American Heritage Dictionary

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American Heritage Dictionary:

waterTop

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(w'tr, wt'r)n.1. A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid, H2O, essential for most plant and animal life and the

most widely used of all solvents. Freezing point 0C (32F); boiling point 100C (212F); specific

gravity (4C) 1.0000; weight per gallon (15C) 8.338 pounds (3.782 kilograms).

2.

1. Any of various forms of water: waste water.

2. Naturally occurring mineral water, as at a spa. Often used in the plural.

3.

1. A body of water such as a sea, lake, river, or stream.

2. waters A particular stretch of sea or ocean, especially that of a state or country: escorted out of

British waters.

4.1. A supply of water: had to turn off the water while repairing the broken drain.

2. A water supply system.

5.

1. Any of the fluids normally secreted from the body, such as urine, perspiration, tears, or saliva.

2. A fluid present in a body part in abnormal quantities as a result of injury or disease: water on the

knee.

3. The fluid surrounding a fetus in the uterus; amniotic fluid.

6. An aqueous solution of a substance, especially a gas: ammonia water.

7. A wavy finish or sheen, as of a fabric or metal.

8.

1. The valuation of the assets of a business firm beyond their real value.

2. Stock issued in excess of paid-in capital.9.

1. The transparency and luster of a gem.

2. A level of excellence.

v., -tered, -tering, -ters.

v.tr.

1. To pour or sprinkle water on; make wet: watered the garden.

2.

1. To give drinking water to.

2. To lead (an animal) to drinking water.

3. To dilute or weaken by adding water: a bar serving whiskey that had been watered.

4. To give a sheen to the surface of (silk, linen, or metal).5. To increase (the number of shares of stock) without increasing the value of the assets represented.

6. To irrigate (land).

v.intr.

1. To produce or discharge fluid, as from the eyes.

2. To salivate in anticipation of food: The wonderful aroma from the kitchen makes my mouth water.

3. To take on a supply of water, as a ship.

4. To drink water, as an animal.

phrasal verb:
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water down

1. To reduce the strength or effectiveness of: "It seemed clear by late autumn that the ban would be

significantly watered down or removed altogether before the trade bill became law"(George R.

Packard).

idioms:

above water

1. Out of difficulty or trouble.

water under the bridge

1. A past occurrence, especially something unfortunate, that cannot be undone or rectified:All that is

now just water under the bridge.

[Middle English, from Old English wter.]

watererwa'terern.

Water is wet, even etymologically. The Indo-European root ofwater is *wed-, "wet." This

root could appear in several guises-with the vowel e, as here, or as *wod-, or with no vowel between

the wand d, yielding *ud-. All three forms of the root appear in English either in native or in borrowed

words. From a form with a long e,*wd-, which by Grimm's Law became *wt- in Germanic, we have Old

English wt, "wet," which became modern English wet. The form *wod-, in a suffixed form *wod-

r, became *watar in Germanic and eventually water in modern English. From the form *ud- the Greeksgot their word for water, hud-r, the source of our prefix hydro-and related words like hydrant. The

suffixes *-rand *-rosadded to the form *ud-yielded the Greek word hudr, "water snake" (borrowed

into English as hydra), and the Germanic word *otraz,the source of our word otter, the water animal.

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Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:

waterTop

Home>Library>Miscellaneous>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia

Inorganic compound composed ofhydrogen and oxygen (H2O), existing in liquid, gas (steam, water

vapour), andsolid (ice) states. At room temperature, water is a colourless, odourless, tasteless liquid.

One of the most abundant compounds, water covers about 75 of Earth's surface. Life depends on

water for virtually every process, its ability to dissolve many other substances being perhaps its most
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essential quality. Life is believed to have originated in water (the world's oceans or smaller bodies),

and living organisms use aqueous solutions (including blood and digestive juices) as mediums for

carrying out biological processes. Because water molecules are asymmetric and thereforeelectric

dipoles, hydrogen bonding between molecules in liquid water and in ice is important in holding them

together. Many of water's complex and anomalous physical and chemical properties (high melting and

boiling points,viscosity, surface tension, greater density in liquid than in solid form) arise from this

extensive hydrogen bonding. Water undergoes dissociation to the ions H+ (or H3O+) and OH, particularly inthe presence ofsalts and other solutes; it may act as an acid or as a base. Water occurs bound (as water of hydration) in many salts and minerals. It has

myriad industrial uses, including as a suspending agent (papermaking, coal slurrying), solvent, diluting agent, coolant, and source of hydrogen; it is used

in filtration, washing, steam generation, hydration of lime and cement, textile processing, sulfur mining, hydrolysis, andhydraulics, as well as in

beverages and foods. See also hard water; heavy water.

For more information on water, visitBritannica.com.

Gale's How Products Are Made:How is water made?Top

Home>Library>Science>How Products are Made

Background

Water is a chemical compound needed by most plants and animals on Earth in order to sustain life.

Pure water is atasteless, odorless, transparent liquid. In small amounts it is colorless, but it takes on a

bluish tint in larger amounts. Water is an excellent solvent and as a result it usually contains a wide

variety of dissolved minerals and other chemicals. It can also carry and support bacteria. Most of the

water distributed through municipal water systems is treated to remove harmful substances. Some

bottled waters undergo even further treatment to remove almost all impurities. The English word

water is derived from the German word wasser, which in turn is derived from an ancient Indo-

European word meaning to wet or wash.

The controlled use of water dates to at least 8,000 B.C. when farmers in Egypt and parts of Asia

trapped floodwaters for crop irrigation. The concept of using irrigation canals to bring water to crops,

rather than waiting for a flood, was first developed about 2,000 B.C. in Egypt and Peru. By about

1,000 B.C., the city of Karcho, in what is now Jordan, built two aqueducts to bring an adequate supplyof water for the city's population. This is the first recorded instance of a planned municipal water

supply.

Early water treatment was surprisingly advanced, although rarely practiced. An ancient Sanskrit

manuscript, from what is now India, advises that drinking water should be kept in copper vessels,

exposed to sunlight, and filtered through charcoal. Ancient Egyptian inscriptions give similar advice.

Many of these methods are still used today. In about 400 B.C., the Greek medical

practitioner Hippocrates suggested that water should be boiled and strained through a piece of cloth.

Despite these early references, most people drank untreated water from flowing streams

orsubterranean wells. As long as there were no sources ofcontamination nearby, this was

a satisfactory solution.

As the population of Europe and other parts of the civilized world grew, their sources of water became

increasinglycontaminated. In many cities, the rivers that served as the primary sources of drinkingwater were so badly contaminated with sewage that they resembled open cesspools. Cholera, typhoid,

and many other water-borne diseases took their toll. In 1800, William Cruikshank of England

demonstrated that small doses ofchlorine would killgerms in water. By the 1890s, several

municipalities found that slowly filtering water through beds of sand could also significantly reduce the

incidence of disease. The public outcry for safe drinking water reached such a crescendo that by the

early 1900s most major cities in the United States had installed some sort of water treatment system.
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Even with water treatment, water contamination remained a serious concern as an increasing amount

of industrial wastes poured into the nation's rivers and lakes. As the adverse health effects of lead,

arsenic, pesticides, and other chemicals became known, the United States federal government was

obliged to pass the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948. This was the first comprehensive legislation to

define and regulate water quality. It was followed by a series of increasingly tougher requirements,

culminating in the current Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) water quality standards. In addition

to the federal standards, most states have their own water quality laws, and some state laws are

more stringent than those specified by the EPA.

Types of Water

Pure water is an almost non-existent entity. Most water contains varying amounts of dissolved

minerals and salts, plus an abundance of suspended particles such as silt and microscopic organic

material. Different types of water are classified by the presence or absence of these impurities.

Tap water, or municipal water, has under-gone a series of treatments to kill harmful bacteria, remove

sediments, and eliminate objectionable odors. It may also have had one or more chemicals added for

a variety of reasons.

Hard water contains high amounts of calcium and magnesium salts. This causes soap to form curds.

Hard water is further divided into temporarily hard water and permanently hard water. Temporarily

hard water contains bicarbonates of calcium and/or magnesium, which react to form a hard substance

called scale when the water is heated. Scale can clog hot water heaters and pipes and leave deposits

on cooking utensils. Permanently hard water contains sulphates, chlorides, or nitrates of calcium

and/or magnesium, which are not affected by heating. Soft water contains relatively low amounts of

calcium and magnesium salts, although the definition of "low" varies. The term "softened water" refers

to hard water that has had enough salts chemically removed to avoid forming soap curds. It is high

in sodium chloride.

If water contains a large quantity of dissolved minerals, it is called mineral water. Mineral waters can

be divided into five main classes: saline, alkaline, ferrunginous, sulphurous, and potable. Saline water

has a high level of sodium or magnesium sulphate or sodium chloride. Alkaline water has a high

concentration of salts which give it a pH in the range of about 7.2-9.5, where a pH of 7 is neutral and

a pH of 14 is highly alkaline. Ferrungious water is rich in iron, which gives it a rusty color. Sulphurous

water is rich in sulphur compounds and is distinguished by its rotten egg smell. Potable water has a

mineral content of less than 500 parts per million and is most commonly bottled and sold as a

specialty drinking water.

Carbonated water, soda water, and sparkling water all contain dissolved carbon dioxide. This may

occur naturally where limestone or other carbonate rocks are present, or the carbon dioxide may be

added artificially under pressure.

Spring water and artesian water are distinguished only by the fact that they flow from the ground

naturally without the aid of drilling or pumping. Otherwise, there is nothing that makes them different

than water from other sources.

Distilled water has been purified by an evaporation-condensation process that removes most, but not

all, impurities. Deionized water has been purified by an ion-exchange process, which removes both

positive ions, such as calcium and sodium, and negative ions, such as chlorides and bicarbonates. It is

sometimes called de-mineralized water. Purified water is municipal water that has undergone

carbon filtration, distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis, ultraviolet sterilization, or some

combination of these processes to remove almost all minerals and chemical elements, both good and

bad.

Raw Materials
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A water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen bonded to one atom of oxygen. The chemical

symbol is H2O. Water usually also contains a wide range of organic and inorganic materials in solution

or suspension.

In the process of treating water for use in a municipal system, several chemicals may be added. These

include disinfectants like chlorine, chloramine, or ozone; coagulantants like aluminum sulfate, ferric

chloride, and various organic polymers; acidity neutralizers like caustic soda or lime; and chemicals to

help prevent tooth decay in the form of various fluoride compounds.

The Treatment Process

The specific water treatment process depends on the intended application. Some water, such the

water used toirrigate crops, receives no treatment. Other water, such as the water used to make

pharmaceuticals, is highly purified.

Here is a typical series of operations used to treat municipal water for distribution to homes and

businesses.

Collecting

Most municipal water comes from two sources: ground water and surface water. Most ground water istapped by drilling wells into the underground water-bearing layer called the aquifer. Some ground

water rises naturally in the form of springs. Surface water is tapped by impounding rivers behind

dams. The surrounding area that drains into the rivers is called the watershed. In many cases, access

to and use of the watershed is limited to prevent contamination of the runoff water.

From the well or dam, the water is carried to the water treatment plant in open canals or closed pipes.

In some cases, the water supply is close to the municipality. In other cases, the water has to be

transported many hundreds of miles (km) to reach its destination. Sometimes the water is stored in

intermediate reservoirs along the way to ensure that there will always be an adequate supply available

to meet a city's fluctuating needs.

Disinfecting

In some water treatment plants, the water is initially disinfected by contact with ozone-rich air in a

series of chambers. This step is used by most plants in Europe, but only a few plants in the UnitedStates. Ozone (03) is formed by passing compressed air through a high-voltage electric arc. This

causes some of the oxygen (02) molecules in the air to split in half and reattach themselves to other

oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone effectively kills most germs and also destroys compounds,

which cause unpleasant tastes and odors. It has a relatively short life, however, and does not remain

in the water to protect it during storage and distribution. For this reason, a small dose of chlorine or

chloramine is added to the water at the end of the treatment process.

Coagulating/flocculating

The water then passes through a flash mixer where chemicals known as coagulants are rapidly mixed

with the water. The coagulants alter the electric charge around any suspended particles in the water

and make them attract each other and clump together, or coagulate.

The water moves slowly through a series of chambers where it is gently mixed by the swirling flow. As

the water mixes, the charged particles continue to bump into each other and form even largerparticles called flocs.

Settling

The water flows into a settling basin or tank where the heavy flocs sink to the bottom. Some settling

basins have two levels to double their capacity. The material that settles to the bottom is vacuumed

out of the basin with a device like a pool vacuum and is deposited in a solids holding basin. The

trapped material from the filter (step 7) is also added to the solids holding basin. These combined
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materials are sent through a gravity thickener and then a press where most of the water is squeezed

out. The remaining solids are loaded into trucks and transported to alandfill for disposal.

Filtering

The partially cleaned water passes through several layers of sand and pulverized coal, which trap any

very small particles that remain in the water. Some harmful organisms are also trapped this way in

those water treatment plants that do not use ozone as an initial disinfectant. The filter layers are

back-flushed periodically to remove the trapped material.

Adsorpting

In some plants, the water is passed through a bed ofactivated charcoal granules. Chemical

contaminants in the water stick to the surface of the charcoal in a process known as

carbon adsorption.

Aerating

In some areas where the water contains undesirable amounts of iron and manganese or certain

dissolved gases, the water is sprayed into the air from large basins to aerate it. When the water mixes

with the air, it picks up oxygen, which causes some of the contaminants to settle out. Other

contaminants are removed by evaporation.

Fluoridating

In some water treatment plants, a fluoes ride compound is added to the water to help prevent tooth

decay. Fluoride occurs naturally in some water supplies and additional amounts are not required. In

the past, fluoridation has been a hotly debated subject, and not every municipality adds fluoride to

their water.

Neutralizing

Other chemicals may be added to the water to help reduce corrosion in pipes and plumbing fixtures.

This is done by adding controlled amounts of certain chemicals to adjust the pH factor to a neutral

level.

Distributing

As the water leaves the treatment plant, it receives a small dose of chlorine or chloramine to kill any

harmful bacteria that may have found their way into the distribution system. If the plant does not use

ozone as an initial disinfectant, a larger amount of chlorine or chloramine is added to the water.

After the water leaves the plant, it is usually stored in covered tanks or reservoirs to protect it from

contamination. In some areas, these storage facilities are located at a higher elevation than the

surrounding terrain, and the water is pumped up into the tank or reservoir. This elevated storage

position provides the pressure necessary for adequate flow through the water mains and pipes within

the city. In other cases, the water is stored in ground-level facilities, and the pressure is supplied by

electric pumps that run on demand.

Quality Control

The federal and state water quality standards set maximum contamination levels for more than 90

organic, inorganic, microbiological, and radioactive materials that may be found in water. These

standards are further divided into primary standards, which cover materials that may be harmful to

humans, and secondary standards, which cover materials and properties that may affect aesthetic

qualities such as taste, odor, and appearance. A typical water district may perform more than 50,000

chemical and bacteriological analyses of the water supply each year to ensure the standards are being

met.

The Future

The public's concern over safe drinking water is expected to result in even more stringent water

quality standards in the future. Ironically, one of the most recent concerns is not about outside
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contamination, but about the effects of one of the substances commonly used to disinfect water

chlorine. Studies within the last 30 years have shown that chlorine forms certain compounds with the

organic materials found in water. The most common compounds are called trihalomethanes, or THMs,

which have a 1-in-10,000 risk of causing cancer when ingested or inhaled over a long period. One

alternative to using chlorine is chloramine, which is a combination ofammonia and chlorine that does

not form THMs as readily. Many water treatment plants have already switched to chloramine. Other

alternative disinfectants include ozone, ultraviolet light, chlorine dioxide, and a hybrid of ozone

and hydrogen peroxide called peroxone.

Where to Learn More

Books

von Wiesenberger, Arthur. H2O: The Guide to Quality Bottled Water. Woodbridge Press, 1988.

Water Quality Standards Handbook, 2nd edition. United States Environmental Protection Agency,

1994.

Periodicals

Arrandale, T. "A Guide to Clean Water." Governing (December 1995): 57-60.

Wasik, J. F. "How Safe is Your Water?" Consumers Digest(May/June 1996): 63-69.

Other

"Alameda County Water District Water Treatment Facility." Pamphlet. Alameda County Water District,

1993.

"Layperson's Guide to Drinking Water." Pamphlet. Water Education Foundation, 1995.

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. http://www.ladwp.com.

[Article by: Chris Cavette]

Oxford Food & Fitness Dictionary:

waterTop

Home>Library>Food & Cooking>Food and Fitness

Water is the most abundant chemical in the body, making up roughly 60 per cent of body weight. It is

an essential nutrient although it provides no energy. It has excellent solvent properties enabling it to

act as a transport medium for many chemicals. It is involved in many chemical reactions including

digestion of food.

Evaporation of water as sweat is essential for cooling the body. However, failure to replace water

losses results in dehydration. This can adversely affect physical performance even if relatively slight.

Each 1 per cent loss of water results in a 2 per cent reduction in aerobic capacity. Water loss causes

the heart rate to spiral upwards. A loss of 6 per cent of total body water is serious; and loss of more

than 10 per cent can be fatal. The amount of water an individual drinks depends on water losses

(see water replacement).

Hardness of water varies with geographical location. There is statistical evidence that heart disease is

more common in areas with soft drinking water than in those with hard water. However, the link

between type of water and heart disease is not proven.

The quality of drinking water varies. In most areas of the USA and the UK, tap water is safe, but in
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some areas it can become contaminated with bacteria, nitrates, or other pollutants. Some people

drink bottled water because they are worried about pollutants, but others drink it because they prefer

the taste, or believe that bottled water has health-giving properties. Ironically, bottled water is not

always healthy. Some contain high levels of sodium and the same pollutants as tap water.

Roget's Thesaurus:water

TopHome>Library>Literature & Language>Thesaurus

verb

1. To lessen the strength of by or as if by

admixture. attenuate, cut, dilute, thin, weaken.See strong/weak.

2. To fill with tears: tear2.See dry/wet.

American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms:waterTop

Home>Library>Literature & Language>Idioms

Idioms beginning with water:

waterfront

waterworks

water down

water over the dam

See also above water; backwater; blood is thicker than water; blow out (of the water); come on in

(the water's fine); dead in the water; fish in troubled waters; fish out of water; head above water; hell

or high water; high-water mark; hold water; hot water; in deep (water); keep one's head (above

water); like water off a duck's back; make one's mouth water; muddy the waters; of the first

water; pour cold water on; pour oil on troubled waters; still waters run deep; take to (like a duck to

water); throw out the baby with the bath water; tread water; you can lead a horse to water.

Antonyms by Answers.com:

waterTop

Home>Library>Literature & Language>Antonyms

v

Definition: dampen; put water in

Antonyms: dehydrate, dry

Oxford Dictionary of the US Military:water

TopHome>Library>History, Politics & Society>US Military Dictionary

n. (waters) an area of sea regarded as under the jurisdiction of a particular country:Japanese coastal

waters.

v.

take a fresh supply of water on board (a ship or steam train): the ship was watered and fresh

livestock taken aboard.

by water using a ship or boat for travel or transport:

at the end of the lake was a small gazebo, accessible only by water.
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-waterhttp://www.answers.com/topic/muddy-the-watershttp://www.answers.com/topic/make-one-s-mouth-waterhttp://www.answers.com/topic/like-water-off-a-duck-s-backhttp://www.answers.com/topic/keep-one-s-headhttp://www.answers.com/topic/keep-one-s-headhttp://www.answers.com/topic/in-deephttp://www.answers.com/topic/hot-waterhttp://www.answers.com/topic/hold-waterhttp://www.answers.com/topic/high-water-markshttp://www.answers.com/topic/come-hell-or-high-water-1994http://www.answers.com/topic/come-hell-or-high-water-1994http://www.answers.com/topic/head-above-water-keep-one-shttp://www.answers.com/topic/a-fish-out-of-water-family-guyhttp://www.answers.com/topic/fish-in-troubled-watershttp://www.answers.com/topic/dead-in-the-water-supernaturalhttp://www.answers.com/topic/come-on-inhttp://www.answers.com/topic/come-on-inhttp://www.answers.com/topic/blow-outhttp://www.answers.com/topic/blood-is-thicker-than-waterhttp://www.answers.com/topic/back-waterhttp://www.answers.com/topic/head-above-water-keep-one-shttp://www.answers.com/topic/water-over-the-damhttp://www.answers.com/topic/water-downhttp://www.answers.com/topic/turn-on-the-waterworkshttp://www.answers.com/topic/cover-the-fieldhttp://www.answers.com/library/Idioms-cid-90403http://www.answers.com/main/words.jsphttp://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsphttp://www.answers.com/http://www.answers.com/library/Idioms-cid-90403http://www.answers.com/topic/dry-wethttp://www.answers.com/topic/tearhttp://www.answers.com/topic/strong-weakhttp://www.answers.com/topic/weakenhttp://www.answers.com/topic/thinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/dilutehttp://www.answers.com/topic/cuthttp://www.answers.com/topic/attenuatehttp://www.answers.com/library/Thesaurus-cid-90403http://www.answers.com/main/words.jsphttp://www.answers.com/main/what_content.jsphttp://www.answers.com/http://www.answers.com/library/Thesaurus-cid-90403


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make water (of a ship or boat) take in water through a leak.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.

Oxford Dictionary of Architecture & Landscaping:waterTop

Home>Library>Home & Garden>Architecture and Landscaping

Classical ornament such as the Vitruvian scroll may represent waves, while the Ancient Egyptians used

parallel zig-zag lines to suggest water. Sculpted representations of flowing water are associated with

grottoes, nymphaea, etc., and are found in rustication, often frozen, or congelated.

Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine:waterTop

Home>Library>Health>Sports Science and Medicine

A clear, colourless, tasteless liquid composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Despite having no value as an

energy source, water is our most important nutrient. It constitutes about 60% of the total adult body

weight. Losses of as little as 9-10% of body weight can be fatal. Smaller losses result in a significant

impairment of physical performance. The speed of distance runners, for example, is reduced by about

2% for each per cent of body weight lost by dehydration. Among its important functions during

exercise, water provides the main transport medium for nutrients and respiratory gases, regulates

body temperature, and maintains blood pressure for efficient cardiovascular function.

Answer of the Day:World Day for WaterTop

Home>Library>Miscellaneous>Answer of the Day

Water makes up about 60% of the human body; it covers some 70% of

the earth's surface, with only 3% being from fresh water sources. In the

US it is estimated that the average person uses about 50 gallons (190 l.)

of water a day. With the world population growing, and the increasingpollution of our natural resources, we are facing a water crisis. The World

Health Organization has estimated that over 1 billion people lack access

to safe drinking water and about 4000 children die every day from water

borne disease. The United Nations has declared today the World Day for Water.

Previous: Woody Allen

Next: World Rally Championship

From our Archives: Today's Highlights, March 22, 2006

Gale Encyclopedia of Diets:WaterTop

Home>Library>Health>Encyclopedia of Diets

KEY TERMSDehydrationA condition of water loss caused by eitherinadequate intake of water or excessive loss of water as throughvomiting or diarrhea.HyperhydrationExcess water content of the body.HyponatremiaInadequate sodium levels in the body,possibly caused by loss of sodium through perspiration,diarrhea, or vomiting, and replacement of fluids with water thatdoes not contain adequate electrolytes.

Water Falling
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Molecular weightThe total of the atomic weights of theatoms in a molecule.Pre-loadingAdministering in advance, such as drinking waterprior to exercise that is likely to cause water loss.Water intoxicationA condition caused by excessive water in

the body, related to hyponatremia.

Description

Precautions

Complications

Parental concerns

Resources

What is Water?

Water is hydrogen oxide and it is composed of two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of

oxygen. It has a molecular weight of 18.016 and is the most universal solvent known.

What is the Purpose of Water?

Water is the most universal solvent known. In the human body, it is capable of dissolving simple

elements, ions and large organic molecules. Because of water's ability to maintain these materials in

solution, the various body chemicals are capable of undergoing reactions that would not be possible in

other forms.

Because water is a liquid, it can be carried through the circulatory system, reaching to all cells in the

body.

Daily adequate intake of water

Age Approximate daily intake of water (cups)*

Children 0

6 mos. 3Children 712 mos. 3 1/3

Children 13 yrs. 5K2

Children 48 yrs. 7

Boys 913 yrs. 10

Girls 913 yrs. 8-9

Boys 1418 yrs. 14

Girls 1418 yrs. 9-10

Men 19>yrs. 15

Women 19> yrs. 11

Pregnant women 12-13

Breastfeeding women 16

*Includes water contained in food, beverages, and drinking water

SOURCE: Adapted from the Dietary Reference Intakes Table, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of

Medicine, National Academies

Columbia Encyclopedia:WaterTop

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11/22

water, odorless, tasteless, transparent liquid that is colorless in small amounts but exhibits a bluish

tinge in large quantities. It is the most familiar and abundant liquid on earth. In solid form (ice) and

liquid form it covers about 70% of the earth's surface. It is present in varying amounts in the

atmosphere. Most of the living tissue of a human being is made up of water; it constitutes about 92%

of blood plasma, about 80% of muscle tissue, about 60% of red blood cells, and over half of most

other tissues. It is also an important component of the tissues of most other living things.

Chemical and Physical PropertiesChemically, water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, having the formula H2O. It is chemically

active, reacting with certain metals and metal oxides to form bases, and with certain oxides of

nonmetals to form acids. It reacts with certain organic compounds to form a variety of products, e.g.,

alcohols from alkenes. Because water is a polar compound, it is a good solvent. Although completely

pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, it is a much better conductor than most other pure liquids

because of its self-ionization, i.e., the ability of two water molecules to react to form a hydroxide ion,

OH, and a hydronium ion, H3O+. Its polarity and ionization are both due to the high dielectric

constant of water.

Water has interesting thermal properties. When heated from 0C, its melting point, to 4C, it

contracts and becomes more dense; most other substances expand and become less dense when

heated. Conversely, when water is cooled in this temperature range, it expands. It expands greatly as

it freezes; as a consequence, ice is less dense than water and floats on it. Because of hydrogen

bonding between water molecules, the latent heats of fusion and of evaporation and the heat

capacity of water are all unusually high. For these reasons, water serves both as a heat-transfer

medium (e.g., ice for cooling and steam for heating) and as a temperature regulator (the water in

lakes and oceans helps regulate the climate).

Structure of the Water Molecule

Many of the physical and chemical properties of water are due to its structure. The atoms in the water

molecule are arranged with the two H-O bonds at an angle of about 105 rather than on directly

opposite sides of the oxygen atom. The asymmetrical shape of the molecule arises from a tendency of

the four electron pairs in the valence shell of oxygen to arrange themselves symmetrically at the

vertices of a tetrahedron around the oxygen nucleus. The two pairs associated with covalent bonds

(see chemical bond) holding the hydrogen atoms are drawn together slightly, resulting in the angle of

105 between these bonds. This arrangement results in a polar molecule, since there is a net negative

charge toward the oxygen end (the apex) of the V-shaped molecule and a net positive charge at the

hydrogen end. The electric dipole gives rise to attractions between neighboring opposite ends of water

molecules, with each oxygen being able to attract two nearby hydrogen atoms of two other water

molecules. Such hydrogen bonding, as it is called, has also been observed in other hydrogen

compounds. Although considerably weaker than the covalent bonds holding the water molecule

together, hydrogen bonding is strong enough to keep water liquid at ordinary temperatures; its low

molecular weight would normally tend to make it a gas at such temperatures.

Various other properties of water, such as its high specific heat, are due to these hydrogen bonds. As

the temperature of water is lowered, clusters of molecules form through hydrogen bonding, with each

molecule being linked to others by up to four hydrogen bonds, each oxygen atom tending to surround

itself with four hydrogen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. Hexagonal rings of oxygen atoms are

formed in this way, with alternate atoms in either a higher or lower plane than their neighbors to

create a kinked three-dimensional structure.

Liquid Water

According to present theories, water in the liquid form contains three different molecule populations.

At the highest temperatures single molecules are the rule, with little hydrogen bonding because of the

high thermal energy of the molecules. In the middle range of temperatures there is more hydrogen
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bonding, and clusters of molecules are formed. At lower temperatures aggregates of clusters also

form, these aggregates being the most common arrangement below about 15C. On the basis of these

three population types and the transitions between them, many aspects of the anomalous behavior of

water can be explained. For example, the tendency of water to freeze faster if it has been cooled

rapidly from a relatively warm temperature than if it has been cooled at the same rate from a lower

temperature is explained in terms of the greater number of irregularly shaped cluster aggregates in

the cooler water that must find a suitable means of fitting together with a neighboring aggregate.

The discovery in the late 1960s of "superwater," or "polywater," helped to shed light on some aspects

of the structure of water. This substance was thought by some to be a giant polymer of water

molecules, 40 times denser and 15 times more viscous than ordinary water. Studies showed,

however, that these new and unexplained properties were connected with the presence of

contaminants in the water. Even so, the interaction of the water molecules with these other

substances may be helpful in understanding the way in which water molecules interact with each

other.

Ice

In ice, each molecule forms the maximum number of hydrogen bonds, resulting in crystals composedof open, hexagonal columns. Because these crystals have a number of open regions and pockets,

normal ice is less dense than water. However, other forms of ice also exist at conditions of higher

pressure, each of these different forms (designated ice II, ice III, etc.) having greater density and

other distinct physical properties that differ from those of normal ice, or ice I. As many as eight

different forms of ice have been distinguished in this manner. The higher pressures creating such

forms cause rearrangements of the hexagonal columns in ice, although the basic kinked hexagonal

ring is common to all forms.

When ice melts, it is thought that the fragments of these structures fill many of the gaps that existed

in the crystal lattice, making water denser than ice. This tendency is the dominant one between 0C

and 4C, at which temperature water reaches its maximum density. Above this temperature,

expansion due to the increased thermal energy of the molecules is the dominant factor, with aconsequent decrease in density.

Bibliography

See D. Eisenberg and W. Kauzmann, The Structure and Properties of Water(1969); A. K.

Biswas, History of Hydrology(1970); C. Hunt and R. M. Garrels, Water: The Web of Life (1972); P.

Ball, Life's Matrix: A Biography of Water(2000).

Gale Encyclopedia of the Mideast & N. Africa:WaterTop

Home>Library>History, Politics & Society>Mideast & N. Africa Encyclopedia

Because of its scarcity, water plays a central role in Middle Eastern politics and society.

Nowhere in the world is water more important than in the Middle East and North Africa. In no other

region do so many people strive so hard for economic growth on the basis of so little water: here is

found 5 percent of the world's population but only 1 percent of its fresh water. Of the ten nations with

the least water per capita, six are in this region. No wonder that both Jewish and Muslim scriptures

are full of references to water.

Role of Climate
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The more heavily populated parts of the Middle East are semiarid, with rainfall of 10 to 29 inches (250

to 750 mm) per year. However, low rainfall is less of a problem than variability in rainfall. The great

bulk of the rain falls in four winter months, with none falling during the rest of the year. Rainfall also

changes rapidly with distance, from more than 20 inches (500 mm) on the coast of Lebanon to 8

inches (200 mm) in the Biqa, only an hour away by road but across the Lebanon mountains.

Seasonal and spatial variations in rainfall are sharp but predictable. What makes planning difficult isthe sharp variation from one year to the next. Reliable flow in the rivers (the flow that can be

expected nine years out of ten) is only 10 percent of the average. In northern latitudes, water

planning can be built around statistical averages; here, it must be built around extremes.

This already difficult water situation will likely get worse. Population growth rates are high, and most

climate change models suggest higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and more frequent droughts for

the region.

Role of History

Development in the Middle East and North Africa has always been more dependent on water than on

any other resource, including oil. By the fourth millennium B.C.E., the Sumerians had built a paradisein what is now Iraq through intricate canals for irrigating crops; two millennia later it had largely

collapsed because ofsalinization of the soil. Ancient cities, such as Palmyra in Syria, were possible

only because of carefully engineered tunnels, calledqanats (foggaras in Iran), to bring water from

springs tens ofkilometers away.

Over the years, the peoples of the Middle East have made water a preoccupation, and each nation has

a central agency, typically a full ministry, to deal with water. Many of the principles for good water

management were worked out in the Middle East - although just as often they were ignored for

political, financial, or social reasons.

Water Sources

The Middle East includes two of the mightiest river systems in the world. The Nile has two mainbranches: The White Nile originates in Uganda, and the larger Blue Nile (together with the Atbara)

originates in Ethiopia; they join near Khartoum and flow northward through Egypt to the

Mediterranean. The Tigris and Euphrates both originate in Turkey and flow south-southeastward

through Syria and Iraq before joining and flowing into the Persian Gulf via the Shatt al-Arab, at the

Iranian border.

The region also includes numerous mediumsized rivers, such as the Jordan, which flows from three

springs through the Sea of Galilee (one of the few natural lakes in the region) and into the Dead Sea,

415 meters below sea level. Only Turkey has an

abundance of river water, but its big rivers are only found in the eastern part of the nation. Finally,

there are small coastal rivers (many of them ephemeral), and a few major wetlands, such as the

marshlands in southern Iraq and the Sudd swamp in southern Sudan.

The construction of new dams and pipelines to deliver water from major rivers in the Middle East willcost two or three times as much per unit of water as current supplies, and if construction occurs in

upstream countries, such as Ethiopia and Turkey, it will reduce flows downstream. Therefore, the

region will increasingly shift toward the use of underground water, which has the great advantage of

not evaporating. (Lakes and reservoirs in the region lose meters of water per year to evaporation.)

Historically, underground water was tapped by shallow wells dug in unconsolidated materials to get

small flows of water. Today, much larger volumes of water are extracted from wells drilled tens to

hundreds of meters into aquifers, which are rock layers with pores that contain water. Renewable
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aquifers are replenished (generally slowly) by rainfall; non-renewable, or fossil, aquifers contain water

trapped in sediments laid down millions of years ago.

Just more than 10 percent of the water supply for the region comes from aquifers, but in Israel and

Jordan the share approaches 50 percent, and in Kuwait and parts of the Arabian Peninsula it

approaches 100 percent (apart from desalination). Libya's Great Man-Made River pumps water from

fossil aquifers in the south of the country and moves it 930 miles (1,500 km) to farms and cities in thenorth.

The third most important source of water in the Middle East is recycled sewage, which is treated and

reused, mainly for irrigation. Despite common

belief (shared by both Muslims and non-Muslims), there is no objection in Islamic law to the reuse

ofsewer water provided it is properly treated.

More than half of the world's desalination capacity is found in the region, mainly in the oil-producing

nations of the Arabian peninsula with lots of by-product natural gas that was formerly flared.

(Desalination is an energy-intensive process.) Costs for desalination have fallen to a level that makes

it feasible as a source ofpotable water but still too expensive for irrigation.

Other sources of water are individually small but collectively provide sizable amounts of water. Water

harvesting gathers rain that falls over a wide area and directs it to one field through small channelsand micro-barrages. The technique can allow crops in areas where rainfall is only 4 inches (100 mm)

per year. Rainwater is also collected from rooftops and stored in cisterns. If handled

carefully, rooftop water can be used for drinking.

Uses of Water

By far the largest share of water in the region goes to agriculture - as much as 90 percent of total

water use in some countries, and 60 percent in the more industrialized countries.

Drinking requires only a relatively small volume of water, but it must meet higher standards than that

used for irrigation. Thirty liters of potable water per person-day is generally regarded as the minimum

for drinking, cooking, and washing.

Industrial water use is low. Food and beverage processing are the largest industrial consumers. More

is withdrawn for cooling but most of this water is recycled or returned to the watercourse.

A hidden but critical amount of water must be left in place to support fisheries and hydropower, as

well as to protect habitat. This use is typically neglected by governments when they drain swamps,

canalize rivers, or extend land. As a result, not only has the environment been degraded, but fish

catches have declined and the salinity ofgroundwater has increased.

Problems

The nations of the Middle East all face three overlapping sources of stress in their water management:

1) quantity, which has been a source of stress since history began; 2) quality, which is a newer stressbut increasingly important; and 3) equity, which occurs when the same water is subject to competing

demands.

Quantity.Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan, Syria, and Turkey are fairly well endowed with water, with

more than 1 million cubic meters (Mcm) per capita; Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Morocco, and Palestine form

a middle group; and Jordan, Libya, Tunisia, and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula are least well

endowed, with less than 500 Mcm per capita. However, water availability is declining in every nation,

which means that current patterns of water use are not sustainable. Some projections for the Jordan
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River basin suggest that by 2025 household and industrial uses will require all the fresh water, leaving

none for farmers. Most nations are also drawing down their renewable aquifers and mining fossil ones.

Some have annual water deficits of several thousand Mcm.

Water quantity problems in the region can be resolved in small part by exploiting additional

Freshwater withdrawals by country and sectorEstimates for 2000

(cubic km/a)

Country Total Per capita Use (%) Domestic Industry % with safe (cubic m/p) drinking water* Percentage by sector adjusted by author on basis of estimates by the Planning Department of the Israeli Water Commission. All data for Israel based on

estimates by the author.

SOURCE: Gleick, Peter, et al, ed. The World's Water: The Biennial Report in Freshwater Resources, 2002 -

2003 (Washington, D.C., Island Press, 2002).TABLE BYGGSINFORMATION SERVICES, THE GALE GROUP.Afghanistan 26.1 1,020 1 0 99 13Algeria 4.5 142 25 15 60 94Bahrain 0.2 387 39 4 56 100Egypt 55.1 809 6 8 86 95Iran 70.0 916 6 2 92 95Iraq

42.8

1,852

5

3

92

85

Israel 1.7 280 36 11 51* 100Jordan 1.0 155 22 3 75 96Lebanon 1.3 393 28 4 68 100Libya 4.6 720 11 2 87 72Morocco 11.1 381 5 3 92 82Oman 1.2 450 5 2 94 39Saudi Arabia 17.0 786 9 1 90 95Sudan 17.8 597 4 1 94 75Syria 14.4 894 4 2 94 80Tunisia 3.1 313 32 8 60 99Turkey 31.6 481 16 11 72 83Yemen 2.9 162 7 1 92 69

sources of supply but in much larger part by better use of the water that is already available. People in

the region use less water than those elsewhere in the world, but as a result of poor management

and misguided economic policies conservation here (as in most other parts of the world) remains far

short of its potential. Many nations lose half the water put into municipal systems to leaks, and they

typically deliver piped water at low (or no) price. Cost-effective savings of 25 to 50 percent are

possible in most uses.

Moreover, every country in the region provides water to farmers at highly subsidized prices. Under the

influence of higher prices, Israeli scientists developed drip irrigation systems that have cut water use

per hectare by 40 percent. However, drip irrigation is expensive and not appropriate for all crops.

Lower-cost sprinkler systems, used at night to minimize evaporation, can also increase irrigation

efficiency, as can irrigating only at times critical to plant growth.

Most analysts find that water is tens of times more valuable in industrial or household uses than in

agriculture. Therefore, crops grown in the region will gradually be replaced by imports. It takes

roughly a thousand tons of water to produce one ton of wheat. Using that ratio, Middle Eastern nations

already import grains with a virtual water content equal to the flow of the Nile.

Quality.Much of the limited fresh water in the Middle East is polluted from growing volumes of

human, industrial, and agricultural waste. Three problems stand out: 1) Overpumping of wells causes

a decline in the water table - by as much as a meter a year in some areas. This decline adds to

pumping costs and permits lower-quality water (or, if near the coast, seawater) to

flow inward and contaminate the aquifer. The only way to avoid the problem is to match pumping

rates to inflow. 2) Agricultural runoff is the major non-point source of water pollution -

mainlysediment, phosphorus, nitrogen, and pesticides. Better farming methods, such as
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conservation tillage, contour planting, and terracing can control soil erosion and cut pollution by half

or more. 3) Urban sewage systems have either begun to deteriorate or cannot handle the growing

loads placed on them. Large investments are needed to improve their physical infrastructure.

Equity.Most of the larger rivers in the region cross an international border - some cross several

borders - or form a border. No tabulation exists for aquifers that underlie national borders, but there

are many.

Despite many statements suggesting that the next war in the Middle East will be over fresh water,

there is little evidence for this. Not a single war has been fought over water for hundreds of years, but

many treaties dealing with water have been signed. Water will be a source of conflict, but the conflicts

will mainly be intranational rather than international. Likely sources of conflict include rural and urban

users contending for the same water and rising demands from poor farmers, who are often

disadvantaged in their access to water, and from women, who typically want more water for their

households while men prefer to use it to grow cash crops. Israeli control of water in the West Bank

is contentious, but even here experts have shown that compromise is feasible.

None of the three stresses on water in the Middle East will be easily resolved. Most of the nations in

the region have already reached or are fast approaching the limits of their indigenous water supplies.

Although higher prices for water and technological advances may defer the crisis, the only long-term

solutions involve much greater efficiency in use, full reuse of wastewater, and gradual shifts of water

from agriculture to other sectors. All of the nations of the Middle East and North Africa must revise

their water policies to provide for a sustainable future, and they must findequitable ways to share

water within and between nations.

Bibliography

Amery, Hussein A., and Wolf, Aaron T., eds. Water in theMiddle East: A Geography of Peace. Austin:

University of Texas Press, 2000.

Beaumont, Peter. "Water Policies for the Middle East in the Twenty-first Century: The New Economic

Realities."International Journal of Water Resources Development18, no. 2 (2002): 315 - 334.

Brooks, David B., and Mehmet, Ozay, eds. Water Balances in the Eastern Mediterranean. Ottawa:

International Development Research Centre, 2000.

Kolars, John. "The Spatial Attributes of Water Negotiation: The Need for a River Ethic and RiverAdvocacy in the Middle East." In Water in the Middle East: A Geography of Peace, edited by Hussein A.

Amery and Aaron T. Wolf. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.

Lonergan, Stephen C., and Brooks, David B. Watershed:The Role of Fresh Water in the Israeli-

Palestinian Conflict.Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 1994.

Postel, Sandra. Pillar of Sand: Can the Irrigation Miracle Last?New York: Norton, 1999.

Rogers, Peter, and Lydon, Peter, eds. Water in the ArabWorld: Perspectives and

Prognoses. Cambridge, MA: Division of Applied Sciences, Harvard University, 1994.

Shapland, Greg. Rivers of Discord: International Water Disputes in the Middle East. New York: St.

Martin's Press; London: Hurst, 1997.

Waterbury, John. The Nile Basin: National Determinants of Collective Action. New Haven, CT: Yale

University Press, 2002.

Wolf, Aaron T. "Transboundary Fresh Water Database." Department of Geosciences, Oregon StateUniversity. Available from http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu.

DAVID B. BROOKS

Gale Encyclopedia of Food & Culture:WaterTop

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This entry contains three subentries:

Water As a Beverage and Constitutent of Food

Water As a Resource

Safety of Water

Word Tutor:water

TopHome>Library>Literature & Language>Word Tutor

IN BRIEF: A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid, H2O, essential for most plant and animal

life and the most widely used of all solvents.

If I walked on water people would say I couldn't swim. John D. Turner.

LearnThatWord.com is a free vocabulary and spelling program where you only pay for

results!

Sign Language Videos:

waterTopHome>Library>Literature & Language>Sign Language Videos

sign description: The W-handshape taps the chin.

The Dream Encyclopedia:WaterTop

Home>Library>Miscellaneous>Dream Symbols

Water is a very common symbol for the emotions. A large body of water like a sea or a lake is often asymbol for the unconscious. Because sex involves fluids, Freud viewed water in dreams as a sexual

symbol.

The Vampire Book:WaterTop

Home>Library>Miscellaneous>Vampires

According to Abraham Van Helsing, the vampire expert inDraculaa vampire could only pass running

water at the slack or flood of the tide. As with many other characteristics, this was somewhat unique

to Dracula. Though a characteristic of the Chinese chiang-shih, problems with running water were not

in the folkloric accounts from eastern Europe and, given the geographical limitations on most

vampires, not relevant. As a whole, since Dracula, such observations have disappeared from the

literature. The primary exception was in the vampire novels ofChelsea Quinn Yarbro whose vampire

hero St. Germain had trouble passing over running water. He countered this by developing shoes with

hollow soles into which he placed some of his native soil. He drew strength from the soil.

Some folkloric vampires, of course, had special relationships to water. For example, in Russia the

corpse of a suspected vampire might be thrown in the river in the belief that the earth could not

tolerate the presence of a vampire or revenant. In Germany , the body of a person who

committed suicide (a potential vampire) was treated similarly. Also in parts of Germany, water might
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Documents

American Heritage Dictionary