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SensationalWomen:

GenderandDomesticMorality

inEastLynneandTheWomaninWhite

AmandaColeSeniorHonorsThesis

April30,2010

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Introduction

“Sensationnovels,”akindofnovelcharacterizedbyscandalandmystery,emerged

inthe1860stoentertainandshockVictorianaudiences.Inmanycases,thenovelscontain

incidentsofmurderortheftthatmustbesolvedanddealtwiththroughoutthenovel,and

inothercases,theshockingactsaremoreconcernedwithactionsorbehaviorsofcertain

maincharacters,includingdeceptionandadultery.Whilethesecrimesandtransgressions

areoftenfoundinasensationnovel,thequestionofwhatdefinestheterm“sensation

novel”itselfremainsonlyvaguelyanswered.Itisunclearwhentheterm“sensationnovel”

wasfirstapplied,assourcesdifferinthis,butitseemsthatthegenreexistedmostly

between1860‐1880.1EllenWoodwasoneofthebest‐knownnovelistsinthisgenreinher

day,butshewasbynomeanstheonlywriterofsensationnovels.Others,includingWilkie

Collins(TheWomaninWhite,1859),MaryElizabethBraddon(LadyAudley’sSecret,1862),

CharlesReade(GriffithGaunt,1866),alsowroteprimarilyinthisgenre,andotherwell‐

knownwritersfromthenineteenthcentury,likeDickens,dabbledinwhatcametobe

knownassensationfiction,especiallyintheunfinishedTheMysteryofEdwinDrood[1870].

Intheearly1860s,criticsgenerallydismissedandcondemnedthem,thoughby1864,the

termappearstohavebeenwidelyusedandunderstoodbycriticsandaudiencesalike.2

Neglectedafterthe1880s,“sensationnovels”havebeengraduallyrecoveredbyliterary

andculturalcriticsoverthepast30years.

1PhilipV.Allingham,“TheVictorianSensationNovel1860‐1880”,VictorianWeb,<http:// www.victorianweb.org/genre/sensation.html>. 2EllenMillerCasey,“’HighlyFlavouredDishes’and‘HighlySeasonedGarbage’:SensationintheAthenaeum,”inVictorianSensations:EssaysonaScandalousGenre,ed.KimberlyHarrisonandRichardFantina(Columbus:TheOhioStateUniversityPress,2006):3‐14.

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Oftensuchcriticsdisagreeaboutwhethersensationnovelsmerelyreflected

Victorianmiddle‐classmorality,orinsubtlewayschallengednineteenth‐centurymoraland

genderdefinitions.Theverdictonsuchquestionsremainsunsettledeventoday.Inthis

essay,Iintendtoexaminethewaysinwhichtwoofthemostwidelyreadsensation

novelists,EllenWoodandWillkieCollins,portraywhatIcall“domesticmorality”and

violationsofit.ThroughtheanalysisofWood’sEastLynne(1860)andCollins’sTheWoman

inWhite(1859),IwillarguethattheVictoriansensationnovelatdifferenttimescouldboth

subvertandconfirmdomesticideologyasitrelatestogenderandmorality,sometimesin

unexpectedways.IwillfirsttrytoindicatethewiderscopeofVictoriandomesticideology

andconductliteratureinwhichIbelievesensationfictionintervenedinimportantways.I

thendevelopaworkingdefinitionofthegenreasitemergedinthe1860s,especiallysince

manyoftheleadingsensationnovelsarenowcomingbackintoprint.MaryElizabeth

Braddon,forinstance,wasoneofthemostwell‐knownVictoriansensationnovelists,and

LadyAudley’sSecretremainspopulartodayinprintaswellasinarecently‐releasedfilm

basedonthisnovel,securingitsplaceasanimportantworkbothinthenineteenthcentury

andnow.3MyreadingsofEastLynnandTheWomaninWhiteinthesecondhalfofthis

paperwillarguethatthegenreofsensationfictioncannotbereadunilaterallyaseither

entirelysupportingoractivelyunderminingVictoriandomesticideology,butratheras

interrogatingthatframeworkofvaluesinsometimesstartlingways.

3LadyAudley’sSecret,TV,DirectedbyBetsanMorrisEvans(BFSEntertainment:2000).

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I. GenderandDomesticMoralityinVictorianEngland Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,theportrayalofawomanasawifeand/or

motherdominatedfemalecharactersinmanypopularworksaswellasseriousworksof

literature.Evensensationnovels,withtheirflawedwomencharacters,depicttheideal

womanasawife,mother,andloyalcompaniontoherspouse.Itiswhenwomendeviate

fromtheseestablishednormsthattheyaredepictedasvillainousandoftenpunishedby

eitherothercharactersorbyfate.

TounderstandthesocialcharacterofVictorianmorality,itisimportanttonotefirst

thatexpectationsdifferedbysocialclassforbothmenandwomen.Thedomesticmorality

discussedhereappliestomiddleandupperclasswomen,whowereexpectedtoremainat

homeandfilltherolesofwifeandmother,andnottowomenintheworkingandlower

classes.Thiswasachangefromtheeighteenthcentury,whenwomenwereoftenseen

outsideofthehomeinthecommunity,performingactsofphilanthropyfortheless

fortunatepeoplearoundthem.BythebeginningoftheVictorianage,womenwere

expectedtoremaininthehomeandspendtimewiththeirchildren.Theywerealso

encouraged,however,tohiregovernessestocarefortheirchildrenandteachthem.4Such

conductindicatedanewer,moremodernviewofchildrensince,priortothenineteenth

century,mother‐childrelationshipswerenotencouraged,asinfantmortalityrateswere

highandchildrenoftendiedatyoungages,eveniftheymadeittochildhood.5

Withinthehousehold,womenwereexpectedtodisplaykindnessandcharity,often

inwaysthatconformedtoChristianideals.AsJudithFlanderswrites,“Thehomewasa4JohnTosh,A Man's Place: Masculinity and the Middle-Class Home in Victorian England (Bury St Edmunds: St. Edmundsbury Press Ltd., 1999) : 20.5JudithFlanders,InsidetheVictorianHome:APortraitofDomesticLifeinVictorianEngland(New York: W.W. Norton, 2003) : 6.

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microcosmoftheidealsociety,withloveandcharityreplacingthecommerceand

capitalismoftheoutsideworld”(Flanders2003,6).SarahStickneyEllis,aninfluential

Victorianconductliteraturewriter,confirmstheimportanceofkindnessinwomen:“then

ask,forwhat[woman]ismostvalued,admired,andbeloved…Inanswertothis,Ihave

littlehesitationinsaying—forherdisinterestedkindness.”6Elliswroteseveralconduct

manuals,mostofwhichfocusedonaparticularwoman’srole,suchasdaughterormother,

ratherthanbroaderrulesforwomeningeneral.NancyArmstrongindicatesinherbook

DesireandDomesticFictionthatthenineteenth‐centuryidealwomancametobedefinedby

conductliterature,ratherthanconductliteraturemerelyreflectingthestateofwomenin

society.7Inherarticle“Nobody’sAngels:DomesticIdeologyandMiddle‐ClassWomenin

theVictorianNovel,”ElizabethLanglandbuildsonArmstrong’sfindings,focusingonthe

ideaoftheangelinthehouse,thedeclineofconductliterature,andtheemergenceofnew

socialritualsanddiscursivepractices.8

Theimportanceofwomeninthehouseholdtranscendedsimplekindness,however,

andextendedtoeveryaspectofdomesticlife.JohnRuskin,theperiod’smostimportant

moralphilosopher,wrotethatwomenwereeitherallgoodorallbad,andiftheywerebad,

thenthehouseholdwouldhavenopeace.9Women,then,hadheavyburdenswithinthe

home.Theywereresponsibleforthechildrenandtherunningofhouseholdaffairs,

6SarahStickneyEllis,The Women of England: Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits (New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1843) : 42.7NancyArmstrong,DesireandDomesticFiction(New York: Oxford University Press, USA, 1990).8ElizabethLangland,“Nobody’sAngels:Domestic Ideology and Middle-Class Women in the Victorian Novel”, PMLA 107.2 (1992): 291.9JohnRuskin,SesameandLilies[1864](Chicago:Scott,Foresman,andCompany,1920):120‐121.

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includingbudgets,spendingthriftily,andhiringservants,butevenbeyondthat,women

wereheldresponsibleforthetemperamentofthehouseandthepeacethere.

Therelationshipsbetweenmenandwomenarealsoimportantwhendiscussingthe

roleofwomeninsocietyandinthehousehold.Womenwereresponsibleforaffairswithin

thehome.Itwasawife’sjobtorunthehouseholdefficientlyandfrugally(Langland2002,

291).Wiveswerenotsupposedtohaveleisuretime,butrathertokeepbusywiththe

children,therunningofthehousehold,andtheirmatrimonialdutiestotheirhusbands.

Men,ontheotherhand,werethevisiblepartofthefamilyandwereexpectedtorepresent

thefamilyinpublic.Ahusband’sdutylayoutsideofthehome,forthemostpart,andhewas

thebreadwinnerforthehousehold(Tosh1999,18).Womenweresupposedtobeobedient

andrespectfultotheirhusbandsassubordinates,notequals(Langland1992,294).These

importantdomesticrelationshipsandguidelineshelptodefinewhatisherecalled

“domesticmorality”asitstoodwhenthenewsubgenreofVictorianfiction,the“sensation

novel,”emergedinthe1860s.

II. VictorianSensationNovelsasaGenre

Criticsoftenhavedifficultyagreeinguponasingledefinitionforthesensationnovel

genre.Muchofthedebatecentersaroundwhatitwasthatsensationnovelsweremeantto

portrayandexamine.Weretheyessentiallynovelsportraying“sensational”behaviors

involvinggender,class,ormorality?Evenwithinthesecategories,thereisoften

disagreementtoday,andsomeofthesequestionsarerootedinthefirstVictoriancritical

responsestothisgenre.CriticswritingintheToryperiodicalsQuarterlyReviewand

Blackwood’sEdinburghMagazinesuspectedthegenrenotonlyofpanderingtopopular

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appetites,butofintimatingadarkundersidetocontemporaryEnglishlife.Inhis1863

essay“SensationNovels”fortheQuarterlyReview,HenryManselcondemnssensation

novelsasagenrewhoseattractionsheattributestoappetitesforthrillsstimulatedbythe

machineryofpopularVictorianreading:“periodicals,circulatinglibraries,andrailway

bookstalls.”ButforManselthenewgenrehasaspecialfeaturethatsinglesitoutfrom

otherVictorianfictionlikehistoricalnovels:“Thesensationnovel,beitmeretrashor

somethingworse,isusuallyataleofourowntimes.Proximityis,indeed,onegreatelement

ofsensation.”10By“proximity”Manselmeansthatthesensationnovelwassensational

primarilybecauseitrepresentsEnglishsocietyinthereader’sownpresenttime:

Wearethrilledwithhorrors,eveninfiction,bythethoughtthatsuchthings[as

secretpoisonings]maybegoingonaroundusandamongus....Themanwhoshook

ourhandwithaheartyEnglishgrasphalfanhourago—thewomanwhosebeauty

andgracewerethecharmoflastnight,andwhosegentlewordssentushomebetter

pleasedwiththeworldandourselves—howexcitingtothinkthatunderthese

pleasingoutsidesmaybeconcealedsomedemoninhumanshape,aCountFoscoor

aLadyAudley!(47)

ItisominousforcriticslikeManselthat“sensationnovels”aresuggestingallisnotwellin

thecontemporaryEnglishlife,asifitsplacid,prosperoussurfacewereconcealingdark

motivesandsecretpassionslurkingwith.

Inher1862Blackwood’sMagazineessay“SensationNovels,”MargaretOliphant

placedthegenreatahigherlevel,comparingittosuchprecursorsasNathaniel

Hawthorne’sTheScarletLetterorexcitingromanceslikeEdwardBulwerLytton’sZanoni10HenryMansel,“SensationNovels”[1863]inTheNineteenth‐CenturyNovel:ACriticalReader,ed.StephenRegan(NewYork:Routledge,2001):47

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andotherfictionfeaturing“magicandsupernaturalism.”11WhatmadeWillkieCollins’sA

WomaninWhite“entirelyoriginal”amongsuchnovels,however,wasthathedispensed

withthesupernaturalaltogetherand“boldlytakesinhandthecommonmechanismsof

life.”HeradmirationforCollins’originalitydoesn’t,however,lessenthedisturbingfactthat

hehasthus“givenanewimpulsetoakindofliteraturewhichmust,moreorless,findits

inspirationincrime,and,moreorless,makethecriminalitshero.”(44)Torycriticslike

OliphantandMansellmayhavedifferedinhowaccomplishedthesensationnovelcould

become,butbothsawthenewsubgenreofEnglishfictionmakingmorallysubversive

identificationsbetweenavidreadersandanti‐socialprotagonists.

Sincethe1970s,revivedcriticalinterestinsensationfictionisfarlessone‐sidedin

definingandinterpretingthegenre,butitrenewsthecontroversyoverwhetherornot

sensationnovelsupstagedtraditionalmoralidentificationsbetweenreadersand

characters.Somecriticsthinksensationnovelsreinforceacceptedgenderroles,andothers

thinktheysubvertsuchroles.InWilkieCollinsandOtherSensationNovelists,Nicholas

Ranceoutlinesthisargumentandthenobservesthattherewerebothconservativeand

radicalorreformistsensationnovels.12Rance’sviewsseemtobesupportedbythe

readingsIwillpresentbelowoftwosensationnovels.Itisimpossibletodeclarethatall

sensationnovelswillalwaysleaninonedirectionortheother,especiallysincetheauthors

havesuchvaryingbackgroundsandideas.Inthecaseofgender,itisveryimportanttonote

whichcharactersareportrayedasbeingvillainous—isitthecharacterswhoviolateorthe

oneswhosustaindomesticmoralityanditsgenderroles?11MargaretOliphant,“SensationNovels”(1862)inRegan,ed.,TheNineteenth‐CenturyNovel:ACriticalReader:41.12NicholasRance,WilkieCollinsandOtherSensationNovelists(Cranbury:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1991):5.

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Indefiningthegenre,currentcriticstendtofocusontwomainquestions:the

importanceofthedomesticsphereinsensationnovels,andthefusionofthenewgenre

fromothergenres.InherintroductiontoVictorianSensations,KimberlyHarrisonargues

that“sensationnovelstakeastheirsubjectthedomesticsphere,”somethingNancy

ArmstrongalsosuggestswhenshebrieflydiscussessensationnovelsinDesireand

DomesticFiction.13Themoralstandardsbywhichcharactersarejudgedheretendtoreflect

standardssetbywritersofconductliteraturelikeSarahEllis.Muchofthesensationnovel’s

plottakesplacewithinthehouseandbetweenhusbandsandwives,bringingthesensation

novelevenfurtherintothedomesticsphere.

Thehybridnatureofsensationnovelsisalsocommonlydiscussed,andcriticsoften

citebothgothicnovelsanddomesticrealistnovelssuchasCharlotteBronte’sJaneEyreas

sourcesforthegenre—thussuggestingasignificanttensionbetweenearlierVictorian

realismandtheoutlandishplotsandcharacter‐portrayalsinthesensationnovel.Inhis

article“WhatIsSensationalAboutthe‘SensationNovel’?”PatrickBrantlingerclassifiesthe

sensationnovellargelyasaformofdomesticrealismwithelementsofmystery,buthealso

writesthatthesensationnovelispsychologicalinnature.Brantlingerfurtherarguesthat

thenewpopulargenrewasstronglyinfluencedbytheemergenceofsensationaljournalism

anddetailedreportingofcriminaltrialsinnewspaper.14RichardNemesvariexploresthis

ideabynotingthatmuchofthetensionwascausedbytheassumptionthatsensation

novels(asManselhadmaintainedinQuarterlyReview)werenotalegitimateartform,but

13KimberlyHarrison,“Introduction,”VictorianSensations:xv.14PatrickBrantlinger,“WhatisSensationalAboutthe‘SensationNovel’?”Nineteenth-Century Fiction 37.1 (June 1982): 2-3.

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ratheralessacceptableformofwriting.15Inaddition,somecriticshavesuggestedthat

sensationnovelswereinfactanewresponsetothedominanceofrealistnovelsbefore

them. Withtheseusefuldistinctions,wecanobtainaclearerpictureofwhatthesensation

novelis,andhowweshouldexamineit.Inwhatfollows,Iwillexaminetheportrayalsof

women,particularlytheportrayalsofwomenasvillainsthroughoutthesenovels.Both

theiractionsandtheresponsesofotherstotheiractionswillbesignificantinthisanalysis,

andforthepurposeofthispaper,sensationalactswillbethosethatevokeasurprisedor

horrifiedresponsefromtheothercharactersaswellaspresumablyfromreaders.

III. EllenWoodandEastLynn

EllenWood(1814‐1887)wroteover30novelsandover100shortstories,and

editedthemagazineArgosy.Herworklargelyfallsintothecategoryofsensationnovels,as

theyincludedelementsofmystery,crime,anddeceit.Shewasoneofthemostpopular

novelistsofthenineteenthcentury,especiallyofthe1860s,andher1861novelEastLynne

wasamongthebest‐sellingnovelsoftheage.16

Wood’sownnovelscontainedmanyelementsfromexistinggenres,suchasgothic

novelsanddomesticfiction,aswellastopicsthatinterestedsocietyatthetimethatshe

waswriting;forexample,subjectslikebigamyandwomentestifyingattrialswerebeing

15RichardNemesvari,“JudgedbyaPurelyLiteraryStandard:SensationFiction,HorizonsofExpectation,andtheGenericConstructionofVictorianRealism”inHarrison,ed.,VictorianSensations:16.16MichaelFlowers,“TheEllenWood(Mrs.HenryWood)Website”<http://mrshenrywood.co.uk>.

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talkedaboutatthetime,andWoodincludedtheminhernovels.17Heraudiencewaslargely

middleclassandfemale,aswasthecasewithmostsensationnovels.18Whenshebegan

writingin1851,shedidnotimmediatelystartwithnovels,butratherwithstories

containingreligiousthemes.Herfirstnovel,DanesburyHouse,waswrittenin1860fora

writingcontest,whichshewon,andisastronglymoralisticpro‐temperancenovelaboutan

alcoholicnurse,Mrs.Glisson,whokillsthebabyshecaresforbyoverlookingitsmedicine

carelesslyandinsteadfeedingitlaudanum.Sinceitwaswrittenforatemperance‐message

contest,thenovelinitselfmaynotnecessarilysuggestthatWood’sownviewsagreedwith

thenovel.ThemainevidenceforWood’smoralviewpointisherson’sclaimthatshewas

stronglyconservativeandintendedforhernovelstoencouragemoralitybyportraying

vividactsofimmorality.19

Atfirst,WoodhadtroubletryingtopublishEastLynne.HarrisonAinsworth,the

editorofNewMonthlyMagazinewhohadpublishedhershortstories,refusedtoallowher

towriteanovelforhim,whichhelatertoldherwasparadoxicallybecausehelikedher

shortstoriestoomuchtoacceptanovel.20Hedideventuallyallowtheserializationofthe

novel,butwhenWoodattemptedtopublishitinbookform,sheencounteredmoretrouble.

Thefirstpublishertowhichshetookthenovelrejecteditonthebasisofnegativefeedback

fromtheirreader,butaccordingtoWood’sson,Charles,shewassurethatthebookwould

beasuccess.Thesecondlikewisedeclinedtopublishit,butthethirdpublisher,Richard17KayBoardmanandShirleyJones,PopularVictorianWomenWriters(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1990):167.18AndrewRadford,Victorian Sensation Fiction (Readers' Guides to Essential Criticism) (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009): 10.19CharlesWood,quotedinWilkieCollinsandOtherSensationNovelists,NicholasRance(Cranbury:AssociatedUniversityPresses,1991):5.20CharlesWilliamWood,MemorialsofMrs.HenryWood(London:RichardBentleyandSon,1894):206.

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BentleyandSon,acceptedthebookforpublication.Lookingbackwithwhatweknownow,

wecanconcludethatWood’sintuitionwascorrect,orthatherhopewaswell‐founded,as

EastLynnesoldextremelywellatthetimeandhasbeenrepublishedtoday.21Over4

millioncopiesofWood’snovelswereprintedby1905accordingtopublicationdatafound

inthatyear’seditionofthesecondseriesofJohnnyLudlow.22ThesamedatastatesthatEast

Lynnehadsold800,000copies;TheChannings(1862)sold300,000copies;andevenher

shorterJohnnyLudlowstorieshadbetween20,000and45,000copiespublished,varyingby

series.RichardBentleyandSon,whichwasbasedinLondon,publishedthemajorityofher

novels(andalsopublishedthoseofWillkieCollins).

HersuccesswithEastLynneledtohertakingovertheeditorshipforArgosyby

1867,afamilymagazinethathadrecentlybeenexposedtoscandalasaresultofthe

publicationofCharlesReade’sracynovelGriffithGaunt.InArgosysheserializedmanyof

herworksandcontributedshortstoriesanonymously.Woodwroteandpublishedatleast

onenoveleachyearbetween1861and1873,with1874beingthefirstyearinwellovera

decadethatshedidnothaveanyworkspublished.23Likemostothernovelistsinthis

period,herworkstendedtoappearinserializedforminmagazines,varyingwitheach

story,butincludingArgosy,NewMonthlyMagazine,andBentley’sMiscellany,thenina

three‐volumeprinteditionforthebookmarket..

Wood’sabilitytoproduceavastnumberofworkswasinpartduetothefactthat,

afterthepopularityofEastLynne,readersdemandedmorenovelsandsheagreedtowrite

21Asidefromsellingwell,Wood’sEastLynnewasalsoconvertedintotwoplays,whichwereperformedonstageduringherlifetime.22Publicationdata,JohnnyLudlow,SecondSeriesbyEllenWood(NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany,1905):464.23MichaelFlowers,“TheEllenWoodWebsite”,<http://mrshenrywood.co.uk>.

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them.Accordingtoherson,shedidnotrealizehowmuchworkshewasagreeingtoatthe

time,andsheworkedforninehourseachdaytocompletethenovels,asshewouldnotgo

backonherpromisetowritethenovels(Wood1894,231).Later,aftershehadfinishedthe

initialordersforbooks,shechoseherengagementsmorecarefullyandwroteonlywhat

sheknewshecouldwritewithouthavingtoomuchstressorbeingoverworked.

Duringhercareer,Wood’sworksoftenreceivedhighpraisefromcritics,andEast

Lynnewasespeciallylauded.Onecriticpraisedherattentiontorealitywhenwritingcourt

scenes,includingalltheappropriatepartsofatrial(Wood1894,241).Otherspraisedher

charactersaswererealisticandlikeable.Onereviewer,HamiltonHume,commendedher

onbeingabletomaintainsuspenseandplotinEastLynne,andtohave“servedtheinterests

ofmoralityinholdinguptosocietyamirrorinwhichitmayseeitselfexactlyreflected”

(quotedinWood1894,243‐244).Despitethefactthathernovelscontainedhighly

immoralacts,criticsseemedtouniversallyviewitasconveyingsupportofVictorian

domesticmorality.Byshowingsocietytheimmoralthingsthatitdoes,theythought,she

couldencouragemoremoralbehavioramongherreadership.Asherfirstsensationnovel

and,indeed,probablythefirstnovelthatshewrotewithonlyherowngoalsandbeliefsin

mind,EastLynneisanimportantworkinheroeuvre.

EastLynnefeaturestwofemalecharacterswhobothplayasignificantroleinthe

plotandevokeshockandsurpriseinthereader:LadyIsabelVaneandBarbaraHare.On

thesurface,thesetwocharactersarevastlydifferent.Isabelshocksthenovel’sother

charactersbyleavingherhusbandforanotherman,whileBarbaraseemstobea

respectableyoungwoman.Firstappearancescanbemisleading,though,andbylooking

closely,wecanseethatBarbarahascommittedherfairshareofwrongdoingsthroughout

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thenovel.IsabelandBarbaraaredifferentinmorewaysthanone,andsomeoftheir

differencesstemsfromtheirdifferentbackgrounds.Isabelwasbornintoanaristocratic

familywhileBarbaraisthedaughterofarespectablemiddle‐classjudge.Thisclass

differenceseemstopointtoIsabelasthecharacterwhowillcommitwrongs,but,again,

judgingthecharacterstooearlywouldbeamistake.

InEastLynne,thetwomainstorylinesarefocuseddistinguishablyonIsabeland

Barbara.Throughthethreepartsofthenovel,Isabelemergesasafocalpointand,asa

villainouscharacter,shedrivespartsofthestoryforward.Atthebeginning,sheis

orphanedandleftwithnothing,forcedtolivewithherauntanduncle.Herauntmistreats

herandsheisquicklymarriedtoMr.ArchibaldCarlyle,arespectedlawyerinWestLynne.

Theirmarriageisrelativelyhappyandtheyhaveseveralchildren,butIsabelisunhealthy.

Whilesheisawaytorecover,shehappenstomeetFrancisLevison,amanshehadknown

beforehermarriage.Later,hecomestovisitWestLynneand,aftertellingIsabelthather

husbandwasmeetingsecretlywithBarbaraHare,sherunsawaywithhim,abandoningher

family.ShebecomespregnantwithLevison’schild,butshortlyafterherdivorceismade

final,heleaveshertoassumehisnewly‐inheritedtitle.Shehasthebabyoutsideof

marriage,butinatrainaccident,thebabyiskilledandsheislefthorriblydisfigured,

unrecognizablebythosearoundher—oneofthenovel’smost“sensational”moments.She

ispronounceddead,andCarlylemarriesBarbara.Meanwhile,Isabelassumesthename

“MadameVine”andgoestoworkasagovernessforherownchildren.Afterhereldestson

dies,shebecomesillanddiesofheartbreak,butnotbeforeinformingCarlyleofhertrue

identity.

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Meanwhile,asecondandmoremysteriousplotinvolvingBarbaraprovidesa

differentkindofshockandsurprise.Barbara’sbrother,Richard,isaccusedofkillingaman

inthepast,butheclaimsheisinnocent.HemeetssecretlywithBarbarafromtimetotime,

andeventuallytheygetCarlyleinvolved.Theyworktogethertosolvethemysteryofwho

killedtheman,tryingtofindamancalled“Thorn”whomRichardremembers.Eventually,

theyfindThorn—butThornturnsouttobeFrancisLevison.Coincidenceslikethisone

weretypicalofsensationnovelsandlentthempartoftheirmelodramaticquality.Inthe

end,justiceisservedandRichard’snameisclearedofthemurdercharge.

Bothhalvesofthestoryserveanimportantpurpose.First,becausetheyareboth

containedwithinthesamenovel,theytendtosupportBrantlinger’sdefinitionofa

sensationnovelasonethatcontainsbothdomesticrealismandfeaturesofcrimefiction.24

Second,thevillainLevisonisanarrativevillaininbothrealms—hecausesthefallofIsabel

andisthemurdererofthefatherofthewomanhewassecretlyhavinganaffairwith.Each

newrevelationinthemurdercaseisasurprisetothereader,takingtwistsandturnsalong

theway,evengoingsofarasintroducinganothercharacterbythenameofThorn.Isabel’s

violationofdomesticmoralitycreatesinheralesservillain,butonewhoisrepeatedly

scornedandcriticizedthroughoutthenovel.

ThereissomedebateoverwhatWood’sportrayalofIsabelmeans.DeborahWynne

arguesthatIsabelisvillainousbecausethenovelitselfattemptsto“championthemiddle

class.”25Isabel’sshockingbehaviorsuccessfullyinspirespositiveideastowardmiddle‐class

domesticmorality.AndrewMangham’sargumentthatthenovelshowsthe“shortfalls24PatrickBrantlinger,“WhatIsSensationalAboutthe‘SensationNovel’?,”Nineteenth‐CenturyFiction37(1982):2‐3.25DeborahWynne,quotedinAndrewMangham,ViolentWomenandSensationFiction(NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2007):132.

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inherentinbourgeoismasculinity”isaninterestingone,butitdoesnotexplainthemale

characters’actionsveryclearly(Mangham2007,132‐136).WhileArchibaldCarlyledoes

keepsecretsfromhiswifeandfailtoreassureheroftenenoughthatheisdevotedtoher,

hisactionsarenotsomethingtobeblamedfortheactionsofhiswife.Herownparanoia

andlackofproperbourgeoisdomesticityseemtocauseherfall,andCarlyleisshowntobe

avictimofheractions,notamanlackinginproprietyhimself.

Isabel’scharacterisreallythemostshockingofanycharacterinthebook.Sheis

shockingnotonlybecauseofheractions—leavingherhusbandforanotherman,bearing

illegitimatechildren,anddisguisingherselftoworkundetectedinherhomeasagoverness

—butalsobecauseofherclassorigin.Isabelwas,atthebeginning,asociallyrespected

womanandafaithful,loyalwife,indeedthe“perfect”ladywithperfectexpectationsatthe

beginningofhermarriage.Shedidnotmarryforlove,butratherexpectedthatlovewould

comeovertime,asshegottoknowherhusbandbetter.26Aftertheirmarriage,Isabel

becomespossessiveandoftenjealousofBarbara,withwhomCarlylespentagreatdealof

timebecauseofherbrother’slegalperil.Atonepoint,IsabelaccuseshimoflovingBarbara

andnother:“YouneverlovedBarbaraHare?”Heresponded,“Lovedher!Whatisyourhead

runningon,Isabel?Ineverlovedbutonewoman:andthatoneImademywife”(Wood

1860,140).Isabel’sjealousyprovedtocauseherproblemslater,aswell,butbesidesher

jealousy,shelackedtheskillsandtalentsnecessarytobeahousewife,havingbeen

accustomedtoalifeofluxuryratherthanoneofpracticality.WhenMissCarlyleasksherto

helpmaketablenapkins,Isabelexclaimsthatshecannotbecauseshedoesn’t“understand

26EllenWood,EastLynne[1860](NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1984):114.

17

thatsortofwork”(142).MissCarlyle,andlikelythenovel’sreader,believesIsabel’s

idlenesstobesinful.

Thisideathatidlenessinthehouseholdisasinisworthexploringfurther.Women

inVictorianEnglandwereexpectedtoruntheirhouseholds,andIsabel’sinabilitytodothis

positionsheralreadyasaviolatorofVictoriandomestictraditionandnormalcy.Later,after

Isabelgoestoworkasagovernessinherhome,Barbaraconfidesinherwhatshethinksa

mother’sdutyis:

Now,whatItrustIshallnevergiveuptoanother,willbethetrainingofmychildren.

Lettheoffices,properlypertainingtoanurse,beperformedbythenurse—of

coursetakingcarethatsheisthoroughlytobedependedon.Letherhavethe

troubleofthechildren,theirnoise,theirromping;inshort,letthenurserybeher

placeandthechildren’splace.ButIhopeIshallneverfailtogathermychildren

roundmedaily,atstatedandconvenientperiods,forhigherpurposes:toinstillinto

themChristianandmoralduties;tostrivetoteachthemhowbesttofulfiltheo

bligationsoflife.Thisisamother’stask—asIunderstandthequestion;letherdo

thisworkwell,andthenursecanattendtotherest.Achildshouldneverhearaught

fromitsmother’slipsbutpersuasivegentleness;andthisbecomesimpossible,ifshe

isverymuchwithherchildren(341).

Barbara’sexplanationofamother’sdutiesreferspointedlytoIsabel’sconduct.WhileIsabel

hasnotbeenavailabletoteachherchildrenthesethings,perhapsevenmoreimportantis

herowninabilitythroughoutthenoveltofulfillherdomesticobligations.Sheisunableto

careforherhouseholdorherfamilyandeventuallyabandonstheideaofdomestic

devotionaltogether,insteadrunningoffwithanotherman.Hereventualtransformation

18

intoateacherandcaregiver(asagoverness)redeemsheronlysomewhat,sinceshehadso

clearlyfailedatherdutiesasawifeandmotherbeforeelopingwithLevison.

Isabel’sjealousyfinallygetsthebestofherwhenLevisonconfirmshersuspicions,

orsoshethinks,ofherhusband’sloveforBarbara.Heclaimstohavewitnessedaprivate

meetinginthestreetandsuggeststhatCarlyleisunfaithfultoIsabel(226‐27).Sheagrees

torunoffwithhim,devastatedbyherhusband’slackofloyalty.Levisontricksher,knowing

thatshedidnotreallywanttoleaveherhusband,byclaimingtopresentproofofCarlyle’s

infidelity:“Beavengedonthatfalsehound,Isabel.Hewasneverworthyofyou.Leaveyour

lifeofmisery,andcometohappiness”(227).ThisdeceptionsealsIsabel’sfateandshe

agreestoleavethehometobewithLevison,neverknowingthetruthaboutthemeeting

betweenherhusbandandBarbara.

AlthoughIsabelleavesherhusbandforanotherman,sheinitiallylookslikeavictim,

leavingadisloyalhusbandforamanwholovesherandwantsonlythebestforher.Soon,

though,welearn,throughherownadmission,thatIsabelisnotonlyavictim.Inafightwith

Levison,hetellsherheisnottheonlyoneatfaultforherdownfall,andshesays,“Don’tI

knowit?HaveInotsaidso?”(248)Becausesheadmitsherguilt,shebecomesanagent

ratherthanavictimandistherefore,tothenovel’sreadership,morevillainousinher

violationsofdomesticmoralcodes.WhileIsabeldoesnotbreakanylaws,shedoesviolate

thenormsofthesocietyinwhichshelivesbyleavingherhusbandandhavingan

adulterousaffair,whichresultedinanillegitimatechild.Isabel’sactionsarealsoworse

becausesheknowstheyarewrong.Sheisconcernedabouttheillegitimacyofherchildand

haseveryintentionofmarryingLevison,makingthesituationmorehonorable,buthe

insteadrunsbacktoEngland,leavingheralonetohaveherchild.Oncehereturns,she

19

regainshersensesandsendshimaway(241,248).Shefinallyrecognizesthatheractions

werewrongandregretsthem.AftersendingLevisonaway,shebeginsthinking:“[S]hehad

repentedofthefalsestepforherhusband’ssake,andlonged—thoughitcouldneverbe—

tobebackagain,hiswife.”(249)

EventhoughIsabelmustnecessarilybeshowntobethevillainhere,shedoes

inspirepityfromreaders.Sheadmitsthatshewasresponsibleforheractions,butbecause

shehaslostsomuchandbecauseshewastrickedintoleavingherhusband,weareleft

feelingasthoughweshouldsympathizewithher,eventhoughheractionswere

reprehensibleaccordingtodomesticmoralstandards.AsLynPykettargues,thenovel

encouragesusbothtopityandtocondemnIsabel.27Thisdoesnot,however,meanthatthe

novelinanywaysubvertsmiddle‐classdomesticmorality.Rather,itisawarningnottobe

likeIsabel.Onepitiesherbecauseshehasmadethesechoicesandhasgonedownthe

wrongpath,butitisnotapitythatinspiresadismissalofthemoralitysheviolates.Itis

ratheronethatinspiresonetoconformtotherulestoavoidhersituation.Inaddition,part

ofthereasonthatIsabelcanbepitiedisthatsherepentsandunderstandsthatwhatshe

doesiswrong.Byrepenting,eventheimmoralvillainisabletoconfirmthatthedomestic

moralstandardsarelegitimateandshouldbeupheld.

Isabelisjudgedthroughoutthebookbynearlyeveryothercharactershecomesinto

contactwith,includingbothstrangersandherownfamily.Whenheruncle,LordMount

Severn,comestoseeherfollowingthedepartureofLevison,hecriticizesherdecisionto

leaveherhusband.“[I]fevermanlovedhiswife,helovedyou.Howcouldyousorequite

him?”heasks(254).Later,afterthetrainaccident,Isabelisworkingasagovernessfora

27LynPykett,quotedinMangham,ViolentWomeninSensationFiction:129.

20

familywhenAfyHallijohn,thesisterofheroldmaidandthedaughterofthemanRichard

Hareisaccusedofkilling,showsuptovisit.Isabelasksheraboutherformerlife,

pretendingtohaveknowntheCarlylesinpassing,andwhenaskedwhethershehasever

metLadyIsabel,Afyreplies,“NotI.Ishouldhavethoughtitdemeaning.Onedoesnotcare

tobebroughtintocontactwiththatsortofmisdoinglot,youknow”(329).Afyalsotells

herthatherdaughterwasnolongercalled“Isabel,”butinsteadwascalledbyhermiddle

name,“Lucy.”(239)ThenamechanceoccursbecauseCarlylehasfoundhiswife’snameso

painfulanddistastefulafterwhatshehaddonethathecouldnotbeartohavehisdaughter

called“Isabel.”Onlyrarelydoesanyonespeakwellofheraftersheleaves,buteventhen

theyspeakofhowmuchtheylovedherwhenshewasthere,notcondoningheractionsin

anyway,eventhoughsomepeoplefoundthemunderstandableattimes.Joyce,oneofthe

maidsatEastLynne,says,“Shehasgoneandtakenthelifethatwasnotherstotake,andI

sayshehasbeendriventoit.”(234).

Isabellivesherlifeindisgraceafterviolatingtherulesofdomesticmoralityand

runningoffwithFrancisLevison.Whilenothingthatshedoesisquiteillegal,shesuffers

becauseofheractionsuntilshedies.Sheishorriblydisfiguredinatrainaccident,but

worseforheriswatchingherhusbandlovesomeoneelse,andwatchinghersondie

withoutbeingabletotellhimthatsheishismother.NothinggoodcomestoIsabelafter

leavingherhusband;sheisleftpoor,alone,anddisfigured,symbolsofherwrongdoings.

Othercharacterswhocanbeseenasviolatorsofthesemoralcodesdonotsufferinthe

samewaysthatshedoes,buttheiractionsareviolationsofdomesticmoralityjustthe

same.

21

BarbaraHare,forexample,appearstobetheperfectdaughter.Shetakescareofher

motherandshieldsherfatherfromnewsthatwouldbetooshockingforhim.Sheispolite

andkindand,tomostpeople,shedoesnotseemtoviolateanysignificantrules.Thefirst

signsthatBarbaraisdoingsomethingwrongarethemomentsshespendswithherbrother,

whohasbeenoutlawedfromWestLynneandwho,ifcaught,willbehangedforcommitting

murder.Shehelpshimhidewhenhevisitsandkeepsthesecretfromherfather,knowing

hewoulddisapprove.Whileitispossibletoseeheractionsasnoble,riskingherownsafety

tohelpamanshebelievestobeinnocent,thesecrecyshowsthatsheknewshewasdoing

somethingthatwasnotquiteright.Shedisobeyedherfatherinmeetingwithherbrother,

andmoreover,byharboringafugitive,shebrokethelaw.This,however,isnotthekey

elementofBarbara’sviolationofdomesticmorality.Thatcomesinachaptertitled

“Barbara’sMisdoings,”whichalreadysuggeststhatthereissomethingwrongwith

Barbara’sbehavior.

Inthischapter,welearnthatBarbarahasrefusedtomarryeverymanwhohas

askedher.Thishasangeredherfather,whoisupsetthatthepeopleofWestLynnegossip

abouther.ThischapteralsoputsherincontrastwithIsabel.Barbarasaystoherfather,“I

likehimasanacquaintance,papa.Notasahusband”(252).Whereatthebeginningofthe

book,IsabelappearsasaperfectmemberofVictoriansociety,recognizingthatherdutyto

marrycamebeforeherloveforherhusband,Barbaraalwayshashermindsetonmarrying

forlove.Herfatherisangeredbythisidea,andhetellsherthatshedoesnotneedtolikea

manasahusbanduntilheisherhusband(261).ThisscenebetweenBarbaraandher

fathershowsusthattheideaofmarriageisanimportantone,andmarryingforloveisnot

alwayspossibleordesirable.IsabelmarriedCarlyle,knowingthatshedidnotlovehimyet,

22

butBarbararefusedtomarryanyoneuntilCarlyleaskedher,havingdecidedthathewas

thebestchoiceforherinadvance.Byfailingtomarryandcontinuallyrefusingproposalsof

marriage,Barbaraalsoviolatestherulesofdomesticmorality.Whilesheisnotshunnedor

barredfromlocalsociety,sheisfrequentlygossipedaboutintown.Accordingtoherfather,

everyonehasbeensayingthatshecouldnotbemarriedbecauseofwhatherbrotherhad

done,andthishasbroughtshametothefamily,thoughnotinquitethesamewaythat

Isabelbroughtshametohers.

Thesetwowomenmayhavevastlydifferentpersonalitiesandsocialbackgrounds,but

bothofthemviolatetherulesofdomesticmorality.Inallowingbothofthesewomentobe

seenasviolatorsofdomesticmorality,Woodisabletoemphasizetheimportanceof

adheringtotherules.Isabelmayviolatethosetermsmoreovertlybycommittingadultery

andabandoningherchildren,byhavinganillegitimatechild,andbydisguisingherselfso

thatshecouldworkasagovernessinherownhousehold.Inaddition,Isabelviolatesthe

rulessetforthbyVictorianconductliteratureforwomen,ignoringtherulesforhergender.

BecauseIsabelisthesubjectofgossipandiscastoutfromsociety,Woodconfirmsthatthe

rulesshouldbefollowedthroughhercharacterization.Barbara’sviolationscomeinthe

formofsecrecyanddisobedience,andmoreimportantly,indenyingmarriageproposals

repeatedlyfornopracticalreason.Bothwomenbringdisappointmentandshametotheir

families,evenifnottoequaldegrees,andbothwomenknowthattheyaredoingsomething

wrong.Here,Wood’sportrayalofBarbaraemphasizesadifferentaspectofmoralityand

societalexpectations.WhereIsabel’sactionsarewronginamoreunmistakableway,the

novel’sclearimplicationthatBarbara’sactionsarealsotendstoreveal,Ithink,Wood’s

adherencetothetenetsofVictoriandomesticmorality..Womenshouldbehaveaccording

23

toalloftherulesofsociety,includingtheseeminglylessimportantones,likeobeyingone’s

fatheroronlyrejectingmarriageproposalsforgoodcause.Isabel’sextremeviolationsare

mostwrong,butBarbara’sindiscretionsandnonconformitytotherulesofhersocietyare

portrayednegatively,aswell.Thewrongdoingscommittedbythesewomencanbeseenas

violationsofbothcontemporarydomesticmoralityandasviolationsofVictoriangender

roles.Isabelgoesoffonherown,leavingherhusbandbehind,andBarbaradefiesthe

ordersofthemenaroundher,makingdecisionsforherself.Bothofthesecategoriesof

indiscretiondecidedlyputthesewomenintotheranksofsensationalwomencharacters.

IV. WilkieCollinsandTheWomaninWhite

Duringhislifetime,WilkieCollins(1824‐1889)published23novelsinadditionto

variouscollectionsofshortstoriesandarticles.28Despitehisprolificoutput,heisnow

knownprimarilyfortwoworks:TheWomaninWhite[1859]andTheMoonstone[1868],29

andforthelatterhehasbeencreditedwiththeinventionofthemoderndetectivenovel.30

MostofCollins’worksweresensationnovels,buthealsowrotebiographiesaswell.He

publishedhisfirstbook,abiographyofhisfather,in1848andcontinuedwritinguntilhis

deathin1889.TheWomaninWhite,publishedseriallyin1859‐1860inAlltheYearRound

andinthreevolumesbySampsonLow,Son,&Co.,wasbymostcriticalaccountsthefirst

sensationnovel—althoughMargaretOliphantthoughthehadsignificantprecursorsforthe

genreinHawthorne,Bulwer‐Lytton,andevenDickens.WhileOliphantgenerallydisliked

sensationnovels,sheregardedCollinswasthewriterwhodefinedthesensationnovelin28PaulLewis,“WilkieCollinsBibliography”,<http://www.web40571.clarahost.co.uk/wilkie/bibliog/books.htm>.29NormanPage,WilkieCollins(NewYork:Routledge,1974):vi.30RonaldR.Thomas,“DetectionintheVictorianNovel”,ed.DeirdreDavid,TheCambridgeCompaniontotheVictorianNovel(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001):179.

24

thewaythatcontinuedthroughthe1860suntilthe1880s.ShewritesthatCollins’fictionis

superiortotheseothersensationnovelsbecausehedoesnotrelyonthesupernaturalin

ordertoachieveasensationaleffect,butratherusesshockingactionsthatcouldbe

committedbyanyone.31

InTheWomaninWhite,WilkieCollinsportrayswomenasvillainouscharactersas

wellasvirtuousones,asEllenWooddoes,buthistechniquesandhischaractersarevastly

differentfromthoseinEastLynne.WhilethefemalecharactersinEastLynnearesuspect

becausetheyviolatesocialnormsandignoredomesticmorality,theportrayalsofwomen

inTheWomaninWhitearemuchsubtler.TheaudienceisunlikelytoseemostofCollins’s

womenasvillainous,anditisonlyintheeyesofsomeofthemalecharactersthattheycan

begraspedasvillainsatall.Nonetheless,thebookcanbereadasananti‐womannovel,

sincecommentsaboutthenegativequalitiesofitswomenarescatteredthroughoutthe

book.Oncloserinspection,however,Collins’sstrongfemaleleadsseemtosuggest

otherwise.Infact,throughoutthenovel,thewomenwhoareviewedmostnegativelyare

notthosewhohaveviolatedanysenseofmorality,butratherthosewhohaveobtained

somesortofpowerovermen.

ThestoryofTheWomaninWhitecentersaroundthemysteryofawomanclothed

entirelyinwhiteandaroundahouseholdthatisaffectedbythatwoman.WalterHartright,

adrawingteacher,happensuponthismysteriouswomanonhiswaytoCumberland,where

hehasobtainedapositionasthedrawingmasterfortwoyoungladies,LauraFairlieand

MarianHalcombe,half‐sistersunderthecareoftheirinvaliduncle,Mr.Fairlie.Walterfalls

secretlyinlovewithLaura,andshewithhim,butafterlearningofherengagementandthe

31MargaretOliphant,“SensationNovels,”39‐44.

25

impendingarrivalofLaura’sfiancé,SirPercivalGlyde,Walterplanstoleavetheposition

andtrytoforgether.AsWalterispreparingtoleave,Laurareceivesananonymousletter

warningheragainstmarryingGlyde,whichwelaterlearncomesfromthewomaninwhite,

AnneCatherick.AnneherselfisanescapeefromanasylumwhohadknownMrs.Fairlie

whenshewasalive,andtheallegationsinherletter—which,whileitmentionsnonames,

isquiteclearlyidentifyingGlyde—havetobeinvestigated.TheallegationthatGlydehad

lockedAnneawayinanasylummustbeinvestigatedbeforehismarriagetoLaura,and

Walterdoeshisbesttohelpsolvetheproblem.WalterandMarianspeakwiththefamily

attorney,Mr.Gilmore,aswellasGlyde’sattorneyandGlydehimself,whosuggeststhatthey

writetoMrs.Catherick,Anne’smother,forconfirmationthatshehadaskedhimtolockher

daughteraway.Afterreceivingthisconfirmation,LauraagreestomarryGlyde,butonly

reluctantly.Assomeonewhoisinclinedtokeeptoherpromisesandalwaystellthetruth,

shetriestohaveGlydebreaktheproposalbytellinghimthatsheisalreadyinlove,buthe

refusestoreleaseher,andtheyaremarried.

Thisisaturningpointinthestory.Untilthispoint,Laurahasmerelybeenaside

character,withmostobservationsandmostconversationstakingplacebetweenWalter

andMarian.Afterhermarriage,though,shebecomesstronger,toacertaindegree,though

stillnotasstrongasMarian.Aftertheirhoneymoon,thecouplereturnstoGlyde’sestate,

whereMarianiseagerlywaitingforhersister.Theyreturnwithguests,CountandCountess

Fosco,Laura’sauntandunclewholivedinItaly.Shortlyaftertheirreturn,Glydetriesto

forceLauratosignadocument,whichwouldgivehimthemoneyheneedstoclearhis

debts,butLaurarefusessincehewillnottellherwhatthedocumentsaysorgivehertime

toreaditonherown.Thisisthefirsttimesheisportrayedasastrongwoman,buther

26

persistenceindenyingherhusbandcontinuesthroughtherestofherinteractionswithhim

—untiltheonetimethatitreallymatters.AfterhediscoversthatLaurahasbeensecretly

meetingwithAnneCatherick,whoknowsamysterioussecretabouthim,Glydedevisesa

planwithCountFosco,whohasbeennefariouslyhelpinghimspyonLauraandMarian

sincetheirreturnhome.AnneandLauradobearastrikingresemblance,andFoscodecides

tokillAnne,pretenditwasLaura,andeffectivelygiveherinheritancetoGlydeandto

himself.Fosco’svillainyissopronouncedthatitwouldbecomeafrequentreferencepoint

forcriticsofsensationfictionlikeHenryManselin1863(seep.25).

Fosco’sfoulplanissetinmotionwhenGlydeconvincesLaurathatMarian,whohas

beensickandconfinedtobed,hasleftforLondonwithFosco,andthatsheiswaitingfor

heratahousealongtheway.BecauseofherloveforMarian,Lauraisconvincedandshe

leaves,onlytobethrownintoanasylumwhileWalterandMarianarelefttosortoutthe

problems,butsheiseventuallysavedandgivenherhappyending.

Theroleofwomeninthisplotisextensive,andwhilemuchofthestoryistoldby

Walter(thenarratorchangesthroughoutthebook),thisisessentiallyaplotfocusedon

women.Manyofthewomeninthenovelappeartobevictimsratherthanvillainsandthe

mentakeadvantageofthemandmanipulatethem,astheywilldoinEastLynne.The

womeninthenovelarequitedifferentfromtheEastLynnegroup,though,andthenovel’s

mentendtoportraywomenashavingsomethingshockinglywrongwiththem—exceptin

thecaseofCountessFoscoand,occasionally,Mrs.Catherick.Therolesofallofthemajor

women—Laura,Anne,Marian,Mrs.Catherick,andtheCountess—areimportantin

establishingthepowerdynamicbetweenmenandwomeninthenovel.Understandingthis

27

powerdynamicwillhelpestablishasenseoffemalevillainyinthosecaseswherewomen

donotreadilysubmittothepowerofahusband.

PerhapsthemostextraordinaryfemaleinthenovelisMarianHalcombe,awoman

describedasbeingverymasculineinherfeatures.32Sheherselfdeclaresadislikefor

womenandputsherselfsquarelyinanon‐femininecategory.Sheisnottreatedlikethe

otherwomeninthebook,butratherasmoreofanequaltomeninmanycases.EvenFosco,

whomanipulateswomenandseesthemasbeingweak,admiresMarian.Whenshe

becomesill,hereadsherjournaltoobtaininformation,andheleavesanoteintheback.He

declaresthatsheisa“sublimecreature”and“magnificent”(330).Heevencomparesherto

himselfinvariousinstancesintheentry(330‐31).Marian’sconsistentrefusaltogiveinto

themenaroundhermarksherasunusual.Sheisalsoanunmarriedadultwomanwithno

money.Shedependsuponhersister,butnotuponanyman.Alargeportionofthestoryis

toldthroughherjournalentries,andheradventurousplansshowherunusualnatureina

veryclearway.SherisksagreatdealforLaura’ssafetyandhappiness.Besidesherown

feats,Marianisrespectedbymen.Hersister’suncle,Mr.Fairlie,despisesallcompany

becauseofhisnerves,buthedoesnotresistMarianinmostthings.Whenhereceivesa

letterfromher,hesaysinhisnarration,“ThemomentIheardMissHalcombe’sname,I

gaveup.ItisahabitofminealwaystogiveuptoMissHalcombe.Ifind,byexperience,that

itsavesnoise.”(334)Marianhaspowerovermen,butsincesheisportrayedasbeing

masculine,sheisnotpointedoutasavillain.Still,thepowersituationheremakeseven

Foscouncomfortable,andheadmiresMarianratherthandespisingher(538‐39).

32WilkieCollins,TheWomaninWhite[1859](NewYork:BarnesandNobleBooks,2005):35.

28

LauraandCountessFoscoarebestexaminedtogether,astheyaresituatedat

differentplacesinthemarriagepowerspectrum.Laura,oncesheismarried,defiesher

husband,whiletheCountessisapawnofherhusband.Laura’sbehaviorsmakeherappear

tobeastrongerwomanthantheCountess,andsheisoftenportrayedasbeingthevictim.

TheCountess,here,isamuchmoreinterestingcharacterintermsofvillainy.Whileshe

seemstosimplyagreewithherhusbandinmanyrespects,theCountessinspiresastrong

feelingofdislike.Thecharactersinthenoveldislikeher,andsodoesthereader.Sheis,in

manyways,apawnofherhusbandandhasnoagency,andthereforecannotbeconsidered

afullcharacter.Shehasnopowerofherownafterhermarriage,thoughbeforemarriage

shewasaliberal‐mindedwoman(229).Here,thedifferencebetweentheCountessand

Lauraisevenmorepronounced,asLaurais,afterhermarriage,atleast,anagentrather

thanapawn.Thesetwocharactersshowverylittleintermsofthepowerdynamicwith

menthroughoutmostofthenovel,buttheydoprovideaninsightintotherelationof

womentotheirhusbands,withLaurabeingcriticizedbythemenforheroutspokenness

andtheCountessbeingpraisedforherobedience.Thispairprovidesacontrastforthe

reader.Neitherwomanhaspowerovermen,butLauraisnotcompletelypowerlessinher

ownlife,whichmakesheramorecompellingcharacterthantheCountess,whosimplygoes

alongwithherhusband’sschemes.

AnneCatherickandhermothertrulychallengethemale‐dominatedrealmofpower.

TheybothprovideathreattoGlyde,butthroughagreementswithMrs.Catherick,Glyde

hascometobelievehertobesafe.Anne,ontheotherhand,stillholdsasecretofGlyde’s,

onethatcouldbeusedagainsthimatanytime.BecauseAnnehasthispower,Glydefeels

thathemusttakeaction.Heisconstantlyinsearchofherthroughoutthenovel,seekingher

29

desperatelyinordertoputherbackintotheasylum,wheresheposesnorisktohim.By

takingawayheragencyanddiscreditingher,Glydeseekstoprotecthimselffromthesecret

sheknows.ItisthissecretthatgivesbothAnneandMrs.Catherickpower—andalsogives

LauratheappearanceofhavingpowertoGlyde.Whenawomanfindsouthissecret,Glyde

doeshisbesttohaveherdiscreditedorsilencedthroughwhatevermeanspossible.His

crueltystemsfromaperceivedthreat,whichcomesfromwomenhavingthepowerto

controlhim.AnneCatherickacknowledgesthisinherconversationwithLaura.Shesays,

IfyouknowhisSecret,hewillbeafraidofyou…Hemusttreatyoumercifullyforhis

ownsake.…Youarehelplesswithyourwickedhusband.Yes.AndImustdowhatI

havecometodohere—Imustmakeituptoyouforhavingbeenafraidtospeakout

atabettertime.…IoncethreatenedhimwiththeSecret,andfrightenedhim.You

shallthreatenhimwiththeSecret,andfrightenhim,too.(275‐76)

AnneurgesLauratoseethat,byknowing“theSecret,”Laurawillgainpowerwithinher

marriage.Thissecret,thispoweroverGlyde,frightenshimenoughtolockAnneaway,and

eventuallytokillherandlockLauraupinstead.Mrs.Catherickknewthesecretfirstand

hadpoweroverhim,butthroughamutualagreement,shebecamesafefromhisfearful

wrath.Herpowerinthecommunityandheractionsdroveherhusbandtoleaveherandto

livesomewhereelse,awayfromher,leavingMrs.Catherickessentiallysingleandpowerful

inherownright.

Thesewomenallprovideinsightintothedisturbanceofthehouseholdstructure.

Theyhaveveryfewindiscretionsandviolateveryfewrulesofthedomesticmoralcode,but

theyarestillessentiallyinviolationofthecode,withtheexceptionoftheCountess.The

manofthehouseshouldbeobeyed,astheCountesstellsuscountlesstimesthroughoutthe

30

novel,andsheistheonlywomaninthenoveltoobeyaman.Marianisfreeofanyone’s

controlandLauradisobeysherhusband;bothAnneandMrs.Catherickhavepowerover

Glydeandanswertonoman.Thesewomenareimportanttothediscussionofaviolationof

domesticmoralitybecausetheydohavesomepowerovermen,oratleastoverthemselves,

andtheydonotfollownormalhouseholdprocedureregardingmen.Onlytwoofthe

women,LauraandtheCountess,aretrulymarriedandlivingwiththeirhusbands,andof

those,onlytheCountessobeysherhusbandandispowerless.Themajorityofthewomen

inthenoveldisobeyanddisrespectthemeninthenovelthattrytocontrolthem,adding

themtothelistofdomestically‐immoralfemalecharactersinsensationnovels.

V. Conclusion InbothEastLynneandTheWomaninWhite,womenarerepresentedinwaysthat

seemtoviolateVictoriandomesticmorality,whetherthroughasheddingofproperconduct

orthroughthereversalofgenderroles.Inbothnovels,womendefytheideal,leaving

behindtheideaofbeinggoodwivesandmothersandinsteadinvokingalternatelifestyles.

Whilethewaysinwhichthevariouswomencharactersdothisdiffer,thecommonresultis

thattheyareviewedasalmostvillainous,thesortofwomenthatmendespiseandother

womengossipaboutbehindcloseddoors.Itisthesewomen,andnottheirpositively

portrayedcounterparts,thatthisprojectseekstoshedlighton.

Bothnovelsstudiedherecontainwomenwhoviolatethesestandards,butalso

womenwhoconformtothem.Ineachbook,thetonebehindthesewomenisdifferent.For

example,inEastLynne,BarbaraHareappearstobetheidealwifeandmother,goingsofar

astotellIsabelherphilosophiesonbeingawifeandmother,mirroringexactlythe

31

definitionsofVictoriandomesticmoralitydefinedearlierinthispaperandbynumerous

criticalsources.InTheWomaninWhite,however,theCountess,whoisseeminglythemost

loyalandwell‐behavedwifeinthesenovels,isportrayedasbeingavileandvillainous

creaturewhobetraysotherwomen.Whilethenovelsportraywomenequallyinviolationof

thedomesticmoralcode,thetonesoftheirnarrationarequitedifferent,lendingdifferent

meaningstoeachnovelandtellingussomethingdifferentabouthowwomenwere

perceived,atleastbythesetwoauthors.AsNicholasRancepointedout,thereareboth

conservativeandradicalsensationnovels,andhere,Ithink,wehaveanexampleofeach.

InEastLynne,boththereaderandtheothercharacterswithinthenovelcould

identifythedomesticandmoralfailingsofIsabelVane.Sheranoffwithanotherman,

leavingherhusbandandchildrenbehind,andtriedtomakeupforherfailuresby

returning,disguised,asagovernessforherchildren.Thecharactersandaudience

understandthatwhatIsabelhasdoneiswrong,andwhileshedoesredeemherselfslightly

byshowingthatsheunderstandsthatshehasdonewrong,sheneverfullyreturnstothe

acceptedfemalepositioninVictoriansociety.LynPykett’sreadingofthenovel,whichputs

Isabelinapositionofavillainweshouldcondemnwhileaskingustopityher,isclosely

alignedwiththisone.WhilewecannotapproveofIsabel’sbehavior,wedofeelthather

situationissomethingtobepitied.Barbara,however,strikesusastheidealwife,following

allconventionsandspoutingthemofftoanyonewhowilllisten.Sheobeysherhusband,

remainswithinthehome,anddoesnotspendmoneylightly.Shehaschildrenofherownin

additiontocaringforIsabel’schildren.BarbaraisEllenWood’sportraitoftheidealwoman

andwife.Noonewithinthenovelsaysanythingbadabouther,withtheexceptionofher

father,whothinksthatsheistoostubbornandshouldnotrefusesomanyoffersof

32

marriage.Thecontrastofthesetwowomenprovidesapictureofboththegoodandbad

sidesofVictorianfemininity,identifyingboththeidealandtheworstsortofwoman.

TheportraitsinTheWomaninWhite,however,arealmostentirelyopposite.Itisthe

womenwhodefythenormsofVictoriansocietywhoareadmiredandwhosufferbecause

ofthe“ideal”sortofwoman,whichisfoundintheCountess.Marian,whodefiesallofthe

domesticmoralstandardsofthetime,istheheroineofthenovelandremainsstrong

throughout,evenwhenconfrontedwithmalehostility.Sheisasinglewomanunderthe

controlofnoman.Shehasnochildrenorattachmentstoanymenandsherefusestobe

controlled.Sheroamsthetownofherownfreewillandtreatsmenasequalsratherthan

superiors.Inthisnovel,sheisidealizedasthebestsortofwoman.Lauraisshownasbeing

strongonlywhenundertheinfluenceofhersister,especiallyafterhermarriage.Countess

FoscoisperhapsthemoststronglycriticizedbyCollins.Sheisobedienttoherhusbandand

discardedherviewsaboutwomen’srightsoncemarried.Sheis,however,portrayedinthe

leastfavorablewayofallofthewomen.Becausethecharacterswhoareshowntobe

villainsinthisnovelarearistocraticratherthanmiddle‐class,itcanbesaid,likeEastLynne,

tosupportmiddle‐classmorality,asDeborahWynnearguesinthecaseofWood’snovel.

Thisisespeciallytrueofthemalecharacters,asthemiddle‐classmaninthenovel(Walter)

issuccessfulandhelpsthewomenescapetheclutchesofGlydeandFosco,thevillainous

aristocraticmen.Thewomenarenotaristocratic,butthefactthattheyarenotseenas

villainsdespitetheirviolationsofconventionaldomesticmoralityisimportantin

determiningCollins’views.

Theportraitsofwomenwithinthesenovelsperhapssuggesttheauthors’ownviews

ofwomenwithinVictoriansociety.Collinsidealizesthestrong,independentwoman,

33

tossingasidetheviewthatbeingagoodwifeandmotheristheonlyimportantfactorin

determiningawoman’sworth.Hischaractersinteractwitheachotherinwaysthatalso

clearlyshowthepowerdynamicsbetweenahusbandandwife,butalsobetweenmenand

womeningeneralinthecaseofAnneCatherickandPercivalGlyde.Menhereperceive

powerfulwomenasathreat,butthesemendonotprosperbyhavingthewomentakenout

ofthepicture.Rather,Glydeendsupdyingbecauseofhisfearofwomen’spoweroverhim

whenhetriestostopanyoneelsefromlearninghissecret.Itisthemanwhorespects

womenandtreatsthemasequalsthatprevailsandfinallymarriesthewomanheloves.By

puttingLauraandWaltertogetherintheend,Collinsmayalsobesuggestingthatmarrying

forloveratherthanmoneyorconvenienceisbetter.Laura’smarriagetoGlydedidnotend

wellandwasbaseduponapromiseshemadetoherfather.Afterhisdeath,though,shewas

abletomarryWalter,givingherahappyending.Overall,Collins’portraitsofwomenare

favorableanddiscouragetheone‐dimensionaltraditionalismoftheconductliterature’s

domesticmorality.

Wood’sviews,ontheotherhand,seemtosuggestabeliefintheconventionalsortof

domesticmoralityevenwhensheherself,inacareeraswriterandeditor,didnotconform

tothesestandards.InEastLynne,Isabelsuffersbecauseofherdeviationsfromthe

acceptednorms,whileBarbara,whoconformstothemperfectly,prospers.ItisIsabelwho

isdisfigured,wholosesherchildren,whodiesofheartbreak.Barbaralivesahappylife

withinherhome,observingallproprieties.WoodcreatesafemaledomesticvillaininIsabel

and,whilethereadercansympathizewithhersomewhat,itisdifficulttoavoidagreeing

withthecriticismsthataboundthroughoutthenovelregardinghercharacterandher

actions.ThisportrayalofwomenisverydifferentthanCollins’s,placingthenon‐liberated

34

womaninthepositionofbeinggoodandthewomanwhodefiesconventionasbeingbad.If

theseare,infact,Wood’sviewsofwomen,sheherselfasanauthorwouldnotfallwithinthe

theVictorian’sdomesticallyacceptablecategory,butratheramorenegativeone.Asa

womanwhoownedamagazineandwrotenovels,shedidnotremaininthehome,but

followedherowninstinctsandbehavedmorelikeMarianinTheWomaninWhite,doingas

shepleasedandworkingtobesuccessfulinthepublicworld.

Whilethebooksarriveatdifferentconclusions,itisimportanttonotethewaysin

whichtheyaddresstheissueofwomeninVictorianEngland.Eachnovelistseemstoargue

thatadifferentkindofwomanistherightkindofwoman,butbothusesimilarstandardsto

judgethesewomen.Thedomesticmoralitycontainedorviolatedwithinthesenovelsis

similarandcomesfromthesameplace.Whiledifferentaspectsofitareshowcasedwithin

eachwork,thesameideasshowupinbothnovels.Theissuesoffemaleindependence,

propermaritalrelations,andawoman’splaceinboththehouseholdandsocietyare

challengedbythewomeninthesenovels,leavingboththereaderandthecharactersto

judgethewomenfortheiractions.Whiletherewasavastquantityofinformationon

moralityandwomen’sbehaviorpublishedduringthenineteenthcentury,thereare

relativelyfewworksfullyexploringgenderrepresentationsanddomesticmoralityin

sensationnovels.Withmorescholarshipinthisarea,morerevelationscanbemadeabout

womenandthewaysinwhichtheywereviewedwithintheirsocietythroughtheeyesof

theheroinesandvillainsofthesenovels.

35

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