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An Assessment of the Physical Activity Levels ofAdolescent Girls ‐Implications for Physical EducationLorraine CalePublished online: 25 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Lorraine Cale (1996) An Assessment of the Physical Activity Levels of Adolescent Girls ‐Implications forPhysical Education, European Journal of Physical Education, 1:1-2, 46-55, DOI: 10.1080/1740898960010105

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European Journal of Physical Education, 1996, 1, 46-55

An Assessment of the PhysicalActivity Levels of Adolescent Girls -Implications for Physical Education

Lorraine Cale

The aim of this study was to provide an estimate of the physical activity levels of agroup of 103 adolescent girls aged 11-14. Physical activity was assessed by meansof an interview questionnaire. The questionnaire, the Four by One-Day Recallgathered 4 days of activity information including two school days and a Saturdayand a Sunday over a period of 6 months. The information derived enabled estimatesof average daily energy expenditure in kcal kg-1.day-1, time spent in "moderate"activity and time spent in "vigorous" activity. The physical activity levels of thegirls in this study were generally low. Approximately 45% were found to haveengaged in no vigorous activity at all over the 4 days. Many participated in somemoderate physical activity during the period of the study but a sizeable proportionhad done very little. Approximately 30% engaged in a daily average of less than 20minutes. It was concluded that whilst some girls may have engaged in sufficientphysical activity to meet guideline one of the recent Physical Activity Guidelines forAdolescents, the majority engaged in insufficient activity to satisfy also guideline 2.

Research evidence highlighting the importance of physical activity to youngpeople's health is now stronger than ever. Physical activity has many physiologicaland possible psychological effects that influence the health of children (Gilliam andMacConnie, 1984; Montoye, 1985) and a number of significant health concerns inadolescence are recognised to be influenced by physical activity including adiposity,psychological functioning, immune status and risk of musculoskeletal injury (Sallisand Patrick, 1994). However, there is widespread concern that children's activitylevels are low, particularly amongst girls. A number of studies conducted in Britain,while reporting low activity levels in children generally, report particularly lowlevels in girls (Armstrong, 1989; Armstrong et al., 1990; Northern Ireland FitnessSurvey, 1989; Sports Council for Wales, 1987; Thirlaway and Benton, 1993;Williams, 1988). Furthermore, the problem of girls' apparent inactivity seems to beuniversal. Following an international review of the descriptive epidemiology ofphysical activity in adolescents, Pate et al., (1994) noted how it has been consis-tently reported that males are more active than females and Sallis (1993) drew aglobal conclusion that males are about 15 to 25% more active than females.

Also of concern is the evidence that physical activity tends to decrease withincreasing age during childhood and adolescence (Pate et al., 1994), and this is atrend which is more marked in girls than in boys. Sallis (1993) reported that activitylevels decline at a rate of about 2.7% per year in males whilst they decline by about7.4% per year in females. Thereafter, and once established, it is suggested activity

Lorraine Cale is with the Department of Physical Education, Sports Science and RecreationManagement, Loughborough University, UK.

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patterns persist into adult life (Puhl et al., 1990). The results of the Allied DunbarNational Fitness Survey of Great Britain (Sports Council and Health EducationAuthority, 1993) revealed particularly low levels of physical activity amongwomen (only 4% were found to be active in aerobic activities) and showed thatadult participation in physical activity in later years was strongly associated withbehaviour at an earlier age. In other words, inactive girls tend to become inactivewomen.

Indeed, such is the concern over girls' physical activity behaviour that followingthe recent National Survey of Young People and Sport, The Sports Council (1994/5),identified girls as a target group within its recommendations to increase sportingopportunities for young people. It identified the need to improve the foundationexperience of girls and explore ways to extend and maintain their involvementthrough the teenage years.

Whilst current research consistently points to a need for young girls to be moreactive, there is still relatively limited information in the area of girls' physicalactivity. Few studies for example, have been conducted on sizeable samples in GreatBritain. This paper outlines a study which determined the physical activity levels ofa sample of English adolescent girls. The implications of the findings for physicaleducation and the physical education teacher are then discussed.

METHOD

SubjectsOne hundred and three adolescent girls (aged 11-14) participated in the study. Thegirls were drawn from 12 different schools across central England. A stratifiedrandom sampling procedure was adopted to select the sample with stratificationfactors including type of school (e.g., high school, secondary, independent) and sizeof school. Equal numbers were drawn from each of the schools involved andinformed consent was obtained from the schools, parents/guardians and the girlsthemselves prior to data collection.

ProcedurePhysical activity levels were assessed by means of an interview questionnaire, theFour by One-Day Recall, which has been designed specifically for use with children(Cale, 1994). The recall has been evaluated and validation studies have revealedsignificant relationships between the activity information derived from the recalland a heart rate monitoring technique (r=0.61, p<0.01) and between the recall andan observational method (r=0.79, p<0.01). One month test-retest of the instrumenthas revealed a reliability of (r=0.62, p<0.05) (Cale, 1994).

The girls completed the interview questionnaire individually with the inter-viewer on four separate occasions, on each occasion reporting the activities they hadengaged in the previous day. Thus, four days of activity information was collectedfor each child. The days included two school days and a Saturday and a Sunday. Toaccount for possible seasonal differences in activity levels, one school day and one

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weekend interview were conducted in the same week in the winter betweenDecember and February, and the procedure was repeated again in the summerbetween May and July.

Treatment of DataFollowing the interviews, the activities the girls reported to have engaged in over thefour days were classified as very light, light, moderate, hard or very hard and wereassigned an average MET1 value of 1.5, 2.5, 4.0, 6.0 or 10.0 respectively.Classifications were made based on the best representation from published lists(Dumin and Passmore, 1967; Katch and McArdle, 1977; Taylor et al., 1978).Moderate activities included activities such as playing football/ball games or tag/chasing games in the playground, as well as more conventional activities such asswimming, cycling leisurely, brisk walking, heavy household chores, gardening ordoing a paper round. Hard/very hard or vigorous activities included jogging, running,basketball, football and rugby. An activity score, i.e., an estimate of average dailyenergy expenditure in kcal-kg'^day'1 was calculated for each child following themethod employed in the 7-Day Recall physical activity questionnaire and describedby Blair (1984). This method has previously been used with children (Wallace et al.,1985; Sallis et al., 1988; Sallis et al., 1993). In addition, the questionnaire calculatedthe amount of time the girls had spent in moderate and in vigorous activity.

On the basis of their activity scores (estimated energy expenditures), the girlswere classified as very inactive, inactive, moderately active or active. These classi-fications were set according to the average values quoted for the 7-Day Recall byBlair (1984). For the purpose of this study the categories were modified slightly toincorporate a moderately active category. This category accommodated individualswho had engaged in some physical activity (i.e., they were not considered inactive),but insufficient to warrant being classified as active. The classification system isshown in table 1.

Table 1. Activity Status according to Activity Score

Activity Score(kcal-kg^-day"1)

Less than 33

Between 33-36.9

Between 37-39.9

40 or greater

Activity Status

Very Inactive

Inactive

Moderately Active

Active

1. A MET is a multiple of the resting rate ofOi consumption, or the ratio of exercise metabolism toresting metabolism (WMR/RMR). One MET represents an individual's resting metabolic rate, thereforean individual exercising at 2 METs is consuming O2 at twice the resting rate.

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RESULTS

Activity ScoresThe mean daily energy expenditure or activity score was 35.4 kcal-kg'1-day"1. Interms of the girls' activity status, the results revealed only 4.9% of the sample to beactive and 16.5% to be moderately active. The remaining girls were found to beinactive (63.1%) or very inactive (15.5%) (see Fig.l.). Put another way, onlyapproximately one fifth (21.4%) of the girls were classified as either moderatelyactive or active, while approximately four fifths (78.6%) were classified as inactiveor very inactive.

Fig. 1. Activity Status

B

•ActiveMod. ActiveInactiveV. Inactive

Moderate ActivityThe daily average time the girls spent in moderate activity was 47.9 minutes(SD=35.9). Approximately 5% (4.9%) of the girls were reported to have done nomoderate activity over the study period and 26.2% had spent a daily average of lessthan 20 minutes. Sixty five percent had spent a daily average of 30 minutes or morein moderate activity. The relative proportions of time the girls spent daily inmoderate activity are shown in Figure 2.

Vigorous ActivityThe daily average time the girls spent in vigorous activity was just 10.3 minutes(SD=20.6). In contrast to the findings for moderate activity, now a large proportionof the sample (45.6%) were found to have engaged in no vigorous activity at all overthe four days. Furthermore, 83.5% had engaged in a daily average of less than 20minutes (see Fig.2.).

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Fig. 2. Proportions of Time Girls Spent in Moderate and Vigorous Activity (Daily)

loo-

8 0 -

60-

4 0 -

2 0 -

0-19 20-29 30-59 60-89Minutes

90-119 120-179 180+

DISCUSSION

In keeping with the findings of a number of otheF studies (Armstrong, 1989;Armstrong et al., 1990; Northern Ireland Fitness Survey, 1989; Sports Council forWales, 1987; Thirlaway and Benton, 1993; Williams, 1988), the physical activitylevels of the girls in this study were generally found to be low. Based on theirestimated average daily energy expenditure scores, the vast majority were classifiedas inactive or very inactive (63.1% and 15.5% respectively). The findings forvigorous activity were equally disappointing with approximately 45% of girlsengaging in no such activity at all over the four days and 83.5% engaging in a dailyaverage of less than 20 minutes. It thus seems that such vigorous and more strenu-ous forms of exercise are not popular amongst many young girls and certainly notthe types they opt for during their free time.

When considering the energy expenditure scores and subsequent classificationof children into activity categories however, it should be realised that whilst suchscores provide a useful indicator of activity status, they are only approximationsand the procedure does have its limitations. Energy -expenditure values havepreviously been used with children (Bouchard et al., 1983; Wallace et al., 1985) buttheir applicability to young people has been questioned (Torun, 1983). Nonetheless,a number of researchers have stressed the importance of total energy expenditureto children's health (Bar-Or, 1983; Shephard, 1984; Saris, 1985) because it mayinfluence health risks such as obesity, optimise growth and encourage future partic-ipation in physical activity and it is therefore felt that such information is still veryrelevant.

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Interestingly though, and on a slightly more encouraging note, most girls(approx. 95%) were found to have engaged in at least some moderate activity overthe four days and many (65%) reported a daily average of 30 minutes moderateactivity or more. Thus, it appears that whilst most of the girls did not engage invigorous activity (and the type which would have the largest impact on the calcu-lated activity scores), many of them certainly did not display sedentary behaviour.Rather, they engaged in activity but of a more moderate and lower intensity.However, and even given this, it is still disappointing that a substantial numberfailed to engage in even very much moderate activity.

Of course of primary interest is whether the activity the girls reported is suffi-cient to provide them with health benefits and meet established recommendations.Recent developments in exercise prescription research have provided age appropri-ate guidelines for young people (Corbin et al., 1994; Sallis and Patrick, 1994) andguidelines specifically for adolescents have emanated from the InternationalConsensus Conference on Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents (Sallis andPatrick, 1994). These provide an amount of physical activity that is adequate forhealth maintenance for adolescents (see below).

Guideline 1All adolescents should be physically active daily, or nearly every day, as part ofplay, games, sports, work, transportation, recreation, physical education, orplanned exercise, in the context of family, school, and community activities.

Guideline 2Adolescents should engage in three or more sessions per week of activities thatlast 20 min or more at a time and that require moderate to vigorous levels ofexertion.

(Sallis and Patrick, 1994, pp 307-308)

In considering the physical activity the girls reported with respect to these guide-lines, it appears that a number of them, given their participation in moderate activity,did in fact meet guideline one. The rationale given for guideline one is that dailyweight-bearing activities are critical for enhancing bone development that affectsskeletal health throughout life and that substantial daily energy expenditure isexpected to reduce risk of obesity and may have other positive health effects (Sallisand Patrick, 1994). However, despite a number of girls appearing to meet this guide-line, there are still a sizeable proportion who engaged in very little activity of evena moderate nature (35% engaged in less than a daily average of 30 minutes and26.2% in a daily average of less than 20 minutes).

When it comes to guideline two, clearly the majority did not achieve this morestringent guideline. A large proportion of the girls (45.6%) were found to haveengaged in no vigorous activity at all over the four days and more than 80% hadengaged in a daily average of less than 20 minutes. Furthermore, of those who mayhave achieved the "20 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity" as stipulated, it islikely that the activity was an accumulated rather than a sustained 20 minutes as theguideline requires. Of significance also is the type of activities the guideline takes

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to constitute as "moderate to vigorous". If moderate to vigorous exercise is definedas equivalent to jogging, as Armstrong and McManus (1994) have suggested itmight be, then clearly very few girls engaged in the types of activities which wouldsatisfy this recommendation. The rationale provided for guideline two is the evi-dence that regular participation in continuous moderate to vigorous activity duringadolescence enhances psychological health, increases HDL cholesterol and increas-es cardiorespiratory fitness (Sallis and Patrick, 1994). Thus, whilst some of the girlsappeared to meet guideline one and may be accruing some health benefits associat-ed with their moderate activity participation, it appears that most are engaging ininsufficient moderate to vigorous activity likely to influence their cardiorespiratoryfitness, HDL cholesterol or psychological health.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Physical education teachers can potentially have a strong influence over youngpeople's physical activity behaviour and the findings from this study reveal a defi-nite need to target adolescent girls. In this respect, and in light of the findings fromthis and other studies, there are a number of issues which are worth considering.

Firstly, the messages and images PE teachers convey about physical activity andexercise are vital. The school is often seen as one of .the primary conveyors ofgender related behaviour within exercise participation (Armstrong and McManus,1994). Females are often not encouraged to participate in physical activity to thesame extent as males and traditional girls' games often appear to carry less prestigethan boys' games. Clearly, PE teachers need to consider the messages, images andopportunities presented within their PE programmes and. challenge gender ideolo-gies, prejudices and stereotyped views.

It is widely recognised that a positive attitude to physical education is a necessary(though not a sufficient) condition for participation in physical activity outside school(Williams, 1988). Fostering positive attitudes towards PE is therefore essential.Studies have found that often it is organisational issues which turn young girls off PEand consequently physical activity, such as the rules and arrangements pertaining tokit/clothing (Coakley and White, 1992; Luke and Sinclair, 1991) and the changing/showering routines that typically accompany PE (Coakley and White, 1992; SportsCouncil, 1995). Given this, perhaps PE teachers should consider their departmentalpolicies with respect to such issues.

The curriculum has also been recognised as an important determinant ofchildren's attitudes toward PE (Coakley and White, 1992; Figley, 1985; Goudas andBiddle, 1993; Luke and Sinclair, 1991). However, the relevance of much of thecurrent PE curriculum to many young people and especially to many young girls hasto be questioned. The trend towards PE being focused more explicitly on competitiveteam games with an emphasis on performance for example (Department forEducation and the Welsh Office, 1995) may well tum many girls away from physicalactivity, for research has shown competitive team games to be of relatively littleinterest to adolescent girls (Williams, 1988; The Sports Council, 1994/5). Rather,evidence suggests that young people should be exposed to a broad range of activities

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within the PE curriculum (Goudas and Biddle, 1993). This should involve teachersintroducing young people to a variety of lifetime exercise activities.

Other influences on young people's attitudes and thereby on physical activitybehaviour include the teacher, the atmosphere (Figley, 1985; Luke and Sinclair,1991) and their perceived self competence (Coakley and White, 1992; Figley, 1985;Luke and Sinclair, 1991). PE teachers can do much to ensure a positive atmosphereand supportive environment and to promote young girls' perceived competence bythe teaching philosophy, strategies and methods they employ. Addressing these andsuch other issues where necessary within PE would be relatively simple, and yetcould play an important part in influencing the physical activity behaviour ofadolescent girls.

CONCLUSION

The physical activity levels of the girls in this study were generally found to be low.The majority of the girls were found to be inactive based on their activity scores andthe time they spent in vigorous activity. On a slightly more positive note, most girlswere found to have engaged in some moderate activity during the period of thestudy and it was declared that a number may well be achieving guideline one of therecent Physical Activity Guidelines for Adolescents. However, the majority engagedin insufficient activity to satisfy both adolescent recommendations for physicalactivity. It is evident that the PE profession has an important role to play in thepromotion of physical activity in young people and the Findings from this studyclearly highlight the need for physical educators to target adolescent girls.

CORRESPONDENCE

Please address correspondence to Lorraine Cale PhD, Department of PhysicalEducation, Sports Science and Recreation Management, Loughborough University,Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK.

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