AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ERROR IN ENGLISH WRITING …repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123456789/1282/1/98963... · Free Writing Focused on the Use of Tenses (Case Study

AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ERROR IN ENGLISH FREE WRITING

FOCUSED ON THE USE OF TENSES

(Case study of the eleventh year students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi)

A “Skripsi”

Presented to Faculty of Tarbiya and Teacher’s Training in Partial Fulfillment of

Requirements for the Degree of S.Pd (Bachelor of Arts)

in English Education Department

By:

RIZKI FAUZIAH

NIM: 105014000359

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING

SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

JAKARTA

2011



(Case Study of the Eleventh Year Students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi)

A “Skripsi”




Approved by the Advisor;

Drs. Syauki, M. Pd

NIP: 1964121219911031002


FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING


JAKARTA

2010

ENDORSEMENT SHEET

The “Skripsi” (Scientific Paper) entitled “An Analysis of Student’s Error in

English Free Writing Focused on the Use of Tenses (Case Study of the Eleventh Year

Students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi)”, written by Rizki Fauziah, student’s registration

number 105014000359, was examined in the examination session of Faculty of

Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta

on March 31st, 2011. The “Skripsi” has been accepted and declared to have fulfilled

one of the requirements for the Degree of S.Pd (Bachelor of Arts) in English

Education Department.

Jakarta, March 31st, 2011

The Examination Committee

Chairman : Drs. Syauki, M. Pd (………………….)

NIP: 1964121219911031002

Secretary : Neneng Sunengsih, S.Pd (………………….)

NIP: 150 293 236

Examiner I : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M. Ed (………………….)

Examiner II : Dr. Fahriany, M. Pd (………………….)

NIP: 197006111991012001

Acknowledgment by

Dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training

Prof. DR. Dede Rosyada, M.A

NIP 150 231 356

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah the Beneficent, the Merciful

In this opportunity the writer would like to thank to Allah SWT, who gives her

guidance and everything. Then, peace and blessing be upon our prophet Muhammad

SAW, may we always be in straight way until the end of the world.

Concerning the process of writing this paper, the writer is so grateful to her

advisor, Drs. Syauki, M. Pd, for his guidance, suggestions, corrections, and valuable

help during the writing of this paper.

The writer also would like to express the deepest gratitude to those who helped

the writer finishing this “Skripsi”, namely:

1. Her sweetest family; her father Mr. Sunadi, her mother Mrs. Juwayriah, her

brother Ahmad Fahrurroji, and her sister Arini Alfa Hasanah for giving the

spiritual support during the study and the process of writing this “Skripsi”.

2. All nice lecturers of English Education Department for their guidance to the

writer during her study at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

3. Prof. Dr. Dede Rosada, M A, the dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers’

Training.

4. All teachers and students of MAN Cikarang, for giving permission and

helping the writer to do the research.

5. Ka’ Rafi, for guiding and supporting the writer to finish this “Skripsi”. Thanks

a lot for your love.

6. All her friends in English Education Department especially B Class ’05

community. Bakti, thanks for your laptop and printer. Her inspiring friends

Yayah, Ucha, Itha, Nitha, and the Cordova’s crew for sharing and being best

friend.

7. Anyone whose name can not be mentioned one by one for their contribution to

the writer in finishing this “Skripsi”.

May Allah, the almighty bless them all, so be it.

Finally, the writer realizes that this “Skripsi” is still far from being perfect. Any

positive or constructive comments are welcome.

Jakarta, Desember 26, 2010

The Writer



(Case study of the eleventh year students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi)

A “Skripsi”

Presented to Faculty of Tarbiya and Teacher’s Training in a Partial Fulfillment of



By:

RIZKI FAUZIAH

NIM: 105014000359


FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS TRAINING


JAKARTA

2011



(Case Study of the Eleventh Year Students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi)

A “Skripsi”




Approved by the Advisor;

Drs. Syauki, M. Pd

NIP: 19641212 1991103 1 002


FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS TRAINING


JAKARTA

2011

ENDORSEMENT SHEET

The “Skripsi” (Scientific Paper) entitled “An Analysis of Student’s Error in

English Free Writing Focused on the Use of Tenses (Case Study of the Eleventh Year

Students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi)”, written by Rizki Fauziah, student’s registration

number 105014000359, was examined in the examination session of Faculty of

Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta

on March 31st, 2011. The “Skripsi” has been accepted and declared to have fulfilled

one of the requirements for the Degree of S.Pd (Bachelor of Arts) in English

Education Department.

Jakarta, March 31st, 2011

The Examination Committee

Chairman : Drs. Syauki, M. Pd (………………….)

NIP: 19641212 199103 1 002

Secretary : Neneng Sunengsih, S.Pd (………………….)

NIP: 19730625 199903 2 001

Examiner I : Dr. Fahriany, M. Pd (………………….)

NIP: 19700611 199101 2 001

Examiner II : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M. Ed (………………….)

Acknowledged by

Dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training

Prof. Dr. Dede Rosyada, M.A

NIP.19571005 198703 1 003

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT










1. Her sweetest family; her father Mr. Sunadi, her mother Mrs. Juwayriah, her






Training.





6. All her friends in English Education Department especially B Class ’05

community. Bakti, thanks for your laptop and printer. Her inspiring friends

Yayah, Ucha, Itha, Nitha, and the Cordova’s crew for sharing and being best

friend.

7. Anyone whose name can not be mentioned one by one for their contribution to




positive or constructive comments are welcome.

Jakarta, Desember 26, 2010

The Writer

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................i

ABSTRAK.....................................................................................................................ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..........................................................................................iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................iv

LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................vi

LIST OF APPENDICES............................................................................................vii

LIST OF FIGURE.....................................................................................................viii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION....................................................................1

A. The Background of the Study...............................................1

B. The Statement of Problem....................................................4

C. The Limitation and Formulation of the Study......................4

D. The Objective of the Study...................................................4

E. The Significance of the Study .............................................4

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK..........................................5

A. Error Analysis.......................................................................5

1. The Meaning of Error.....................................................6

2. The Classification of Error.............................................7

3. Distinction between Mistake and Error..........................8

4. The Ways How to Analyze the Errors .........................13

B. English Tense.....................................................................12

1. The Meaning of Tense..................................................12

2. The Kinds of Tense......................................................13

C. Writing................................................................................40

1. The Meaning of Writing ..............................................41

2. The Kinds of Writing....................................................42

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................................44

A. The Purpose of the Research..............................................44

B. Place and Time of the Research.........................................44

C. Technique of Sample taking...............................................44

D. Research Instruments..........................................................45

E. Technique of Data Analysis...............................................45

v

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS.......................................................46

A. Data Description.................................................................46

B. Data Analysis......................................................................53

C. Data Interpretation..............................................................54

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS................................56

A. Conclusion..........................................................................56

B. Suggestions.........................................................................57

REFERENCES...........................................................................................................58

APPENDICES

i

ABSTRACT

Fauziah, Rizki. 2010. An Analysis of Students’ Error in English Free Writing Test

Focused on the Use of Tenses (Case study of the eleventh year students of MAN

Cikarang, Bekasi, Skripsi, English Education Department, Faculty of Tarbiya and

Teachers Training, Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta State Islamic University, Jakarta.

Advisor: Syauki, Drs. M. Pd.

Key terms : Errors - Error Analysis – Error Types

Competence : Writing

This research is aimed to analyze the students’ error in English free writing test on

using the tenses. The limitation of the problem is classifying the students’ writing

errors into Pit Corder’s error classifications, to know the highest frequency of the

students’ error type.

The object of the research is the eleventh grade students of MAN Cikarang, Bekasi. In

collecting the data, the writer gives the free writing test. The writer gives the test

consists of the theme “My Holiday”, and each of them have to make the paragraph at

least consist of 75 words or more than that in one paragraph. Then, she gives the test

to the 26 students. Survey method is used in this research. All of the data are taken in

the same time and the writer also gives more attention the students’ writing to analyze

them then. Besides that the writer also used the quantitative method and descriptive

analysis technique to analyze the data by using formula: P= F x100%. The data is

taken from the students’ test.

And after the writer analyzing the data by classifying them into the tenses error types,

then the highest frequency of tenses error type that is done by eleventh grade students

of MAN Cikarang Bekasi is the simple past tense, as much as 61 errors/ 67.7 %. Then

the highest frequency of error type that is done by the eleventh grade students of MAN

Cikarang Bekasi is addition. The most of the students add the letter in their writing. It

happens because of intra-lingual transfer and inter-lingual transfer.

i

ABSTRAK

Fauziah, Rizki. 2010. An Analysis of Students’ Error in English Free Writing Focused

on the Use of Tenses (Case study of the eleventh year students of MAN Cikarang,

Bekasi), Skripsi, Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Tarbiyah dah Keguruan, UIN

Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

Pembimbing: Syauki, Drs. M. Pd

Kata kunci :Error- analisa error- macam- macam error

Kompetensi :Menulis

Penelitian in bertujuan untuk menganalisa kesalahan siswa dalam tes menulis bebas

berbahasa Inggris. Pembatasan masalah dalam penelitian ini adalah pengklasifikasian

kesalahan tulisan siswa berdasarkan pengklasifikasian yang dibuat oleh Pit Corder,

untuk mengetahui frekuensi tertinggi dari tipe kesalahan siswa.

Objek penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas sebelas MAN Cikarang Bekasi. dalam

mengumpulkan data, penulis memberikan tes menulis bebas berbahasa Inggris.

Penulis memberikan tes yang bertema “My Holiday”, dan setiap mereka harus

membuat tulisan dengan minimal 75 kata atau lebih dalam satu paragraph. Kemudian,

penulis memberikan tes itu kepada 26 siswa. Metode survey digunakan dalam

penelitian ini, semua data diambil dalam waktu yang sama dan dalam melakukan

penelitian ini, penulis mencermati tulisan siswa untuk menganalisanya lebih lanjut.

Penulis juga menggunakan metode kuantitatif dan tekhnik analisa deskriptif untuk

menganalisa data dengan menggunakan rumus: P= F x 100%. Data diambil dari tes

siswa.

Sesudah penulis menganalisa data dengan mengklasifikasi data tulisan tersebut ke

dalam tipe-tipe tenses yang mereka gunakan dan tipe- tipe kesalahan, hasil analisa

menunjukkan bahwa frekuensi tertinggi dari tipe tenses yang dilakukan siswa kelas

sebelas MAN Cikarang Bekasi adalah simple past tense (61 kesalahan atau 67.7%).

Lalu frekuensi tertinggi dari tipe kesalahan yang dilakukan siswa MAN Cikarang

Bekasi adalah addition. Dengan hasil tersebut, Kebanyakan siswa menambahkan

huruf dalam menulis kata yang sangat penting untuk kata dan kalimat itu sendiri

dalam tulisan mereka. Semua itu terjadi karena intra-lingual transfer dan inter-lingual

transfer, ketika mereka menulis.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT










1. Her sweetest family; her father Mr. Sunadi, her mother Mrs. Juwairiah, her






Training.





6. All her friends in English Education Department especially B Class. Bakti,

thanks for your laptop and printer. Her inspiring friends Yayah, Ucha, Itha,

Nitha, and the Cordova’s crew for sharing and being best friend.

7. Anyone whose name cannot be mentioned one by one for their contribution to




positive or constructive comments are welcomed.

Jakarta, April 26, 2010

The Writer

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 The Verb Be...........................................................................................15

Table 2.2 The Verb Have and other Verbs............................................................15

Table 2.3 The Forms of Simple Past Tense...........................................................19

Table 2.4 The Forms of Simple Future Tense........................................................23

Table 4.1 Students’ Errors in Simple Present Tense..............................................45

Table 4.2 Students’ Errors in Present Continuous Tense.......................................46

Table 4.3 Student’s Errors in Simple Past Tense...................................................47

Table 4.4 Students’ Errors in Past Continuous Tense............................................51

Table 4.5 Students’ Errors in Simple Future Tense...............................................51

Table 4.6 Data Interpretation.................................................................................53

vii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Writing task (research instrument)

Appendix 2 Lembar Jawaban Siswa

Appendix 3 Silabus B. Inggris kelas XI semester 1 & 2

Appendix 4 Surat pengajuan judul skripsi

Appendix 5 Surat Bimbingan Skripsi

Appendix 6 Surat permohonan penelitian dari UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta

Appendix 7 Surat keterangan izin penelitian dari MAN Cikarang

vii

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 2.1 Repeated Action (Simple Present) ........................................................16

Figure 2.2 Facts or Generalization (Simple Present).............................................17

Figure 2.3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future....................................................17

Figure 2.4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)..............................................................18

Figure 2.5 Completed Action in the Past...............................................................19

Figure 2.6 A Series of Completed Actions............................................................20

Figure 2.7 Figure 2.7 Duration in Past...................................................................20

Figure 2.8 Habits in the Past..................................................................................21

Figure 2.9 Past Facts or Generalizations................................................................21

Figure 2.10 Simple Future......................................................................................22

Figure 2.11 Now (Present Continous)....................................................................25

Figure 2.12 Longer Actions in Progress Now........................................................26

Figure 2.13 Near Future.........................................................................................26

Figure 2.14 Repetitions and Irritation with "Always"............................................27

Figure 2.15 Interrupted Action in the Past.............................................................28

Figure 2.16 Specific Time as an Interruption.........................................................28

Figure 2.17 Parallel Actions...................................................................................29

Figure 2.18 Repetition and Irritation with "Always".............................................29

Figure 2.19 Interrupted Action in the Future.........................................................30

Figure 2.20 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future...................................31

Figure 2.21 Parallel Actions in the Future.............................................................31

Figure 2.22 Unspecified Time Before Now...........................................................33

Figure 2.23 Completed Action Before Something in the Past...............................34

Figure 2.24 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs).....34

Figure 2.25 Duration from the Past Until Now......................................................36

Figure 2.26 Recently, Lately..................................................................................37

Figure 2.27 Duration Before Something in the Past..............................................38

Figure 2.28 Cause of Something in the Past..........................................................39

Figure 2.29 Duration Before Something in the Future..........................................40

Figure 2.30 Cause of Something in the Future......................................................41

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. The Background of the Study

English is one of the international languages that has an important

role in the world. It is widely studied and used as a tool of communication

among people all over the world. English becomes one of the important

subject matters taught at school. In Indonesia, English is considered as the

first foreign language and becomes a compulsory subject learned by all

students from the elementary school up to university.

English language teaching includes four skills such as listening,

speaking, reading and writing. One of the language skill which is very

difficult to study is writing. English writing is a subject that learns about

how to express our idea in written form. The students of elementary

school, junior high school, and senior high school in writing skill

especially learn to write words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Then,

when the students make a sentence they should concern with: subject,

verb, and tense.

In English learning process, students sometimes make some errors

and mistakes. In science, the word "error" does not mean "mistake" or

"blunder" but rather the inevitable uncertainty of all measurements.

Because they cannot be avoided, errors in this context are not, strictly

speaking, "mistakes." At best, they can be made as small as reasonably

2

possible, and their size can be reliably estimated.1 Errors are considered as

essential things to both learners and teachers since the making errors can

be regarded as an important part of learning in order to get information.

The information indicates which part of the target language that students

have the most difficult to produce correctly. Errors also give another

benefit to teachers by showing what learners have not mastered yet in the

lesson.

According to competence based curriculum, one of the goals in

learning English is to increase communication competence in the language

that consists of listening, speaking, reading, and writing of course.2 In

other words, learning English means learn to communicate through the

target language, not only spoken but also written. As stated in English

syllabus, the goal in learning writing for eleventh grade of senior high

school is the students could understand and use the short functional texts in

their daily life.

As the writer’s experience, when she was teaching the students of

State Islamic Senior High School (MAN) Cikarang, Bekasi, she found the

most of students made errors in using the tenses. That is why the writer

tries to analyze the students’ problems in using the tenses of English verb.

Exactly, these problems were at eleventh grade students of State Islamic

Senior High School (MAN) Cikarang, Bekasi. Here, the writer need the

students know more about the use of tenses correctly.

Tense is an aspect of language that should be learnt by the students.

Tense is used to show the relation between the action or state described by

the verb and the time, which is reflected in the form of the verb. There are

two basic tenses in English; the present tense and the past tense. The

present is like the base form, although the third person singular adds -s.

1 http://www.usingenglish.com/ErrorAnalysis.html

2 Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI, Kurikulum 2004 Pedoman Khusus Bahasa

Inggris Tingkat Sekolah Menengah Umum, (Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan,

2004), P.11

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/verb.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/present-simple.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/past-simple.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/base-form.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/tense.html

3

Regular verbs add -ed or -d to show the past tense, while irregular verbs

change in many different ways, or not at all in some cases.3 To make a

good sentence they should master tense. Tense is difficult to study. When

they write a sentence, most of the students found some problems to

determine and to choose the appropriate tense. Tense related with

changing of verb agree with the time. There are two kinds of verb namely

regular and irregular verb. The students always make error to change the

verb in different tense because in indonesia has not irregular and regular

verb.

The English tense system is quite complicated, but the most

common problem is not how to form tenses. The mechanical manipulation

of verbs is easily learned through a few rules and formulas. The biggest

problem is deciding which tense to use in a given situation. In order to

choose correctly and easily, the student must understand the meaning of

the tense itself, its time picture or time line. He must know what kinds of

activities and states can be described by certain verbs. And this can present

problems, too. Finally, the students need to be able to choose accurate time

markers to clarify the time picture.

According to the writer, the students made errors of using tense

because three reasons. First, that english has great variety of tense, is one

of reason why the indonesian students have difficulties in understanding

tenses. The second reason is that Indonesian students are influenced by

their mother tongue. The last reason is in indonesia there is no subject-verb

agreement. The students make a sentence without concern with subject-

verb agreement.

3 http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/tense.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/regular-verb.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/irregular-verb.html


4

From the description above, the writer is interested in doing

research about “An Analysis of Students Error in English free Writing

Focused on the Use of Tenses”.

B. The Statement of the Problem

Based on the background of the study described above, the writer is

interested in analyzing the errors done by the eleventh grade students of

Madrasah Aliyah Negeri (MAN) Cikarang in English free writing focused

on the use of tenses.

These errors are taken from the test. The writer would like to

formulate the problem as follow: “what kinds of tenses errors do the

eleventh grade students of MAN Cikarang in English free writing?

C. The Limitation and the Formulation of the Study

The writer limits her study on the errors done by eleventh grade

students of MAN Cikarang on English Writing. These errors are taken

from the test that focused on the tenses. Tenses they have learned, there

are: (Simple Tenses); Simple Present, Simple Past, Simple Future.

(Continous Tenses); Present Continous, Past Continous, Future

Continous. (Perfect Tenses); Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect.

(Perfect Continous Tenses); Present Perfect Continous, Past Perfect

Continous, Future Perfect Continous.

D. The Objective of the Study

The objective of the study is to find out the students’ free writing

errors focused on the use of Tenses by eleventh grade students of MAN

Cikarang, Bekasi. Then, the writer analyzes the same errors to the students

as well.

E. The Significance of the study

This study is intended for the improvement of the students and

teachers in learning and teaching English based on the analysis of errors

made by students on English writing test. The writer hopes that this study

will be useful for both teachers and students to study harder in order to

avoid in making same errors.

5

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Error analysis

In language learning process, any student attempting to avoid

making errors is impossible. It is very natural for him or her to make errors

in this process. Even the students will get feedbacks that will make them

selves become better students in writing through the errors that they make.

In other words, to achieve English acquisition, the students must get

through some errors first, and then automatically they can learn from their

own errors. And before knowing more about error analysis, it is good to

understand the definition of error analysis.

Error analysis is a process based on analysis of learner‟s error in

their process of second language learning. Sharma wrote on his article

“Error analysis is defined as a process based on analysis of learner‟s with

one clear objective, evolving a suitable and effective teaching learning

strategy and remedial measures neccessary in certain clearly marked out

areas of the foreign language”. 1

Errors have an important role in the study of language the learner‟s

who made errors; automatically they can learn from their own errors and

develop the language. Lengo says, “errors are believed to be an indicator

1 SK. Sharma, Error analysis: Why and how, English Teaching Forum (April 1982 vol.

XXX) p.21

6

of the learners‟ stages in their target language development from the errors

that learners commit, one can determine their level of mastery of the

language system”. 2

According to the definitions above, error analysis can be said as an

effort to get data about the students‟ difficulty in learning a language,

especially in writing; then she tries to do analyze the data to know more

detail about the problems faced by the students and solve the problems by

making improvement in teaching and learning language.

1. The Meaning of Error

Errors are noticeable and cannot be self-corrected, they are

deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, and the portion

of the learners competence in the target language. 3

Dulay stated, “Error is the flawed side of learner speech or

writing”. It means that there is something wrong in norm of language

performance.4 Then Brown said, “put in other way, an error is a

noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker,

reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner”. 5

Harmer said that the errors are part of the learner inter language

that is the version of the language which a learner has any one stage of

development and which is continually reshaped as he/she aims toward

full mastery. 6

From the definitions above, the writer summarizes that error is

a part of second language acquisition that happens systematically and

consistently learners do that and it‟s caused by lack of comprehending

the linguistic competence. On the other hand, making errors are part of

2 Nsakala Lengo, What is an error? English Teaching Forum (July,1995 Vol 33), p.20

3 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching ... p. 205

4 Heidy Dulay, et. Al, Language Two (New York: Oxford University Press 1985), p.138


6 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching Acquisition, (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 51

7

learning process and no one can learn language without his/her first

making errors.

2. The Classification of Error

According to Corder, errors fall into four main categories:

Omission of same required element, addition of unnecessary or

incorrect element, selection of an incorrect element and misordering of

element. 7

a. Omission

Certain linguistic forms may be omitted by the learner

because of their complexity in production. Omission also occurs in

Morphology, learners often leave out the third person singular

morpheme –s, the plural marker-s and the past tense inflection –ed.

For example: “a strange thing happen to me yesterday”. Instead of :

“a strange thing happened to me yesterday”.

b. Addition

Learners not only commit elements which they regard as

redundant but they also add redundant element. For example:

1) I thinks

2) The books is here

c. Selection

Learners commit errors in pronunciation, morphology,

syntax, and vocabulary, due to the selection of the wrong phoneme,

structure vocabulary item. For example: “My friend is oldest than

me”. Instead of: “My friend is older than me”.

7 Nsakala Lengo, What is an Error? English Teaching Forum ... pp. 22-24

8

d. Ordering

Misordering can occur in morphological level misordering of

bound morpheme in English is perhaps less frequent, given their

limited number; but in the example “he is get upping now”, the

learners attaches the inflection-ing to the two words verb “get up”.8

3. Distinction between Mistake and Error

Most of people misunderstand about errors and mistakes; they

think they are in the same meaning. So we need to distinguish errors

and mistakes. Errors reflect gaps in a learner‟s knowledge; they occur

because the learner does not know what is correct. Mistakes reflect

occasional lapses in performance; they occur because, in particular

instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows.

In other words, error is a lack of knowledge and mistake is

the students possess knowledge of the correct form and are just

slipping up.9

Brown (2000: 217) also gives the similar opinion about error

and mistake. According to him, an error is a noticeable deviation from

the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the

learner. And a mistake is a “slip,” a failure to utilize a known system

correctly, and mistakes can be self-corrected.10

Then the writer concludes that students make error because

they do not know of the knowledge about what they write, and they

can not recognize it unless other people, their friends or their teachers

tell and correct them. And for mistake, actually the students have

known about what they write but they just „slip up‟ and do mistakes.

In this case, students are able to correct and realize their own mistake.

8 Nsakala Lengo, What is an Error?English Teaching Forum ... pp. 22-24

9 Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), p.

17 10

H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Learning …, p.217

9

4. The Cause of Error

Examining error analysis procedures used to identify errors in

second written language learner is determining the source of error.

According to Brown (2000: 223- 227), there are three sources of error:

inter-lingual transfer, intra-lingual transfer, and context of learning. More

specific about the sources are in the following passages.11

First, inter-lingual transfer, in this term, before the system of the

second language is familiar for the learners; the mother tongue is the only

previous linguistic system upon which the students can draw. Indonesian

students tend to write “She eat an apple,” than “She eats an apple,” and

other example, “I have three book,” instead of “I have three books.” All

of these errors are caused by negative inter-lingual transfer. While it is

not always clear that an error is the result of the native language transfer,

many such errors are detectable in learner speech. Fluent knowledge or

even familiarity with a learner‟s native language of course aids the

teacher in detecting and analyzing such errors.

Next, intra-lingual transfer (within the target language itself), is a

major factor in second language learning. Negative intra-lingual transfer

then produces overgeneralization. The students habitually are not sure of

what they want to express in their writing, which would cause them to

make errors in any language. Negative intra-lingual transfer or

overgeneralization can be showed through the sentence that students of

second language learning make, “does the boy can not run?” and “he

eated fried rice.”

And the last is context of learning. “Context” refers, for example,

to the classroom with its teacher and its materials in the case of school

learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second language

learning. In a classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead the

learner to make faulty hypotheses about the language. Students often

11 H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Learning …,pp. 223- 227

10

make errors because of a misleading explanation from the teacher, faulty

presentation of a structure or a word in a textbook, or even because of a

pattern that was rarely memorized in a drill but improperly

contextualized. Two vocabulary items presented contiguously- e.g. look

up and look at- might in later recall be confused simply because of the

contiguity of presentation. Or a teacher may provide incorrect

information- not an uncommon occurrence- by way of a misleading

definition, word, or grammatical generalization. Another manifestation of

language learned in classroom contexts is the occasional tendency on the

part of learners to give unconstructed and inappropriately formal forms

of language. We have all experienced foreign learners whose “bookish”

language gives them away as classroom language learners.

Based on Pit Corder (in Hubbard, 1983), there are three major

causes of errors, which he labels „transfer errors‟, „analogical errors,‟ and

„teaching-induced errors‟.

a. Transfer Errors

The beginning stages of learning a second language are characterized

by a predominance of interference of learner‟s native language. In

this early stages, before the system of the second language is a

familiar, the native language is only linguistic system in previous

experience upon which the learner can draw.

b. Analogical errors

Although when the learners have discovered a correct rule of the target

language, they may still continue to make errors, because they have

not discovered yet the precise set of categories to which the rule

applies. Errors which result from this strategy are called analogical

errors.

c. Teaching Induced Errors

Errors in second language learning may appear to be induced by the

teaching process itself. In this term the method and the material that

11

used by the teachers can lead learners to make faulty hypothesis

about the language.

While Hubbard proposed slightly different names: 12

a. Mother-tongue interference

Although young children appear to be able to learn a foreign

language quite easily and to reproduce new sound very

effectively, older learners experience considerable difficulty.

The sound system (phonology) and the grammar of the first

language impose themselves on the new language and this lead

to a “foreign” pronunciation, faulty grammatical patterns and,

occasionally, to the wrong choice of vocabulary.

b. Overgeneralization

The mentalist theory claims that errors are inevitable because

they reflect various stages in the language development of the

learner. It claims that the learner processes new language data

in his mind and produces rules for its production, based on the

evidence. Where the data are inadequate, or the evidence only

partial, such rules may produce incorrect pattern.

c. Context of learning

A third major source of error, through is overlaps both types of

transfer, is the context of learning. “Context” refers to the

classroom with the teacher and the material in the case of

school learning or the social situation. In a classroom context,

the teacher or the textbook can lead the learner to make faulty

hypothesis about the language what Richards called “False

concept” and what Stenson termed “Induced errors.” Students

often make errors because of a misleading explanation from

the teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word in the

12 Peter Hubbard et. al., A Training Course for TEFL, (New York: Oxford University

Press, 1983), pp. 140-143.

12

textbook, or even because of a pattern, that was rote

memorized in a drill but not properly contextualized.

5. The Ways How to Analyze the Errors

One of the common difficulties in understanding the linguistic

system of both first and second language learners is the fact that such

system cannot be directly observed.13

Sridhar arranges the steps in

error analysis as follow:

1. Collection of data (either from a „free‟ composition by students on

s given theme or from examanation answers ).

2. Identification of errors

3. Classification into error types (e.g. errors of agreement, articles,

verb forms, etc).

4. Statement of relative frequency of error types.

5. Identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language.

6. Therapy (remedial drills, lesson, etc).14

B. English Tense

1. The Meaning of Tense

Tense means time, however, it should be pointed out that time in

relation to action is a concept that exist in the mind of the speaker,

reader, or listener. Tense, in actual usage, refers consistently only to

grammatical forms. Often tense and time do not correspond at all. 15

The word “Tense” derived ultimatelly from the Latin word

“Tempus” meaning “Time”. 16

Tense commonly refers to the time of

the situation which relates to the situation of the utterance or at the

moment of speaking. For example, the commonest tense found in the

13 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of language learning and teaching ... pp. 207-208

14 Jacek Fisiak, Contrastive Linguistics and Language Teacher: Contrastive Analysis,

Error analysis. (Pergamon Press Ltd, 1981), p.222 15

George E.Wishon and Julia M.Burks, Let’s Write English. (American Book Company

Litton Educational Publishing, inc.1980), p. 192 Revised Edition

16 Jhon Lyons, Linguistic semantic an Introduction, (New York: Cambridge University

Press, 1995), p. 312

13

languages are present, past and future; a situation described in the

present, past and future; a situation described in the present tense is

related as simultaneous with the moment of speaking (John is singing);

the situation described in the past as related prior to the moment of

speaking (Jhon was singing); while the situation described the future as

relates subsequent to the moment of speaking (Jhon will sing) since

tense refers to the time of the situation which relates to the situation of

the utterance or to relate the content of the message to the speaker in

items of the “Here and Now”, it can be described as “deictic”.17

2. The Kinds of Tenses

a. Simple Tenses

1) Simple Present

The simple Present tense known as “The Historical Present”. It

uses the present tense to relate a past event and is very common in

oral narrative.18

The present tense shows clearly that in English, tense is not the

same time. The present tense is not usually used to describe present

time. Instead, it describes activities and states which are generally

and universally true. The present tense is the tense for description,

definition, and statements of general truth.19

The simple present tense can describe habits, routines, or

events that happen regularly. It can also express opinions or make

general statement of fact.

a) Form

[VERB] + s/es in third person20

17

www.helsinki Fi/-mpalande/meaning_of_tense_and_aspect_html.

18 Marianne Celce-Murcia and Diane Larsen-Freeman, The Grammar Book (An ESL/EFL

Teacher’s Course). (Heinle and Heinle Publisher, 1999), p.166, Second Edition. 19

Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses. (Washington: United

States Information Agency, 1985) p. 10 20


http://www.helsinki/


14

Table 2.1

The Verb Be

No Forms Affirmative

Statement

Negative Statement

1. Long Forms I am a student

She is at the college

We are in the library

I am not a teacher

He is not at the

college

They are not in the

library

2. Contracted form I‟m here

She‟s here

We‟re in the library

I‟m not there

He isn‟t there

They aren‟t in the

library

Table 2.2

The Verb Have and Other Verbs


Statement

Negative Statement

1. Long forms I have class every day

I study a lot

She has classes

everyday

She studies a lot

They do not have

class everyday

They do not study a

lot

He does not have

class everyday

He does not study a

lot

2. Contracted forms They don‟t have class

15

everyday

He doesn‟t study a lot

21

Examples:

a. You speak English.

b. Do you speak English?

c. You do not speak English.22

b) Usage

USE 1 Repeated Action

Figure 2.1 Repeated Action (Simple Present)

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is

repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a

scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something

a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples:

a. I play tennis.

b. She does not play tennis.

c. Does he play tennis?

21John P. Nelson, Interaction 2 Grammar (McGraw – Hill Contemporary, 2002), pp. 3-4



16

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

Figure 2.2 Facts or Generalization (Simple Present)

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a

fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not

important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make

generalizations about people or things.

Examples:

a. Cats like milk.

b. Birds do not like milk.

c. Do pigs like milk?

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Figure 2.3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled

events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about

public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as

well.

Examples:

a. The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.

b. The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.

c. When do we board the plane?

d. The party starts at 8 o'clock.

e. When does class begin tomorrow?

17

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Figure 2.4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that

an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done

with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:

a. I am here now.

b. She is not here now.

c. He has his passport in his hand.

d. Do you have your passport with you?23

2) Simple Past

The simple past indicates that an activity or situation began and

ended at a particular time in the past. 24

Past tense is often used to tell

about events that happen quickly, one right after the other.25

a) Form

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs


24

Betty Schramper Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, Third Edition

(Pearson education, 1999), p. 27 25

Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses ... p. 70


18

Table 2.3


Statement

Negative Statement

1 Long Forms I studied for an hour

It looked yesterday.

They took math last

year

I did not study

It did not worked

yesterday

They did not take

math

2 Contracted Forms It didn‟t work

yesterday

It didn‟t work

yesterday

They didn‟t take

math 26

Examples:

a. The airplane arrived at noon

b. I received some visitors and cleaned my desk

c. I saw him three years ago 27

b) Usage

USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Figure 2.5 Completed Action in the Past

26 John P. Nelson, Interaction 2 Grammar ... p. 20

27

George E.Wishon and julia M.Burks, Let’s Write English ... p.195

19

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and

finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not

actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in

mind.

Examples:

a. I saw a movie yesterday.

b. I didn't see a play yesterday.

c. Did you have dinner last night?

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

\

Figure 2.6 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the

past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:s

a. I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to

swim.

b. He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00,

and met the others at 10:00.

c. Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

Figure 2.7 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops

in the past. Duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such

as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

20

Examples:

a. I lived in Brazil for two years.

b. They did not stay at the party the entire time.

c. We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.

d. A: How long did you wait for them?

B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

Figure 2.8 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped

in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear

that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as:

always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

a. He played the violin.

b. He didn't play the piano.

c. Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

Figure 2.9 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or

generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of

the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."

21

Examples:

a. She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.

b. He didn't like tomatoes before.

c. Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?28

3) Simple Future

The simple future tense expresses future intentions. In some,

cases will and be going to are interchangable. However, will (not going

to) is normally used to express offers, predictions, promoses, and

requests. In spoken English, the contracted are common.

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and

"be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used

interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings.

These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with

time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and

"be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.29

The future tense

with “will” describes actions, activities, and states in the future.

Another future tense in English is formed with the “verb be + going to

+ verb” describes events thet are going to happen in the near future are:

soon, right away, in just a minute.30

Figure 2.10 Simple Future



30 Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses ... pp. 122 & 128



22

a) Form

1. [Will + verb]

Examples:

a. You will help him later.

b. Will you help him later?

c. You will not help him later.

2. [Am/is/are + going to + verb]

Examples:

a. You are going to meet Jane tonight.

b. Are you going to meet Jane tonight?

c. You are not going to meet Jane tonight. 31

Table 2.4



Statement

Negative Statement

1

Long Forms

It will work very

well

They I will study

tonight

will take math next

term

I will not study

tonight

It will not work very

well

They will not take

math next term.

2 Contracted Forms I‟ll study tonight

It‟ll take work very

well

The‟ll take math

next term

I won‟t study tonight

It won‟t work very

well

They won‟t take math

next term


23

b) Usage

USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action

"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily.

A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often,

we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help.

We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to

do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we

refuse to voluntarily do something.

Examples:

a. I will send you the information when I get it.

b. I will not do your homework for you.

c. Will you help me move this heavy table?

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise

"Will" is usually used in promises.

Examples:

a. I will call you when I arrive.

b. I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.

c. Don't worry, I'll be careful.

d. I won't tell anyone you‟re secret.

USE 3 "Be going to" to express a Plan

"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the

idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter

whether the plan is realistic or not.

Examples:

a. He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.

b. She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.

c. A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?

USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction

Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general

prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might

happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has

24

little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the

following examples, there is no difference in meaning.

Examples:

a. John Smith will be the next President.

b. John Smith is going to be the next President.

c. The movie "Zenith" will win several Academy Awards.

d. The movie "Zenith" is going to win several Academy Awards.32

b. Continuous Tenses

1) Present Continuous

The present continous tense describes present time. It used

for actions which are happening in the present, and for a period of

time which includes the present. 33

a) Form

[Am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

a. You are watching TV.

b. Are you watching TV?

c. You are not watching TV.

b) Usage

USE 1 Now

Figure 2.11 Now (Present Continous)

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the

idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be

used to show that something is not happening now.


33John P. Nelson, Interaction 2 Grammar (McGraw – Hill Contemporary), P. 28-29


25

Examples:

a. You are learning English now.

b. You are not learning now.

c. Are you learning?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

Figure 2.12 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this

year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to

say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress;

however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a

restaurant.)

a. I am not reading any books right now.

b. Are you working on any special projects at work?

c. Aren't you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Figure 2.13 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that

something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

a. I am meeting some friends after work.

b. I am not going to the party tonight.

c. Is he visiting his parents next weekend

26

USE 4 Repetitions and Irritation with "Always"

Figure 2.14 Repetitions and Irritation with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or

"constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often

happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative

emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between

"be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

a. She is always coming to class late.

b. He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.

c. I don't like them because they are always complaining.34

2) Past Continuous

The past continous tense is rarely used by itself. Rather, it is used

to describe what was taking place when another activity happened in

the past. Usually the past continous is joined to another clause in the

past continous or in the past tense.35

a) Form

[Was/were + present participle]

Examples:

a. You were studying when she called.

b. Were you studying when she called?

c. You were not studying when she called.


35 Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses ... p. 97


27

b) Usage

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past

Figure 2.15 Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the

past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the

Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an

interruption in time.

Examples:

a. I was watching TV when she called.

b. When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

c. While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

d. What were you doing when the earthquake started?

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

Figure 2.16 Specific Time as an Interruption

In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by

a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific

time as an interruption.

Examples:

a. Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

b. At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.

c. Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

28

USE 3 Parallel Actions

Figure 2.17 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same

sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the

same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

a. I was studying while he was making dinner.

b. While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.

c. Were you listening while he was talking?

USE 4 Atmosphere

In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe

the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.

Example:

a. When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing,

some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions,

and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was

yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were

complaining to each other about the bad service.

USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

Figure 2.18 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly"

expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in

the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with

29

negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly"

between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

a. She was always coming to class late.

b. I didn't like them because they were always complaining.

3) Future Continuous

The future continous is generally used to set up background

activity that is in progress when another action takes place.36

Future

Continuous has two different forms: "will be doing " and "be going to

be doing." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Continuous forms are

usually interchangeable.

a) Form

1. [will be + present participle]

Examples:

a. You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

b. Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

c. You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

2. [am/is/are + going to be + present participle]

Examples:

a. You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

b. Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

c. You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives

tonight.

b) Usage

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future

Figure 2.19 Interrupted Action in the Future


30

Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the

future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this

can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

a. I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.

b. I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.

c. I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens

and you need to contact me.

d. He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see

Jennifer when she arrives.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

Figure 2.20 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted

by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as

interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

a. Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

b. I will be in the process of eating dinner.

c. At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

d. We will be in the process of driving through the desert.

USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future

Figure 2.21 Parallel Actions in the Future

31

When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the

same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at

the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

a. I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.

b. Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and

having a good time.

c. While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.

USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future

In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe

atmosphere at a specific point in the future.

Example:

a. When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating.

Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people

will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking

beer. They always do the same thing.37

c. Perfect Tenses

1) Present Perfect

The present perfect tense is that an action has been

completed before the present time. This action has an effect on the

present situation, but it is not happening in the present.38

a) Form

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

a. You have seen that movie many times.

b. Have you seen that movie many times?

c. You have not seen that movie many times.




32

b) Usage

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

Figure 2.22 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an

unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You

CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as:

yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in

Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We can use the Present

Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times,

several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

a. I have seen that movie twenty times.

b. I think I have met him once before.

c. People have traveled to the Moon.

d. People have not traveled to Mars.

e. Have you read the book yet?

2) Past perfect

The past perfect tense has two uses. The first use is to show an

action which was completed before a second time in the past. When a

past perfect tense is used in the same sentence with a past tense, the

order of events is clear from the tenses themselves. The past perfect

action happened first. Chronological markers such as before and after

are not necessary. The word when can be used to join such sentences.39


33

a) Form

[Had + past participle]

Examples:

a. You had studied English before you moved to New York.

b. Had you studied English before you moved to New York?

c. You had not studied English before you moved to New Y

b) Usage

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

Figure 2.23 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before

another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before

a specific time in the past.

Examples:

a. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

b. Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several

times.

c. Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous

Verbs)

Figure 2.24 Duration Before Something in the Past

(Non-Continuous Verbs)

34

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of

Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the

past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

a. We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.

b. By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for

over eight years.40

3) Future Perfect

The future perfect tense can describe a state, an activity, or a

period of time before a second action in the future. When it is used

with durative verbs, the lenght of time is clearly shown. The future

perfect can also be used with punctual verbs.41

Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and

"be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect

forms are usually interchangeable.

a) Form

1. [Will have + past participle]

Examples:

a. You will have perfected your English by the time you come

back from the U.S.

b. Will you have perfected your English by the time you come

back from the U.S.?

c. You will not have perfected your English by the time you come

back from the U.S.

2. [Am/is/are + going to have + past participle]


41 Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses.....p. 148


35

Examples:

a. You are going to have perfected your English by the time you

come back from the U.S.

b. Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you

come back from the U.S.?

c. You are not going to have perfected your English by the time

you come back from the U.S.

d. Perfect Continous Tense

1) Present Perfect Continous

The present perfect continous stresses the duration or

repetition of an action that began in the past and continous to the

present.42

a) Form

[Has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You have been waiting here for two hours.

b. Have you been waiting here for two hours?

b) Usage

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

Figure 2.25 Duration from the Past Until Now

42 Darcy Jack, Interaction 1 Grammar 4th edition. (The McGraw-Hill Companies,

inc.,2002) p. 275

36

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that

something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For

five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all

durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous

Examples:

a. They have been talking for the last hour.

b. She has been working at that company for three years.

c. What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?

d. James has been teaching at the university since June.

e. We have been waiting here for over two hours!

USE 2 Recently, Lately

Figure 2.26 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous

WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the

duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We

often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this

meaning.

Examples:

a. Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

b. She has been watching too much television lately.

c. Have you been exercising lately?

d. Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

e. Lisa has not been practicing her English.

f. What have you been doing?

37

2) Past Perfect Continous

The past perfect continous emphasizes the duration of an activity

that was in progress before another activity or time in the past. This tense

also may express an activity in progress close in time to another activity

or time in the past.43

a) Form

[Had been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she

finally arrived.

b. Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she

finally arrived?

c. You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when

she finally arrived.

b) Usage

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

Figure 2.27 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something

started in the past and continued up until another time in the past.

"For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which

can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is

related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration

does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the

past.

43 Betty Schrampfer Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar ... p. 47

38

Examples:

a. They had been talking for over an hour before Tony

arrived.

b. She had been working at that company for three years when

it went out of business.

c. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?

d. Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all

day at work.

e. James had been teaching at the university for more than a

year before he left for Asia.

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past

Figure 2.28 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in

the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

a. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

b. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

c. Betty failed the final test because she had not been

attending class.

3) Future Perfect Continous

The future perfect continous emphasizes the duration of an

activity that will be in progress before another time or even in the

future.44

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: "will

have been doing " and "be going to have been doing." Unlike

Simple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuous forms are usually

interchangeable.


39

a) Form

1. [Will have been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You will have been waiting for more than two hours when

her plane finally arrives.

b. Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when

her plane finally arrives?

c. You will not have been waiting for more than two hours

when her plane finally arrives.

2. [Am/is/are + going to have been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You are going to have been waiting for more than two

hours when her plane finally arrives.

b. Are you going to have been waiting for more than two

hours when her plane finally arrives?

c. You are not going to have been waiting for more than two

hours when her plane finally arrives

b) Usage

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future

Figure 2.29 Duration Before Something in the Future

We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that

something will continue up until a particular event or time in the

future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Friday" are

all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect

Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect

Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future

Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference

point in the future.

40

Examples:

a. They will have been talking for over an hour by the time

Thomas arrives.

b. She is going to have been working at that company for

three years when it finally closes.

c. James will have been teaching at the university for more

than a year by the time he leaves for Asia.

d. How long will you have been studying when you graduate?

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future

Figure 2.30 Cause of Something in the Future

Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action

in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

a. Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have

been jogging for over an hour.45

C. Writing

Writing is the most difficult skill among other language skills,

because of that, to make a good writing, the students need hard thinking

and they have to have extent knowledge especially in writing to get a

correct writing. Because when the students are writing something like a

diary, a novel, a short story, etc., they not only have to produce some

words, sentences, and paragraphs at the same time. But also they have to

spell the words in right spelling and punctuate the sentences in suitable

punctuation. Therefore, if the students want to be a good writer they have

to master all aspect about writing and need more practice.



41

In this chapter, the writer will explain some theories that still relate

to the topic. First, the writer explains the definition of writing itself.

Second, it is about the kinds of writing consisting of free writing,

controlled writing, and guided writing. The last chapter, she discusses the

role of writing in learning language.

1. The Meaning of Writing

In this chapter the writer quotes some definitions of writing.

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary writing is “to

make letters or other symbols (ideographs) on a surface”. 46

Based on the definition above writing is an activity to make or

to arrange written or printed words, letters or symbols which have

meaning.

National council of teachers of English commission stated that

writing is “An important medium for self-expression, for

communication, and for the discovery of meaning. Its need increased

rather than decreased by the development of new media for mass

communication”.47

Murcia also stated in her book that writing is “The ability to

express one‟s ideas in written form in a second or foreign language”.48

Lindeman proposed the definition of writing as a process of

communication which uses a conventional graphic system to convey a

message to a reader. 49

in addition writing can also be defined as the

process of recording spoken language using a system of visual marks

on a surface. The concept includes the particular medium expression

46 As Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English, (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1984) p. 362

47 National Council of Teachers of English Commission on Composition. “Composition:

A position statement”, elementary English s2 (February 1975) p. 194 by Walter T Petty and Julie

M. Jensen, in developing children‟s language.

48 Marianne Celce Murcia, Teaching English as a second foreign language, (Boston

Massachusetts) p.233

49

Erika Lindeman, a Rhetoric for Writing Teachers, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1982), p. 11

42

(Usually hand writing or typing) and the product which emerges the

piece of writing or composition. 50

Writing skill is one of four language skills that someone will

get in language learning and it is the most difficult one. As the last skill

gained, this skill is considered as one of productive skills because

writer, in writing activity, expresses her/his ideas for reader. 51

Sara

added, “even though is the fourth skill, writing has also become more

important as tenets of communicative language teaching and also as an

essential too for learning”.52

2. The Kinds of Writing

a. Free Writing

Free writing is a technique for finding the ideas in your head

that you do not even know are there.53

It means writing whatever

comes to mind without worrying about whether the ideas are good

or grammar is correct. The technique of free writing is very simple.

The students just pick up a pen and start writing, and do not

develop their ideas or get stuck, they just repeat what they have just

written.

b. Controlled Writing

Controlled writing is the opposite of free writing . controlled

writing is all the writing for which a great deal of the content

and/or form is supplied. In using this kind of writing to teaching

writing. The students are focused to get words down on paper and

in concentrating on one or two problems at a time; they are thus

spared from tackling the full range of complexity that free writing

50 David Crystal, an Encyclopedia of Language and Language. (Oxford: Blackwell

Publishers, 1993), p. 421

51 Joni Alfino, Helping students to develop a paragraph by using information questions

technique, paper abstract for 55th

TEFLIN International Conference, (Jakarta: UIN, December 4-

6th

, 2007), p. 27

52 Sara Curshing Weidge, Assesing Writing, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2002), p. 3

53 Dorothy Sedley, College Writer’s Workbook (Ohio: Bell and Howell Company, 1981)

p.2

43

entails controlled writing focuses the students attention on specific

features of the written language. It is good method of reinforsing

grammar, vocabulary, and syntax in context. 54

c. Guided Writing

Guided writing is an extension of controlled writing; it is less

controlled than controlled writing. In using this kind of writing to

teaching writing, students are given a first sentence, a last sentence,

an outline to fill out, a series of questions to respond to, or

information to include in their piece of writing. Students should be

able to discuss, make notes, share findings, and plan strategies

together before they begin to write.55

In guided writing, the

students will not make serious errors if they follow the instruction,

which are given by their teachers as stated by Lois Robinson in his

book, “guided or controlled writing is writing in which one cannot

make a serious error so long as he follows direction. 56

54

Lois Robinson, Guided Writing and Free writing, (New York: Harper and Row, 1967)

p.22

55 Ann Raimes., Technique in Teaching Writing, (London: Oxford American English,

1983) p.103

56 Lois Robinson, Guided Writing and Free writing ... p.2

44

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Method of Research

The method used in this study can be categorized into descriptive

analysis. This descriptive analysis is concerned with a quantitative

analysis. Quantitative is used in analyzing the data of the students’ English

writing, by counting the total of each of error classification to know the

highest frequency of the students’ error.

In this case, the writer used survey research which is collecting all

of the data at the same time, then analyzing them by identifying the errors,

describing and classifying the errors.1 Based on the limitation that the

writer stated in the first chapter, and then the error classifications that used

in this research are omission, addition, selection and misordering.

B. Place and Time of Research

The research was conducted at “MAN CIKARANG” Bekasi. It was

done in March 2010. The writer took the question sheets and the students’

answer sheets as the instrument of its research.

C. Technique of Sample Taking

The writer took the sample form the eleventh grade students of

“MAN CIKARANG” Bekasi. There are three classes of the students which

are divided into two specifications; the science class (IPA) and the social

1 Prof. Dr. Suharsimi Arikunto, Prosedur Penelitian, suatu pendekatan praktik, (Jakarta:

PT Asdi Mahasatya, 2006), p. 108

45

class (IPS), and the total population is about 85 students. The writer took

the sample from 30 % of the population. So, The sample of this research

is 26 students, which are divided into two classes; 13 students of XI IPA

and 13 students of XI IPS.

D. Research Instrument

The instrument of the research used by the writer is a test given to

the students to find out their ability in writing. The writer made the free

writing test with the theme “My Holiday”. It consists of 75 words or more

than that in one paragraph.

The students done the test on 9 of March 2010 at 12.30 pm. They

have to make a short story by improving the theme that was given by the

writer in the test.

The writer found some students did the test not more than 75

words. It means, some of them did not make the story based on the writer

rule.

E. Technique of Data Analysis

The technique of data analysis used by the writer in this research is

descriptive analysis technique (Percentage), with the percentage from

frequency of information and divided with number of cases.

The formula is:

P = X 100%

P = F/N X 100 %

P = Percentage

F = Frequency of Error

N = Number of Sample Which is Observed

46

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS

A. Data Description

In this sub-chapter, the writer discussed about the description of

students’ errors in English writing test that focused on the use of tenses.

Their errors are using Simple Present Tense, Present Continuous Tense,

Simple Past Tense, Past Continuous Tense, and Simple Future Tense. Here

are their results of the test.

1. Simple Present Tense

Table 4.1

Table of Students’ Errors in Simple Present Tense

No Identification of

Errors

Description

of Errors

Cause of

Errors

Reconstruction

1 I’m to follow aunt to

buy food

Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I follow my aunt to

buy food

2 I like just to reading,

studied hard

Addition &

selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

I like reading and

studying hard

3 I to visit my house

sister


Transfer

I visit my sister’s

house

4 Mother and father to

see far and smile to

me


Transfer

My mother and father

see and give me smile

from faraway

5 I to help my uncle Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I help my uncle

6 He always to help

me

Addition &

Omission

Inter-lingual

Transfer &

Intra-lingual

Transfer

He always helps me

7 After grand mother Addition Intra-lingual After we meet our

47

we to meet Transfer grand mother

8 I’m to help all

people

Addition I help all people

9 I usually to help my

grand mother


Transfer

I usually help my

grand mother

10 I look a big snake, it

eat Mouse …

Omission Inter-lingual

Transfer

I look a big snake, it

eats mouse …

11 I’m go to Ancol Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I go to Ancol

12 I’m play with friends Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I play with my friends

13 Over there situation

looking beautiful

Selection Intra-lingual

Transfer

The situation over

there looks beautiful

14 I am and my friend

go to Jakarta


Transfer

My friend and I go to

Jakarta

15 I am coming to

museum Al-Qur’an


Transfer

I come to the museum

of Al-Qur’an

16 I am look many Al-

Qur’an


Transfer

I look many Al-

Qur’ans

17 I am take a picture Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I take a picture

18 Finally, I talking

thank you very much


Transfer

Finally, I say thank

you very much

2. Present Continuous Tense

Table 4.2

Table of Students’ Errors in Present Continuous Tense


Errors

Description

of Errors

Cause of

Errors

Reconstruction

1 We speaking

together

Ommision Inter-lingual

Transfer

We are speaking

together

2 I’m happy and fun

because look two

younger brothers

play water in the

pool


Transfer

I’m happy and fun

because I’m looking

two young brothers

playing water in the

pool

48

3. Simple Past Tense

Table 4.3

Table of Students’ Errors in Simple Past Tense


Errors

Description

of Errors

Cause of

Errors

Reconstruction

1 I’m and my brother

go to Bandung


Transfer

My brother and I went

to Bandung

2 I go to the museum Selection Intra-lingual

Transfer

I went to the museum

3 I and my best friend

going to Salak

Mountain


Transfer

My best friend and I

went to Salak

Mountain

4 I take a picture Selection Intra-lingual

Transfer

I took a picture

5 Finally, I to be found

the lesson


Transfer

Finally, I found the

lesson

6 She very surprise see

me

Omission She was very

surprised to see me

7 On holiday me and

my family go to

house grand mother


Transfer

On holiday my family

and I went to grand

mother’s house

8 We had not visited

this grand mother

and grand father

house


Transfer

We did not visit to our

grand mother and

grand father’s house

9 Grand father invited

and pick it to garden


Transfer

My Grand father

invited and picked me

to garden

10 I go with my brother Selection Intra-lingual

Transfer


to my grand mother’s

house

11 I met a student

named Mita who

became his friend so

far. In two day I

come home Mita and

met a man named

Rio


Transfer

I met a student named

Mita, she is my

brother’s friend so

long. And the next day

I came to Mita’s home

and met a man named

Rio.

12 To see different

kinds of flowers

Omission &

Selection

Intra & Inter-

lingual

Transfer

We saw different

kinds of flower

13 Do not forget we Addition Intra-lingual We did not forget to

49

were buying Transfer buy souvenir

14 Last week I went to

the market, I buy

shoes


Transfer

Last week I went to

the market, I bought

shoes

15 I go to market with

my mom


Transfer

I went to the market

with my mom

16 I go to holiday Selection Intra-lingual

Transfer

I went for holiday

17 After we eat…..

We seek beautiful

coral, after that we

go to bring


Transfer

After we ate we

sought the beautiful

coral, and then we

brought it

18 I go to Ragunan wild

animals


Transfer

I went to Ragunan

19 During in trip I not

stopped


Transfer

During the trip I did

not stop

20 I go to water fall in

Cigentis


Transfer

I went to water fall in

Cigentis

21 We wash in water

fall


Transfer

We washed our hand

in the water fall

22 We do not buy food

for my friends


Transfer

We did not buy food

for my friends

23 My last holiday go

to Bali


Transfer

Last holiday I went to

Bali

24 The tourist to wear

bikini

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

The tourist wore

bikini

25 I don’t see because I

close my eyes

Selection &

Omission

Intra & Inter

lingual

Transfer

I did not see because I

closed my eyes

26 I and friend go to

garden park, I and

friends see show

mask monkey with

enjoy.


Transfer

My friend and I went

to garden park, and we

saw “Topeng Monyet”

show happily. .

27 We also go hurry for

go home each, I

arrive at home. I

direct eat

Selection &

Omission

Intra & Inter-

lingual

Transfer

Each of us went home

quickly. When I

arrived at home I ate

directly.

28 My last free day me

and family go to

from home at 09.00

o’clock


Transfer

My last free day my

family and I left

home at 09.00 o’clock

29 I’m and friend go

holiday to Bandung

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

My friend and I went

holiday to Bandung

30 I’m and friend take a Addition & Intra-lingual My friend and I took a

50

picture Selection Transfer picture

31 ……. I’m and friend

buy food and drink

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

……. My friend and I

bought food and drink

32 I and my friends go

to studio music

…....we show in

MAN CIKARANG


Transfer

My friends and I went

to the music studio

…....we performed at

MAN CIKARANG

33 One time I was go to

the Zoo


Transfer

Once, I went to the

Zoo

34 He not follow to

look it


Transfer

He did not follow for

looking it

35 I’m and family very

happy came to the

Zoo

Addition &

Omission

Intra & Inter

lingual

Transfer

My family and I were

very happy going to

the Zoo

36 I am and family go

home after we eat

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

My family and I went

home after we ate

37 I have made the

experience that I do

not forget it

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

I got the unforgettable

experience

38 I was visited grand

mother’s house


Transfer

I visited to my grand

mother’s house

39 My brother swim in

river


Transfer

My brother swam in

the river

40 I was go to

Cibodas……I was

eat

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

I went to Cibodas

41 I’m and my brother

go to grand mother

house

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer


to grand mother’s

house

42 I’m and my sister go

to grand mother

house

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

My sister and I went

to grand mother’s

house

43 I am and my family

with mother, father,

brother, and my

sister go to Danau

Toba

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer


to Danau Toba

44 I and friends to feel

my holiday

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

My friends and I felt

happy on holiday

45 I am go holiday to

Lubang Buaya

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

I went holiday to

Lubang Buaya

46 I and my friends go

to holiday


Transfer

My friends and I went

holiday

47 I and family see the

view is very


Transfer

My family and I saw

the view which was

51

beautiful very beautiful

48 My friend go to

forest


Transfer

My friend went to the

forest

49 I get experience over

there


Transfer

I got the experience

over there

50 - We go to the zoo,

and we feel happy

- We take a rest in

home


Transfer

- We went to the zoo,

and we felt happy

- We took a rest in

home

51 In my holiday I was

invited grand

mother’s house


Transfer

In my holiday I visited

grand mother’s house

52 I go to grand mother

house


Transfer

I went to grand

mother’s house

53 I look a beautiful

view…. look some

mountains


Transfer

I looked a beautiful

view….

I looked some

mountains

54 When I and my

family will to creep

every where

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

My family and I crept

to every where

55 After to arrive

direction

Addition &

Omission

Intra & Inter

lingual

Transfer

After I arrived I ate

directly

56 We to try there game

fault is Tornado

Addition &

Omission

Intra & Inter

lingual

Transfer

We straight tried

Tornado game

57 We straight to try

there game fault is

Tornado

Addition &

Omission

Intra & Inter

lingual

Transfer

We straight tried

Tornado game

58 After finish we to try

there game, we

break to eat

Addition &

Omission

Intra & Inter

lingual

Transfer

After we finished

trying the game, we

ate.

59 After eat we straight

back to home


Transfer

After we ate we went

home directly

60 I go to my uncle

house in Jakarta


Transfer

I went to my uncle’s

house in Jakarta

61 Me and family go to

Mekarsari Garden


Transfer


to Mekarsari

52

4. Past Continuous Tense

Table 4.4

Table of Students’ Errors in Past Continuous Tense


Errors

Description

of Errors

Cause of

Errors

Reconstruction

1 We speaking

together

Ommision Inter-lingual

Transfer

We were speaking

together

2 I playing in the sea,

and playing ball with

my brother


Transfer

I was playing the ball

with my brother in the

sea

5. Simple Future

Table 4.5

Table of Students’ Errors in Simple Future Tense


Errors

Description of

Errors

Cause of

Errors

Reconstruction

1 I will to make Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I will make

2 We will together one

family to eating cake

Addition &

Selection

Intra-lingual

Transfer

We will eat cake

together

3 I’m not will forget Addition Intra-lingual

Transfer

I will not forget the

beautiful view

4 I’m and family will

go to house grand

mother


Transfer

My family and I will

go to grand mother’s

house

5 I and my family will

to stay during three

days


Transfer

My family and I will

stay during three days

6 I and friends will

played


Transfer

I will play with my

friends

7 Tomorrow I will

reading magazine

and sleeping


Transfer

Tomorrow I will read

magazine and then

sleep

53

B. Data Analysis

The writer analyzed that most of the students made errors on using

simple past tense. They made this error because they did not care the form

simple past tense, they are still using the V1 for the simple past form, they

did not change V1 into the V2 as the form of simple past tense. That’s why

most of the students made many errors in English free writing especially

on using simple past tense. In this error, most students exactly made errors

on Selection. Selection means that the students did not write the verbs,

phonemes, structures, or vocabularies item well. The example of student’s

error is “my last holiday go to Bali”. This sentence is wrong. It should be

“last holiday I went to Bali”. The error happens because of Intra-Lingual

Transfer. Besides, many students made errors on Omission. Omission

means that students did not write sentence well. They often leave out the

third person singular morpheme-s, the plural marker-s, and the past tense

inflection-ed. The example of student’s error is “we speaking together”.

This sentence is wrong. It should be “we are speaking together”. They

leave out “to be” in the sentence. Most students made these errors in

Present or Past Continuous Tense. These errors happen because of Inter-

Lingual transfer.

Second, many students made errors on Simple Present Tense. They

made this error because they did not really understand yet how to use the

form of simple present tense correctly. They add “to” before the verb. It

means most of the students made errors on addition. Addition means that

students not only commit elements which they regard as redundant but

they also add redundant element. The example of the student’s error is “I

am go to Ancol”. This sentence is wrong. It should be “I go to Ancol”.

Another example is “I to help my uncle”. This sentence should be “I help

my uncle”. This case could happen because they took the words from

dictionary without select it first; they just move the verb from dictionary

into their books. And also it happens because of Intra-Lingual Transfer.

54

Furthermore, most students were frequently made errors on using

simple future tense. The example of this error is “I will played with my

friends”. This sentence is absolutely wrong. It should be followed the first

verb (V1) as the correct form of Simple Future Tense.

The reason why they made this error is because they did not know

the form of Simple Future Tense systematically. They ignore the use of

this tense correctly.

To sum up, the errors which students made are errors on using

Simple Past Tense, Simple Present Tense, Simple Future Tense, Present

Continuous Tense, and Past Continuous Tense in English writing test. And

the error types that they have made are Selection, Addition, and Omission.

The reasons why they made these errors are because of their lack of

knowledge on the use of tenses.

C. Data Interpretation

From the data mentioned above, we can see that there are 5 kinds

of tenses errors made by the students. They are: Simple Present Tense,

Present Continuous Tense, Simple Past Tense, Past Continuous Tense, and

Simple Future Tense.

The following table describes the problems area along with the

frequency of error, arranged from the highest to the lowest.

Table 4.6

Data Interpretation

No Kinds of Tenses Frequency of

Error

Percentage of

Error

1 Simple Past Tense 61 67.7 %

2 Simple Present Tense 18 20 %

3 Simple Future 7 7.7 %

4 Past Continuous Tense 2 2.2 %

5 Present Continuous Tense 2 2.2 %

55

There were 33 students and 61 errors committed in simple past

tense area with 67.7 % as the highest frequency of error. Most of them

didn’t care the certain time that must to be used in simple past form. For

example: “One day, I go to garden park”. It indicates the time in simple

past form was not used by the students.

There were 13 students and 18 errors committed in Present Tense

area with 20 % as the second rate. They made an errors in adding the first

verb as the form by “to be”, “Verb-ing”, and “to”. For example “I to help

my uncle”, “I’m take a picture”, and “I’m coming”. The writer assumes

that the students didn’t really understand yet how to use the simple present

tense correctly.

Third, there were 5 students and 7 errors committed in simple

future tense area with 7.7 %. Most of them combine the form “Will” with

“to” and “V1-ing” in the sentences. It shows the students generally made

errors in adding the first verb with “ing”.

Fourth, there were 2 students and 2 errors committed in present

continuous tense area with 2.2 %. Most of them make an omission “ing” in

using the present continuous tense form. For example: “I’m and my

brother go to Bandung”. It means the students didn’t really understand yet

as well.

Fifth, there were 2 students and 2 errors committed in past

continuous tense area with 2.2 %. Most of them make an omission the

“Verb-ing” in using the past continuous tense form. It means the students

didn’t use the past continuous tense form correctly.

56

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

A. Conclusion

From the previous data, the writer concluded that the commonest

error on the use of tenses which most students made is using Simple Past

Tense. Its frequency is 61 errors. Those are caused by difficulty in putting

the right verbs. Then, the error on Simple Present Tense is 18 errors. It is

followed by errors of add proposition “to” caused by ignorance of rule

restriction. The third error is simple Future. Its frequency is 7 errors. It is

followed by errors of add “to be”, proposition “to”, and “V-ing” caused by

the less of student’s understanding in using Simple Future tense. Then, the

error on using Present Continuous Tense and Past Continuous Tense is 2

errors. It is followed by the student’s carelessness.

The reasons why they made many errors in English free writing

focused on the use of tenses are because of Intra-Lingual Transfer and

Inter-Lingual Transfer.

57

B. suggestions

Some suggstion are needed by the english teachers in order to avoid

the students of making some errors, that is why the writer feels that it is a

must to give some suggestions and hopefully, they are worthwhile, some

suggestions are given below.

1. The techers must give repetition and pay more attention of Simple Past

Tense more than any others tenses.

2. The teachers must give and explain in every single detail.

3. The teachers must try some teaching methods that are suitable for the

students, so they do not feel bored.

4. The teachers must create a good atmosphere in the class in order to get

the students’ attention as well as their interest too.

5. The teachers must give the test as much as possible. Eventhough the

students still make errors, they will find a new case and it will be very

worth for them.

57

REFERENCES

Alfino, Joni. 2007. Helping students to develop a paragraph by using information

questions technique, paper abstract for 55th

TEFLIN International

Conference. Jakarta: UIN Syarif Hidayatullah.

Arikunto, Prof. Dr. Suharsimi, Prosedur Penelitian, Suatu Pendekatan Praktik,

Jakarta: PT Asdi Mahasatya, 2006.

Azar, Betty Schramper. 1999. Understanding and Using English Grammar. 3rd

Ed. 1999. Pearson education.

Brown, H. Douglas. 1987. Principle of Language Learning and Teaching. New

York: Prentice Hall Regents

Celce-Murcia, Marianne. 1999. Teaching English as a second or foreign

language. 2nd

Ed. New York: Heinle and Heinle Publisher.

Celce-Murcia, Marianne, and Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1999. The Grammar Book

(An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course). 2nd

Ed. New York: Heinle and Heinle

Publisher.

Crystal, David. 1993. An Encyclopedia of English Language. Oxford: Blackwell

Publishers.

Dulay, Heidy. et. al. 1985. Language Two. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, Rod, Second Language Acquisition, New York: Oxford University Press,

2003.

Fisiak, Jacek. 1981. Contrastive Linguistics and Language Teacher: Contrastive

Analysis, Error analysis. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Harmer, Jeremy. 1995. The Practice of English Language Teaching Acquisition.

London: Oxford University Press.

Hornby, As. 1984. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hubbard, Peter. et al. 1983. A training Course of TEFL. Oxford : Oxford

University Press.

Jack, Darcy. 2002. Interaction 1 Grammar. 4th Ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill

Companies, inc.

58

Lindemann, Erika. 1982. A Rhetoric for Writing Teachers. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Lyons, Jhon. 1995. Linguistic semantic an Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Peterson, Patricia Wilcox. 1985. Changing Times Changing Tenses. Washington:

United States Information Agency.

Raimes, Ann. 1983. Technique in Teaching Writing. London: Oxford American

English.

Weidge, Sara Curshing. 2002. Assesing Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Werner, K. Patricia. et. al. 2002. Interaction 2 Grammar. 4th

Ed. New York:

McGraw-Hill Contemporary.

Wishon, E. George, and Burks, M. Julia. 1980. Let’s Write English. Revised

Edition. New York: American Book Company Litton Educational

Publishing, inc.

www.bandungtourism.com/home_legend_e.php

www.helsinki Fi/-mpalande/meaning_of_tense_and_aspect_html.

www.islamicity.com/culture/Taj/default.htm

www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/04/15/


http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/example-of-English-text-types-

in.html

http://kbs.jogja.go.id/?pilih=lihat1&id=1727

http://www.bandungtourism.com/home_legend_e.php


http://www.islamicity.com/culture/Taj/default.htm

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/04/15/


http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/example-of-English-text-types-in.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/example-of-English-text-types-in.html


6

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Error analysis

Error analysis was born in 1967 initiated by Pit Corder to challenge

the behaviorists theory on learner error, i.e. contrastive analysis. 1The

contrastive analysis treatement of errors rested on a comparison of learners

native and target languages. Differences between the two were thought to

account for the majority of an L2 learners error . The behaviorist view of

learning prevalent on that time provided the theoretical justificaticion for

contrsative analysis. It held that learning was basically a process of

forming automatic habits and that errors should therefore result from first

language habits interfering with the learners attempts to learn new

linguistics behaviors. It was thought that contrastive analysis of the

learners two language that would pose the most difficulty. 2

Error is natural part of language learning. This is true of

development of child‟s first language as well as of second language

1 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, (New York: Prentice

Hall Regents, 1987) p. 170


7

learning by children and adult. It will always occur although the best effort

has been done. But it still needs to be analyzed.

Error analysis is a process based on analysis of learner‟s error in

their process of second language learning. Sharma wrote on his article

“Error analysis is defined as a process based on analysis of learner‟s with

one clear objective, evolving a suitable and effective teaching learning

strategy and remedial measures neccessary in certain clearly marked out

areas of the foreign language”. 3

Errors have an important role in the study of language the learner‟s

who made errors; automatically they can learn from their own errors and

develop the language. Nsakala Lengo says, “errors are believed to be an

indicator of the learners‟ stages in their target language development from

the errors that learners commit, one can determine their level of mastery of

the language system”. 4

1. The Meaning of Error

. Errors are noticeable and cannot be self-corrected, they are

deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, and the portion

of the learners competence in the target language. 5

Dullay stated, “Error is the flawed side of learner speech or

writing”. It means that there is something wrong in norm of language

performance.6 Then Douglas Brown said, “put in other way, an error is

a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker,

reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner”. 7

3 SK. Sharma, Error analysis: Why and how, English Teaching Forum April 1982 vol.

XXX P.21

4 Nsakala Lengo, What is an error? English Teaching Forum (July,1995 Vol 33), p.20


6 Heidy Dulay, et. Al, Language Two (New York: Oxford University Press 1985), p.138


8

Jeremy Harmer said that the errors are part of the learner inter

language that is the version of the language which a learner has any

one stage of development and which is continually reshaped as he/she

aims toward full mastery. 8

From the definitions above, the writer summarizes that error is

a part of second language acquisition that happens systematically and

consistently learners do that and it‟s caused by lack of comprehending

the linguistic competence. On the other hand, making errors are part of

learning process and no one can learn language without his/her first

making errors.

2. The Cause of Error

Corder says that there are three major causes of error arise in

second language learning. Those errors are transfer errors, analogical

errors and teaching induced errors. 9

a. Transfer Errors

The beginning stages of learning a second language are

characterized by a predominance of interference of learner‟s native

language. In this early stages, before the system of the second

language is a familiar, the native language is only linguistic system

in previous experience upon which the learner can draw.

b. Analogical errors

Although when the learners have discovered a correct rule of

the target language, they may still continue to make errors, because

8 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching Acquisition, (Oxford

University Press, 1995), p. 51

9 Peter Hubbard, et al.,A training Course of TEFL. (Oxford : Oxford University Press,

1983) p. 140

9

they have not discovered yet the precise set of categories to which

the rule applies. Errors which result from this strategy are called

analogical errors.

c. Teaching Induced Errors

Errors in second language learning may appear to be induced

by the teaching process itself. In this term the method and the

material that used by the teachers can lead learners to make faulty

hypothesis about the language.

3. The Classification of Error

According to Corder, errors fall into four main categories:

Omission of same required element, addition of of unnecessary or

incorrect element, selection of an incorrect element and misordering of

element. 10

a. Omission

Certain linguistic forms may be omitted by the learner

because of their complexity in production. Omission also occurs in

Morphology, learners often leave out the third person singular

morpheme –s, the plural marker-s and the past tense inflection –ed.

For example: “a strange thing happen to me yesterday”. Instead of :

“a strange thing happened to me yesterday”.

b. Addition

Learners not only commit elements which they regard as

redundant but they also add redundant element. For example:

1) I thinks

2) The books is here

10

Nsakala Lengo, What is an Error?English Teaching Forum ... pp. 22-24

10

c. Selection

Learners commit errors in pronunciation, morphology,

syntax, and vocabulary, due to the selection of the wrong phoneme,

structure vocabulary item. For example: “My friend is oldest than

me”. Instead of: “My friend is older than me”.

d. Ordering

Misordering can occur in morphological level misordering of

bound morpheme in English is perhaps less frequent, given their

limited number; but in the example “he is get upping now”, the

learners attaches the inflection-ing to the two words verb “get

up”.11

4. Identifying and Analyzing the Errors

One of the common difficulties in understanding the linguistic

system of both first and second language learners is the fact that such

system cannot be directly observed.12

Sridhar arranges the steps in

error analysis as follow:

1. Collection of data (either from a „free‟ composition by students on

s given theme or from examanation answers ).

2. Identification of errors

3. Classification into error types (e.g. errors of agreement, articles,

verb forms, etc).

4. Statement of relative frequency of error types.

5. Identification of the areas of difficulty in the target language.

6. Therapy (remedial drills, lesson, etc).13

11 Nsakala Lengo, What is an Error?English Teaching Forum ... pp. 22-24

12 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of language learning and teaching ... pp. 207-208

13 Jacek Fisiak, Contrastive Linguistics and Language Teacher: Contrastive Analysis,

Error analysis. (Pergamon Press Ltd, 1981), p.222

11

B. English Tense

1. The Meaning of Tense

Tense means time, however, it should be pointed out that time in

relation to action is a concept that exist in the mind of the speaker,

reader, or listener. Tense, in actual usage, refers consistently only to

grammatical forms. Often tense and time do not correspond at all. 14

The word “Tense” derived ultimatelly from the Latin word

“Tempus” meaning “Time”. 15

Tense commonly refers to the time of

the situation which relates to the situation of the utterance or at the

moment of speakin. For example, the commonest tense found in the

languages are present, past and future; a situation described in the

present, past and future; a situation described in the present tense is

related as simultaneous with the moment of speaking (John is singing);

the situation described in the past as related prior to the moment of

speaking (Jhon was singing); while the situation described the future as

relates subsequent to the moment of speaking (Jhon will sing) since

tense refers to the time of the situation which relates to the situation of

the utterance or to relate the content of the message to the speaker in

items of the “Here and Now”, it can be described as “deictic”.16

In

other word deictic refers to an interval or period of time which

contains the moment of utterance. It can be expressed by such word;

yesterday, now, tomorrow.

Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time. Past,

present, and future. Many languages use tenses to talk about time.

Other languages have no tenses, but of course they can still talk about

14 George E.Wishon and julia M.Burks, Let’s Write English. (American Book Company

Litton Educational Publishing, inc.1980), p. 192 Revised Edition

15 Jhon Lyons, Linguistic semantic an Introduction, (Cambridge University Press, 1995),

p. 312

16 www.helsinki Fi/-mpalande/meaning_of_tense_and_aspect_html.


12

time, using different methods. According to Marcella Frank, tense is

special verb endings or accompying auxiliary verb signal the time an

event takes place.17

2. The Kinds of Tenses

a. Simple Tenses

1) Simple Present

The simple Present tense known as “The Historical Present”. It

uses the present tense to relate a past event and is very common in

oral narrative.18

The present tense shows clearly that in English, tense is not the

same time. The present tense is not usually used to describe present

time. Instead, it describes activities and states which are generally

and universally true. The present tense is the tense for description,

definition, and statements of general truth.19

The simple present tense can describe habits, routines, or

events that happen regularly. It can also express opinions or make

general statement of fact.

a) Form

[VERB] + s/es in third person20

17

Marcella Frank, Modern English. A practical Reference Guide, (Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey: Prentice – Hall, inc.,1972 ), p.47

18 Marianne Celce-Murcia and Diane Larsen-Freeman, The Grammar Book (An ESL/EFL

Teacher’s Course). (Heinle and Heinle Publisher, 1999), p.166, Second Edition. 19

Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses. (United States

Information Agency, Washington, D.C. 1985) p. 10 20



13

Table 2.1

The Verb Be


Statement

Negative Statement

1. Long Forms I am a student

She is at the college

We are in the library

I am not a teacher

He is not at the

college

They are not in the

library

2. Contracted form I‟m here

She‟s here

We‟re in the library

I‟m not there

He isn‟t there

They aren‟t in the

library

Table 2.2

The Verb Have and Other Verbs


Statement

Negative Statement

1. Long forms I have class every day

I study a lot

She has classes

everyday

She studies a lot

They do not have

class everyday

They do not study a

lot

He does not have

class everyday

He does not study a

lot

2. Contracted forms They don‟t have class

everyday

He doesn‟t study a lot 21

Examples:

a. You speak English.

b. Do you speak English?

21John P. Nelson, Interaction 2 Grammar (McGraw – Hill Contemporary, 2002), P. 3-4

14

c. You do not speak English.22

b) Usage

USE 1 Repeated Action

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is

repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a

scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something

a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples:

a. I play tennis.

b. She does not play tennis.

c. Does he play tennis?

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a

fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not

important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make

generalizations about people or things.

Examples:

a. Cats like milk.

b. Birds do not like milk.

c. Do pigs like milk



15

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled

events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about

public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as

well.

Examples:

a. The train leaves tonight at 6 PM.

b. The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.

c. When do we board the plane?

d. The party starts at 8 o'clock.

e. When does class begin tomorrow?

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that

an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done

with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:

a. I am here now.

b. She is not here now.

16

c. He has his passport in his hand.

d. Do you have your passport with you?23

2) Simple Past

The simple past indicates that an activity or situation began and

ended at a particular time in the past. 24

Past tense is often used to tell

about events that happen quickly, one right after the other.25

a) Form

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Table 2.3


Statement

Negative Statement

1 Long Forms I studied for an hour

It looked yesterday.

They took math last

year

I did not study

It did not worked

yesterday

They did not take

math

2 Contracted Forms It didn‟t work

yesterday

It didn‟t work

yesterday

They didn‟t take

math 26


24

Betty Schramper Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, Third Edition

(Pearson education, 1999), p. 27 25

Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses ... p. 70 26

John P. Nelson, Interaction 2 Grammar ... p. 20


17

Examples:

a. The airplane arrived at noon

b. I received some visitors and cleaned my desk

c. I saw him three years ago 27

b) Usage

USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and

finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not

actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in

mind.

Examples:

a. I saw a movie yesterday.

b. I didn't see a play yesterday.

c. Did you have dinner last night?

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the

past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:s

27

George E.Wishon and julia M.Burks, Let’s Write English ... p.195

18

a. I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to

swim.

b. He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00,

and met the others at 10:00.

c. Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops

in the past. Duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such

as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

a. I lived in Brazil for two years.

b. They did not stay at the party the entire time.

c. We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.

d. A: How long did you wait for them?

B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped

in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear

that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as:

always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

19

Examples:

a. He played the violin.

b. He didn't play the piano.

c. Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or

generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of

the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."

Examples:

a. She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.

b. He didn't like tomatoes before.

c. Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?28

3) Simple Future

The simple future tense expresses future intentions. In some,

cases will and be going to are interchangable. However, will (not going

to) is normally used to express offers, predictions, promoses, and

requests. In spoken English, the contracted are common.

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and

"be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used

interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings.

These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with



20

time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and

"be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.29

The future tense

with “will” describes actions, activities, and states in the future.

Another future tense in English is formed with the “verb be + going to

+ verb” describes events thet are going to happen in the near future are:

soon, right away, in just a minute.30

a) Form

1. [Will + verb]

Examples:

a. You will help him later.

b. Will you help him later?

c. You will not help him later.

2. [Am/is/are + going to + verb]

Examples:

a. You are going to meet Jane tonight.

b. Are you going to meet Jane tonight?

c. You are not going to meet Jane tonight. 31

Table 2.4


30 Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses ... pp. 122 & 128



Statement

Negative Statement

1 Long Forms It will work very I will not study



21

b) Usage

USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action

"Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily.

A voluntary action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often,

we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help.

We also use "will" when we request that someone help us or volunteer to

do something for us. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we

refuse to voluntarily do something.

Examples:

a. I will send you the information when I get it.

b. I will not do your homework for you.

c. Will you help me move this heavy table?

USE 2 "Will" to Express a Promise

"Will" is usually used in promises.

Examples:

a. I will call you when I arrive.

b. I promise I will not tell him about the surprise party.

well

They I will study

tonight

will take math next

term

tonight

It will not work very

well

They will not take

math next term.

2 Contracted Forms I‟ll study tonight

It‟ll take work very

well

The‟ll take math

next term

I won‟t study tonight

It won‟t work very

well

They won‟t take math

next term

22

c. Don't worry, I'll be careful.

d. I won't tell anyone you‟re secret.

USE 3 "Be going to" to express a Plan

"Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the

idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter

whether the plan is realistic or not.

Examples:

a. He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.

b. She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii.

c. A: When are we going to meet each other tonight?

USE 4 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction

Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general

prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might

happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has

little control over the future and therefore USES 1-3 do not apply. In the

following examples, there is no difference in meaning.

Examples:

a. John Smith will be the next President.

b. John Smith is going to be the next President.

c. The movie "Zenith" will win several Academy Awards.

d. The movie "Zenith" is going to win several Academy Awards.32

b. Continuous Tenses

1) Present Continuous



23

The present continous tense describes present time. It used

for actions which are happening in the present, and for a period of

time which includes the present. 33

a) Form

[Am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

a. You are watching TV.

b. Are you watching TV?

c. You are not watching TV.

b) Usage

USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the

idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be

used to show that something is not happening now.

Examples:

a. You are learning English now.

b. You are not learning now.

c. Are you learning?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

33Patricia K. Warner. et. al., Interaction 2 Grammar (McGraw – Hill Contemporary,

2002), P. 28-29

24

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this

year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to

say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress;

however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a

restaurant.)

a. I am not reading any books right now.

b. Are you working on any special projects at work?

c. Aren't you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that

something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

a. I am meeting some friends after work.

b. I am not going to the party tonight.

c. Is he visiting his parents next weekend

USE 4 Repetitions and Irritation with "Always"

25

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or

"constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often

happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative

emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between

"be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

a. She is always coming to class late.

b. He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.

c. I don't like them because they are always complaining.34

2) Past Continuous

The past continous tense is rarely used by itself. Rather, it is used

to describe what was taking place when another activity happened in

the past. Usually the past continous is joined to another clause in the

past continous or in the past tense.35

a) Form

[Was/were + present participle]

Examples:

a. You were studying when she called.

b. Were you studying when she called?

c. You were not studying when she called.




26

b) Usage

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the

past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the

Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an

interruption in time.

Examples:

a. I was watching TV when she called.

b. When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

c. While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

d. What were you doing when the earthquake started?

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by

a shorter action in the Simple Past. However, you can also use a specific

time as an interruption.

Examples:

a. Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

b. At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.

c. Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.

27

USE 3 Parallel Actions

When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same

sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the

same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

a. I was studying while he was making dinner.

b. While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.

c. Were you listening while he was talking?

USE 4 Atmosphere

In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe

the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.

Example:

a. When I walked into the office, several people were busily typing,

some were talking on the phones, the boss was yelling directions,

and customers were waiting to be helped. One customer was

yelling at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were

complaining to each other about the bad service.

USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly"

expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in

the past. The concept is very similar to the expression "used to" but with

negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly"

28

between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

a. She was always coming to class late.

b. I didn't like them because they were always complaining.

3) Future Continuous

The future continous is generally used to set up background

activity that is in progress when another action takes place.36

Future

Continuous has two different forms: "will be doing " and "be going to

be doing." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Continuous forms are

usually interchangeable.

a) Form

1. [will be + present participle]

Examples:

a. You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

b. Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

c. You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

2. [am/is/are + going to be + present participle]

Examples:

a. You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

b. Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

c. You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives

tonight.


29

b) Usage

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future

Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the

future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this

can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Examples:

a. I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.

b. I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.

c. I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens

and you need to contact me.

d. He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see

Jennifer when she arrives.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

In USE 1, described above, the Future Continuous is interrupted

by a short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as

interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

Examples:

a. Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

b. I will be in the process of eating dinner.

c. At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

d. We will be in the process of driving through the desert.

30

USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future

When you use the Future Continuous with two actions in the

same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at

the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

a. I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.

b. Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and

having a good time.

c. While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.

USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future

In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe

atmosphere at a specific point in the future.

Example:

a. When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating.

Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people

will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking

beer. They always do the same thing.37



31

c. Perfect Tenses

1) Present Perfect

The present perfect tense is that an action has been

completed before the present time. This action has an effect on the

present situation, but it is not happening in the present.38

a) Form

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

a. You have seen that movie many times.

b. Have you seen that movie many times?

c. You have not seen that movie many times.

b) Usage

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an

unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You

CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as:

yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in

Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present

Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times,

several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.


32

Examples:

a. I have seen that movie twenty times.

b. I think I have met him once before.

c. People have traveled to the Moon.

d. People have not traveled to Mars.

e. Have you read the book yet?

2) Past perfect

The past perfect tense has two uses. The first use is to show an

action which was completed before a second time in the past. When a

past perfect tense is used in the same sentence with a past tense, the

order of events is clear from the tenses themselves. The past perfect

action happened first. Chronological markers such as before and after

are not necessary. The word when can be used to join such sentences.39

a) Form

[Had + past participle]

Examples:

a. You had studied English before you moved to New York.

b. Had you studied English before you moved to New York?

c. You had not studied English before you moved to New Y

b) Usage

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before


33

another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before

a specific time in the past.

Examples:

a. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

b. Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several

times.

c. Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous

Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of

Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the

past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

a. We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.

b. By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for

over eight years.40

3) Future Perfect

The future perfect tense can describe a state, an activity, or a

period of time before a second action in the future. When it is used

with durative verbs, the lenght of time is clearly shown. The future

perfect can also be used with punctual verbs.41


41 Patricia Wilcox Peterson, Changing Times Changing Tenses.....p. 148


34

Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and

"be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect

forms are usually interchangeable.

a) Form

1. [Will have + past participle]

Examples:

a. You will have perfected your English by the time you come

back from the U.S.

b. Will you have perfected your English by the time you come

back from the U.S.?

c. You will not have perfected your English by the time you come

back from the U.S.

2. [Am/is/are + going to have + past participle]

Examples:

a. You are going to have perfected your English by the time you

come back from the U.S.

b. Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you

come back from the U.S.?

c. You are not going to have perfected your English by the time

you come back from the U.S.

35

d. Perfect Continous Tenses

1) Present Perfect Continous

The present perfect continous stresses the duration or

repetition of an action that began in the past and continous to the

present.42

a) Form

[Has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You have been waiting here for two hours.

b. Have you been waiting here for two hours?

b) Usage

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that

something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For

five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all

durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous

Examples:

a. They have been talking for the last hour.

b. She has been working at that company for three years.

c. What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?

d. James has been teaching at the university since June.

e. We have been waiting here for over two hours!

42 Darcy Jack, Interaction 1 Grammar 4th edition. (The McGraw-Hill Companies,

inc.,2002) p. 275

36

USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous

WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the

duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We

often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this

meaning.

Examples:

a. Recently, I have been feeling really tired.

b. She has been watching too much television lately.

c. Have you been exercising lately?

d. Mary has been feeling a little depressed.

e. Lisa has not been practicing her English.

f. What have you been doing?

g.

2) Past Perfect Continous

The past perfect continous emphasizes the duration of an activity

that was in progress before another activity or time in the past. This tense

also may express an activity in progress close in time to another activity

or time in the past.43

a) Form

[Had been + present participle]


37

Examples:

a. You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she

finally arrived.

b. Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she

finally arrived?

c. You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when

she finally arrived.

b) Usage

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something

started in the past and continued up until another time in the past.

"For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which

can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is

related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration

does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the

past.

Examples:

a. They had been talking for over an hour before Tony

arrived.

b. She had been working at that company for three years when

it went out of business.

c. How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?

d. Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all

day at work.

e. James had been teaching at the university for more than a

year before he left for Asia.

38

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past

Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in

the past is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

a. Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

b. Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

c. Betty failed the final test because she had not been

attending class.

3) Future Perfect Continous

The future perfect continous emphasizes the duration of an

activity that will be in progress before another time or even in the

future.44

Future Perfect Continuous has two different forms: "will

have been doing " and "be going to have been doing." Unlike

Simple Future forms, Future Perfect Continuous forms are usually

interchangeable.

a) Form

1. [Will have been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You will have been waiting for more than two hours when

her plane finally arrives.

b. Will you have been waiting for more than two hours when

her plane finally arrives?


39

c. You will not have been waiting for more than two hours

when her plane finally arrives.

2. [Am/is/are + going to have been + present participle]

Examples:

a. You are going to have been waiting for more than two

hours when her plane finally arrives.

b. Are you going to have been waiting for more than two

hours when her plane finally arrives?

c. You are not going to have been waiting for more than two

hours when her plane finally arrives

b) Usage

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Future

We use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that

something will continue up until a particular event or time in the

future. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Friday" are

all durations which can be used with the Future Perfect

Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect

Continuous and the Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future

Perfect Continuous, the duration stops at or before a reference

point in the future.

Examples:

a. They will have been talking for over an hour by the time

Thomas arrives.

40

b. She is going to have been working at that company for

three years when it finally closes.

c. James will have been teaching at the university for more

than a year by the time he leaves for Asia.

d. How long will you have been studying when you graduate?

USE 2 Cause of Something in the Future

Using the Future Perfect Continuous before another action

in the future is a good way to show cause and effect.

Examples:

a. Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have

been jogging for over an hour.45

C. Writing English

Writing English is the most difficult skill among other language

skills, because of that, to make a good writing, the students need hard

thinking and they have to have extent knowledge especially in writing to

get a correct writing. Because when the students are writing something

like a diary, a novel, a short story, etc., they not only have to produce some

words, sentences, and paragraphs at the same time. But also they have to

spell the words in right spelling and punctuate the sentences in suitable

punctuation. Therefore, if the students want to be a good writer they have

to master all aspect about writing and need more practice.



41

In this chapter, the writer will explain some theories that still relate

to the topic. First, the writer explains the definition of writing itself.

Second, it is about the kinds of writing consisting of free writing,

controlled writing, and guided writing. The last chapter, she discusses the

role of writing in learning language.

1. The Definition of Writing

In this chapter the writer quotes some definitions of writing.

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary writing is “to

make letters or other symbols (ideographs) on a surface”. 46

Based on the definition above writing is an activity to make or

to arrange written or printed words, letters or symbols which have

meaning.

According to Walter T. Petty and Julie M. Jensen, writing is

“the mental and physical act of forming letters and words”. 47

National

council of teachers of English commission stated that writing is “An

important medium for self-expression, for communication, and for the

discovery of meaning. Its need increased rather than decreased by the

development of new media for mass communication”.48

Marianne C. Murcia also stated in her book that writing is “The

ability to express one‟s ideas in written form in a second or foreign

language”.49

46 As Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English, (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1984) p. 362 47

Walter T. Petty and Julie M. Jensen, Developing Children’s Language, (New York:

Allyn and Bacon Mc, 1963) p. 362 48

National Council of Teachers of English Commission on Composition. “Composition:

A position statement”, elementary English s2 (February 1975) p. 194 by Walter T Petty and Julie

M. Jensen, in developing children‟s language. 49

Marianne Celce Murcia, Teaching English as a second foreign language, (United

States: Massachusetts, 1991) p.233

42

Erika Lindemann proposed the definition of writing as a

process of communication which uses a conventional graphic system

to convey a message to a reader. 50

in addition writing can also be

defined as the process of recording spoken language using a system of

visual marks on a surface. The concept includes the particular medium

expression (Usually hand writing or typing) and the product which

emerges the piece of writing or composition. 51

Writing skill is one of four language skills that someone will

get in language learning and it is the most difficult one. As the last skill

gained, this skill is considered as one of productive skills because

writer, in writing activity, expresses her/his ides for reader. 52

Sara

added, “even though is the fourth skill, writing has also become more

important as tenets of communicative language teaching and also as an

essential too for learning”.53

2. The Kinds of Writing

a. Free Writing

Free writing is a technique for finding the ideas in your head

that you do not even know are there.54

It means writing whatever

comes to mind without worrying about whether the ideas are good

or grammar is correct. The technique of free writing is very simple.

The students just pick up a pen and start writing, and do not

50

Erika Lindemann, a Rhetoric for Writing Teachers, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1982), p. 11 51

David Crystal, an Encyclopedia of Language and Language. (Oxford: Blackwell

Publishers, 1993), p. 421 52

Joni Alfino, Helping students to develop a paragraph by using information questions

technique, paper abstract for 55th

TEFLIN International Conference, (Jakarta, UIN, December 4-

6th

, 2007), p. 129 53

Sara Curshing Weidge, Assesing Writing, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2002), p. 3 54

Dorothy Sedley, College Writer’s Workbook (Ohio: Bell and Howell Company, 1981)

p.2

43

develop their ideas or get stuck, they just repeat what they have just

written.

b. Controlled Writing

Controlled writing is the opposite of free writing . controlled

writing is all the writing for which a great deal of the content

and/or form is supplied. In using this kind of writing to teaching

writing. The students are focused to get words down on paper and

in concentrating on one or two problems at a time; they are thus

spared from tackling the full range of complexity that free writing

entails controlled writing focuses the students attention on specific

features of the written language. It is good method of reinforsing

grammar, vocabulary, and syntax in context. 55

c. Guided Writing

Guided writing is an extension of controlled writing; it is less

controlled than controlled writing. In using this kind of writing to

teaching writing, students are given a first sentence, a last sentence,

an outline to fill out, a series of questions to respond to, or

information to include in their piece of writing. Students should be

able to discuss, make notes, share findings, and plan strategies

together before they begin to write.56

In guided writing, the

students will not make serious errors if they follow the instruction,

which are given by their teachers as stated by Lois Robinson in his

55

Lois Robinson, Guided Writing and Free writing, (New York: Harper and Row, 1967)

p.22

56

Ann Raimes., Technique in Teaching Writing, (London: Oxford American English,

1983) p.103

44

book, “guided or controlled writing is writing in which one cannot

make a serious error so long as he follows direction. 57

3. The Forms of Writing

Forms of writing are required for different purposes, in

general, writing can be devided into seven forms narration,

description, exposition, recount, report, news item, and anecdote.

a. Narration

Narration or story telling is writing about a ssuccession of

events. The simplest kind of narration follows chronological

order.58

Its purpose is to make the audience think about an

issue, tech them a lesson, or excite their emotion.59

Narration Paragraph

SANGKURIANG

Once, there was a kingdom in Priangan Land. Lived a

happy family. They were a father in form of dog,his name is

Tumang, a mother which was called is Dayang Sumbi, and a

child which was called Sangkuriang. One day, Dayang Sumbi

asked her son to go hunting with his lovely dog, Tumang. After

hunting all day, Sangkuriang began desperate and worried

because he hunted no deer. Then he thought to shot his own

dog. Then he took the dog liver and carried home.

Soon Dayang Sumbi found out that it was not deer lever

but Tumang's, his own dog. So, She was very angry and hit

Sangkuriang's head. In that incident, Sangkuriang got wounded

and scar then cast away from their home.

Years go bye, Sangkuriang had travel many places and

finally arrived at a village. He met a beautiful woman and felt

in love with her. When they were discussing their wedding

plans, The woman looked at the wound in Sangkuriang's head.

57

Lois Robinson, Guided Writing and Free writing ... p.2 58

www.bandungtourism.com/home_legend_e.php 59

Mark Andrean, and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English,(Australia: Macmilan Education Australia, 1998 ), p. 3

45

It matched to her son's wound who had left severall years

earlier. Soon she realized that she felt in love with her own son.

She couldn't marry him but how to say it. Then, she found the

way. She needed a lake and a boat for celebrating their

wedding day. Sangkuriang had to make them in one night. He

built a lake. With a dawn just moment away and the boat was

almost complete. Dayang Sumbi had to stop it. Then, she lit up

the eastern horizon with flashes of light. It made the cock

crowed for a new day.

Sangkuriang failed to marry her. She was very angry and

kicked the boat. It felt over and became the mountain of

Tangkuban Perahu Bandung.60

simplified from: www.bandungtourism.com/home_legend_e.php

b. Description

Description is writing about the way persons, animals,

or things appear. It normally takes on of three forms.

Description tells how something looks or feels or sounds. It

talks about such features as sizes, shape, color, sound, or state.

Description Paragraph

TAJ MAHAL

Taj Mahal is regarded as one of the eight wonders of the

world. It was built by a Muslim Emperor Shah Jahan in the

memory of his dear wife at Agra. Taj Mahal is a Mausoleum

that houses the grave of queen Mumtaz Mahal. The mausoleum

is a part of a vast complex comprising of a main gateway, an

elaborate garden, a mosque (to the left), a guest house (to the

right), and several other palatial buildings. The Taj is at the

farthest end of this complex, with the river Jamuna behind it.

The Taj stands on a raised, square platform (186 x 186 feet)

with its four corners truncated, forming an unequal octagon.

The architectural design uses the interlocking arabesque

concept, in which each element stands on its own and perfectly

integrates with the main structure. It uses the principles of self-

replicating geometry and a symmetry of architectural elements.

Its central dome is fifty-eight feet in diameter and rises to a

60

www.bandungtourism.com/home_legend_e.php

46

height of 213 feet. It is flanked by four subsidiary domed

chambers. The four graceful, slender minarets are 162.5 feet

each. The central domed chamber and four adjoining chambers

include many walls and panels of Islamic decoration. Taj

Mahal is built entirely of white marble. Its stunning

architectural beauty is beyond adequate description,

particularly at dawn and sunset. The Taj seems to glow in the

light of the full moon. On a foggy morning, the visitors

experience the Taj as if suspended when viewed from across

the Jamuna river.61

c. Exposition

Exposition is a piece of text that presents one side of an

issue.62

Exposition is writing that explains something. Its

purpose is to present ideas and to make the ideas as clear as

possible. Exposition is writing with a referential aim. It seeks to

explain someone or something in the world outside the writer.

In text genre especially, exposition devided into two kinds;

Analytical exposition and Hortatory exposition.

1) Analytical Exposition

Analytical Exposition is one classified type as

hortatory exposition in text genre. Both analytical

exposition and hortatory exposition present arguments for

supporting the issued thesis. The different from one to each

other is the last stage of the text, which the analytical

exposition will end with a re-iteration. In the other hand,

hortatory will close the essay with a recommendation.

Analytical exposition will try to influence the reader by

presenting some arguments to prove that the writer' idea is

important. Furthermore, hortatory will try to persuade the

61 www.islamicity.com/culture/Taj/default.htm

62 Mark Andrean, and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English, … p. 22

47

reader how should or not do concerning the writer's idea. 63

Analytical Exposition paragraph

Jakarta as a Bad Working Place for Expatriates

Jakarta is the second-worst place for expatriates to

work in outside of the United States of America, Canada

and Western Europe. It is according to a recent report

published by Business week.

The Business week report ranked emerging markets

that might be challenging to move into due to their level of

pollution, disease, political violence and availability of

good and services.

The report ranked Jakarta second, just below Lagos

in Nigeria and above Riyadh Saudi Arabia, saying the

threat of violence from extremist, in particular, was serious

drawback to living in Jakarta. Bombings targeting foreign

interests in Jakarta, such as the JW Marriot hotel bombing

in 2003, have been repeated elsewhere in the city.

The report said despite problem common to many

developing cities such as the risk of disease, poor

sanitation, and excessive pollution, Indonesia can be an

enticing location.

In response, the Jakarta administration took the

report positively, saying it could spur the administration to

improve its performance.64

(Simplified from www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/04/15/)

2) Hortatory Exposition

Hortatory text is one text type of argumentative

genres which has function to persuade readers. Since it is

one type of argumentative passages, it is very similar to

analytical exposition both hortatory and analytical

exposition state thesis as the introduction. Both present

argumentation to support the stated thesis. However,

63 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/example-of-analytical-exposition-

in.html

64 www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/04/15/

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/04/15/

48

hortatory exposition makes the argumentation into a higher

level. It is closed by certain recommendation and this

makes hortatory exposition differ from analytical

exposition. Hortatory exposition can be seen in various

functional text. It can be formed of sales letter, advertising

slogan, speech, or letter to editor. The following example of

hortatory exposition is simplified from a letter issued in The

Jakarta Post which was written by Tomas Lasam Manila. 65

Hortatory Exposition Paragraph

SHOULD MUSIC BE COMPULSORY IN JUNIOR

HIGH SCHOOL?

Statement of position

I believe that music should be compulsory in Junior

High School. Firstly, Everyone likes music of some kind

music is enjoyable.

Argument 1

Secondly, the music industry is very popular in our

society and the music industry is a very big one. It is

importantto know something about it.

Argument 2

Thirdly, learning to ply music and to ply an

instrument helps you with other subjects. Studies have

shown this playing an instrument is interesting and

enjoyable. Also, songs tell stories, help us with English and

make us happy.

Recommendation

In conclusion, for the above reasons, I believe that

music should be compulsory in Junior High School.66


65 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2010/01/example-of-hortatory-text-in-letter-

to.html 66



49

d. Recount

Recount is a piece of text that retells past events, usually

in the order in which they occured.67

Its purpose is either to

inform or to entertain the audience. There is no complication

among the participants and that differentiates from narrative.68

Recount Paragaraph

My Rush Time as a Journalist

I usually woke up at eight o'clock a.m. and went to the

Press Center to check the daily schedule of briefings and press

conferences. It was usually held by the United Nation officials

or disaster mitigation team.

It was challenging to visit different refugee camps to find

soft stories, human interest stories. After that I went back to the

Press Center to cover the press conferences of the day.

It was heart breaking when I saw these survivors fight for

food and secondhand clothing. Unfortunately as they said, the

food and clothing were limited and inadequate. Emerging to

glaring, fool noon, it was time to go back to Press Center to

write stories and race against time. I was always fearing that

the internet would come crushing down.

After everything was done, only then I remembered to

eat. Most times, I only ate once a day because I always had to

rush and again it was difficult to find food. I had to travel quite

far. I needed to spend a 30 to 45 minutes by car just to find

fresh food.69

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/recount-example-in-

journalists-diary.html

67 Mark Andrean, and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English, … p. 24

68 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-recount.html 69 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/recount-example-in-journalists-

diary.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/recount-example-in-journalists-diary.html


http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-recount.html



50

e. Report

Report is a piece of text that presents information about a

subject.70

It is as a result of systematic observation and

analysis.71

Report Paragraph

MANGROVE

A mangrove is a tropical marine tree. Mangroves have

special aerial roots and salt-filtering tap roots which enable

them to thrive in brackish water. Brackish water is salty but not

as salty as sea water. Mangrove trees are commonly planted

and found in coastal areas. Mangroves can serve as walls of

protection for natural disaster in coastal area like tsunami

According to healthy mangrove forests had helped save lives in

the Asia disaster tsunami and people tended to respect these

natural barriers even more, especially after the tsunami.

There are several species of mangrove tree found all over

the world. Some prefer more salinity, while others like to be

very-close to a large fresh water source such as river. Some

prefer areas that are sheltered from waves. Some species have

their roots covered with sea water every day during high tide.

Other species grow on dry land but are still part of the

ecosystem reported that rare species of mangrove had been

found and was also known as the looking-glass tree, probably

because the leaves are silver-coated. Mangroves need to keep

their trunk and leave above the surface of the water. Yet they

also need to be firmly attached to the ground so they are not

moved by waves.

Any part of root that appears above the water flows

oxygen to the plant under water surface. As the soil begin to

build up, these roots procedure additional roots that become

embedded in the soil.72

70 Mark Andrean, and Kathy Anderson, Text Types in English, ... p. 17

71 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-report.html

72http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2010/01/example-of-report-text-about-

mangrove.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-report.html

51

f. News Item

A News Item text is a text which is grouped into the text

genre of narration. The main function of narration is is telling

stories or informing about events in chronological order. The

order in the narration can be based of time, place and the events

them selves.73

News Item Paragraph

An Indonesian migrant worker Munti Binti Bani has died

on Monday after being hospitalized for several days due to

alleged torture by her employees in Selangor, Malaysia. Antara

state news agency has reported that Munti had been treated at

Tengku Ampuan Rahimah hospital since last Tuesday and died

on Monday at 10 a.m, local time. Munti was found unconscious

with her hands and feet were tied in a bathroom in Taman

Sentosa housing complex last Tuesday. She was suffering from

major wounds on her body and had apparently been beaten

with iron.

Munti's body will be sent tomorrow to her hometown in

Pondok Jeruk Barat village of Jombang, East Java after

undergoing autopsy at the hospital. “We express our deep

condolences as there is yet another worker who was tortured

and passed away at the hospital,” Indonesia's Ambassador for

Malaysia, Da'i Bachtiar said in Kuala Lumpur on Monday.

“The Embassy will arrange for all compensation, including

insurance, she deserves to receive,” Da'i said. He added that

Munti's employees Vanitha and Murugan had been detained

and were undergoing questioning at the local police office.

“We hope the police can uphold justice and punish them should

they be proven to be involved in the case,” he said.74

Composed from:

www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/10/26/another-migrant-worker-dies-

alleged-torture-malaysia.html

73http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/11/understanding-news-item-text.html

74 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/10/contoh-example-of-news-item-text-

about.html

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http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/10/26/another-migrant-worker-dies-alleged-torture-malaysia.html

http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/10/26/another-migrant-worker-dies-alleged-torture-malaysia.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/11/understanding-news-item-text.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/10/contoh-example-of-news-item-text-about.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/10/contoh-example-of-news-item-text-about.html

52

g. Anecdote

Anecdote is a text which retells funny and unusual

incidents in fact or imagination. Its purpose is to entertain the

readers.75

Anecdote Paragraph

There was a black family in Scotland years ago. They

were Clark family with nine children. They had a dream to go

to America. The family worked and saved. They were making

plan to travel with their children to America. It had taken

several years but finally they had saved enough money. They

had gotten passport. They had booked seats for the whole

family member in a new liner to America.

The entire family was full of anticipation and excitement

with their new life in America. However few days before their

departure, the youngest son was bitten by a dog. The doctor

sewed up the boy. Because of the possibility of getting rabies,

there were being quarantined for long days. They were in

quarantine when the departure time came. The family dreams

were dashed. They could not make the trip to America as they

had planned. The father was full of disappointed and anger. He

stomped the dock to watch the ship leaved without him and his

family. He shed tears of disappointment. He cursed both his

son and God for the misfortune.

Five days latter, the tragic news spread throughout

Scotland. The ship, the mighty Titanic, had shank. It took

hundreds of passenger and crew with it. Titanic which had been

called the unsinkable ship had sunk. It was unbelievable but it

was.

The Clak family should have been on that ship, but

because of the bitten son by a dog, they were left behind. When

the father heard the news, he hugged the son and thanked him

for saving the family. He thanked God for saving their lives. It

was a blessing behind a tragedy.

(Adapted from Look Ahead 2).

75 http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-anecdote_31.html

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2007/12/what-is-anecdote_31.html

SILABUS DAN SISTEM PENILAIAN

Mata Pelajaran : Bahasa Inggris Kelas / Program : XI / BAHASA Semester : 1

Standar Kompetensi Kompetensi Dasar Materi Pembelajaran Kegiatan Pembelajaran Indikator Penilaian Alokasi Waktu (Menit)

Sumber/ Bahan/ Alat

Membaca

5. Memahami makna teks fungsional pendek dan esei sederhana berbentuk report, narrative dan analytical exposition dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan untuk mengakses ilmu pengetahuan

Menulis

6. Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks tulis fungsional pendek dan esei sederhana report, narrative dan analytical exposition dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari

5.2 Merespon makna dan langkah

retorika dalam esei yang menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara akurat, lancar dan berterima dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan untuk

Merespon makna dalam teks

fungsional resmi dan tak resmi yang menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan secara akurat, lancar dan berterima dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari untuk mengakses ilmu.

Noun phrase

Ajectve clause

Teks tulis berbentuk narrative

Teks tulis berbentuk report

Teks tulis berbentuk analytical exposition

Membaca nyaring bermakna teks narrative/report/analytical exposition secara individu

Mendiskusikan berbagai aspek dari teks seperti isi, struktur teks, secara berkelompok.

Berlatih menggunakan kalimat simple present untuk menyatakan fakta dan kalimat kompleks yang menggunakan modal untuk menyatakan opini

Membuat draft teks naratif,berita atau deskripsi dengan melakukan chain writing.

Melakukan koreksi teman sejawat untuk menyempurnakan draft.

Menyempurnakan draft berdasarkan hasil koreksi teman.

Mengidentifikasi makna kata dalam teks yang dibaca.

Mengidentifikasi komplikasi dalam sebuah cerita narasi

Mengidentifikasi kejadian dalam teks yang dibaca

Mengidentifikasi ciri-ciri dari benda/orang yang dilaporkan

Mengidentifikasi kasus yang dibahas dalam teks

Mengidentifikasi argument yang diberikan

Mengidentifikasi langkah-langkah retorika dari teks

Mengidentifikasi tujuan komunikasi teks dibaca

Menggunakan kalimat adjective clause dalam menyampai sebuah berita

Menggunakan kalimat adjective phrase dalam membuat sebuah report

Menghasilkan teks berbentuk report

Menghasilkan teks berbentuk narrative

Menghasilkan teks berbentuk analytical exposition

quiz Tes tertulis tugas unjuk kerja

(14 x 45)

2 x 45

2 x 45

2 x 45

4 x 45

1 x 45

1 x 45

ESOL ONLINE English Online Jakarta Post English K-6 modules Board of Studi New South Wales

SILABUS DAN SISTEM PENILAIAN Mata Pelajaran : Bahasa Inggris Kelas / Program : XI / BAHASA Semester : 2

Standar Kompetensi Kompetensi Dasar Materi Pembelajaran Kegiatan Pembelajaran Indikator Penilaian Alokasi Waktu (Menit)

Sumber/ Bahan/ Alat

Membaca

9. Memahami makna teks fungsional pendek dan esei sederhana narrative, spoof, dan hortatory exposition dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari dan untuk mengakses ilmu pengetahuan

Menulis

11 Mengungkapkan makna dalam teks tulis fungsional pendek dan esei sederhana narrative, spoof, dan hortatory exposition dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari

11.1 Merespon makna dalam teks

fungsional pendek (misalnya banner, poster, pamphlet, dll.) resmi dan tak resmi yang menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara akurat, lancar dan berterima dalam konteks kehidupan sehari-hari

12.1 Mengungkapkan makna dalam bentuk teks fungsional pendek (misalnya banner, poster, pamphlet, dll.) resmi dan tak resmi dengan menggunakan ragam bahasa tulis secara akurat, lancar dan berterima dalam konteks

banner, poster, pamphlet

Membaca nyaring bermakna sebuah banner, poster, pamphlet secara individu

Mendiskusikan isi teks yang dibaca secara berpasangan.

Mendiskusikan ciri-ciri gramatikal yang digunakan dalam teks yang dibaca secara berkelompok.

Menuliskan sebuah banner, poster, pamphlet secara berkelompok dan mempublikasikanny di lingkungan sekolah

Membaca nyaring bermakna wacana ragam tulis yang dibahas dengan ucapan dan intonasi yang benar

Mengidentifikasi topic dari teks yang dibaca

Mengidentifikasi informasi tertentu dari banner, poster, pamphlet

Menggunakan tata bahasa, kosa kata, tanda baca, ejaan, dan tata tulis dengan akurat

Menulis gagasan utama

Mengelaborasi gagasan utama

Membuat draft, merevisi, menyunting

Menghasilkan banner, poster, atau pamphlet

Performans Tertulis (PG dan Uraian) Quiz Tugas Tugas unjuk kerja

(8 x 45)

1 x 45

1 x 45

2 x 45

2 x 45

ESOL ONLINE English Online Jakarta Post English K-6 modules Board of Studi New South Wales

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AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ ERROR IN ENGLISH WRITING …repository.uinjkt.ac.id/dspace/bitstream/123456789/1282/1/98963... · Free Writing Focused on the Use of Tenses (Case Study