies across the world through an

intensification of cross-border movement of goods, services, technologies and capital”.19 It

therefore suggests the constant increase and equal bonding of market boundaries which is vital for

the economic development of the whole world.

Economic globalization started with trade and migration during the pre-modern era and continued

through the modern era with the establishment of the Bretton Wood Institutions of 1944. This

conference dealt with issues such as national and international trade reforms and agreements. Thus,

through directives such as free trade and foreign investments, economic globalization can be said

to have thrived among developed economies and between less developed economies and

developed economies.

Economic globalization is motivated by two main drives in a form of a fast growth of information

in the different kinds of productivity.20 The rapid globalization of the world economy can be

attributed to the increase in science and technology. Thus, the improvement in science and

technology has decreased communication as well as transportation cost ensuring that economic

globalization is made possible.


32

2.3.3 Cultural Globalization

Culture can be referred to the way of life of people. This includes their style of dressing, the kind

of food they eat, their beliefs as well as the social activities they are involved in. It can be said that

globalization has linked diverse cultures and integrated them into a universal culture. Cultural

globalization is therefore defined as the “transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the

world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations”.21 Cultural globalization has been

very predominant for ages. In recent times, and with the aid of technology, especially the internet,

cultural globalization has increased with distance not being a barrier anymore. Hence, people can

emulate, interact, share ideas with each other and be interconnected without having any form of

physical contact.

In terms of food, some fast food restaurants have also gone global, with many branches in

hundreds of countries all over the world. For example, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) as well as

McDonald’s which started in the global North has gained prominence in almost all parts of the

world. Consequently, this has led to the transformation of the ‘food culture’ of many people in

these countries.

Popular music, dance and other forms of art are widespread and it is made possible through the

internet where various social networks have been created and are running. Some of these social

networks includes; YouTube, Google, Snapchat, WhatsApp, Facebook, Skype, WhatsApp,

Instagram, Skype, Voxer, Viber, and Yahoo, among many others.


33

2.3.4 Technological Globalization

Globalization and technology have a link which is influenced by each other.22 Technological

globalization is the speed in technological flow which results from an increase in technology

across boundaries. Over, the past 20 years, a fast improvement has been seen in the dissemination

of technology to peripheral and semi- peripheral states. This can be seen in the report of the World

Bank (2008) which states the benefits and ongoing challenges that this spread of technological

wave across the continents of the world has presented. The advancement in technology and the

rate at which an economy grows are interconnected and hence the upsurge in the former’s

advancement has aided in improving the situation of people living in poverty.23

In the view of Jorg Mayer, “Globalization has drastically improved access of technological

latecomers to advanced technologies and, to the extent that technological upgrading is important

for development.”24 It presents a distinctive prospect for low-income states to increase per capita

income. This means that technological globalization or advancement across borders has gone a

long way to alleviate the low level of per capita income that low income nations were gaining. It

has helped in skill accumulation through technological education that has raised skillful human

resource to help in the development of a nation.25

Although technology has gained roots across the borders of the world, developing countries have

been on a greater disadvantage from the technologies exported to them. According to Archibugi,

“developing countries have traditionally been 'invaded' by technology intensive products coming

from the Triad countries”.26 He further states that, “the basic disadvantage of this inflows of


34

technology is that it does not allow to build endogenous capabilities and therefore developing

countries continue to be dependent on technology coming from developed countries”.27

2.4 Foreign Policy

Foreign policy can be defined as the strategies which a nation adopts in its relations with other

countries with the main aim of maximizing its interest. The term can also refer to the diplomatic

relations that a country has with other countries. It is the government of a state that deals with its

foreign policy strategies. The head of a government and the foreign affairs minister of a country

are usually responsible for a country’s foreign policy. The procedures for adopting foreign policies

differ from country to country although it may also depend on the specific area in which foreign

policy is required.

In every country, there are different foreign policies which are adopted for specific areas of

administration. For instance, there are economic foreign policy, military foreign policy, security

and defense foreign policy, among others. Moreover, countries may adopt foreign policies in

response to emerging circumstances which are usually outside their borders but also have a

propensity of affecting their countries with time.

2.5 Objectives of Ghana’s Foreign Policy

Ghana as a country began to gain credence in the international system after independence in 1957

through her foreign policy. Ghana’s foreign policy occupied a special place in Africa, the sub-

region of West Africa, and the world as a whole due to the fact that after independence, she

enacted foreign policy decision towards projecting a newly liberated country as a peace seeker and


35

a peace maker in a continent bedeviled with numerous conflicts and instability.28 Prior to this,

Kwame Nkrumah made the historic foreign policy statement on the eve of Ghana’s independence

that;

‘We are going to see that we create our own African personality and identity.

We again rededicate ourselves to the struggle to emancipate other countries in

Africa; for our independence is meaningless unless it is linked with the total

liberation of the African continent’29

It can, therefore, be noted that since independence, Ghana’s foreign policy “has been characterized

by a commitment to the principles and ideals of nonalignment and Pan-Africanism”.30

In achieving the foreign policy objectives of a country or a state, it is vital for such a country or

state to employ the relevant tools. The tools available for the implementation of a country’s foreign

policy include the military, foreign aid and diplomacy. These tools are used by countries such as

France, United States. Germany among others, in achieving and advancing their foreign policy

objectives. However, Ghana as a country largely employs diplomacy in executing its foreign

policy agenda.31

Ghana has a general policy goals comprising keeping cordial relationships and bonding with

countries of the world that yearn for togetherness regardless of belief considerations. She also has

the goal of establishing equal respect and not opposing the domestic affairs of other nations.32 This

objective ensures that Ghana upholds cordial relations with all other countries in order to enact her

foreign policy effectively.

Objectives of Ghana’s foreign policy as asserted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional

Integration thus, includes;


36

a) Good Neighbourliness

The environment of peace and stability in West Africa can be kept and maintained through

the friendly ties Ghana has with other countries closer to her. This serves as a means of

solving usual difficulties connected with development across national boundaries.33

b) Promoting Regional Integration

“This is basically to give substance to Government’s declaration to make regional

integration the flagship of Ghana’s foreign policy and derive maximum benefit from

Ghana’s membership of ECOWAS and other regional economic communities for Ghana’s

socio-economic advancement”.34

c) Support for the African Union

“This is to play a leading role in collective efforts to promote peace, stability and economic

development on the African continent and ensure Ghana’s active participation in

deliberations of the African Union”.35

d) Economic Diplomacy

“To support the national objective of diversifying and increasing Ghana’s export base by

actively seeking markets for Ghanaian products abroad and taking advantage of preferential

arrangements and multilateral trade agreements”.36


37

e) Protecting and Promoting the Welfare of Ghanaian Nationals Abroad

“To minimize the negative impact and optimize the potential benefits of migration on

Ghana’s development by promoting and protecting the welfare of Ghanaian nationals

abroad and ensuring, that they participate actively in national development”.37

f) Participation in the Deliberations of Multilateral Organizations

“To help seek solutions to the challenges confronting international peace, stability and

development and to articulate Ghana’s views in major international conferences and

deliberations of multilateral institutions”.38

g) Developing and Sustaining International Goodwill, Solidarity and Support for National

Development.

“To maintain a reasonably high-profile diplomatic presence appreciable levels of foreign

direct investments, political goodwill and international solidarity as well as sustained

positive image”.39

2.6 Foreign Policy Decision Making and Implementation

On the international stage, a course of action taken by a state in relation to other state is very

important. This is because decisions taken by a particular state with regards to its national interest

can either be unfavourable or favourable in attaining its national interest. Thus, the Foreign Policy

Decision Making Process is a vital tool that is needed by states to help with the realization of their

national interest.


38

Foreign Policy Decision Making can be defined as the choices individuals and groups make that

influences a nation’s action on the international stage.40 It is a process whereby decisions are taken

to adopt the best alternative actions that influences a state’s action in relation to other states. The

term is also referred to as a “steering process in which adjustments are made as per the feedback

from the outside world”.41 In other words, decisions are taken with regards to actions adopted to

change the world, and then information is acquired from the outside world in order to assess the

outcomes of these actions.

From the above definitions, one can define Foreign Policy Decision Making as the process of

identifying the right amount and effect that will enable one choose the best form of action to go

with. It is also a process where states examine prevailing setbacks, assess the most appropriate

course of action and take suitable actions to overcome the outstanding problems for the

maximization of national interest.

Decision making is a process that has a nature of complexity. Under Foreign Policy Decision

Making, three different models can be identified, in order to comprehend its complexity.

According to Allison, there are three models of FPDM which includes, “Bureaucratic Politics

Model, Organizational Process Model and the Rational Actor Model”.42

The Rational Actor Model involves decision makers to make the right choices without any

partiality or influence.43 This is where leaders set goals, assess the importance of these goals,

analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each course of action taken and then select the best

possible policy. Thus the RAM is all about maximizing benefits and values as well as minimizing

costs. This form of decision making is to enable leaders make right and possible choices in order to

achieve national interest by using every possible means.


39

The second model which is referred to as the Organizational Process Model (OPM) implies that

“policy decisions are not the result of rationality but the outcome of a large organizational

discourse which is continuously involved in formulating policies within a ‘standard operating

procedure”.44 In this model, decision makers do not go through the laborious process of setting

goals and evaluating the costs and benefits of a course of action taken but rather relies on

organizations and groups to make decisions based on standard operating procedure.

The third model, known as the Bureaucratic Politics Model (BPM) suggests that foreign policy

decisions result from rigorous communications and politics of the intellectuals and not from

reasoning or structural discussion.45 That is to say, in this model, foreign policy decisions are a

result of the interactions between government agencies with a differing interests in the aftermath of

the decisions taken. Foreign Policy Decision Making is therefore necessary and of utmost

importance in realizing a nation’s national gains as well as its interest.

Additionally, Foreign Policy Implementation can be said to be the process whereby the right

government agency enacts policies that have been analyzed and debated upon during the decision

making process. Thus, it involves a state using its resources to realize its established goals.

In light of this, Ghana’s international policy is thus an outcome of the decision making and

implementation process. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in accordance with its Foreign Missions

abroad has the duty to execute foreign policy. It also performs the duty as a main counsellor to the

government in the design of the foreign policy of Ghana.46 Additionally, the ministry in carrying

out its assignment provides the needed suggestions to the government on the right innovations or

ideas, choices and feedbacks in view of revealing internal and external occurrences.47


40

The Ministry, thus, plays a major role in the decision making and execution of Ghana’s Foreign

Policy. Notwithstanding, a consideration is given to all the factors that have either a direct or

indirect influence on the national interest by the Ministry. These include, the guidance and

guardance of the integrity of Ghana’s boundary, maintaining Ghana’s peace and stability including

other countries, contributing to a broad global peace and security, developing and promoting the

image of Ghana favorably with the rest of the world.48

One can therefore say that, Ghana’s foreign policy is the product of decisions carried out by the

government and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with the goal of achieving its national interest.

2.7 Conclusion

This chapter gave a general summary of globalization and foreign policy decision making and

implementation. It can be noted that, each dimension of globalization which includes the

economic, political and cultural all have a stake in the decisions or goals established by actors in

the international arena. Ghana’s foreign policy objectives can be seen in line with the globalization

process with regards to the interactions and relationships that exist among states and the world in

general. Thus, globalization and foreign policy decision making and implementation plays an

immense role in the international affairs of a state.


41

END NOTES

1 Shalmali, G. (2007). Globalisation. Development in Practice, Vol. 17(4/5), pp. 523 – 531. 2 Temin, P. (1999). Globalization. Oxford Review of Economic Policy. Vol. 15 (4), pp. 76-89. 3 Ibid. 4 Friedman. T. (1999), The Lexus and the olive tree: Understanding Globalization. New York,

Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 110. 5 Blackwell, D. (2003). Colonialism and Globalization. A Group-Analytic Perspective, Sage

Publications. 6 Konyeaso, F. U. (2016). Impact of Globalization on Nigerian Economy. Pyrex Journal of

Business and Finance Management Research. Vol. 2 (10), pp.109-121. 7 Friedman, T. L. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century. Farrar, Straus and

Giroux (NY), p. 9. 8 Ibid. 9 Rothschild, E. (2005). Globalization and Democracy in Historical Perspective: Employment and

Poverty Reduction. Palgrave Macmillan, New York, pp. 73-101. 10 Ibid. 11 Friedman, T. L. op. cit. 12 Shamali, G. op. cit. p. 525. 13 Friedman, T. L. op. cit. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid. 16 Moghadam, V. M. (2005). Globalizing Women: Transnational Feminist Networks. HJU Press.

ISBN 978-0-8018-8024-7, p. 35. 17 Crouch, C. (2012). Democracy and Capitalism in the Wake of the Financial Crises. In Edwin

Amenta, Kate Nash and Allan S. The Willey-Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology. John

Willey and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5507-9. p. 487. 18 Steger, M. (2013). 4. The Political Dimension of Globalization. Retrieved from

10.1093/actrade/9780199662661.003.0004. p. 62. 19 Mohan, R. J. (2009). International Business. Oxford University Press in New Delhi, New York.

ISBN 978-0-19-568909-9 20 Shangquan, G. (2000). Economic Globalization: Trends, Risks and Risk Prevention. Economic

and Social Affairs. p. 1. 21 James, P. (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism. London: Sage Publications. 22 Chareonwongsak, K. (2002). Globalization and Technology: How will they change society?

Technology in society. 24. 191-206. 23 The World Bank. (2008). Technology Diffusion in the Developing World. Global Economic

Prospects. Washington DC. 24 Mayer, J. (2000). Globalization, Technology transfer and skill accumulation in low-income

countries. UNCTAD Discussion papers, No. 150. 25 Ibid. 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid.


42

28 Odoom, T., & Tieku, I. (2012). Re-orienting Ghana’s Foreign Policy Crowd. In The Public

Policy Making Process in Ghana: How Politicians and Civil Servants Deal With Public Problems

(pp. 323–344). 29 Afari-Gyan, K. (1991). Kwame Nkrumah, George Padmore and W.E.B. du Bois. Research

Review, p. 6. 30 Embassy of the Republic Of Ghana. Foreign Policy of Ghana. Retrieved from

www.ghanaembassyiran.com/en/page/theembassy on March 25, 2019. 31 Asamoah, O. Y. (2014). The Political History of Ghana (1950-2013). Bloomington: Author

House. 32 Embassy of the Republic Of Ghana. op. cit. 33 Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration. Foreign Policy Objectives. Retrieved from

https://mfa.gov.gh/index.php/foreign-policy-objectives/ on March 25, 2019. 34 Ibid 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Mintz, A. & DeRouen, K. Jr. (2010). Understanding Foreign Policy Decision Making. New

York: Cambridge. p.3. 41 Goldstein, J. S. & Pevehouse, J. C. (2010). International Relations, 9th ed. New York: Pearson,

p. 105. 42 Allison, G. & Zelikow, P. (1999). Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis,

(2nd Edition). New York: Addison-Wesley Longman, p. 18. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration. op. cit. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid.


http://www.ghanaembassyiran.com/en/page/theembassy

https://mfa.gov.gh/index.php/foreign-policy-objectives/

48

CHAPTER THREE

THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON GHANA’S FOREIGN POLICY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter provides an analysis of the data on globalization and its impact on Ghana’s foreign

policy. The chapter is motivated by the need to seek solutions to the research questions and

achieve the objectives of this study. It is in this section that data gathered qualitatively is analysed

and discussed. The interviews were collected, transcribed, and analysed concurrently. This chapter

therefore, constitutes the main part of the study that empirically examines the effects of

globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy in the area of economic diplomacy, regional integration

and culture.

Ghana’s foreign policy from the days of Kwame Nkrumah has, however, remained central because

it gets its roots or authority from the directive principles of state policy in the Constitution of

Ghana.1 This implies that Ghana’s foreign policy cannot be changed entirely as it is part of the

Constitution. It can, however, be noted that, in the process of pursuing the foreign policy, there has

been changes from government to government. Thus, the way of pursuing the foreign policy

agenda has changed from time to time.

3.1 Economic Diplomacy

The study sought to find out from respondents foreign policies that have been pursued by

governments in the area of economic diplomacy as well as how it has been influenced by

globalization.


49

Article 40 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana stipulates that, “the Government shall promote and

protect the interests of Ghana”.2 This statement is in line with the relations Ghana has with other

states through economic diplomacy. To promote and protect the interests of Ghana can therefore

be said to be economic diplomacy. Therefore, the constitution of Ghana requires that every

government that comes into power advances the interests of Ghanaians. In view of this, two (2)

respondents interviewed out of 10 respondents, gave a stand in support of the positive impact

economic diplomacy provides in promoting the interest of Ghanaians. The first of the two

respondents revealed that, “there are some Ghanaian residents outside Ghana who are involved in

businesses or activities that inure the benefit of Ghana”.3 This situation can be viewed as a way of

promoting the interest of Ghana in other states. Similarly, the second respondent of this stand who

is a deputy director at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs shared the view that economic diplomacy

serves as a tool for promoting and protecting the interest of Ghana. This according to them has

always been there. The practice was, however, given much prominence during the time of Former

President J.A Kufuor from the year 2000.4

Another basis of economic diplomacy can be traced to Article 40 (b) of the constitution of Ghana

which stipulates that, “the government shall seek the establishment of a just and equitable

international economic and social order”.5 Thus, every government has made emphasis on

economic diplomacy and as such it is a part and parcel of Ghana’s foreign policy.

The deputy director further revealed that government is promoting the interest of Ghana by

promoting “made in Ghana goods”. When these goods are exported to other states, it brings about

foreign exchanges. Thus, the government of Ghana has set in place mechanisms for planting food

and jobs.6 This project is aimed at planting more food and exporting the products to neighbouring

countries and this in turn provides foreign exchange earnings to the country. The respondent also


50

stated that, in terms of protecting Ghana’s interest, the government is making sure that foreign

goods do not flood the markets.7 Two (2) of the respondents who were interviewed at the Ministry

of Foreign Affairs affirmed that, economic diplomacy has been pursued by the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs and Regional Integration (MFARI) through its Missions abroad. It has worked in

partnership with the Ghana’s Investment Promotion Center to promote the inflow of foreign

investment into Ghana Investments.8 With globalization becoming more and more evident,

economic diplomacy has been made possible and easier to be practiced. This was revealed by a

respondent at the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MOTI) who also stated that economic diplomacy

has become vital in terms of getting rid of obstacles in order to encourage more trade relations with

other countries.9

In addition, one of the respondents indicated that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional

Integration works with other Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) such as the Ministry

of Trade, Standard Authority, among others to make sure that the environment is conducive to

practice economic diplomacy.10 Anything which happens in other parts of the world affects

anybody. Hence as trade increases and expands there is more cooperation between states. For

instance, Chinese businesses are springing up and as a result their products are made cheaper and

competitive. A respondent also mentioned that China has a competitive advantage in the form of

technology and labour.11 Similarly, an interview with one of the ambassadors revealed that China

is a source of resource for development and most developing countries and even some developed

countries have gotten China to come and invest in their country.12 Ghana’s port is also cooperating

with China.13 On the other hand, Mr. Chai, the Economic and Commercial Counsellor at the

Chinese Embassy, in an interview stated that, in 2017, over 4000 Ghanaians benefitted from

various short and long term economic development training programs organized by the Chinese


51

government with the aim of sharing China’s experience of economic and social development with

Ghana.14 He explained that this was to foster and strengthen the economic bond and friendship

which China and Ghana has developed over a period with other African countries as well.15 As

such, a number of projects, according to him, have been started to facilitate the process of growth

and development in Ghana.16

He further explained that some of these projects consisted of the James Town Fishing Landing site

project which would be executed under a China-Ghana initiative and help promote the fishing

sector of the country.17 This project was to be accompanied with a port, workshop and cold storage

facilities that are necessary for the fishing industry in Ghana. Other economic diplomatic policy

projects that both countries have agreed on has been the project to connect three hundred (300)

villages in Ghana to Satellite facilities which is in progress.18

Similarly, an expert officer at the US embassy revealed that, the United States and Ghana have

enjoyed some form of strong economic diplomatic relations that has the potential of further

economic growth.19 The respondent further pointed out that, bilateral trade between the two

countries, in 2017, reached approximately $1.6 billion with the U.S.A maintaining a $110 million

trade surplus.20 Clearly, With Ghana’s rich mineral resources, the U.S.A sees prospects in the

country and aims to promote a mutual trade relation for both countries globally.21 A number of

major United States international organization are now working in Ghana such as IBM,

ExxonMobil, Coca Cola, Cargill and Newmont Mining to supplement Ghana’s trade and business

effort.22 Hence, she believed that this move is in line with an attempt to help Ghana to channel its

effort more into industrialization, privatization and foreign direct investment than the historical

primary production of commodities of goods such as gold, cocoa and oil which has left the nation

to be highly depended on other countries in the global world.23 This has also been greatly


52

influenced by the forces of trade globalization which countries of the world have embraced and

implemented.24

Moreover, two (2) respondents interviewed agreed on their opinion that one way that the

government of Ghana will be able to protect its interest is to make sure that there are restrictive

measures called tariffs or taxes on foreign manufactured products such that it would prevent

people from bringing a certain quantity of foreign goods.25 Thus, the government in promoting its

interest ensures that Ghanaian products go outside Ghana to other states and in protecting its

interests it ensures the foreign goods do not flood the local market.

Again, out of the ten (10) respondents interviewed, three (3) gave their views on issues at the

political level connected mainly to terrorism. They agreed that terrorism has been on the rise in

recent times. For instance, things which are happening in the Middle East are also affecting West

Africa. And once there is such a development in West Africa it would affect Ghana. Neighbouring

countries like Togo, Cote d’ Ivoire, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Mali are all affected by such terrorism

activities.26 In addition, the issue of piracy has become so extant in West Africa that West African

states have started cooperating to combat piracy. Thus the Gulf of Guinea countries are coming

together to do that.27

A respondent also reported that an instance of the influence of globalization on the foreign policy

of Ghana is having one president emerging in the United States and all of a sudden you hear that

all illegal immigrants are to be sent back to Ghana. The respondent further stated that, “there are a

lot of Ghanaians in the US who do not have legal documents and the Ghana Missions are being

asked to facilitate their extradition”.28 He also mentioned that some of them are not holding any

birth certificate or passport, so it becomes difficult to identify them as Ghanaians. Moreover, the

Ghanaians themselves do not want to be identified as Ghanaians. These are some challenges that


53

are being faced as far as Ghana and the US is concerned. In addition, the respondent reported that,

“the US diplomatic services have said that they are not going to issue long term visas to Ghanaian

Members of Parliament and ministers”.29 This decision, therefore, puts much burden on the foreign

missions and thus it is affecting Ghana’s relation with the US.30

In addition, five (5) respondents affirmed that one of the influence of globalization with regards to

economic diplomacy is with the ease of doing business and trade. In as much as the ease of doing

business is not done by the MFARI, it is influenced by the ministry.31 Thus, these are some

concerns that are channeled from the MFARI and sent to the MDAs. Moreover, people are willing

to invest in some countries and they are able to do business at a touch of a button. The MOTI

therefore tries to make business easier by giving tax exemptions as well as making things free.32 In

recent times, a person can be in Ghana and have a business transaction done with a person in

another country.

3.1.1 International Trade

One of the aspect of economic diplomacy has to do with trade. The interest of Ghana has to do

with whatever the country stands to benefit. Hence, two (2) respondents who were interviewed at

the MOTI revealed that, one of the ways that Ghana stands to benefit is to export resources, such

as cocoa, bauxite, gold, oil and other manufactured products.33 The respondents further agreed in

assertion that, in terms of economic influence, with the emergence of industrial production, certain

parts of goods are being manufactured in one place and being assembled in another place and this

can be attributed to the world being a global village where it is easier to engage in trade with other

states. An instance is the Ghana free zones.34 There are factories which manufacture cars which are


54

not sold here but they are exported back to other states. This also includes garments which are also

created and produced in Ghana but are not sold to the local market.35 These products are rather

exported and this also can be said to promote the interest of the country.

Furthermore, the constitution also stipulates that “the government shall adhere to the principles

enshrined in or as the case may be, the aims and ideals of any other international organization of

which Ghana is a member”.36 Ghana belongs to the World Trade Organization (WTO) which

advocates for free trade between countries.

As such, three (3) of the respondents interviewed affirmed that Ghana was the first to sign the

Continental Free Trade with the goal of expanding trade between other states. Ghana is a small

country and thus, its economy is too small to depend on itself. Thus, the country seeks economic

opportunities and it is therefore interested in trading with as many nations as possible. Thus, other

African countries are being urged to ratify the continental free trade agreement. According to the

respondents from the MFARI, the diplomats representing Ghana’s interest abroad have been

instructed to try and convince their Heads of State and governments of the host country to ratify

the continental free trade agreement in order to expand trade.37 However, with Britain deciding to

exit the European Union, it means that Britain will no longer be part of the European Union and as

such one of the trade policies of Ghana will have to do with signing a separate trade agreement

with Britain either through the Commonwealth or Bilateral agreement.38

According to one (1) of the respondents at the MFARI, one major activity that Ghana embarks on

is to attract foreign investment from other countries. This activity, therefore takes place under the

MOTI which makes economic diplomacy a reality. It however feeds into what the MFARI is doing

as a government machinery.39 Thus, the economic trade and investment bureau in the ministry has

a specific mandate that links directly to economic diplomacy. In this regard, the ministry organizes


55

fairs in its missions abroad.40 Other MDAs such as the Ministry of Trade and the Ghana Export

Promotion Authority (GEPA) are brought on board to showcase Ghanaian products like palm oil,

soap and shea butter. Thus, every year, the ministry tries to organize one fair per quarter in a

specific area such as Europe, Africa, and Asia.41 The Ministry also has the stakeholders’

conference, a step taking program which brings on board all the economic diplomacy stakeholders

like tourism, trade, academia, as well as people from the Economic Department from the

University of Ghana and other places.42

Once again, Ghana’s constitution enjoins that, “the Government shall promote respect for

international law, treaty obligations and the settlement of international disputes by peaceful

means”43. Thus, in regarding global law and agreement compliance, it would mean that the

government of Ghana would not do anything that runs counter to what international trade

regulations talks about.44 The respondent further believes that Ghana, as a member of the

International Monetary Fund, International Trade Center, The World Trade Organization, and

International Chamber of Commerce actually subscribes to anything that has to do with

international trade. Furthermore, in the settlement of international dispute by peaceful means, it

implies that no one country shall take advantage of another country. In addition the international

trade organisation and world intellectual property organization are all international institutions that

ensures that each country’s economic interest is protected.

3.2 Regional Integration

Regional Integration as part of Ghana’s foreign policy gained impetus or much prominence during

the period where former president, John Agyekum Kufuor served as the President of Ghana. This


56

was as a result of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD). The former president

of South Africa, Mthambo Mbeki noted the idea of Africa coming together and this was supported

by the former president of Nigeria, Obasanjo. It was around that time that John Agyekum Kufuor

was also president, so they all came together and that was when a secretariat was even established

in all foreign missions including Ghana.45 Moreover, there was a secretariat or a department

purposely for NEPAD and since then there was a ministry established in Ghana that was called

NEPAD and Regional Integration.46 Regional Integration can be identified in the constitution of

Ghana where the constitution stipulates in Article 40 that, “the government shall seek the

establishment of a just and equitable international economic and social order.”47 Thus, one can say

that the constitution of Ghana has always promoted regional integration but once again, it gained

prominence during the time of President John Agyekum Kufuor. The Economic Community of

West African States (ECOWAS) represents the Regional Integration in the West Africa region.

There is East African Community (EAC) which represents East African nations. In addition, the

Southern Africa Development Community represents Southern Africa and the African Union.

Regional Integration can also be traced from the time of Kwame Nkrumah when he talked about

creating the United States of Africa. He had the vision of getting all African countries to come

together for a common purpose.48

In addition, all the respondents at the MFARI are of the view that Ghana as part of its foreign

policy is calling for more integration. This is because the world is gearing towards a populace

gain.49 They argue that African countries cannot tackle their issues one on one or on individual

basis. They therefore, believe that African countries gather power by being together. In view of

this, Ghana’s foreign policy regarding regional integration emanates from the current

administration, and it is more of multilateralism, hence, making the environment conducive to


57

relate to others.50 When the current President, His Excellency Nana Akufo Addo came to power,

he went on a tour in most African countries and targeted mostly ECOWAS countries and these

visits were to build pacts with other nations. The president, in delivering a speech at the last

general assembly, mentioned that multilateralism is very paramount and that it is key to addressing

challenges. He therefore, justified why we are leaning towards China. Thus, Ghana’s tenets on

regional integration technically has not changed but has rather been strengthened.51

According to respondents at the MFARI, every nation wants to come upfront in terms of regional

integration. Thus, nations are picking up, brightening their concept and taking it out in the open. In

view of this, nations are now advertising on major world news channels. Ghana has thus advertised

itself on CNN. Neighbouring countries like Nigeria, has also advertised on CNN. Individual

regions within a country can advertise on CNN. Thus, the foreign policy officers have been made

to be proactive. That is to say, they don’t wait for investors to come but rather market their

investment opportunities to investors as well as potential investors.52 This activity has made Ghana

more competitive. And it has made the people not to overthrow government by coup because when

there is an overthrow of government by coup the business environment is not stable. Hence it has

created some stability in the country.

3.3. Culture

Culture can be said to be the way of life. Culture has also always been part of the foreign policy

agenda. Majority of the respondents are of the view that, through globalization, clothing trends in

Ghana has been influenced. Style of music has also been influenced to fit modern trends.53 One (1)

respondent further argues that Ghana as a country does not only receive or take cultural settings


58

from other countries but also gives or imparts its cultural settings to other states.54 Taking the new

way of producing music for instance, they were not originally Ghanaian but in the course of time,

it had a Ghanaian flare added to it. Originally, Hip life were raps from the US, however one can

say that as a result of globalization, it has adopted and modified to suit the Ghanaian way of music.

In other words, they were taken to adapt to our foreign highlife lifestyle. Our way of clothing has

also changed in a way, where in recent times you have Ghanaians putting on western style of

clothing such as suit.

Ghana’s foreign policy can be said to be total. In the aspect of culture, there is educational as well

as cultural cooperation in certain countries. A respondent asserts that Indians visit Ghana to

perform some dance. And these dances are performed by some cultural dancing troupe known as

the Ghana Dance Ensemble who visit other countries. Another culture aspect has to do with

engagement in books, education, awards of scholarship, such as the commonwealth scholarship

programme.55 In talking about promoting the interest of Ghana, culture is one of the area that

Ghana has always promoted. A respondent also mentioned that, there are about two other dance

group that can be found at the National Theater. These include the ‘Abibigromma’ as well as the

Ghana Dance Ensemble.56 These cultural troupes are invited to countries by the diplomatic

missions stationed there, to exhibit the cultural diversity of Ghana. These cultural troupes have

visited and performed in different countries like China and South Africa. According to one of the

respondents who was a diplomat sent to represent Ghana in a foreign country, during Ghana’s

national day, that is the Independence Day anniversary, the missions that have enough funds are

able to invite these cultural troupes to go and perform. Even in the case where the mission is not

able to bring them from Ghana, The Ghanaian residents in the host country train their children to

dress in ‘kente’.57 Also as part of the national day, the Ghanaians all wear ‘kente’, even the ladies


59

wear ‘kaba’. The respondent further said, “there wasn’t a national day were a Ghanaian diplomat

was dressed in suit. He or she would try to wear a Ghanaian attire”.58 Thus, culture is a unique

way of identifying oneself. If a person puts on something like the skin of a lion in Ghana, he or she

can be identified as coming from a particular tribe or region in the country.

Ghana has been identified with ‘kente’ and it is weaved or printed in different styles, pattern and

forms. Moreover, a respondent narrates that, during one of the Olympic Games, Ghanaians

appeared in ‘kente’ styles and was so unique in such a way that, everybody at the stadium was

applauding because it was a nice scene to behold.59 Anywhere, a person is seen dressed in kente is

usually identified to be from Ghana. Thus, the kente is one aspect of culture that makes Ghanaians

unique and promotes Ghana’s culture. Culture has therefore been one of Ghana’s strong pillars

when it comes to its foreign policy in promoting the interest of Ghana. China has a nation has also

seen the prospects that Ghana has with regard to the rich culture she has. In view of this, the

Ambassador of China to Ghana, Mr. Shi Ting Wang, has an agenda to promote cultural exchange

between both nations.60

At the 2019 Silk Road Language and Art Exhibition held at the Confucius Institute at the

University of Ghana- Legon, the Chinese government saw art as a bridge for enhancing mutual

trust and friendship among nations.61 Ghana has great artists and fantastic painting works with a

rich cultural heritage. This explains the need for cooperation which would ultimately promote

development for all. With the world becoming a global village, this mutual cooperation in the area

of culture will go a long way to arouse the hope of showcasing the cultural values of both nations

to the world through advanced and improved technology. More artists would also get the chance to

visit China in future and export their national treasure (culture) to the Chinese people.62 The

exhibition program held at the Confucius Institute, showcased about 47 Chinese art works


60

including traditional paintings of China by some members of the Chinese Academy of Culture and

Art.63 Ghana’s artists displayed about 20 works to the general public. This exhibition offered both

countries the opportunity to sell its rich culture to the world and also served as a platform to learn

from each other.

3.4 Positive Effects of Globalization on Ghana’s Foreign Policy

One of the positive influence of globalization is making Ghana’s products available elsewhere.

Thus, cultural products such as kente, local prints, cocoa butter, raffia and other products are

exported. This implies that, Ghana is exporting more of its culturally manufactured products than

previously. The world, in becoming smaller has made Ghanaian products available in other

countries all over the world. Ghana imports more of its products from other countries and also

exports more of its product to other countries.

In addition, majority of the respondents are of the view that communication has been made easier

and comfortable. A person can just call or send emails to a person about something. Prior to that,

he or she would have to write a note or a letter and go to the post office to mail it, which takes

weeks, months or even years before it gets to the recipient. Thus, the respondents believe that with

the current trend of globalization, communication has been made easier, faster and effective. An

instance is the advent of the WhatsApp Messenger, where messages can be sent and a reply is

received within seconds or minutes. Hence, one does not have to wait for days or months to

communicate. Employers can pass on instructions to employees and employees can also send

feedback to the employers within a short period of time.


61

Also, when there is a conference going on like the UN, within a moment the Foreign mission or

the Ministry is able to transmit information to whoever is representing the nation.64 Compared to

decades ago, if a conference is happening in New York and there needs to be a voting activity,

whoever is representing at the conference needs to consult the home country before taking a

decision. And it takes time to consult and receive feedback through letters or mails. Consequently,

globalization has made the world very effective.65

According to a respondent, one of the positive effect has to do with education and women

empowerment. In recent times, the education program has made it possible for students to go to

school and understand the concept that is taught. In addition, Ghana’s educational system can

benefit from ideas which have been produced in other countries.

The society we live in is changing rapidly and we need to do something about the protection and

enhancement of our culture in order to preserve our identity as Ghanaians. Western clothes have

become more convenient to wear as culture interacts with each other.

3.5 Negative Effects on Ghana’s Foreign Policy

With the influence of globalization, one can say that, there has been some negative aspects as a

result of the world becoming smaller. In recent times, one can watch foreign movies on television.

And these movies depicts some lifestyle trends that influences the locals of the country, especially

the youth. Also, with the arrival of latest perfume rice, Ghana imports these products at the

expense of the locally grown rice in Ghana. There is also the imports of Alcohol which poses as a

health threat to the citizens of Ghana, especially those who have made it a habit to drink. Some of


62

Ghana’s local bitters such as, ‘Alomo’ bitters are also exported to other countries like Nigeria and

Namibia.

Once again, with the world becoming a smaller village, people are exposed to certain cultures

which may be harmful to both Ghana’s culture and people. These include men piercing their ears

in order to wear earrings. A respondent at the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, asserted that

all these are originally not Ghanaian but with interactions with other nations these lifestyle trends

negatively affects the culture of Ghana.

Another respondent also reveals that one negative aspect of globalization has to do with the issue

of cyber-attack or cyber fraud. This activity is linked with electronic communication. Even in

recent times, if a person wants to use the internet to transmit information, he or she is at risk of

losing the confidentiality of the information. Nowadays, people are able to hack into devices such

as mobile phones, computers and get information for their own personal benefit.

Three of the respondents argues that the issue of terrorism cannot be left out in respect to the

negative aspect of globalization. With constant news of terrorism activities, it has made states

cautious and aware of security measures that needs to be put in place. For instance, if you travel

out of the country these days, they subject your laptop, just to be sure that you don’t have any

information on your laptop that poses as a security threat to people around. This is because people

are able to use it to engage in so many vices. Such as hijacking, terrorism, as well as money

laundering. People are now able to send billions of money into an account in another country that

is sometimes used to finance certain vices such as illicit drug trafficking.


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3.6 Conclusion

This chapter presented a data analysis on qualitatively collected data on globalization and its

influence on Ghana’s foreign policy. Majority of the respondents of the study affirmed that

Ghana’s foreign policy in its totality has not changed, however, pursuing the foreign policy agenda

by different governments has been influenced as a result of globalization. Globalization, thus has

made it possible to effectively carry out Ghana’s foreign policy objectives as well as its principles

as enjoined in the Constitution of Ghana. Globalization can, however, be seen to have both

positively and negatively influenced the policy decision making and implementation, thus one

cannot focus on one side and leave the other. Both aspect should be considered in order to plan

well in the future.


64

END NOTES

1 The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana Act. (1996). The Directive Principles of State Policy.

Article 40(a), p. 36. 2 Ibid. 3 Interview granted by a Deputy Director on 24th May, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and

Regional Integration, Accra-Ghana. 4 Ibid. 5 The Constitution of the republic of Ghana Act. (1996). op cit. 6 Interview granted by a Deputy Director. op. cit. 7 Ibid. 8 Interview granted by a Foreign Service Officer on 10th June, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs and Regional Integration. Accra-Ghana.

9 Interview with an official at the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Accra-Ghana. 10Interview granted by a Diplomat on 3rd July, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and

Regional Integration, Accra-Ghana.

11 Interview granted by a Deputy Director. op. cit. 12 Interview granted by an Ambassador on 3rd July, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and

Regional Integration, Accra-Ghana. 13 Ibid. 14 Interview granted by Mr. Chai Zhijing, an Economic and Commercial Counsellor on 26th June,

2019 at the Chinese Embassy, 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Interview granted by an Economic Section Chief on 11th July, 2019 at the US embassy, Accra,

Ghana 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Interview granted by a Deputy Director. op. cit. 26 Interview granted by an Ambassador. op. cit. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Interview granted by a Diplomat. op. cit. 32 Ibid. 33 Interview with an official at the Ministry of Trade and Industry. op. cit.


65

34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 The Constitution. op. cit. 37 Interview granted by an Ambassador. op. cit. 38 Ibid. 39 Interview granted by a Diplomat. op. cit. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 The Constitution. op. cit. 44 Interview granted by a Deputy Director. op. cit. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 The Constitution. op. cit. 48 Interview granted by a Deputy Director. op. cit. 49 Interview granted by a Diplomat. op. cit. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Interview granted by an Ambassador. op. cit. 54 Ibid.

55 Interview granted by an expert on 31 May 2019 at the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture,

Accra-Ghana. 56 Ibid. 57 Interview granted by a Deputy Director. op. cit. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Interview granted by Mr. Chai Zhijing. op. cit. 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. 64 Interview granted by a Diplomat. op. cit. 65 Ibid.


66

CHAPTER FOUR

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.0 Introduction

This chapter summarizes the main findings of the study, draws conclusions and suggests some

recommendations. The research topic was an examination of the influence of globalization on

Ghana’s foreign policy. Globalization has made the world a global village with people becoming

more and more connected. Globalization is thus what we call the advent of new trends,

Thus, states policy has been influenced in a way of globalization. Pursuing Ghana’s foreign

policy agenda has however been influenced as different governments have come into power. The

study sought to show how globalization influences Ghana’s foreign policy. It can therefore be

observed that the agenda of the foreign policy of Ghana has been transformed in a manner that, it

is in line with the globalization trend of the world. That is to say that, foreign policies are

formulated and implemented in accordance to international or global standards.

4.1 Summary of findings

The following are the outcomes of the study based on data gathered in relation to the statement

of the problem, research questions and the objectives of the study.

The study found out that the main aim of every nation’s foreign policy goal is to achieve

her national interest and as such states employ policies that will favour its members as

against those from other nations on the global platform.


67

The study also revealed that the interconnectedness of globalization and foreign policy is

determined by the interest of nations for their members. As such, decisions of states to

meet global trends are mostly influenced by how well global demands either favorably or

unfavorably meet those of other states economically, politically, socially, culturally or

technologically.

The study found that, globalization has had an influence on the international policy

decision making of Ghana and its implementation. Most of the respondents expressed

that globalization has had an impact on the foreign policy of Ghana. Even though the

tenets of Ghana’s foreign policy has not changed since it is part and parcel of the

constitution of Ghana, the process of pursuing the foreign policy agenda has rather been

influenced as governments change from time to time.

The study also found out that, globalization has made the practice of economic diplomacy

easier. Thus, with globalization becoming more and more evident, business has become

easier to engage in. It was revealed that Ghana is on the path to channel its effort more

into industrialization, privatization and foreign direct investment as compared to the

historical primary production of commodities of goods such as gold, cocoa and oil which

has left the nation to be highly dependent on other countries in the global world.

Furthermore, the study revealed that Ghana’s tenets on regional integration technically

has not changed but has rather been strengthened. Foreign Policy makers have therefore

become more proactive. Hence if the government does not comply with the globalizing


68

trends, it can easily be left behind. Thus, Ghana has been made to be competitive in order

to also meet the standards of the international organizations of which Ghana is a member

of.

In addition, the study found that, culture has been one of Ghana’s strong pillars in

promoting the interest of Ghana. Thus, it can be seen in the area of music, clothing,

dance, arts as well as education.

The study also outlined some positive and negative influence of globalization. It revealed

that, positively, globalization has made Ghana’s products available in other countries. It

has also made communication among states easier, comfortable, faster and effective.

Thus, with the advent of technology, easy means of communication has been made

available to the world. And Ghana has embraced and utilized these technological

improvements to pursue its foreign policy agenda effectively.

With regards to the negative influence, the study revealed that as a result of globalization,

people are exposed to certain cultures which may be harmful to both Ghana’s culture and

people. These cultural aspects range from the type of movies that people watch, genre of

music as well as clothing styles. With interactions with other nations, these lifestyle

trends negatively affects the culture of Ghana.


69

4.2 Conclusion

Ghana as a nation, needs to come to a self-realization in identifying herself and comfortably

working harder to place herself strategically on the global platform as well as market her

products to meet international standard. You find people manufacturing products out of shea

butter and the way they package it is international. Also, you find people learning stuff that

ideally are not considered to be culturally good for the country. Conclusively, it can be asserted

that, the advantages of globalization outweighs the disadvantages. This is because now it has

made the world a better place, thus, prosecuting and executing Ghana’s foreign policy has

become very smart, effective and one is able to achieve better outcomes compared to decades

ago. This can be in the area of time, speed as well as effectiveness. People are, therefore, able to

take optimum decision by using the internet as well as further means of communication. Also,

businesses have been made easier to engage in the confines of the law.

Moreover, it should be noted that it is not everything that Ghana needs to follow or adhere to just

because other countries are doing that. That is to say that, just because every other state is doing

something does not mean it is good for Ghana. However as a country, we should rather focus on

what we have. We should find something that is okay for us and work within our capacity and

means. In other words, we should do what suits us, look within ourselves and sit back and look at

the bigger picture. Thus, within the bigger picture we should be able to find our scope and not

necessarily copy everything we see in other countries. We should do what we are good at and

comfortable not just because of globalization. Thus, we should sit back and find our own

strength. The Foreign Service practitioners must get the cycle right by spending much time to do

a feasibility study on the policy before it is implemented. This is because a policy is supposed to

respond to a problem.


70

Conclusively, it can be said for a fact, that globalization has transformed the nature of Ghana’s

foreign policy in contemporary international relations by making foreign policies the window of

opportunity where Ghana can relate with the rest of the world.

4.3 Recommendations

This study suggests some recommendations that will help improve upon the foreign policy of

Ghana in view of globalization trends.

To protect Ghana’s interest and to ensure a just equitable, social, and political order, the

current administration needs to make sure that the country is equipped with the right

human resource, thus, having the right people, training diplomats with the right ethics as

well as ensuring the right training for all foreign service officers.

Thus, when it comes to prosecuting this agenda, the government should make sure that

they train people to understand the current trend so that when taking decisions they would

always be mindful of what their decisions or what their actions will bring to them in their

country. In effect, there should be an effective training for all foreign policy practitioners,

which includes the diplomats in the way that they should go about their business when

they are in the line of duty.

Besides the traditional diplomacy, Foreign Service officers as well as diplomats should

be trained to be all-rounders or trained to be specialists. In the World Health Organization

(WTO), there are people who are dealing with our resolution that govern our health life.

And these personnel are mostly foreign service officers, just a few are medical

practitioners. Thus, the policies formulated and implemented are directed by foreign


71

policy officers. However for the WTO there are specialists for trade. Also, the FAO is

manned by foreign officers and officers sent from the MFA go there to send and receive

information as well as bring in feedback to the Ministry. Thus the Foreign Service

officers are the government machinery and hence if they are not trained or well-armed

with the right skills and knowledge, they may not effectively pursue the foreign policy

agenda. Furthermore, they must be abreast with the time in order to produce results.

The government should also provide proper facilities for the missions abroad. This is

because, if a diplomat is sent to New York to work and the person does not have what it

takes to prosecute and process things such as computer, cars and other necessary devices,

it slows down processes of doing things. It consequently makes prosecuting Ghana’s

foreign policy agenda difficult. Resources in the form of vehicles as well as offices that

are well furnished should be well provided for diplomats to effectively pursue activities

involving policy formulation and implementation.

Foreign Service Officers, staff as well as all other human resource personnel should be

motivated enough to do things properly. They should be motivated enough to go the extra

mile to effectively produce results.

With regards to regional integration, Members of ECOWAS must be able to team up

together in order to ensure a sub-regional stability and peace. Policy makers must tighten

the security, as well as immigration policies so as to ensure the right entry of nationals

from other states. This will therefore demand that foreign policy makers be a bit relaxed


72

on certain things that is to say, that the Foreign Service officers should be more stringent

in how they perform their activities or tasks.

Furthermore, Ghana doesn’t have many opportunities as it used to have for its own

nationals as far as trading is concerned, Thus Foreign Policy makers need to fashion

policies in a way that brings opportunities to nationals. This may have the tendency to

reduce Chinese influx to Ghana’s local institution. Ghana can continue to work with

China but then the local institution are to see that foreigners abide by the rules and

regulations. The right authorities however cannot sit back and expect everybody to follow

the rules. Ghana doesn’t have much money to be spending on everything. Hence, its

policy should be geared towards encouraging infant industries in the country. That is why

the WTO rules allow the banning of certain imports so as to encourage the local

industries.

Also, the decision makers should take intellectual property protection more seriously.

Some local and cultural items like ‘adinkra’ symbols should be protected because they

are now being utilized by other nationals. If a person goes to Korea, one can find some of

these Ghanaian symbols used or printed on umbrellas and these products are exported to

the United States. Also, the Chinese are taking some of these local designs, making good

use of it and bringing them back for nationals to buy at the mall, shops or supermarkets at

a higher price.


73

The government must also be very careful in prosecuting its foreign policy agenda so as

not to deviate from the path that the constitution enjoins of the Government.

In addition, the missions should try and cut down with more paper work and be more

technological savvy. That includes the use of emails to send and receive information as

well as making good use of the latest technological improvements.

Finally, the government of Ghana should be abreast with the time as well as link back

education with the culture. This can be seen in the development of some countries like

Japan and China. Japan and China has modernized with culture. Ghana should modernize

with culture as well and in the long run link globalization with culture.

The Government of Ghana should again take into serious cognizance the existence of

citizens in the diaspora and the role they play as dispersed ethnic or national group in the

world that can help shape the foreign policy objectives of the nation. In view of this, the

government should do well to actively involve representatives of Ghana in the diaspora in

the process of foreign policy decision making. This will help the government know and

understand best the needs and demands of such citizens in order to shape a foreign policy

that will meet their interest in the global platform.

Ghanaian citizens in the diaspora, aside the economic role of providing remittances,

foreign aids and investments, should be encouraged to play a role as political, social and

cultural bridges between Ghana and other states. They must be given the opportunity to


74

act as ambassadors of their homeland in their host nation to project the interest and image

of their homeland on the international arena they are located.

In the area of informal economy, a large informal sector such as the primitive agricultural

economy’s presence should be felt to help government avoid a large scale lobbying by

entrepreneurs who would expect labour market deregulation so they improve productivity

in the global economy.

The government of Ghana should also consider the informal sector to act as an employer

not of last resort in recruiting persons for policy making and as a way of compensating

the formal economy of globalization.


75

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https://mfa.gov.gh/index.php/foreign-policy-objectives/



https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2078&context=tqr

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D. Other Publications

Afari-Gyan, K. (1991). Kwame Nkrumah, George Padmore and W.E.B. du Bois.

Research Review.

Chareonwongsak, K. (2002). Globalization and Technology: How will they change society?

Technology in society. 24. 191-206.

Mayer, J. (2000). Globalization, Technology transfer and skill accumulation in low-income

countries. UNCTAD Discussion papers, No. 150.

Mohan, R. J. (2009). International Business. Oxford University Press in New Delhi, New York.

ISBN 978-0-19-568909-9

Steger, M. (2013). 4. The Political Dimension of Globalization. Retrieved from

10.1093/actrade/9780199662661.003.0004.

The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana Act. (1996). The Directive Principles of State Policy.

Article 40(a).

The World Bank. (2008). Technology Diffusion in the Developing World. Global Economic

Prospects. Washington DC.

Toyo, E. (2000): Background to Globalization: A Mimeograph Published by the Academic Staff

Union of Universities (ASUU), Nigeria.

E. Interviews

Interview granted by a Deputy Director on 24th May, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and


Interview granted by a Diplomat on 3rd July, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and


Interview granted by a Foreign Service Officer on 10th June, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs and Regional Integration. Accra-Ghana.

Interview granted by an Ambassador on 3rd July, 2019 at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and


Interview granted by an Economic Section Chief on 11th July, 2019 at the US embassy,

Accra, Ghana

Interview granted by an expert on 31 May 2019 at the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture,

Accra-Ghana.


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Interview granted by an official on 7th June 2019 at the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture,

Accra-Ghana.

Interview granted by Mr. Chai Zhijing, an Economic and Commercial Counsellor on

26th June, 2019 at the Chinese Embassy,

Interview with an official on 19th June 2019 at the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Accra-Ghana.

Interview with a director on 19th June 2019 at the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Accra-Ghana.


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APPENDIX

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE

An examination of the influence of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy

since the end of the Cold War

My name is Hilda Amoakoa Gyasi. I am an MA student from the Legon Center for International

Affairs and Diplomacy (LECIAD), University of Ghana. I am conducting a research on the

above topic for the purpose of my thesis. Kindly assist by providing your responses to each

question. All responses will be treated with confidentiality and used for academic research

purposes only. Thank you for your assistance and cooperation.

Research Questions

1. What is your view about globalization?

2. Has there been any transformation on Ghana’s foreign policy?

3. Does globalization have any influence on Ghana’s foreign policy?

4. What are some of the foreign policies Ghana has taken in the area of economic

diplomacy?

5. What are some of the foreign policies Ghana has taken in the area of trade?

6. What are some of the foreign policies Ghana has taken in the area of regional integration?

7. What are some of the foreign policies Ghana has taken in the area of culture?

8. How has globalization influenced the decisions Ghana makes in the area of economic

diplomacy, regional integration and culture?

9. What are some of the positive impacts of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy?

10. What are some of the negative impacts of globalization on Ghana’s foreign policy?


Documents

AN EXAMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION ON …