Allan

A Content Analysis of Music Placement in

Prime-Time Television Advertising

DAVID ALLAN

Saint Joseph's

University

[email protected]

Music is very popular in advertising. You can hear as much music in commercials as

you can on some commercial radio stations. This research analyzed 3,456 prime-time

television commercials to not only quantify, but qualify the placement of music in

advertising. Overall, 94 percent of the total advertisements (3,456) and 86 percent of

the unique advertisements (715) contained some type of music. Of the unique music

advertisements, 14 percent contained popular music, 81 percent used needledrop,

and 5 percent utilized jingles. Popular music (primarily pop and rock) was observed

more often in automotive, audio/video, and food commercials than any other product

category. Popular music was more likely to be relevant to the narrative in the

commercial than the product or service. This study facilitates future trending and

encourages further investigation of the role of music in advertising effectiveness.

WHEN WATCHING TELEVISION, it is almost impos-sible not to be inundated by a profusion of pop-ular music in advertising. This research analyzedone week of prime-time television commercialsfrom ABC, CBS, FOX, and NBC (N = 3,456) todetermine not only the frequency with which pop-ular music is placed in commercials, but also,when employed, various aspects of the relation-ship between the advertised product and the typeof music accompanying it. Centrally, then, thisresearch examines how popular music is currentlybeing used in prime-television commercials, andwhether or not there are patterns for the inclusionof this music, especially with respect to how itmay be contextualized. In terms of contextualiza-tion, attention is paid to several variables, partic-ularly those examining the extent to which theselections have relevance to the brand and/or thenarrative.

BACKGROUND

Since the early days of television, music has beenone of the most frequently used executional cuesin advertising. It is surprising then that more

4 0 4 JOüBflllL DF HDÖERTISIUG RESEIIBCH September 2 0 0 8

attention has not been paid to just how frequentlymusic is used in advertising. Stewart and Furse(1986, p. 160) lamented the absence of its system-atic measurement and set out to provide suchdocumentation. They found music featured inslightly more than 40 percent of 1,000 televisioncommercials they studied, but that only 12 per-cent of those placing music used lyrics directly toconvey the advertising message. Similar frequen-cies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewartand Koslow, 1989, p. 29). In a later report, Stewart,Farmer, and Stannard (1990) recommended thatadditional research was needed in this area. None-theless, only Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993,p. 237) heeded this recommendation by analyzinginternational commercials and finding music placedin 89 percent of their sample.

In addition to not knowing definitively how

many commercials utilize music placement, thereis also no definitive explanation of how musicworks. Gom (1982), using a classical conditioningapproach, suggested that feelings generated fromhearing liked or disliked music in combinationwith a product can positively or negatively affect

DOI: 10.2501/S0021849908080434

MUSIC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING

product choices. Others have suggestedthat music creates moods that could affectproduct choice (Alpert and Alpert, 1990;Bruner, 1990). As to what music elementsgenerate feelings and affect moods, Kellarisand Kent (1991) suggested it was tempo(pace) and modality (pitch); Kellaris andRice (1993) found some support for tempo,loudness, and gender responses to themusic; and Kellaris and Kent (1993) ar-gued for tempo, tonality (intervals be-tween pitches), and texture (timbre andorchestra). In contrast, Brooker and Wheat-ley (1994) found that tempo had no effecton consumer behavior (e.g., recall, atti-tude, and purchase intention) toward theproduct in radio advertising.

Moving away from exclusive concernwith music, the issue of the music's rele-

vance to the product would seem to be anobvious concern in conceiving commer-cials, but again, relatively little scholarlyattention has been paid. Maclnnis andPark (1991, p. 162) identified the musiccharacteristic "fit" and defined it as "theconsumers' subjective perceptions of themusic's relevance or appropriateness tothe central ad message." They found thatmusic's relevance had an equally strongeffect on both low- and high-involvementsubjects' attention to the advertising mes-sage. Kellaris, Cox, and Cox (1993) sug-gested that music's relevance to theproduct (i.e., music-message congruency)interacted with its attention-gaining valueto influence message reception. Assumingthat music has attention-gaining value,attention is only the first step in the hier-archy of advertising effects and must leadto memory. It has been claimed for de-cades that music increases recall (Hecker,1984; Wallace, 1994). Here, again, a num-ber of treatments and variables pertain,e.g., in addition to standard music-genredistinctions, questions of instrumentais ver-sus vocals, original recordings versus newversions of older songs (covers), or si-

The increasing empioyment of popular music in

commerciais does not just eniiance advertising's

function, but reaps benefits for tiie recording industry

as weil.

lence versus background, generic musicbeds or needledrop ("music that is pre-fabricated, multipurpose, and highly con-ventional," Scott, 1990, p. 223), jingles("unique, novel lyrics written for a par-ticular ad," Wallace, 1991, p. 239), andlyric replacement (changing the originallyrics of a song with new lyrics carryingthe advertiser's message). Roehm (2001)argued that instrumentais are more effec-tive in evoking advertising message re-call if the song is already familiar;however, absent that familiarity, the vo-cal version was more effective. AUan (2006)found that song vocals, either original oraltered, are more effective stimuli of ad-vertising effects than instrumentais or nopopular music. Additionally, silence com-bined with music has been observed tobe more attention-getting and can in-crease listener retention (Olsen, 1995). Ad-ditionally, Park and Young (1986) foundthat the effect of vocals on brand atti-tude depends on the level of involve-ment of the individual. With regard tojingles, Wallace (1991) found that jinglescan facilitate advertisement recall be-cause they are easily recalled even whennot heard for long periods of time. Yalch(1991) agreed, especially when individu-als are presented with few cues to aidretrieval or have minimal exposures tothe advertising. Finally, a growing tech-nique in advertising is lyrical replace-ment. While this type of advertising hasnot been researched specifically, some fo-cus has been given to the general impor-

tance of the original lyrics with theoriginal melody. Serafine, Crowder, andRepp (1984, 1986) suggested that an orig-inal melody or text is better recognizedwhen paired with the original melody ortext. Of course, it should be pointed outthat it has never been verified that themost attention-getting or recalled com-mercials alone positively affect sales.

In spite of the dearth of academic re-search, advertisers have always spokenenthusiastically about the power of pop-ular music in advertising. For instance.Ken Kunze, marketing director for Hei-neken Brewery, observes that music is "rel-evant with consumers across boundarieswhether ethnic, geographic, or age" (How-ard, 2001). Similarly, Vinny Picardi, vicepresident and associate creative directorof Deutsch, Inc. in Los Angeles, suggeststhat "We use music as our universal lan-guage and it pays off" (Scott, 2002, p. Y06;see also Ives, 2002, p. C3; Morris, 1998,p. 1; Patton, 2002, p. 1; and Vanderbilt,2002, p. W13 for similar observations).

Advertisers' enthusiasm for music ismanifested in what is seen as an increas-ing placement of popular music in com-mercials, although the bulk of theseobservations come from the trade publi-cation perspective. Many have simplynoted that music placement is a trend onthe rise (see, e.g., Bessman, 2003; Boehler,

1999, p. 27; Buyikian, 1999, p. SIO; How-ard, 2003, p. 6B; Marks, 1998, p. 51; Me-lillo, 2004, p. 17; Patton, 2002, p. Cl; Seay,

2000, p. S8; Shea, 2004, p. 16). Others have

September 2 0 0 8 JOÜROBL OF (iflüERTISIIlG RESEBRCH 4 0 5

MUSIC PLACEMENT iN PRiME-TIME TV ADVERTiSiNG

been a little more specific, with estimatesof 60 percent (Bellaire, 1979, p. S4), 75percent (Michlin, 1984, p. 66), and 90 per-cent (Garfield, 1988, p. 46).

Finally, another issue that has also beenmore theorized than studied is the func-tion of popular music placement for therecording industry. Melillo (2004) suggeststhat the increasing employment of popu-lar music in commercials does not justenhance advertising's function, but reapsbenefits for the recording industry as well.Not that long ago, artists were reluctantto have their work licensed for use inadvertisements. Even though popular mu-sic is invariably a commercial enterprise(successful or not), its writers and per-formers often viewed an overt associa-tion with commercialism as a breach ofartistic integrity—"selling out" (see, e.g.,Allan, 2005, p. 2; Boehler, 1999, p. 27;Burns, 1996, p. 133; de Mesa, 2005, p. 1;Kot, 2002, p. 1; Lubrano, 2004, p. C2;Marks, 1998, p. 51; Morford, 2004, p. 1;Reilly, 1998, p. Bl; Shea, 2004, p. 16; Van-derbilt, 2002, p. W13; Waldman, 2000,p. 18). This much-observed attitude isnot unlike earlier movie stars categori-cally rejecting advertising work. More re-cently, actors, too, have become moreinvolved in commercial work and thatinvolvement seems to have become in-creasingly overt—moving from voice-overs to work in foreign (most notably,Japanese) advertisements to the most re-cent, straightforward appearances of "A-list" actors such as Robert De Niro orCatherine Zeta-Jones in U.S. commer-cials. Whether actors, sports figures, ormusical performers, the incentive is likelyfinancial. With specific respect to music,there has been a 13 percent decline inworldwide album sales since 2001 (How-ard, 2003, p. 6B). This decline probablyreflects the impact of new technology al-lowing consumers to construct their ownCDs, and it is a force with which music

Music placement in advertising becomes an economic

boon in two ways: first, a commercials' use of music

provides a new venue for collecting royalties, and

second, the widespread and repeated exposure of

commercials provides either for revival of or new interest

in the particular songs and/or artists featured—which

is music-sales promotion and very much a variation on

the phenomenon of product placement.

producers must reckon. In that reckon-ing, music placement in advertising, then,becomes an economic boon in two ways:first, a commercials' use of music pro-vides a new venue for collecting royal-ties, and second, the widespread andrepeated exposure of commercials pro-vides either for revival of or new interestin the particular songs and/or artistsfeatured—which is music-sales promo-tion and very much a variation on thephenomenon of product placement (seeNelson, 2003 for examples of basic re-search on product placement). It may alsobe suggested that music employed in TVcommercials functions similarly to the useof extant recordings in movie soundtracks(see Gupta and Lord, 1998, for examplesof basic research on the use of popularmusic in film soundtracks). This linkingof particular groups and songs with filmsor products has indeed "demonstratedthe value of cross-media marketing andthe symbolic relationship between filmand song" (Garofalo, 2002, p. 384). It cer-tainly appears that the artists "need ad-vertising as much as advertising needs

them" (Melillo, 2004, p. 17). (See Block,

2003 and Howard, 2003 for a richer dis-cussion of the economic mutualism re-sulting from the use of popular music incommercials.)

The previously described work is inter-esting and provides important back-ground to this study. However, in additionto updating the limited available data,there are additional, important questionsthat have thus far been overlooked in theextant literature. As will be described inthe following section, the present studybegins with a broad look at many of themusic variables just reviewed and thennarrows into more detailed observationsof popular music variables so to providea more robust analysis.

METHODS

All commercials aired on ABC, CBS, FOX,and NBC during the week of May 3-9,

2004 (sweeps week) during prime time(8:00-11:00 PM) constituted the sample forthis study. Using this sweeps period is inkeeping with related studies in the litera-ture, likely because this period is reputed

406 L DF flDDEBTISIDD BESEflBCB September 2 0 0 8


to be that in which new advertising cain- TABLE 1

paigns are launched (see, e.g., Avery and Distribution of Total Advertisements by ProgrammingFerrare 2000; Calkott and Lee, 1994; El- J fa faliott, 1995; Roy and Harwood, 1997; Wilkes V ^ H a b l e S

and Valencia, 1989). In all, then, this sam- Popular

pie consisted of 3,456 total and 715 unique Total Muslo Music Needledrop Jingle

commercials, totaling 84 hours of adver- ••- ••- '•-' ^-^ '- ^

tisements. Of these commercials 3,239 to- J°*^| .3,456 3,239 404 2,387 448

tal and 617 unique advertisements used Network

some type of music; 404 total and 86 ....ABC.; 884 836 l ip 612 i i4

unique advertisements utilized some type NBC 839 789 117 565 1O7

of popular music (broadly defined for the Ç8S 838 803 96 6.io 97

purposes of this study as music of all ppx 895 8II 81 epp 13p

genres that was created for "ordinary peo- ^, ^^^^ ^3g , , ^„^^ ^ 3 , 3 _^;,;'

pie," Shuker, 2001, p. 5); 2,387 total and ^.^^ ^^^

501 unique advertisements had some type 8:pp :po.PM 1,276 1,2p2 159. 88p 163of needledrop; and 448 total and 30 unique

* ^ ....9-Q0-10:.9.0.™ 1,.18? 1,.13.4 .155. 8.3.2 147advertisements used a jinele. Each com-

" lp:pO^ll:pp PM 991 9p3 9p 675 138mercial constituted a unit of analysis.

X^ ya|ue 8.6*** 9.4* 0.9*** 12***A code sheet was developed to record

information on the placement of musicMonday 489 464 48 351 65

(quantitative and qualitative) in the com-. , rr, , . J • , J J . Tuesday 479 446 66 322 58

mercials. The extensive code mcluded van-

ables used in previous contest analyses of -^^'^''^^- 591 467 ep 347 ep

television advertising (Alexander; Ben- ...J^^'^M 515 473 58 339 76

jamin, Hoerrner, and Roe, 1998; Avery ....™ax 486 .460 .66. 330 64

and Ferraro, 2000; Callcott and Lee, 1994; ....Sa.turday. 4.87 .45.6 .47 3.5p .59

Elliott, 1995; Roy and Harwood, 1997; Un- ....Sunday 499 473. 59 348 66

ger, McConocha, and Faier, 1991; Wilkes ....x. ..xa!ue lO.Z.*.*.*. 495.0*** .7-2*** 2.6***and Valencia, 1989), as well as variables Surrounding program

appropriate to the analysis of music (Al- ....P.S.')?.ati.Ç..serial 55p 517 72 258 34

Ian, 2006; Alpert and Alpert, 1991; Brooker Action/adventure 82 77 13 32 9

and Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris, Cox, and ....Famjlx.drama .82 78 11 6p 7

Cox, 1993; Kellaris and Kent, 1991; Macin- sitcpm 656 62p 94 443 83nis and Park, 1991; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, y^,-,^^^ 89 gg ^^ gp ^^

2001; Wallace, 1991). Iê.s/mZZZZ^^^^^^^^^^^The coding instrument consisting of „, .

....lyi.P.y.ie 4.94 4 7 9 5 9 356 6431 variables was applied to each com-

Reality show 853 799 88 6pp 111mercial. These variables were organized

Cartoon 5p 47 6 32 9around five areas: programming, com-

. , , , . ,. , , . X2 value 20.6*** 15.3** 9.4*** 6.5***

mercial characteristics, demographics,J . , . . . J . 1 Advertiser

product characteristics, and music char-Na.tion.al 3,.1.64 2,985 404 2,314 267

acteristics. Five variables constituted the^ , . , , . . Local 280 242 0 61 181

programming area, attending to basic is-sues like network and time aired. Com- ....CS<'R.(national/.bcai¡ 12 12 p 12 pmercial characteristics accounted for seven .... !.!( l ^ E^:ll 322.9* 722.0*standard variations among television 'Significant at the O.Ol level; "significant at the 0.05 level; '"not significant

September 2 0 0 8 JDÜRURL DF RDDERTISIRG RESEflRCH 4 0 7

MUSiC PLACEMENT IN PRIME-TiME TV ADVERTISING

advertisements such as the type of com- TABLE 2

merciai with or without voice-over (i.e., Djstribution of Unique Advertisements by Commercialgeneric voice who is heard reading _ , . . . , • , ,

. , . A • ( - . • ^ A A Characteristic Variablescommercial copy), and if it included ce-

lebrities, humor, animation, animals, or Popular

humans. The third area, demographics. Total Music Music Needledrop Jingie

coded the gender, age, and race of the (N) (n) (n) (n) (n)

people featured in the advertisement, and Jg^g^ 7- 5 gj y gg 501 30

the fourth area, products, recorded what „ . ,^ Commercial type

the commercial was selling. This area was Narrative dramatization 115 96 9 81 6grouped into 30 product and service cat- ., . . . . r, .,-,0 A^^ ., 0 oor f Nonnarrative dramatization 191 173 42 123 8egories for more efficient analysis. Fi-

Spokesperson 55 41 0 39 2nally, the fifth category attended to

, , ^ . J J -r Testimoniai 55 49 3 46 0whether or not music was used and, ifso, the variations in the music used. These ....í'.':°.ííí ';l .°":!P r'Son 9 8 3 5 0

variations included popular music, nee- Collage of use 72 62 11 43 8

dledrop, and jingles. In the case of pop- Conceptual 10 9 1 7 1

ular music, the commercials (N = 404) ciips/footage 162 155 16 135 4were those that not only used music in „.,,. ,,. .,, 0,1 .1 no ^

^ Biliboard/teaser 46 24 1 22 . 1part or all of the commerical, but that^ X2 value 50.1* 39.1* 36.8* 14.2***particularly employed songs that either

, il w J 1 N ,. Voiceover 638 562 77 459 26were (or were overtly related to) mate-X" value 1.2*** O.Ol*** 9.9* 0.2***

rial that had been mass distributed prior^ . . ^, • 1 TU ,.u- Celebrity 189 174 18 149 7to its use m the commercial. Thus, this

X2 value 3.2*** 1.5*** 9.4*** 0.2***sample consisted not only of recording, . , , , 1 . . . u i Humor 178 149 23 121 5

that have had mass-market status, but^2 value 1.2*** o.2*** 0.5*** 1.1***

also covers or lyrical alterations of those. . . ,. c • . A 1 Animation 80 73 10 60 3original recordings. For instance, Apple-0 o r r x^ value 0.1*** 0.01*** 1.0*** 0.05***

bee's use of the Toby Keith's "Talk About, , ,, 1J u • 1 J J • .u- 1 Animate 45 42 8 33 1Me would be included in this sample,

^ X2 value 1.5*** 1.5*** 0.2*** 0.5***even though in the Applebee advertise-

. . 11 M T . T -.1. Humans 583 516 66 424 26ment it was not actually the Toby Keith• - X value 3.5*** 1.5*** 10.6* 0.5***

version. If there were overt verisimili-

tude between an exact or altered cover 'Significant at the om level: "significant at the 0.05 level; "'not significant

song, it was included along with original

recordings. Of course, the analysis did

code for such distinctions within this ables above the minimal agreement level vised context of each advertisement. Table 1

sample. (Riffe, Lacy, and Fico, 1998). shows the overall total advertisements (N =

These variables were recorded by one 3,456) with the presence of music (any-

trained coder (the author). Reliability was RESULTS AND DISCUSSION where) in a commercial in terms of all the

established using the coefficient of relia- What follows is the presentation of data five production variables: network, time,

bility (Cohen's Kappa). To ascertain relia- for these five variable areas and a discus- day, surrounding program, and advertiser

bility, 10 percent of the one coder's sample sion of their implications. (national, local, or co-op). As can be seen,

was reanalyzed by another trained coder although significant differences were ob-

resulting in an overall reliability coeffi- Programming variables tained in the actual use of music in com-

cient of 94.3 percent. Coder agreement As indicated earUer, five variables were used mercials, there is not yet much interpretation

was greater than 80 percent for all vari- to collect basic information about the tele- that can be inferred by these numbers.

4 0 8 JDUBnBL DF BDDEBTISinD BESEBBCB S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8


Commercial characterist ic variables TABLE 3

Table 2 shows the unique advertisements Disthbution of Unique Advertisements by Demographicwith the presence of music (anywhere)

Vsr ab esin a commercial in terms of the seven

commercial characteristic variables: type Popular

of commercial, and if it included a Total Music Music Neediedrop Jingie

voiceover, celebrity, humor, animation, an- (N) (n) (n) (n) (n)

imals, or people. As can be seen, signifi- Jo^^^ 7^5 g^7 gg ^^^ 3Q

cant differences were obtained in the useHumans 583 516 66 424 26

of music and these commercial character-Gender

istics. As for commercial type, nonnarra- ^^^^ ^^ 56 3 48 5tive dramatizations made up the most

, , , , , Female 85 76 16 57 3total advertisements (N = 191) and mu-sic advertisements (n = 191). Of the mu- ...^^"^ ^23 384 47 319 18sic advertisements, the most popular music ....^lî^lue 9.1*** 8.8*** 5.8*** 1.1***

{n = 42) and jingle (n = 8) advertise- Age

ments were also nonnarrative dramatiza- ....^9.t i*:,?. ,? .-f: 7 ^.

tions, but the most advertisements with 35-59 85 66 3 56 7

needledrop were of clips/footage. The sub- 20-34 88 78 16 59 3

stantial use of nonnarrative dramatiza- 13-19 8 7 3 4 0

tions suggests that the music, especially

in the case of popular music, is being, , _, . , . , Mixed 384 351 42 294 15

used by advertisers to play a significant1 • 1 • J 1 1- iu X^ value 19.6** 15 1* 9 7 * * * 4 4 * * *

role m supplymg and supplementmg the :.... r:;.narrative in the commercial. Race

Analysis of the executional elements ....*".Caui=aân 367 325 37 276 12shows that at least 90 percent of the total ....^][!^1^.]^.^.'}:!^!:^.^.':]^.^'}. ^.l ^l i H ?

advertisements (N = 638) and music All Hispanic 3 3 0 2 1

advertisements (n = 562), popular music All Asian 2 2 0 2 0

(n = 77), needledrop {n = 64), and jingle ^-^^^^ Caucasian and African-American 149 138 22 107 9(n = 26) contained a voice-over. As for ... '„

Mixed Caucasian and Hispanic 2 2 1 1 0celebrities overall, a needledrop (n = 149)

Mixed Caucasian and Asian 11 9 1 8 0or Jingle (n = 7) advertisement was themost likely to have a celebrity, and an ., J'í^f^.^^her 22 20 4 15 1

advertisement with popular music (n = .... .lya.lHe 1.9,7* 8.9** 13.4*** 11.5***

104) was the least likely to have a celeb- »significant at the 0.01 level; "significant at the 0.05 level; ***noi significant

rity. This suggests that the music is to

at least some extent utilized as the

"star" of the commercial or the use of

both a familiar song and celebrity might cent of each of the advertising types uti- Demographic variabies

interfere with each other or at least lized animation or animals in the Table 3 shows the unique advertisements

be considered overkill. With regard to commercial. The most used executional with the presence of music (anywhere) in

humor, approximately 25 percent of cue was predictably people with be- a commercial in terms of the three demo-

each of the advertising types contained tween 77 percent and 87 percent of all graphic characteristic variables: gender, age,

some type of comedy appeal with the the advertising types utilizing humans. and race. As can be seen, some significant

exception of jingle advertisements, which In the next section will analyze their differences were obtained in the use of

only contained 17 percent. About 10 per- demographics. music and demographic characteristics. It

septerr^ber 2008 JOUROHL OF (IDUERTISinG RESERRCH 4 0 9

MUSIC PLACEIVIENT IN PRIME-TIME TV ADVERTISING

is clear from a macro perspective, and TABLE 4

probably not that surprising, that an ad- DJstributJon of Unjque Advertisements by Product Variablesvertisement with or without music is most

likely to include mixed genders, ages, and Popular, , , , , , , , ^ , ,, r Total Music Music Needledrop Jingle

races. While an analysis or the results or ,.„ , >^ W (n) (n) (n) (n)

the demographics of the people in these, , „ „ , Totai 715 617 86 501 30

commercials does not really tell us a lot, , J ^ „ Product category

about popular music, it does tell us some-^ ^ ....Mi?/.yM?.9 24 23 12 10 ,1

thine about advertisine. It appears that° o rr Autos, trucks, SUys, etc. 66 49 11 33 5

advertisers are utilizing a large propor-" o r r Baby: fpqd/s.uppl.ies 4 4 0 4 0

tion of mixed aees, races, and genders,° ° ....Ba.nk/in.su.rance/legal 33 26 9 15 2

This suggests that they are either appeal-°° ^ ^^ Cellphones 8 7 . . 9 7 0,

ine to broad demographics and/or are° ^ ^ ....Clothe? .7. .?. 2 3, 1

attempting to be politically correct. More' ° ^ ' Computers 7 7 2 4 1

research is necessary to determine if theDepartment stores 6 6 2 6 0

use of mixed aees, races, and eenders is" " .Discount stor?.?. .7 7 2 5 p

increasing. From a micro perspective, an^ r r .....Education/jobs 5 3 0 3 0

advertisement with any type of music.Entertainrrient 12 12 5 7 0

without mixed genders is more likely to° ^ Food 82 74 13 57 4

have females than males, without mixedHealth: beauty 44 43 6 34 3

aees is more likely to have people be-° ' '^ ^ Health: medical/fltness, 95. 84 4 79 1

tween the ages of 20-59, and without\\ome: cleaners/supplies 27 21 3 17 1 ,

mixed races is more likely to have allHorne: improyenient 20 17 1 14 0

Caucasians, With regard to race, an adver-Jnternet 2 2 0 2 0

tisement without mixed races or allJeyyelry 6 2 0 1 1

Caucasians was more likely to have allLottery 2 2 0 1 1

African-Americans (27) than Hispanics (3)^ >ê'wo:y.l%].tí(mr\ Rromptiori 178 158 5 148 5

or Asians (2),Organizations 8 5 0 5 0Oyernight delivery 3 2 0 2 0

Product variablesPets: food/supplies 4 4 2 2 0

Table 4 shows the unique advertisementsPolitical 3 2 0 2 0

with the presence of music (anywhere) in'^ V J / ....PSAs 16 11 1 10 0

a commercial in terms of the product cat-Real e s t a t e 4 3 0 3 0

eeory variables. As can be seen, sienifi-° ' ° Restaurants (fast; food) 12 11 .0 .8 3

cant differences were obtained in the useRestaurants (all others) 7 6 3 3 0

of music and product characteristics. TheStationary/office supplies 2 2 0 2 0

most total advertisements (N = 178) andTraye| 20 18i 3 14 1

music advertisements (n = 158) promoted^ X2 value 142.6* 101.8* 77,1* 40.4***

network or local entertainment and newsprograms. The second most observed prod- *S««'/íc«"í ai ti,e om level; "significant at the O.OS level; *"not significant

uct type of total and music advertise-

ments was for "Health: medical/fitness"

followed by "Food," observed advertisements for popular mu- category has collectively fueled its adver-

Of the music advertisements, the most sic were for audio/video products and tising with popular music since at leastobserved product type of advertisements autos, trucks, and SUVs, It is not surpris- 1970 when the Doors licensed "Light Mywith popular music (n = 13) was for com- ing that car and truck advertisements con- Fire" to Buick (Patton, 2002), The resultsmercials involving "Food," The next most tinue to use popular music. This product also indicate that the networks and local4 1 0 JOURnm OF HDUERTISIOG RE6ERRCH September 2 0 0 8


TABLE 5 oí music, most of the advertisements with

' ^ l immarv music (n = 583) contained music through-

out the advertisement.

Music Popular Music Needledrop Jingie Table 7 shows the unique advertise-

Network 13.8** 10.7* 8.3* 3.4*** ments with the presence of popular mu-sic (anywhere) in a commercial in terms

Time (EST) 8.6*** 9.4* 0.9*** 1.2*** Í m f tu • u ^ • ..•'. of 10 of the music characteristic van-

Day ^9-1*** l?^-.9.*** 7.2*** 2.6*** ables: genre, artist, artist gender, artist

Surrounding program 20.6*** 1.5.3** .?•!*** .?•?.*** age, artist number, artist shown perform-ing, music video, choreographed, edited.

Commercial type 50.1* 39.1* 36.8* 14.2***product relevance, and narrative rele-

y?)cewer 1.2*** 0.01*** 9.9* 0.2*** vanee. As can be seen, significant differ-

Celebrity 3.2*** 1.5*** 9.4*** 0.2*** enees were obtained in the use of music

Humor 1.2*** o.2*** 0.5*** 1.1*** ^'^'^ ^^^'^ commercial characteristics. Forthe advertisements with popular music.

Animation 0 .1*** 0.01*** l.O*** 0.05*** .u ,. u A I.:..".. the most observed genre was pop (n =

AniiTials .1-.5.*.*.* ^;.5.*** 0.2*** .9-5*** 32) being the most observed followed by

Humans 3.5*** 1.5*** 10.6* 0.5*** "^^^ (" ^ ^'^)- ô^ cases, the artistwas most likely male, adult, and part of

Gender 9 .1*** 8.8*** 5.8*** 1.1*** •' â group. Very few of these artists were

f;.é6 ::?.•.„ ...„;... .?;.T .7!:! ...*.* in the advertisements performing live or

Race 19.7* 8.9** 13.4*** 11.5*** in a music video.

Product category 142.6* 101.8* 77.1* 40.4*** ^ ' ^"^ * ^ P'-oduction of these adver-tisements, over 90 percent of advertise-

>Síjmyic««í at the ^0.01 level; '^significant at the 0.05 level; '"not significant ^^^^^ contained popular music that was

edited. Approximately 25 percent of these

advertisements were at least partially cho-

reographed. The choreography of adver-

stations are more likely to use a jingle or used popular music, 81 percent (n = 501) tisements with jingles (e.g., "I am stuck

needledrop than popular music. A sum- used needledrop, and 5 percent (n = on Band-aids") has historically been an

mary of programming, commercial char- 30) used jingles. Of the advertisements advertising executional technique. It is not

acteristics, demographics, and product with popular music, 63 were original vo- surprising then that the movement from

characteristics including significances are cals, 13 were original instrumentais, 5 were jingles to popular music in advertising

provided in Table 5. altered vocals, and 5 were cover vocals. (Berman, 2000) has also resulted in at

As for the prominence of the music in least the partial choreography of popular

Music variables the advertisements with music, it was most music to the narrative in some advertise-

Table 6 shows the unique advertisements often in the background in advertisements. Examples of this in this study

with the presence of music (anywhere) in ments with needledrop and jingles. But include the partially choreographed adver-

a commercial in terms of four of the mu- popular music was most often observed tisements for The Gap ("Summer Breeze"

sic characteristic variables: type, promi- in the foreground and most likely the by Seals and Crofts) and the fully choreo-

nence, amount, and if it is seasonal. As primary rather than secondary part of the graphed Applebee's advertisements

can be seen, significant differences were advertisement. These results indicate that ("Talk About Me" by Toby Keith). In re-

obtained in the use of music and these when advertisers use music it is usually gard to the relevance of the music to the

music characteristics. Of the total unique some type of generic unfamiliar (needle- product or service in the advertisement,

advertisements (N = 715), 86 percent (n = drop) in the background, but when famil- about 28 percent had some type of rele-

617) contained music. Of these unique iar music is used, it is usually original vanee, but 91 percent had some type of rel-

music advertisements, 14 percent (« = 86) vocals in the foreground. As for the amount evance to the narrative in the advertisement. '

September 2 0 0 8 JDÜBOIIL OF flDÜERTISlIlG BESEHRCH 4 1 1


TABLE 6 TABLE 7Distribution of Unique Advertisements by Music Distribution of UniqueCharacteristic Variables . Advertisements by Music

„ , Characteristic VariablesPopular

Total Music Music Neediedrop Jingie Popular

(N) (n) (n) (n) (n) Music(n)

Totai 715 617 86 501 30Total 86

Music version Music'gßnreOriginal vocal 6 3 6 3 Pop 32

Original instrumental 13 13 .....'?.?.9.': . .23

Cover vocal 5 5 ....R&B/hÍP.hoR i ^Dance/disco 3

Altered vocal 5 5

„„Needledrop 501 501

Jingle 30 30 Movie 1

Music prominence ..,.î 9!h ,?Background 516 18 479 19 ....Ja?.? .4Foreground—primary 37 29 4 4 ....^^!!r}?. I

Artist: genderForeground—secondary 64 39 18 7

Music amount f?!)?.?. . .?

Througiiout 583 73 480 30 Mixed 13

Siience/music 33 13 20 0 Artist: ageAdult 84

Silence/jingle 1 0 1 09H' .ê ^CÍH'Í/ I?.?' i

,.,,S??sonal 8 2 6 O Içhildrer'''"'"]""'''"]^^^'"^^Ârt/st; number

Single 40

Table 8 shows the distribution of the art- analyzing music placement in prime-time • ••^•^•° -

ists, titles, and brands for some of the ad- television advertising. Based on the re- ....^.'.9."P. Í.?

vertisements with popular music. The most suits it appears that this executional cue ^!'.'¡'.?.':-..R^íf.9!'!}?.'.'?.$..iíy?. .?

observed artist was Greenwheel ("Breathe") has increased drastically since the 1980s, ^!'^'îP^ÍÍ9':!J^!M.yJ<M ,4

in the Frasier network/station teases, fol- Overall, 94 percent of the total advertise- ^îM .7,?

lowed by The Intruders ("I'll Always Love ments (3,456) and 86 percent of the unique Ct)oreographed

My Mama") in the K-Mart Mother's Day advertisements (715) contained some type ....^!^^}.'f.^y. .?

commercials, Nikka Costa ("Everybody's of music. This is considerably higher than ....?.^!}:\^\^ï .?.?:

Got Their Something") and The Flaming the 42 percent that Stewart and Furse Product relevance

Lips ("Do You Realize") in Mitsubishi com- (1986) observed, but comparable to the 89 ,P,'.,®i?, ,?,

mercials, and Iggy Pop ("Lust For Life") in percent that Appelbaum and Halliburton ....\^^'!'^.9!; .9

the advertisements for Carnival cruises, (1993) reported. Of the unique music ad- .,.,.' ,9,r!i ?.?

vertisements, 14 percent contained popu- Narrative relevance

CONCLUSION lar music, 81 percent had needledrop, and ....9}:'.?.9:^. .5?

This s tudy was designed to supplement 5 percent utilized jingles. Because this is ....\"^!!^.9!: .?.?

and update the limited quantitative data the first study to observe specifically the ....f!*.?!] .?

4 1 2 JOÜRRRL OF RDUERTISIHG RESERRCH S e p t e m b e r 2 0 0 8


TABLE 8 placement of popular music in advertis-

Disthbution of Total Popular Music Advertisements by Artist, ^^' '^ '^ in^possîe to conclude that it isTitle and Brand increasing as was suggested in the back-

'- —— ground. It is now possible, however, to

Artist Title Brand (n) trend popular music integration in prime-

time television advertising.Greenwheel "Breathe" Frasier 24 A J J - - n i-

Additionally, this study was designed

The Intruders ".}!}}..^^y^^^^.}rP^^..^Ï..!^^!^?.''. ^'j!^.?!!} .1.? ^° provide a more robust qualitative analy-

Nikka Costa "Everybody's Got" Mitsubishi Endeavor 17 ^ ^ °^ "^^^^^ placement in television ad-vertising. The results provide a glimpse

The Flaming Lips "Do You Realize" Mitsubishi Galant 16 c . - •ot how advertisers are currently usmg

Iggy Pop "Lust For Life" Carnival 14 popular music in commercials. If an ad-

Seals & Croñs "Summer Breeze" The Gap 14 vertisement had popular music, it wasmost likely to be a nonnarrative dramati-

Toby Keith "Talk About Me" Applebee's 14 .. ,.„ ^. -.. , .•••• zation (47 percent). Most advertisements

C. W. McCall ".P.9!}y.9ï." ^^9. ^^ ^ ' * music contained a voice-over (91

Eyanesence "My Immortal" Friends 12 percent). Celebrities (28 percent), anima-

tion (12 percent), and animals (7 percent)Steppenwolf "Born To Be Wild" The Simple Life 2 11 i n i • j ..• • u••. were less likely in advertisements with

Devo "Whip It" Raising Helen 10 popular music than advertisements

KC& Sunshine; Band ;;i;rTi Your Boogie Man" Scary Movie 3 10 "^'^^ needledrop or jingle. Most musicadvertisements of all types had people in

Bananarama "Venus" Venus Divine 9 û /OA ..N J r • Jthem (84 percent) and were of mixed gen-

Foghat "Slow Ride" True Value 9 ders (62 percent), ages (57 percent), and

Modest Mouse "Gravity Rides Everything" Nissan Qwest 8 races (27 percent). Additionally, there wasmore likely to be a popular song in a food

Buscom Lunsord "Dry Bones" Pedigree Jumbone 7 . ir .N -• / • . Â ^• '^ (15 percent), audio/video (14 percent), or

Dick Dale "Miserlou" Nissan Armada 7 automotive (13 percent) advertisement; a

Johnny Rogers "Secret Agent Man" Wal-Mart 7 jingle in a fast food advertisement (10percent); and needledrop in a health or

My Morning Jacket "It Still Moves" Aspen 7 c - ^ A ,.• ^ i-^r ^\ K c••••• : : r : ^ ; fitness advertisement (16 percent). As forRick James "Give It To Me Baby" Chevy Equinox 6 the prominence of the music in the adver-

Romantics "VVhat I Like About You" T;G.I. Friday's 6 tisements, if the music was in the fore-ground, it was more likely to be popular

I^^.în?^ ":^:. iP°^ 6 ^^gi^ (67 percent). It was also more likely

Ace of Base "I Saw The Sign" Bally's 5 to be the primary rather than secondary

Billy Joel "Movin'Out" Mastercard 5 part of the advertisement (78 percent). Ifit was in the background, it was more

?^'?n.M?nd ::it!y.B^?y .T ^ y .Weeny.Bikirii; Voplait 5 ^kely to be an advertisement with needle-

Deep Purple "Smoke on the Water" HP/Fender 5 drop (93 percent). More commercials with

^„ , ,„ , „., j.. „ r, -^ > r^ ^ any type of music had it throughout theGo-Gos Vacation Capitol One 4 -' -"^ &

advertisement (94 percent) and it was ed-SPi il f: ::i:[LB .Afi 4^d" Alênguest 4 ited (91 percent). Some of the advertise-Steven Tyler "The Grind" Sony 4 ments had the action in the advertisement

T-u «« u 4.4. ..ou- r- ,. r, choreographed to the popular music (28The Manhattans Shinning Star Song 4 " ^ ^ ^

percent), and the majority of these were::ihe Way You Move;; Breakin; Ail the Rules 4 ^^ly partially choreographed (88 percent).

September 2 0 0 8 JDURHIIL DF BDÜERTISIOG RESEBRCH 4 1 3


A very important observation from this study is tiiat

popuiar music is more iiiceiy to be reievant to tiie

advertisement narrative (91 percent) tiian the product

or service (28 percent). This suggests that popuiar music

is being utiiized by some advertisers to provide some

type of reievance or perspective to the action in the

advertisement for the consumer with the purpose of in-

creasing the consumer's invoivement in the commerciai.

A very important observation from thisstudy is that popular music is more likelyto be relevant to the advertisement narra-tive (91 percent) than the product or ser-vice (28 percent). This suggests thatpopular music is being utilized by someadvertisers to provide some type of rele-vance or at least perspective (e,g,, time,place) to the action in the advertisementfor the consumer with the purpose ofincreasing the consumer's involvement inthe commercial. Past research suggestedthat product relevance to the music canbe an important determinant of the musicas an executional cue. It appears that ad-vertisers and advertising agencies are se-lecting music to "fit" the action ratherthan the product. This contradicts pastresearch that concluded that a commer-cial is more effective when the music, insome way, pertains to the product (Alpertand Alpert, 1991; Brooker and Wheatley,1994; Maclnnis and Park, 1991), It doessuggest, however, that advertisers are us-ing popular music to stimulate some typeof personal relevance of the narrative tothe consumer to stimulate involvement

(Zaichkowsky, 1994), possibly resulting in

a more central route to persuasion (Petty

and Cacioppo, 1986),

LIMiTATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

While content analysis provides a thor-ough and objective report on how musicis being used in prime-time television ad-vertising and how much, it is limited inits ability to provide any explanation forwhy it is used or its effectiveness. Anunderstanding of the context in whichmusic is being utilized or confirmation ofan increase or decrease use of music incommercials by advertisers does not nec-essarily mean that music has been deter-mined by advertisers to be more or lesseffective than other executional cues. Ad-ditionally, although this study utilized acomparatively large sample of commer-cials, it was still just a snapshot of oneweek from one year. Additional studiesand samples will allow more generaliza-tions and conclusions.

Despite its limitations, this study pro-vides a foundation for future researchinto the potential of music, especially pop-

ular music, to enhance advertising effec-tiveness. The next step is to build uponthis foundation in each of the variablecategories (programming, commercial char-acteristics, demographics, product charac-teristics, and music characteristics). Forinstance, does the time of day or sur-rounding program (programming) pro-vide for greater or lesser effectiveness ofadvertising with music? Do nonnarrativedramatizations (commercial characteris-tics) interact most effectively with musicor are most commercials now of that type?Is it a coincidence or by design that cer-tain ages and races (demographics) areused with certain types of music? Whyare automotive advertisements (product)more likely to contain (popular) musicthan other product categories? And whattypes of music most effectively interactwith what other variables? Further re-search should also be completed to com-pare such areas as the effectiveness ofpopular music's relevance to the adver-tisement narrative versus the product. Fi-nally, it has been over 20 years sinceStewart and Furse (1986) completed theirwidely cited research that included thepercentage of music in television adver-tising. Future research can now continuethe process of trending its use longitudi-nally to quantify how much is being usedand to qualify how it is being used. In-cluded in this is the continued discus-sion of the societal effects of using acultural product like popular music inadvertising,

DAVID ALLAN (Ph.D., Temple University) is an assistant

professor of marketing In the Erivan K. Haub School

of Business at Saint Joseph's University in Philadel-

phia, Pennsylvania. He has published articles in jour-

nals such as the Journal of Advertising Research, the

Journai of Advertising and Society, the Journal of Media

Psychology, and Popular Musicology in the area of

advertising and music. He has been quoted in publi-

cations such as The Washington Post. Chicago Tribune,

4 1 4 JOÜRRRL DF RDÜERTISIRG RESERRCR September 2 0 0 8


and The Philadelphia Inquirer. He has taught exten-

sively in the area of marketing communications. Prior

to his academic career, Dr. Allan spent over 20 years

in the radio industry.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This article was presented on August 3 at the

2006 Association for the Education of Journal-

ism and Mass Communication Conference in

San Francisco, CA.

The author would hke to thank Dr. Sari

Thomas for her inspiration and guidance with

this research.

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