Aluminium

This article is about the metallic element. For other uses,see Aluminium (disambiguation).

Aluminium (or aluminum; see spelling dierences) isa chemical element in the boron group with symbol Aland atomic number 13. It is a silvery white, soft, non-magnetic, ductile metal. Aluminium is the third mostabundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and themostabundant metal in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8%by weight of the Earths solid surface. Aluminium metalis so chemically reactive that native specimens are rareand limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead,it is found combined in over 270 dierent minerals.[6]The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density andfor its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenonof passivation. Structural components made from alu-minium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace indus-try and are important in other areas of transportation andstructural materials. The most useful compounds of alu-minium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides andsulfates.Despite its prevalence in the environment, no known formof life uses aluminium salts metabolically. In keepingwith its pervasiveness, aluminium is well tolerated byplants and animals.[7] Owing to their prevalence, potentialbenecial (or otherwise) biological roles of aluminiumcompounds are of continuing interest.

1 Characteristics

"Red mud" storage facility in Stade Germany. The aluminiumindustry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.

1.1 PhysicalAluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight,ductile and malleable metal with appearance rangingfrom silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface rough-ness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. Afresh lm of aluminium serves as a good reector (ap-proximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reec-tor (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radia-tion. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 711 MPa,while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from200 MPa to 600 MPa.[8] Aluminium has about one-thirdthe density and stiness of steel. It is easily machined,cast, drawn and extruded.Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic(fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy ofapproximately 200 mJ/m2.[9]

Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor,having 59% the conductivity of copper, both thermaland electrical, while having only 30% of coppers den-sity. Aluminium is capable of being a superconductor,with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 Kelvinand a critical magnetic eld of about 100 gauss (10milliteslas).[10]

1.2 ChemicalCorrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thin surfacelayer of aluminium oxide that forms when the metal is ex-posed to air, eectively preventing further oxidation.[11]The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resis-tant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper.[8] Thiscorrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced by aque-ous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.In highly acidic solutions aluminium reacts with waterto form hydrogen, and in highly alkaline ones to formaluminates protective passivation under these condi-tions is negligible. Also, chlorides such as commonsodium chloride are well-known sources of corrosion ofaluminium and are among the chief reasons that house-hold plumbing is never made from this metal.[12]

However, owing to its resistance to corrosion generally,aluminium is one of the few metals that retain silvery re-ectance in nely powdered form, making it an impor-tant component of silver-colored paints. Aluminiummir-ror nish has the highest reectance of any metal in the200400 nm (UV) and the 3,00010,000 nm (far IR) re-gions; in the 400700 nm visible range it is slightly out-

1

2 2 PRODUCTION AND REFINEMENT

performed by tin and silver and in the 7003000 (nearIR) by silver, gold, and copper.[13]

Aluminium is oxidized by water at temperatures below280C to produce hydrogen, aluminium hydroxide andheat:

2 Al + 6 H2O 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2

This conversion is of interest for the production of hydro-gen. Challenges include circumventing the formed oxidelayer, which inhibits the reaction and the expenses asso-ciated with the storage of energy by regeneration of theAl metal.[14]

1.3 Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of aluminium

Aluminium has many known isotopes, whose mass num-bers range from 21 to 42; however, only 27Al (stableisotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope, t = 7.2105y) occur naturally. 27Al has a natural abundance above99.9%. 26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphereby spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminiumisotopes have found practical application in dating marinesediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rockexposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Behas been used to study the role of transport, deposition,sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106year time scales.[15] Cosmogenic 26Al was rst appliedin studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid frag-ments, after departure from their parent bodies, are ex-posed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during theirtravel through space, causing substantial 26Al produc-tion. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding dras-tically reduces 26Al production, and its decay can thenbe used to determine the meteorites terrestrial age. Me-teorite research has also shown that 26Al was relativelyabundant at the time of formation of our planetary sys-tem. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy re-leased by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melt-ing and dierentiation of some asteroids after their for-mation 4.55 billion years ago.[16]

1.4 Natural occurrence

See also: List of countries by bauxite production

Stable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses withmagnesium either in large stars or in supernovae.[17]

In the Earths crust, aluminium is the most abundant(8.3% by weight) metallic element and the third mostabundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[18]Because of its strong anity to oxygen, it is almost never

found in the elemental state; instead it is found in ox-ides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group ofminerals in the Earths crust, are aluminosilicates. Nativealuminium metal can only be found as a minor phase inlow oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiorsof certain volcanoes.[19] Native aluminium has been re-ported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slopeof the South China Sea and Chen et al. (2011)[20] haveproposed a theory of its origin as resulting by reductionfrom tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4 to metallic alu-minium by bacteria.[20]

It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spineland turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium oriron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.Although aluminium is an extremely common andwidespread element, the common aluminium mineralsare not economic sources of the metal. Almost allmetallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite(AlOx(OH)x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering prod-uct of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climaticconditions.[21] Large deposits of bauxite occur in Aus-tralia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica and the primary min-ing areas for the ore are in Australia, Brazil, China, India,Guinea, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Suriname.

2 Production and renementSee also: Category:Aluminium minerals and List ofcountries by aluminium productionBauxite is converted to aluminium oxide (Al2O3) via the

Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due tothe presence of iron minerals.

Bayer process.[7] Relevant chemical equations are:

Al2O3 + 2 NaOH 2 NaAlO2 + H2O2 H2O + NaAlO2 Al(OH)3 + NaOH

The intermediate sodium aluminate, given the simpliedformulaNaAlO2, is soluble in strongly alkaline water, and

2.1 Recycling 3

the other components of the ore are not. Depending onthe quality of the bauxite ore, twice as much waste ("redmud") is generated compared to the amount of alumina.The conversion of alumina to aluminium metal isachieved by the Hall-Hroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten (950and 980 C (1,740 and 1,800 F)) mixture of cryolite(Na3AlF6) with calcium uoride is electrolyzed to givethe metal:

Al3+ + 3 e Al

At the anode, oxygen is formed:

2 O2 O2 + 4 e

The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom of the so-lution and is tapped o, usually cast into large blockscalled aluminium billets for further processing. To someextent, the carbon anode is consumed by subsequent re-action with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The anodesin a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly,since they are consumed in the process. The cathodes doerode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metalmovement. After ve to ten years, depending on the cur-rent used in the electrolysis, a cell must be rebuilt becauseof cathode wear.

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Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Hroult processconsumes a lot of energy. The worldwide average specicenergy consumption is approximately 150.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56MJ/kg). The most modern smelters achieve approxi-mately 12.8 kWh/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this tothe heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free en-ergy of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents forolder technologies are typically 100 to 200 kiloamperes;state-of-the-art smelters operate at about 350 kA. Trialshave been reported with 500 kA cells.The Hall-Heroult process produces aluminium with a pu-rity of above 99%. Further purication can be done by

the Hoopes process. The process involves the electroly-sis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium and alu-minium uoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium hasa purity of 99.99%.[7][22]

Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the costof producing aluminium, depending on the location ofthe smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly5% of electricity generated in the U.S.[23] Aluminiumproducers tend to locate smelters in places where elec-tric power is both plentiful and inexpensivesuch as theUnited Arab Emirates with its large natural gas supplies,and Iceland and Norway with energy generated fromrenewable sources. The worlds largest smelters of alu-mina are Peoples Republic of China, Russia, and Quebecand British Columbia in Canada.[23][24][25]

Aluminium Spot Price (USD) 1987 - 2012

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Upper quartile $2058Mean price $1774Lower quartile $1403

Aluminium spot price 19872012

In 2005, the Peoples Republic of China was the top pro-ducer of aluminium with almost a one-fth world share,followed by Russia, Canada, and the US, reports theBritish Geological Survey.Over the last 50 years, Australia has become the worldstop producer of bauxite ore and a major producer andexporter of alumina (before being overtaken by Chinain 2007).[24][26] Australia produced 77 million tonnes ofbauxite in 2013.[27] The Australian deposits have somerening problems, some being high in silica, but have theadvantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.[28]

2.1 Recycling

Main article: Aluminium recycling

Aluminium is theoretically 100% recyclable without anyloss of its natural qualities. According to the InternationalResource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, theglobal per capita stock of aluminium in use in society(i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics etc.) is 80 kg (180 lb).Much of this is in more-developed countries (350500kg (7701,100 lb) per capita) rather than less-developedcountries (35 kg (77 lb) per capita). Knowing the per

4 3 COMPOUNDS

Aluminium recycling code

capita stocks and their approximate lifespans is importantfor planning recycling.Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an im-portant use of the aluminium industry. Recycling was alow-prole activity until the late 1960s, when the growinguse of aluminium beverage cans brought it to the publicawareness.Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that re-quires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminiumfrom ore, though a signicant part (up to 15% of theinput material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[29] Analuminium stack melter produces signicantly less dross,with values reported below 1%.[30] The dross can undergoa further process to extract aluminium.In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling,ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% of constructionmaterials and 95% of transport vehicles.[31]

Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium,but maintains the same physical properties as primaryaluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a widerange of formats and is employed in 80% of alloy injec-tions. Another important use is for extrusion.White dross from primary aluminium production andfrom secondary recycling operations still contains use-ful quantities of aluminium that can be extractedindustrially.[32] The process produces aluminium billets,together with a highly complex waste material. Thiswaste is dicult to manage. It reacts with water, releasinga mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen,acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites oncontact with air;[33] contact with damp air results in therelease of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despitethese diculties, the waste has found use as a ller inasphalt and concrete.[34]

3 Compounds

3.1 Oxidation state +3

The vast majority of compounds, including all Al-containing minerals and all commercially signicant alu-minium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidationstate 3+. The coordination number of such compoundsvaries, but generally Al3+ is six-coordinate or tetraco-ordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) arecolorless.[18]

3.1.1 Halides

All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the struc-tures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium uoride(AlF3) features six-coordinate Al. The octahedral coor-dination environment for AlF3 is related to the compact-ness of uoride ion, six of which can t around the smallAl3+ center. AlF3 sublimes (with cracking) at 1,291 C(2,356 F). With heavier halides, the coordination num-bers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or poly-meric with tetrahedral Al centers. These materials areprepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen,although other methods exist. Acidication of the ox-ides or hydroxides aords hydrates. In aqueous solution,the halides often form mixtures, generally containing six-coordinate Al centers, which are feature both halide andaquo ligands. When aluminium and uoride are togetherin aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions suchas [AlF(H2O)5]2+, AlF3(H2O)3, and [AlF6]3. In the case of chloride, polyaluminium clusters areformed such as [Al13O4(OH)24(H2O)12]7+.

3.1.2 Oxide and hydroxides

Aluminium forms one stable oxide, known by its mineralname corundum. Sapphire and ruby are impure corun-dum contaminated with trace amounts of other met-als. The two oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmiteand diaspore. There are three trihydroxides: bayerite,gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which dier in their crys-talline structure (polymorphs). Most are produced fromores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base.Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum.These materials are of central importance to the produc-tion of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful.

3.3 Oxidation states +1 and +2 5

3.1.3 Carbide, nitride, and related materials

Aluminium carbide (Al4C3) is made by heating a mix-ture of the elements above 1,000 C (1,832 F). The paleyellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centers.It reacts with water or dilute acids to give methane. Theacetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene overheated aluminium.Aluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known foraluminium. Unlike the oxides it features tetrahedral Alcenters. It can be made from the elements at 800 C(1,472 F). It is air-stable material with a usefully highthermal conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) ismade similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine:

AlP + 3 H2O Al(OH)3 + PH3

3.2 Organoaluminium compounds and re-lated hydrides

Main article: Organoaluminium compoundA variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and

Structure of trimethylaluminium, a compound that features ve-coordinate carbon.

AlR.Cl. exist.[35] These species usually feature tetra-hedral Al centers, e.g. "trimethylaluminium" has the for-mula Al2(CH3)6 (see gure). With large organic groups,triorganoaluminium exist as three-coordinate monomers,such as triisobutylaluminium. Such compounds arewidely used in industrial chemistry, despite the fact thatthey are often highly pyrophoric. Few analogues exist be-tween organoaluminium and organoboron compounds ex-cept for large organic groups.The important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminiumhydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agentin organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithiumhydride and aluminium trichloride:

4 LiH + AlCl3 LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl

Several useful derivatives of LiAlH4 are known, e.g.sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate. The

simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, remainsa laboratory curiosity. It is a polymer with the formula(AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydridewith the formula (BH3)2.

3.3 Oxidation states +1 and +2Although the great majority of aluminium compoundsfeature Al3+ centers, compounds with lower oxidationstates are known and sometime of signicance as pre-cursors to the Al3+ species.

3.3.1 Aluminium(I)

AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when thetrihalide is heated with aluminium. The compositionAlI is unstable at room temperature with respect to thetriiodide:[36]

3 AlI AlI3 + 2 Al

A stable derivative of aluminiummonoiodide is the cyclicadduct formed with triethylamine, Al4I4(NEt3)4. Alsoof theoretical interest but only of eeting existence areAl2O and Al2S. Al2O is made by heating the normaloxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1,800 C (3,272 F) in avacuum.[36] Such materials quickly disproportionates tothe starting materials.

3.3.2 Aluminium(II)

Very simple Al(II) compounds are invoked or observedin the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For exam-ple, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected inthe gas phase after explosion[37] and in stellar absorptionspectra.[38] More thoroughly investigated are compoundsof the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al-Al bond andwhere R is a large organic ligand.[39]

3.4 AnalysisThe presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitativeanalysis using aluminon.

4 Applications

4.1 General useAluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.[40]Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 mil-lion tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal exceptiron (837.5 million tonnes).[41] Forecast for 2012 is 4245 million tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.[42]

6 4 APPLICATIONS

Etched surface from a high purity (99.9998%) aluminium bar,size 5537 mm

Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedlyimproves its mechanical properties, especially whentempered. For example, the common aluminiumfoils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99%aluminium.[43] The main alloying agents are copper, zinc,magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) andthe levels of these other metals are in the range of a fewpercent by weight.[44]

Household aluminium foil

Aluminium-bodied Austin A40 Sports (c. 1951)

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:

Aluminium slabs being transported from a smelter

Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks,railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, etc.) as sheet,tube, castings, etc.

Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.) Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire,etc.).[45]

A wide range of household items, from cookingutensils to baseball bats, watches.[46]

Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walkingpoles, etc.

Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases forequipment e.g. photographic equipment, MacBookPro's casing

Electrical transmission lines for power distribution MKM steel and Alnico magnets Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999%Al), used in electronics and CDs, and also inWires/Cabling.

Heat sinks for electronic appliances such astransistors and CPUs.

Substrate material of metal-core copper clad lami-nates used in high brightness LED lighting.

Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and inpyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and thermite.

Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid orwith sodium hydroxide to produce hydrogen gas.

Aluminium is used to make Food Containers, be-cause of its characteristic - resistant to corrosion.

Aluminium with Magnesium [alloy] is used to makebody of Aircraft.

Aluminiumwith othermetals, used tomake Railwaytracks.

4.3 Aluminium alloys in structural applications 7

Aluminium is used to make Cooking Utensils, be-cause it is resistant to corrosion, and light-weight.

A variety of countries, including France, Italy,Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel, and the formerYugoslavia, have issued coins struck in aluminiumor aluminium-copper alloys.[47][48]

Some guitar models sport aluminium diamondplates on the surface of the instruments, usually ei-ther chrome or black. Kramer Guitars and TravisBean are both known for having produced guitarswith necks made of aluminium, which gives the in-strument a very distinct sound.

Aluminium is usually alloyed it is used as pure metalonly when corrosion resistance and/or workability is moreimportant than strength or hardness. A thin layer of alu-minium can be deposited onto a at surface by physicalvapor deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapordeposition or other chemical means to form optical coat-ings and mirrors.

4.2 Aluminium compoundsBecause aluminium is abundant and most of its deriva-tives exhibit low toxicity, the compounds of aluminiumenjoy wide and sometimes large-scale applications.

4.2.1 Alumina

Main article: Aluminium oxide

Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and the associated oxy-hydroxides and trihydroxides are produced or extractedfrom minerals on a large scale. The great majority ofthis material is converted to metallic aluminium. In 2013about 10% of the domestic shipments in the UnitatedStates were used for other applications.[49] A major useis as an absorbent. For example, alumina removes wa-ter from hydrocarbons, which enables subsequent pro-cesses that are poisoned by moisture. Aluminium oxidesare common catalysts for industrial processes, e.g. theClaus process for converting hydrogen sulde to sulfur inreneries and for the alkylation of amines. Many indus-trial catalysts are supported, meaning generally that anexpensive catalyst (e.g., platinum) is dispersed over a highsurface area material such as alumina. Being a very hardmaterial (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as anabrasive and the production of applications that exploitits inertness, e.g., in high pressure sodium lamps.

4.2.2 Sulfates

Several sulfates of aluminium nd applications.Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3(H2O)18) is produced on

the annual scale of several billions of kilograms. Abouthalf of the production is consumed in water treatment.The next major application is in the manufacture ofpaper. It is also used as a mordant, in re extinguisher,as a food additive, in reproong, and in leather tanning.Aluminium ammonium sulfate, which is also calledammonium alum, (NH4)Al(SO4)212H2O, is used as amordant and in leather tanning.[7] Aluminium potassiumsulfate ([Al(K)](SO4)2)(H2O)12 is used similarly. Theconsumption of both alums is declining.

4.2.3 Chlorides

Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used in petroleum reningand in the production of synthetic rubber and polymers.Although it has a similar name, aluminium chlorohydratehas fewer and very dierent applications, e.g. as a hard-ening agent and an antiperspirant. It is an intermediate inthe production of aluminium metal.

4.2.4 Niche compounds

Given the scale of aluminium compounds, a small scaleapplication could still involve thousands of tonnes. Oneof the many compounds used at this intermediate levelinclude aluminium acetate, a salt used in solution as anastringent. Aluminium borate (Al2O3B2O3) is used inthe production of glass and ceramics. Aluminium uo-rosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of syn-thetic gemstones, glass and ceramic. Aluminium phos-phate (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass andceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints andvarnishes and in making dental cement. Aluminium hy-droxide (Al(OH)3) is used as an antacid, as a mordant,in water purication, in the manufacture of glass andceramic and in the waterproong of fabrics. Lithiumaluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used inorganic chemistry. Organoaluminiums are used as Lewisacids and cocatalysts. For example, methylaluminoxaneis a cocatalyst for Ziegler-Natta olen polymerization toproduce vinyl polymers such as polyethene.

4.3 Aluminium alloys in structural appli-cations

Main article: Aluminium alloyAluminium alloys with a wide range of properties areused in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classi-ed by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicatingtheir main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO).The strength and durability of aluminium alloys varywidely, not only as a result of the components of the spe-cic alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and man-ufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these as-pects has from time to time led to improperly designedstructures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.

8 5 HISTORY

Aluminium foam

One important structural limitation of aluminium alloysis their fatigue strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloyshave no well-dened fatigue limit, meaning that fatiguefailure eventually occurs, under even very small cyclicloadings. This implies that engineers must assess theseloads and design for a xed life rather than an innite life.Another important property of aluminium alloys is theirsensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures involving heat-ing are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlikesteel, melts without rst glowing red. Forming operationswhere a blow torch is used therefore require some exper-tise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material isto melting. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys,also are subject to internal stresses following heating op-erations such as welding and casting. The problem withaluminium alloys in this regard is their low melting point,which make them more susceptible to distortions fromthermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress reliefcan be done during manufacturing by heat-treating theparts in an oven, followed by gradual coolingin eectannealing the stresses.The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not pre-cluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructingcombustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. TheAgena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooledaluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, includingthe thermally critical throat region.Another alloy of some value is aluminium bronze (Cu-Alalloy).

5 History

The statue of the Anteros in Piccadilly Circus, London, was madein 1893 and is one of the rst statues cast in aluminium.

Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts asdyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds;alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761, Guyton deMorveau suggested calling the base alum alumine. In1808, Humphry Davy identied the existence of a metalbase of alum, which he at rst termed alumium and lateraluminum (see etymology section, below).The metal was rst produced in 1825 in an impure formby Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian rsted.He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassiumamalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar totin.[50] Friedrich Whler was aware of these experimentsand cited them, but after redoing the experiments ofrsted he concluded that this metal was pure potas-sium. He conducted a similar experiment in 1827 bymixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassiumand yielded aluminium.[50] Whler is generally creditedwith isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum). Fur-ther, Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxiteore. Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wh-lers method in 1846. As described in his 1859 book, alu-minium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, whichwas more convenient and less expensive than potassiumused by Whler.[51] In the mid 1880s, aluminium metalwas exceedingly dicult to produce, which made pure

9aluminium more valuable than gold.[52] So celebratedwas the metal that bars of aluminium were exhibited atthe Exposition Universelle of 1855.[53] Napoleon III ofFrance is reputed to held a banquet where the most hon-ored guests were given aluminium utensils, while the oth-ers made do with gold.[54][55]

Aluminiumwas selected as the material to use for the 100ounces (2.8 kg) capstone of the Washington Monumentin 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the dailywage of a common worker on the project (in 1884 about$1 for 10 hours of labor; today, a construction workerin the US working on such a project might earn $25-$35per hour and therefore around $300 in an equivalent sin-gle 10-hour day).[56] The capstone, which was set in placeon 6 December 1884, in an elaborate dedication cere-mony, was the largest single piece of aluminium cast atthe time.[56]

TheCowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quan-tity in the United States and England using smelters likethe furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.[57][58][59]

5.1 Hall-Heroult process: availability ofcheap aluminium metal

Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Hroultof France independently developed the Hall-Hroult elec-trolytic process that facilitated large-scale productionof metallic aluminium. This process remains in usetoday.[60] In 1888 with the nancial backing of Alfred E.Hunt, the Pittsburgh Reduction Company started, todayit is known as Alcoa. Hroults process was in produc-tion by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, nowAlcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group andAlcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.[61]

By 1895, the metal was being used as a building materialas far away as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the ChiefSecretarys Building.With the explosive expansion of the airplane industry dur-ing World War I (1914-1917), major governments de-manded large shipments of aluminium for light, strongairframes. They often subsidized factories and the neces-sary electrical supply systems.[62]

Many navies have used an aluminium superstructure fortheir vessels; the 1975 re aboard USS Belknap that gut-ted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observationof battle damage to British ships during the FalklandsWar, led to many navies switching to all steel superstruc-tures.Aluminium wire was once widely used for domestic elec-trical wiring. Owing to corrosion-induced failures, anumber of res resulted.

6 Etymology

Two variants of the metals name are in current use, alu-minium (pronunciation: /l(j)mnim/) and aluminum(/lumnm/)besides the obsolete alumium. TheInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IU-PAC) adopted aluminium as the standard internationalname for the element in 1990 but, three years later, rec-ognized aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence theirperiodic table includes both.[63] IUPAC internal publica-tions use either spelling in nearly the same number.[64]

Most countries use the spelling aluminium. In theUnited States and Canada, the spelling aluminumpredominates.[18][65] The Canadian Oxford Dictionaryprefers aluminum, whereas the Australian MacquarieDictionary prefers aluminium. In 1926, the AmericanChemical Society ocially decided to use aluminum inits publications; American dictionaries typically label thespelling aluminium as chiey British.[66][67]

The various names all derive from its status as a base ofalum. It is borrowed fromOld French; its ultimate source,alumen, in turn is a Latin word that literally means bittersalt.[68]

The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictio-nary for any word used as a name for this element is alu-mium, which British chemist and inventor HumphryDavyemployed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolateelectrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation isfrom the journal Philosophical Transactions of the RoyalSociety of London: Had I been so fortunate as to haveobtained more certain evidences on this subject, and tohave procured the metallic substances I was in search of,I should have proposed for them the names of silicium,alumium, zirconium, and glucium.[69][70]

Davy settled on aluminum by the time he published his1812 book Chemical Philosophy: This substance ap-pears to contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminumhas not been obtained in a perfectly free state, thoughalloys of it with other metalline substances have beenprocured suciently distinct to indicate the probable na-ture of alumina.[71] But the same year, an anonymouscontributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, in a review of Davys book, objected toaluminum and proposed the name aluminium, for so weshall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference toaluminum, which has a less classical sound.[72]

The -ium sux conformed to the precedent set in othernewly discovered elements of the time: potassium,sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of whichDavy isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings forelements were not unknown at the time, as for exam-ple platinum, known to Europeans since the 16th cen-tury, molybdenum, discovered in 1778, and tantalum,discovered in 1802. The -um sux is consistent withthe universal spelling alumina for the oxide (as opposedto aluminia), as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and

10 7 HEALTH CONCERNS

magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides of magnesium,cerium, and thorium respectively.The aluminum spelling is used in the Websters Dictio-nary of 1828. In his advertising handbill for his new elec-trolytic method of producing the metal in 1892, CharlesMartin Hall used the -um spelling, despite his constantuse of the -ium spelling in all the patents[60] he led be-tween 1886 and 1903. Halls domination of productionof the metal ensured that aluminum became the standardEnglish spelling in North America.

7 Health concerns

Schematic of Al absorption by human skin.[73]

There are ve major Al forms absorbed by human body: the freesolvated trivalent cation (Al3+(aq)); low-molecular-weight, neu-tral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al0(aq)); high-molecular-weight,neutral, soluble complexes (HMW-Al0(aq)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)n+/(aq)); nanoand micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)). They are transported acrosscell membranes or cell epi-/endothelia through ve major routes:(1) paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) chan-nels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated endocytosis.[73]

Despite its widespread occurrence in nature, aluminiumhas no known function in biology. Aluminium salts areremarkably nontoxic, aluminium sulfate having an LD50

of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 500grams for an 80 kg (180 lb) person.[7] The extremelylow acute toxicity notwithstanding, the health eects ofaluminium are of interest in view of the widespread oc-currence of the element in the environment and in com-merce.Some toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and thecentral nervous system, which is particularly increased inpatients with reduced renal function. Because aluminiumcompetes with calcium for absorption, increased amountsof dietary aluminium may contribute to the reducedskeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterminfants and infants with growth retardation. In very highdoses, aluminium can cause neurotoxicity,[74] and is asso-ciated with altered function of the bloodbrain barrier.[75]A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminiumand experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders,vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion ofproducts containing aluminium, such as antiperspirantsand antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium isnot as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence ofsome toxicity if it is consumed in amounts greater than40 mg/day per kg of body mass.[76] Although the useof aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead toaluminium toxicity in general, excessive consumption ofantacids containing aluminium compounds and exces-sive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants providemore signicant exposure levels. Studies have shownthat consumption of acidic foods or liquids with alu-minium signicantly increases aluminium absorption,[77]and maltol has been shown to increase the accumula-tion of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue.[78] Fur-thermore, aluminium increases estrogen-related gene ex-pression in human breast cancer cells cultured in thelaboratory.[79] The estrogen-like eects of these saltshave led to their classication as a metalloestrogen.The eects of aluminium in antiperspirants have been ex-amined over the course of decades with little evidenceof skin irritation.[7] Nonetheless, its occurrence in an-tiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminium lake), and foodadditives has caused concern.[80] Although there is littleevidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents arisk to healthy adults,[81] some studies point to risks as-sociated with increased exposure to the metal.[80] Alu-minium in food may be absorbed more than aluminiumfrom water.[82] It is classied as a non-carcinogen by theUS Department of Health and Human Services.[76]

In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount ofaluminium, deferoxamine mesylate may be given to helpeliminate it from the body by chelation.[83]

7.1 Alzheimers disease

Aluminium has controversially been implicated as a fac-tor in Alzheimers disease.[84] The Camelford water pol-lution incident involved a number of people consuming

11

aluminium sulfate. Investigations of the long-term healtheects are still ongoing, but elevated brain aluminiumconcentrations have been found in post-mortem exami-nations of victims, and further research to determine ifthere is a link with cerebral amyloid angiopathy has beencommissioned.[85]

According to the Alzheimers Society, the medical andscientic opinion is that studies have not convincinglydemonstrated a causal relationship between aluminiumand Alzheimers disease.[86] Nevertheless, some studies,such as those on the PAQUID cohort,[87] cite aluminiumexposure as a risk factor for Alzheimers disease. Somebrain plaques have been found to contain increased levelsof the metal.[88] Research in this area has been inconclu-sive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence ofthe disease rather than a causal agent. [89][90]

8 Eect on plants

Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduceplant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harm-less to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentrationin acid soils of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbsroot growth and function.[91][92][93][94]

Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather thanhydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore a re-sult of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.[95] This con-cept of corrected lime potential[96] to dene the degreeof base saturation in soils became the basis for proce-dures now used in soil testing laboratories to determinethe "lime requirement[97] of soils.[98]

Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is suchthat the aluminium induces a release of organic com-pounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations.Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mecha-nism. The rst gene for aluminium tolerance has beenidentied in wheat. It was shown that sorghums alu-minium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as forwheat.[99] This is not the case in all plants.

9 Biodegradation

A Spanish scientic report from 2001 claimed that thefungus Geotrichum candidum consumes the aluminiumin compact discs.[100][101] However, other reports on italways refer back to the 2001 Spanish report. Bet-ter documented, the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosaand the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly de-tected in aircraft engines, and can degrade aluminium incultures.[102]

10 See also Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element Aluminiumair battery Aluminium alloy Aluminium foil Aluminium granules Aluminium hydroxide Beverage can Institute for the History of Aluminium Panel edge staining The Aluminum Association Quantum clock List of countries by aluminium production

11 References[1] Aluminium monoxide

[2] Aluminium iodide

[3] Lide, D. R. (2000). Magnetic susceptibility of the el-ements and inorganic compounds. CRC Handbook ofChemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN0849304814.

[4] Aluminum. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Re-trieved 3 March 2013.

[5] 13 Aluminium. Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved2008-09-12.

[6] Shakhashiri, B. Z. (17 March 2008). Chemical of theWeek: Aluminum. SciFun.org. University of Wisconsin.Retrieved 4 March 2012.

[7] Frank, W. B. (2009). Aluminum. UllmannsEncyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH.doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_459.pub2.

[8] Polmear, I. J. (1995). Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the LightMetals (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-340-63207-9.

[9] Dieter, G. E. (1988). Mechanical Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-016893-8.

[10] Cochran, J. F.; Mapother, D. E. (1958). Super-conducting Transition in Aluminum. Physical Review111 (1): 132142. Bibcode:1958PhRv..111..132C.doi:10.1103/PhysRev.111.132.

[11] Christian Vargel (2004) [French edition published 1999].Corrosion of Aluminium. Elsevier. ISBN 0 08 044495 4.

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[100] Fungus 'eats CDs. BBC. June 2001.

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[102] J. E. Sheridan; Jan Nelson; Y. L. Tan. STUDIESON THE KEROSENE FUNGUS CLADOSPORIUMRESINAE (LINDAU) DE VRIES PART I. THEPROBLEM OF MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION OFAVIATION FUELS. Tuatara: 29.

12 External links Aluminium at The Periodic Table of Videos (Univer-sity of Nottingham)

15

CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards- Aluminum

Electrolytic production World production of primary aluminium, by country Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF History of Aluminium from the website of the In-ternational Aluminium Institute

Emedicine Aluminium The short lm ALUMINUM (1941) is available forfree download at the Internet Archive

16 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses13.1 Text

Aluminium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium?oldid=646580406 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Marj Tiefert, Sodium, CYD,Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Malcolm Farmer, Mark Ryan, Kowloonese, Aldie, Roadrunner, SimonP, DrBob, Zoe,Perique des Palottes, Heron, Camembert, Jinian, Mintguy, Isis, Dwmyers, RTC, D, Erik Zachte, Stormwriter, Jtdirl, Kku, Dhart, Dcljr,Delirium, Eric119, Minesweeper, Kosebamse, Tregoweth, Ihcoyc, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, ZoeB, Mgimpel, Snoyes, Suisui, Angela, Jd-forrester, Kragen, Julesd, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Jiang, Epo, Schneelocke, Mulad, Emperorbma, EL Willy, Dcoetzee, Nohat, Andrevan,Reddi, Stone, Stismail, David Latapie, Denni, Dysprosia, Vancouverguy, Grendelkhan, Vremya, Wernher, Topbanana, Bjarki S, Pakaran,Johnleemk, GPHemsley, Lumos3, Huangdi, Twang, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Hankwang, Chris 73, Boy b, RedWolf, Altenmann, Ro-manm, Naddy, Mirv, Rfc1394, Litefantastic, Blainster, Diderot, Timrollpickering, Bkell, Hadal, JesseW, Wikibot, Raeky, Isopropyl, Dmn,GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Jooler, Carnildo, Alan Liefting, Fabiform, Alexwcovington, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, ShaunMacPher-son, Robin Patterson, Haeleth, Wolfkeeper, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Doovinator, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Herbee, Karn, Average Earth-man, Everyking, Wyss, Gus Polly, Curps, Drij, Lythic, Mike40033, Gilgamesh, Sundar, Redux, Solipsist, Foobar, Wronkiew, Khalid has-sani, Darrien, Jaan513, Avala, Chameleon, Jackol, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Delta G, Peter Ellis, Wmahan, StuartH, Utcursch, SoWhy,Geni, Yath, LucasVB, Gzuckier, Quadell, Bart Versieck, Antandrus, Beland, Mako098765, Phe, Vina, Josquius, OwenBlacker, Dragony-Sixtyseven, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Kevin B12, PFHLai, Elektron, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, Nerd65536, Iantresman, Joyous!, Oknaze-vad, Askewchan, Ukexpat, Wyllium, Fg2, Klemen Kocjancic, MementoVivere, Deglr6328, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Stereo, Freakofnur-ture, Ilurker, Zarxos, Imroy, SoM, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Avriette, Guanabot, Sladen, Mrevan, Cfailde, AxSkov, Vsmith,Florian Blaschke, Mjpieters, Guanabot2, Dbachmann, Mani1, Deelkar, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Bender235, Sunborn, Kbh3rd,Kaisershatner, Violetriga, Brian0918, RJHall, CanisRufus, Livajo, Pt, Sfahey, El C, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Evand, Cafzal, Remember,The Noodle Incident, Moilleadir, Femto, Adambro, Tjic, Bobo192, Mpbx3003, Army1987, Prainog, Jmah, RAM, Archfalhwyl, Vor-texrealm, Cohesion, Jguk 2, L33tminion, Wiki-Ed, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Slinky puppet, Slambo, Townmouse, Gregorian, MPerel,Sam Korn, Krellis, Jonathunder, A2Kar, Espoo, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, RedWinged Duck, Stephen G. 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Hood, Tsogo3, Yurell, Martin Hogbin, Parkingtigers,Jakestew@mail.com, Giorgio51, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Oliver202, Headbomb, Real Robbie, Dtgriscom, Marek69, West Brom 4ever, TapirTerric, James086, Sbrownlee, Pacholua234, Dfrg.msc, Hcobb, CharlotteWebb, Blathnaid, Nokhc, SusanLesch, Larspcus2, Natalie Erin,Dikteren, Escarbot, Eleuther, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, BokicaK, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Opelio, Paul from Michigan, Quintote, Miles-int, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Jasen betts, Rsocol, Darklilac, RESURGAM, Gdo01, Spencer, DarthShrine, Alphachimpbot, Jerry Se-infeld, V----l Sch----l, Thomas Milo, Arx Fortis, Myanw, Gkhan, Canadian-Bacon, Res2216restar, JAnDbot, Sirbob592, D99gge,Deective, LossIsNotMore, Pi.1415926535, MER-C, CosineKitty, Plantsurfer, Dududuh, Duh duh duh, Hello32020, Bodragon, Ccrrc-crr, Andonic, Kenevans, Morehugh, Not the duke of Devonshire, Hut 8.5, At the speed of light, Primarscources, East718, TAnthony,PhilKnight, LittleOldMe, Geniac, I80and, Magioladitis, WolfmanSF, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, T@nn, Firebladed, JNW, Mbc362,BigChicken, Tedickey, Jespinos, Nyttend, Avicennasis, Thunderhead, Bubba hotep, Jadzianna, TICK TOCK, Causesobad, ForestAngel,User86654, Mmccrae, Coughinink, Allstarecho, Nucleartape, Frotz, User A1, Duckysmokton, Porud!!!, Spellmaster, Vssun, Silentaria,DerHexer, JaGa, Pyrochem, InvertRect, Pax:Vobiscum, RevDan, Patstuart, AOEU, Wikianon, OxMat, FisherQueen, Pedro12, Hdt83,

13.2 Images 17

MartinBot, Eternal Pink, Mathnerd314, Gimcrackery, ChemNerd, Synesthesiac27, Jay Litman, Mschel, Sometimes somethings, Nono64,Kelc07, Leyo, PrestonH, Siliconov, EdBever, Artaxiad, RockMFR, Paranomia, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Pharaoh of theWizards, Nev1, Trusilver, Cybergoonieenderwiggin, Numbo3, Maurice Carbonaro, Kbogusz, Extransit, Thaurisil, Potato99, Xam123456,Katalaveno, Roni2204, LordAnubisBOT, McSly, Amgreen, Mikael Hggstrm, Futuraind, Luke Sperduto, Canadian Scouter, (jarbarf),Youngjim, Chiswick Chap, Streifenbeuteldachs, Jcwf, NewEnglandYankee, LeighvsOptimvsMaximvs, Unavoured, Shoessss, BigHairRef,Sam Paris, Juliancolton, Adamd1008, Cometstyles, STBotD, Jamesontai, Remember the dot, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Towerman86, MirageGSM, Keenman76, Lcawte, Hulten, Useight, Xiahou, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Rossnorman, Wikieditor06, Black Kite, Lights,Mimime, X!, Deor, VolkovBot, IWhisky, Cireshoe, TreasuryTag, CWii, Thedjatclubrock, ABF, A.Ou, Je G., Jennavecia, Almazi, So-liloquial, Katydidit, Ryan032, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, DUBJAY04, BuickCenturyDriver, Davehi1, Java7837, Hqb, Hadcoforyou,Mcpgv, JG17, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, Someguy1221, Piperh, Kalothira, Martin451, Axiosaurus, GlobeGores, Don4of4,AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, LeaveSleaves, Sciencewatcher, Brandonrush, Psyche825, Seb az86556, Nuance 4, DesmondW, Ha Ha, king ofSwitzerland, Esmehwp, Ftbotsb, Papaya07, Plazak, MCGEEJES000, Lamro, Gillyweed, Viktor-viking, Synthebot, Strangerer, Enviroboy,Drutt, Pandanx, Brianga, Chenzw, AlleborgoBot, Logan, LuigiManiac, Yaksar, Burgercat, EmxBot, Kingkaos0, D. 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13.2 Images File:41_ALU_Recycling_Code.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/41_ALU_Recycling_Code.svg Li-

cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created in Adobe Illustrator CS3 based upon 'File:Recycling-Code-41.svg' by User:Moebius1. Orig-inal artist: Karl A Randall / User:k4rlR

File:Al-spotprice1987-2012.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Al-spotprice1987-2012.svg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mrfebruary

File:Al_absorption_by_skin.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Al_absorption_by_skin.jpg License:CC BY 1.0 Contributors: http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C3EM00374D Original artist: Christopher Exley

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File:Aluminium_-_world_production_trend.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Aluminium_-_world_production_trend.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

U.S. Geological Survey, http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140 Original artist: Leyo, Con-struct

18 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Aluminium_bar_surface_etched.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Aluminium_bar_surface_etched.jpg License: FAL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alchemist-hp (talk) (www.pse-mendelejew.de)

File:Aluminium_foam.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Aluminium_foam.jpg License: CC BY 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stehfun

File:AluminumSlab.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/AluminumSlab.JPG License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: ALIquotob

File:Aluminumfoil.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/27/Aluminumfoil.jpg License: PD Contributors:Own workOriginal artist:Kerkyra (talk) (Uploads)

File:Austin_A40_Roadster_ca_1951.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Austin_A40_Roadster_ca_1951.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Charles01

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13.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

CharacteristicsPhysicalChemicalIsotopesNatural occurrence

Production and refinementRecycling

CompoundsOxidation state +3HalidesOxide and hydroxidesCarbide, nitride, and related materials

Organoaluminium compounds and related hydridesOxidation states +1 and +2Aluminium(I)Aluminium(II)

Analysis

ApplicationsGeneral useAluminium compoundsAluminaSulfatesChloridesNiche compounds

Aluminium alloys in structural applications

HistoryHall-Heroult process: availability of cheap aluminium metal

EtymologyHealth concernsAlzheimers disease

Effect on plantsBiodegradation See alsoReferencesExternal linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license