An embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a larger system, often with real-time computing constraints.[1][2] It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.[3]Embedded systems contain processing cores that are typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP).[4] The key characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle a particular task. Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.VARIETY OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

PC Engines' ALIX.1C Mini-ITX embedded board with an x86 AMD Geode LX 800 together with Compact Flash, miniPCI and PCI slots, 44-pin IDE interface, audio, USB and 256MB RAM

An embedded RouterBoard 112 with U.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 miniPCI Wi-Fi card widely used by wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) in the Czech Republic.Embedded systems span all aspects of modern life and there are many examples of their use.Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the network to mobile phones at the end-user. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network bridges to route data.CHARACTERISTICS

Gumstix Overo COM, a tiny, OMAP-based embedded computer-on-module with Wifi and Bluetooth.1. Embedded systems are designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance constraints that must be met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements, allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.2. Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems consist of small, computerized parts within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music.[5] Similarly, an embedded system in an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself.

e-con Systems eSOM270 & eSOM300 Computer on Modules3. The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are stored in read-only memory or Flash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware resources: little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.

Cyber crime, or computer crime, refers to any crime that involves a computer and a network.[1] The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Netcrime refers, more precisely, to criminal exploitation of the Internet.[2] Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement, identity theft, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.On the global level, both governments and non-state actors continue to grow in importance, with the ability to engage in such activities as espionage, and other cross-border attacks sometimes referred to as cyber warfare. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors accountable for their actions, with the International Criminal Court among the few addressing this threat.[3]A cyber countermeasure is defined as an action, process, technology, device, or system that serves to prevent or mitigate the effects of a cyber attack against a computer, server, network or associated device.[4] A number of countermeasures exist that can be effectively implemented in order to combat cyber-crime and increase security.TYPES OF THREATSMalicious codeMalicious code is a broad category that encompasses a number of threats to cyber-security. In essence it is any hardware, software, or firmware that is intentionally included or inserted in a system for a harmful purpose.[5] Commonly referred to as malware it includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, keyloggers, BOTs, Rootkits, and any software security exploits.[6]Malicious code also includes spyware, which are deceptive programs, installed without authorization, that monitor a consumers activities without their consent.[7] Spyware can be used to send users unwanted popup ads, to usurp the control of a users Internet browser, or to monitor a users online habits. However, spyware is usually installed along with something that the user actually wishes to install. The user consents to the installation, but does not consent to the monitoring tactics of the spyware. The consent for spyware is normally found in the end-user license agreement.[7]Network attacksA network attack is considered to be any action taken to disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy information residing on a computer and computer networks.[8] An attack can take four forms: fabrication, interception, interruption, and modification. A fabrication is the creation of some deception in order to deceive some unsuspecting user; an interception is the process of intruding into some transmission and redirecting it for some unauthorized use; an interruption is the break in a communication channel, which inhibits the transmission of data; and a modification is the alteration of the data contained in the transmissions.[5] Attacks can be classified as either being active or passive. Active attacks involve modification of the transmission or attempts to gain unauthorized access to a system, while passive attacks involve monitoring transmissions. Either form can be used to obtain information about a user, which can later be used to steal that users identity. Common forms of network attacks include Denial of Service (Dos) and Distributed Denial of Service(DDoS), Man-in-the-middle attack, packet sniffing, TCP SYN Flood, ICMP Flood, IP spoofing, and even simple web defacement.[9]Network abuseNetwork abuses are generally considered fraudulent activity that is committed with the aid of a computer. SPAM is one of the most common forms of network abuse, where an individual will email list of users usually with unsolicited advertisements or phishing attacks attempting to use social engineering to acquire sensitive information such any information useful in identity theft, usernames, passwords, and so on by posing as a trustworthy individual. Pharming is also another form of network abuse where a websites traffic is redirected to a bogus website, usually by exploiting vulnerabilities in Domain Name System(DNS) servers.Social engineeringSocial engineering is the act of manipulating people into performing actions or divulging confidential information, rather than by breaking in or using technical cracking techniques.[10] This method of deception is commonly used by individuals attempting to break into computer systems, by posing as an authoritative or trusted party and capturing access information from the naive target. Email Phishing is a common example of social engineering's application, but it is not limited to this single type of attack.CYBERCRIME COUNTERMEASURESTechnicalThere are a variety of different technical countermeasures that can be deployed to thwart cybercriminals and harden systems against attack. Firewalls, network or host based, are considered the first line of defense in securing a computer network by setting Access Control Lists (ACLs) determining which what services and traffic can pass through the check point.[11]Antivirus can be used to prevent propagation of malicious code. Most computer viruses have similar characteristics which allow for signature based detection. Heuristics such as file analysis and file emulation are also used to identify and remove malicious programs. Virus definitions should be regularly updated in addition to applying operating system hotfixes, service packs, and patches to keep computers on a network secure.[12]EconomicThe optimal level of cyber-security depends largely on the incentives facing providers and the incentives facing perpetrators. Providers make their decision based on the economic payoff and cost of increased security whereas perpetrators decisions are based on the economic gain and cost of cyber-crime. Potential prisoners dilemma, public goods, and negative externalities become sources of cyber-security market failure when private returns to security are less than the social returns. Therefore the higher the ratio of public to private benefit the stronger the case for enacting new public policies to realign incentives for actors to fight cyber-crime with increased investment in cyber-security.[21]LegalIn the United States a number of legal statutes define and detail the conditions for prosecution of a cyber-crime and are used not only as a legal counter-measure, but also functions as a behavioral check against the commission of a cyber-crime. Many of the provisions outlined in these acts overlap with each.