Alternative routes to teaching for vocational educators

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Alternative routes to teaching forvocational educatorsMary Tomblin a & Kathryn Haring aa University of Oklahoma , Norman, USAPublished online: 18 Nov 2010.

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Alternative Routes to Teaching for Vocational Educators

MARY J. TOMBLIN & KATHRYN A. HARINGUniversity of Oklahoma, Norman, USA

ABSTRACT Alternative credentialling of teachers has been practiced fordecades in vocational education, even though research is inconclusive as tothe efficacy of the quality of the teacher’s preparation upon completion ofthese alternative programmes. It has been suggested by several authors thatteachers receiving non-traditional certificates do not perform as well astraditionally prepared teachers. Several aspects of alternative certificationfor vocational educators must be postulated for effectiveness to warrant inthe classroom of today and for the future. Hence, this article delves intotopics critical to teacher preparation. First, the reasons underlyingalternative certification including the private sector as teachers. Next, avariety of definitional issues of alternative certification programmescurrently in place in many states will be elaborated on. Since the inclusion ofstudents with disabilities has infiltrated vocational classrooms it isimperative to discuss briefly how this affects the alternative certificationprogrammes that are now in existence. Finally, the economical issues ofwhether a traditional certification programme is more costly than analternative certification programme is also discussed.

Some researchers (Wise, 1991) seem to acknowledge the teaching fieldevolving into one of two directions: (1) a full profession with highstandards for all teachers, or (2) a less professional activity with relativelyunprepared individuals filling the ranks to ‘solve’ shortages. Stateimplementation of alternative licensure policies continues to be a majorissue for educators, new and old.New teacher graduates now number 125,000 per year. More than onemillion new teachers will enter our school by the year 2000 (Wise,1991). The issue of how these teachers will be prepared to meetdemanding professional jobs in existence will be a difficult one toanswer. Yet, without effective teaching, goals cannot be reached bystudents of today’s world, either academically or vocationally.

ALTERNATIVE ACCREDITATION OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATORS

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Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Vol. 51, No. 4, 1999

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Private Sector Experts as Teachers

Using private sector specialists as teachers in the public schools has beenan established practice for some time. For decades, vocational educationhas employed and credentialled specialists from the private sector asvocational teachers for job skill training classes. This is particularly truefor vocational subjects in trades, industry and the health occupations.Using skilled workers from the private sector as teachers dates to theenactment of the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act of 1917.The Smith-Hughes Act specifically stated that instructors who were toteach in federally funded vocational education programmes must havehad work experience in the specific occupational area. Thus, the statesenacted policies and procedures allowing competent, skilled workersto be employed and credentialled as vocational education teachers,without requiring them to earn a teacher education (Erekson & Barr,1985).New incentive programmes to get more teachers certified are primarilydue to the shortage of qualified teachers (Wise & Darling-Hammond,1992). In most of the skilled occupational areas, the private sectorpays much higher salaries and benefits than do schools. As a result,many who complete vocational teacher education programmes neverenter teaching (Evans & Herr, 1978). Lack of teachers per district hasgiven rise to varied initiatives in the area of personnel preparation.Increasingly, alternative certification programmes (AC) are beingconsidered as an option by state department of education. However,the programmes have created a controversial issue regarding theirefficacy in areas such as vocational education, which are inconclusive.Critics such as Wise & Darling-Hammond (1992) have suggested thatteachers trained in AC programmes are pedagogically inferior. Alter-native credentialling of teachers has been practiced for decades invocational education, even though research also suggests that teachersreceiving non-traditional certificates do not perform as well as tradi-tionally prepared teachers (Boyer, 1983; Goodlad, 1983). On the otherhand there are other observers (Lilly, 1992) who point out that a lackof empirical basis inhibits the testimony of inferiority.

MARY J. TOMBLIN & KATHRYN A. HARING

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Alternative Certification Defined

The number and varieties of alternative teacher certification programmeshave grown rapidly in recent years. In general, AC programmes are statesponsored and designed to attract people with college degrees andrelevant professional experience, but without formal teacher preparation.Forty-six states and the District of Columbia have already adopted suchprogrammes (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education,1996). Thirty states have alternative programmes that are collaborativelysponsored by the state and colleges that require reduced preservicepreparation; 37 states have alternative programmes in which districts hirenon-degree certified teachers who then undergo on-the-job training(American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1986).Unfortunately, while schools try desperate measures to compensate forthe teacher shortages in their districts, perhaps more critical compo-nents of effective transition practices are being overlooked. Custer &Panagos (1996) advocates that vocational educators are oftentimes, nottrained to teach students with disabilities. In fact, many vocationaleducators have credentials based solely upon their expertise in a traderather than through completion of a teacher education programme.Factors necessary in the transitioning success of the student with LDto a successful employment facility include the necessary training andskill acquisition by vocational educators that is appropriate forworking with students with disabilities. However, because of teachershortages throughout the country, many vocational teachers enter theclassroom through alternative routes to education.Increasingly, alternative certification programs (AC) are being consid-ered as an option by state departments of education. From an extensiveliterature review, there were a number of varying definitions for theterm ‘alternative certification’. For one, alternative teacher certifica-tion may be defined as any significant departure from a traditionalundergraduate route through teacher education programmes in univer-sities and colleges (Oliver & McKibbin, 1985). Definitions will vary,according to the particular state’s definition. One view is that the alter-native model is designed for a different population from the usual18–24-year-old undergraduate population. A fundamental differencefrom traditional certification is in the target audience, the trainingdesign, and the length of training, not in programme content, rigour orexpected outcomes (Smith et al, 1985).


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In other states, particularly those in the territory of the SouthernRegional Education Board’s (SREB) Task Force on Higher Education(Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina,Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, and Virginia), there exists yetanother version of AC programmes. In these states, they have devel-oped AC programmes that permit arts and sciences graduates to gothrough intensified, but shorter programmes, or meet requirements bydemonstrating competencies, or by gaining the necessary expertisethrough field-based experiences while holding a teaching position. Inaddition, they defined their AC programmes as state programmes thatalter licensure requirements through: (a) completing a different set ofstandards (i.e. limiting the number of Education courses required); and(b) meeting licensure requirements by demonstrating competency (i.e.passing tests for certification, on the job evaluation, and/or completinga supervised internship). In Oklahoma, the AC programmes are aimedat critical need areas and requires the same credit hours for initiallicensure. The programme also allows an extended time to meet theserequirements while employed, and allows teaching to substitute forstudent teaching. The 1990 legislature in Oklahoma created a new ACprogramme, but it has essentially only provided for an extended timeto complete regular education course requirements. The legislationpassed in 1991 and revised in 1992 created a new Alternative Place-ment programme that modified licensure requirements to includecredit for experience and coursework (Cornett, 1990). Alternativeteacher certification can be distinguished from certification processesthat ignore training in professional studies, such as ‘emergency’ certi-fication, which carries the expectation that the teacher will obtain thenecessary credentials or be replaced eventually by a regularly certifiedperson.Teacher certification, in general, is a process designed to ensure thatindividual who enter teaching meet minimum standards for compe-tence (Koff et al, 1976). These minimum standards for initial entry areset by each state. For instance, in the state of Oklahoma, there areprogrammes that include a required provision for providing for theneeds of students with disabilities. It was noted that before beingaccepted into the AC programme, there were certain prerequisites thathad to have been met. Among these qualifications for acceptance are:


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employed as a teacher, certification in another area, bachelor’s degree,grade point average, related professional background, experience withchildren and/or youth, or stated minimum of previous credits. InOklahoma, for instance, to be admitted into the AC programme in anydiscipline, the applicant must have a bachelor’s degree in a field andalso possess some type of professional background. As each state hasattempted to respond to concerns regarding shortages and quality ofteachers in certain disciplines (particularly in the areas of math,science, and special education), a number of alternatives have beenimplemented. While some states report that they have an alternativecertification programme, some imply to give teachers without theproper credentials (requirements such as education hours completed)an interim status and allow them to be employed while they work toearn the college credits that are equivalent to standard requirementsfor teacher education programmes.

Personality Types Found in AC Programmes

Since the advent of AC programmes have become somewhat popular,another characteristic that has been studied is the personality types ofinterns in alternative teacher certification programmes.

In order to continue to cope with the teacher shortages, studies havebeen conducted exploring varying facets of the AC programme approach.One identifying factor is the characteristics in which the applicantspossess. For example, Region IV Service Center in Houston, Texas is one ofthe many state regional centers in Texas that implements an ACprogramme, based upon the State Regional Center model. It services 56school districts in seven counties in the state. In a study conducted incorporation with the University of Houston, the personality profile and/orcharacteristic traits of individuals in AC programmes were examined. Thereasoning behind such a study is that the influx of personnel fromnon-traditional backgrounds has created an enquiry among educators(Meisgeier & Richardson, 1996).Questions about educators in the AC programmes included suchexamples: (1) Do effective teachers have certain personality ortemperament traits that predict future teaching success? (2) Cannon-traditional teacher candidates be trained to become effectiveeducators? (3) What unique personality traits are needed to teachstudents with disabilities? Participants in the study were given theMyers – Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1987). Results showthat demographics were important in the recognition of those interns


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who applied for the AC programmes. Basically, 22% of applicantswere African American. Professions and degrees of applicants were(a) 21% in liberal arts, (b) 6% in general education, (c) 22% in socialservices and (d) 33% in business. The gender most likely to be candi-dates for an alternative certification programme were females at 79%out of 100% being of this gender. Age range of the most likely candi-date was 30 plus years at 61% of the total population. Because of suchfigures and percentages, it is likely that the AC programmes are gearedto the older, more experienced generation of workers or divorcedwomen.

AC Opportunities for Learning about Special Needs Students

Recent legislation signed during President Clinton’s administration hasactivated new components in education laws. For instance, transitionservices are now mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities EducationAct (IDEA), formerly the Education for all Handicapped Children Act (PL94–142). The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology EducationAct Amendments (1990) support the integration of academic andvocational education. Transition services focus on a collaborative set ofactivities designed to facilitate the student’s movement from school to thejob world.With the current changes being made in postsecondary transitioneducation, the changing composition of vocational class rosters hasplace unprecedented demands on vocational instructors, both incomprehensive classrooms and in area vocational schools (Custer &Panagos, 1996). It is estimated that nearly 60% of the student popula-tion in area vocational technical schools (AVTSs) are either disabled,economically or academically disadvantaged, or experiences limitedEnglish proficiency (Government Accounting Office, 1993).Comparative analysis of AC programmes and traditional programmesis difficult because of the difference in terms of entrance and exitstandards, course and internship requirements, and differingprogramme foci such as content versus pedagogy. However, to accessthe qualifications of whether preservice teachers in AC programmesare aware of and knowledgeable of job skills for students with LD,studies have been conducted which reveal the level of special educa-tion training that is obtained via an alternative route. An example ofthis comes from Buck et al (1995), when they polled a total to 50states on alternative programmes to train teachers of students with


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disabilities. A total of 51 responses, including District of Columbia,were received, for 100% return rate. Over 76% of all states had ACprogrammes with the majority having them available across secondaryeducation. Only 63% of all AC programmes indicated that theprogramme itself provided general education teachers with any infor-mation of knowledge of the needs of students with disabilities. Withthe increasing inclusion of students into general education classrooms,all teachers should be given appropriate information and trainingopportunities to meet the needs of the students that they will assuredlyteach. A total of 24 states offered alternative certification programmesfor special education teachers in general , with a like number for learn-ing disabilities teachers specifically. The survey was conducted underthe auspices of the Standards and Ethics Committee of the Council forLearning Disabilities. Even though 87% of the states were involvedwith ongoing evaluation of their programmes, there is still lack ofknowledge as to the efficacy of the programmes, as well as lackknowledge as to the programme curriculum extent. It is questionedwhether the need to fill classrooms with teachers override immediateconcerns regarding teacher quality (Buck et al, 1995). The quality ofsecondary vocational teachers is a national problem in which we aresacrificing quality of knowledge and job skill training to students withLD (Buck et al, 1995). A summary of additional research illustratingproblems associated with alternative certification programmes and theattainment of comprehensive knowledge of students with disabilitiesis provided in Table I.

76% of all states had ACProgramme in place. Only63% of all states providedany training to generalEducation Teachers inspecial education

Fifty states polled for use ofACs

Buck et al, 1995

OutcomeSummaryAuthors


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250 retired military men andwomen without knowledgehow to teach students withLD

Programme provides 1-yearteacher educationprogramme for retiredmilitary

MacDonald et al, 1994

Overall preparation ofteachers from college-basedteacher educationprogrammes rated assignificantly higher thanAlternative 4 Programme(AC)

College-based teachereducation programmesversus Alternative 4 resultsin favour of collegeprogramme for credentials inacademics, experiences,professional core courses,practicum supervision andcareer motivation. NewHampshire

Jelmberg, 1996

Identifies ‘jug and mug’approach to teachingexperience; not a conceptionof effective teaching

Overview of theory/practicebehind AC: implications forimprovements

Hawley, 1990

Training demands drain thealready financially poordistricts. Forced toparticipate in AC due to statenot issuing emercencycertificates. No indication oftraining in special education

New Jersey State Departmentof Education, must possessbachelors and 30-hourCredits plus pass NTE

Farris & Smith, 1993

Teachers with substandardpreparation are less effectivein vocational settings

Identification of vocationaleducation instructorswith/without professionalpreparation

Erekson & Barr, 1985

schools are certificatedthrough college-basedprogrammes

issues addressedemphasising traditionalcollege-based programmes

Table I. Summary of research investigating knowledge of students with disabilitiesreceived through alternative certification programmes.

Another AC programme in the literature (MacDonald et al, 1994) indicatesthat the military society has also jumped on the bandwagon of quickcertification for teaching. The Military Career Transition Program (MCTP)at Old Dominion University is considered an innovative teacher educationprogramme, which certifies persons leaving the military and seeking asecond career in teaching. The programme provides counselling andadvising for career transition, as well as placement and follow-up seminarsto assist in career induction of its applicants. As of July 1994, 172 ofapproximately 250 graduates had secured teaching positions in 24 states.There is no mention in the study/commentary that these individuals aregiven any information about students with disabilities of any type orseverity. While there seems to be adequate counselling services for the


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prospective teachers themselves, there is no indication that thesegraduates of this AC programme will know how to effectively deal with anystudent with learning disabilities who are transitioning from high school tothe workforce.In a study conducted by Jelmberg (1996), a comparison of programmeevaluations from teachers who had been certified between 1987 and1990, by means of either alternative certification methods or by way ofcollege-based teacher education programmes, was conducted. Resultsindicated a significantly higher rating of teacher who had been certi-fied through traditional methods in several areas. First, whenadvocates of AC programmes list the advantages of their programmes,they often cite job/life experiences as one of the pluses for ACprogrammes. However, in this study, there was no indication of anyadded benefit from teacher’s job experiences adding to their classroomtechniques. Thus, this contradicts some recent studies and also theadvocates of experience as an indication of teacher competency. Infact, this study suggested that experienced teachers who have under-gone preparation through college-based teacher education programmesare better performers than experienced from state-sponsored alterna-tive programmes. This challenges the notion of state officials thatteacher education programmes make little or no difference in teachereffectiveness (Jelmberg, 1996). Concluding remarks from this studyindicate that teachers from college-based preparation programmesscored higher in overall preparation and was ranked highly by fellowteachers and administrators.Although some initiatives seem to presume that teacher educationprogrammes have little influence on teachers’ abilities, the weight ofresearch indicates that fully prepared teachers are, in fact, moresuccessful with students than are teachers without full preparation andcertification (Darling-Hammond, 1990). Studies reveal that vocationaleducation suffers, as does other content subject areas, when theinstructor has insufficient knowledge to carry out duties of the class-room environment. For example, Erekson & Barr’s (1985) review ofresearch on vocational education advocates that teachers with substan-dard certification are less effective overall than prepared teachers.

Cost-effectiveness of Improving AC Routes to Teaching

Financial aspects of alternative certification is another critical factor thatneeds exploration. There are many reasons why alternative certification


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(AC) has gained so many advocates, but two of these – a practical one(financially) and a more philosophical one – seem to influence policy morethan others. Researchers have made claims that both oppose as well asproclaim savings by gaining access to teaching through the AC route.According to an article by Farris & Smith (1993) advocates of AC haveincluded former President George Bush, who praised such programmes asa way to improve the calibre of teaching in our schools. Supporters whobelieve it is most cost effective than traditional teacher educationprogrammes advance arguments for alternative certification. However,there is no empirical evidence to support this hypothesis. In fact, thissame opinion paper mentions the New Jersey alternative route programmethat makes ‘training demands upon school districts that are alreadystrapped financially, understaffed, and emotionally drained’ (Wise, 1991, p.36). Hawley (1990) identifies a list of ways to improve AC as three highestpriority improvements: (a) increase the amount and quality of mentoring;(b) provide AC participants more opportunities to witness, practice andreflect upon proven teaching strategies; and (c) enhance the capabilitiesteacher candidates have to learn about teaching. These three proposalsfor improving AC would, if implemented, represent major changes in mostAC programmes.In his article, Hawley (1990) gives an example of the taxpayer’s costof alternative certification compared to the cost of traditional certifica-tion. Some of these costs are as follows:

1. All tuition costs paid by teacher candidate.2. A state subsidy goes to institution of higher education at the rate of$200.00 per credit hour.3. In assessing the cost of forgivable loans, only 2 years of such loans willbe available to undergraduates.4. Graduate students and AC candidates will be eligible for and will useneed-based federally guaranteed student loans.5. Mentor teachers will be released from teaching one hour each day toprovide support for AC students and substitutes will be hired to do theirjob.6. First year of teaching in AC programmes will qualify the AC candidatefor advancement on the salary scale; TC post-baccalaureate students willreceive a master’s degree and the salary increment associated with it.7. The first 124 credits of undergraduate coursework is assumed for alltypes of programmes.8. Mentor teachers will receive 5 days of training at $200.00 per day(including expenses); programme costs for training will be $500.00 for theweek.9. State and local investments in induction programmes for traditionalcertification teachers will continue to be negligible.


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10. The rate of attrition from teaching will be the same for each approachto certification.

In this summary, it is noted that taxpayer’s could pay a total ofapproximately $6000 for an undergraduate TC, $10,635 for AC if low costsubstitutes are used (cost for degreed replacement mentor teacher wouldadd $4200 to the cost) and $13,400 for a post-baccalaureate TC. It is clearto see that the cost-effectiveness of the AC is not the least economical asthought to be by some. When considering the financial gains of ACprogrammes, practitioners as well as administrators should purposefullyexamine the outcomes versus the costs to the government. Then, we maysee whether AC is seen as a really important source of educationimprovement worthy of a prominent place on the reform docket orwhether it is yet another symbolic, low-cost manifestation of our low-levelnational commitment to children (Hawley, 1990).

Reflections on Alternative Certification Programmes

Alternative certification is a controversial subject at best and lends itselfopen to caution when discussing the applications of such a programme.While it is too early to fully understand the results of these programmes,questions for evaluation can be framed. An important question concernsthe teaching effectiveness of those who enter teaching through alternativeroutes. During the 1980s existing state requirements for certification toteach had never been examined for their relationship to teachereffectiveness (Hawk et al, 1985, p. 13). Today, during the 1990s theresearch on AC programmes continues to provide insufficient evidence onthe effectiveness of teachers from a comparison standpoint of each of thetwo certification programmes (Hawley, 1990). Thus, little basis forcomparisons between traditional and alternative routes actually exist.Research from two related fields of study – vocational education andteacher education programme effectiveness – may help frame questions toevaluate the results of these programmes.Vocational educational research has been inconclusive about the effec-tiveness of teachers without traditional teacher education degrees,possibly because of the wide range of experience and training of thosewith provisional certification (Erekson & Barr, 1985). This thensuggests that evaluation of alternate routes should include assessmentsof the background and previous experience of the teachers involvedsince these factors may explain differences in outcomes. Also, sinceevidence exists that professional studies do have an impact on thequality of education (Evekson& Barr, 1985), the nature of professionalstudies in alternative certification route should be described so thatvariation in programme effectiveness may be explained by programme


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differences. In other words, the individual teacher’s previous trainingand experience and the specific alternate certification-trainingprogramme the teacher completes will greatly affect the programme’sresults.In addition, although the studies used in this article were professionalin every way, most all of them lacked efficacy in regards to any issuesconcerning special education training for alternative certification routecandidates of any discipline. This is an indication of several generalinferences: (1) the researchers did not mention class specific courseswhen reporting their results; (2) AC programmes do not use discrimi-nating remarks to indicate when a subject is geared toward methodsand techniques useful for teaching students with disabilities; (3)because of the newness of the concept of AC, education classes thatteach how to work with exceptional students are not in place yet; or(4) AC programmes find the teaching of skills in special needsstudents irrelevant for the student teacher who is getting certified as avocational/general field teacher.Based on new legislation effective as late as 1998, recommendationsthat AC programmes for vocational teachers may need to consider are:(1) The needs of special populations should be incorporated as a vitalconcern as states restructure vocational education teacher certificationrequirements, (2) Competence in working with students with specialneeds should be included as key qualification criterion for vocationalteachers (Custer & Panagos, 1996), and (3) additional aids in thevocational classroom to enhance the learning environment. Anexample of this might be using taped textbooks as a device forstudents who have difficulties with cognitive reading problems or lowaverage listening skills.[1]Nevertheless, the current news is that AC programmes will continue toattract future teachers. Unless research which includes more empiricaldata regarding training ethics, both qualitative and quantitative, isdisseminated through professional journals, alternative certificationprogrammes will continue to hamper our transition programmes whichare basically designed to help, not hinder, our youth. Whatever one’sassessment is of the future consequences of AC programmes onvocational instruction in secondary and postsecondary school environ-ments, AC is with us and affects very large numbers of children. Itseems reasonable, therefore, to make attempts at either rectifying some


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of the methods of teaching currently in practice for these programmesor allow for other means to get trained vocational instructors in thefield of secondary education.

You cannot teach a man anythingYou can only help him find it within himself. (Galileo)

Correspondence

Mary J. Tomblin & Kathryn A. Haring, Department of EducationalPsychology, University of Oklahoma, Room 321, 820 Van Vleet Oval,Norman, OK 73019–2041, USA.

Note

[1] Taped-texts and other aids can be ordered for minimal fees from ‘Recordingfor the Blind & Dyslexic (RFB&D)’. This is a non-profit organisation that servespeople who cannot read standard print because of a visual, perceptual orother disability. You may contact RFB&D at: Recording for the Blind &Dyslexic, 20 Roszel Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08540, USA (or via Internet [email protected]).

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Darling-Hammond, L. (1990) Teaching and knowledge: policy issues posed byalternate certification for teachers, Peabody Journal of Education, 67(3),pp. 123–154.

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Alternative routes to teaching for vocational educators