All You Need B1 - Grammar in Greek2

7/21/2019 All You Need B1 - Grammar in Greek2

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18 All you need B1+

PASSIVE FORMS ACTIVE (examples) PASSIVE (examples)

PAST CONTINUOUSwas / were being + past participle

She was cleaning the house.They were writing e-mails.

The house was being cleaned.E-mails were being written.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE *have / has been + past participle

She has cleaned the house.They have written e-mails.

The house has been cleaned.E-mails have been written.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE *had been + past participle

She had cleaned the house.They had written e-mails.

The house had been cleaned.E-mails had been written.

FUTURE SIMPLE *will be + past participle

She will clean the house.They will write e-mails.

The house will be cleaned.E-mails will be written.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE *will have been + past participle

She will have cleaned the house.They will have written e-mails.

The house will have been cleaned.E-mails will have been written.

BE GOING TOam/ is/ are going to be + past part.

She is going to clean the house.They are going to write e-mails.

The house is going to be cleaned.E-mails are going to be written.

MODAL & SEMI-MODAL VERBS(semi) modal + be + past participle

She might clean the house.They have to write e-mails.

The house might be cleaned.E-mails have to be written.

IMPERATIVEmust /should + be + past participle

Clean the house!Write the e-mails!

The house must / should be cleaned.The e-mails must / should be written.

* Οι εξακολουθητικοί (continuous) τύποι αυτών των χρόνων δε σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή.

NOTES

• Προσοχή στη θέση του by σε παθητικές ερωτήσεις με who.

Active: Who built that house? Passive: Who was that house built by ? (πιο σύνηθες)

By whom was that house built? (σπάνιο, επίσημο)

• Τα phrasal verbs ακολουθούνται από τις προθέσεις τους στην παθητική φωνή.

Active: Someone broke into my office the other day. Passive: My office was broken into the other day.

• Δε σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή ρήματα που δεν παίρνουν άμεσο αντικείμενο (αμετάβατα), όπως:

appear, disappear, grow (μεγαλώνω, αυξάνομαι), happen, occur (συμβαίνει, προκύπτει), consist of (αποτελούμαι από),

sleep, become, go, fall, come ... He has appeared in two plays so far. ( NOT has been appeared )

Passive Voice (3): Special CasesLesson 10a

MAKE, SEE, HEAR, LET

Active Passive forms ACTIVE VOICE (examples) PASSIVE VOICE (examples)

make sb do be made to do

Our mother makes us tidy up our rooms

every Saturday.

We are made to tidy up our rooms every

Saturday.

see sb do be seen to do

We saw him drive by in his new car. He was seen to drive by in his new car.

hear sb do be heard to do

Everyone heard Betty shout at her sister. Betty was heard to shout at her sister.

let sb do be allowed to do

My parents let me stay up late at the

weekend.

I am allowed to stay up late at the weekend.

Προσοχή στη μετατροπή των ρήματων make, see, hear, let (+ sb + do) σε παθητική φωνή:



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Double-object verbs (δίπτωτα ρήματα) ονομάζονται τα ρήματα που παίρνουν δύο αντικείμενα: ένα έμμεσο(1) (πρόσωπο) και

ένα άμεσο(2) (πράγμα).

Ε.g. give, bring, show, offer, send, ... +sb(1) + sth(2)

We gave Martha (1) a present.(2) I'm sending him (1) an e-mail.(2)

Τα ρήματα αυτά σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή με τους εξής δύο τρόπους:

Active: We gave Martha(1)

a present.(2)

Passive: 1. Martha was given a present. (πιο σύνηθες) 2. A present was given to Martha. (πιο σπάνιο, για έμφαση)

Active: I'm sending him (1) an e-mail.(2)

Passive: 1. He is being sent an e-mail. (πιο σύνηθες) 2. An e-mail is being sent to him. (πιο σπάνιο, για έμφαση)

PASSIVE INFINITIVE vs. PASSIVE GERUND

DOUBLE-OBJECT VERBS

Active infinitives: Passive infinitives:

You must finish your project by Monday. Your project must be finished by Monday.They have to find a solution. A solution has to be found .

Active gerunds: Passive gerunds:

He hates people telling him what to do. He hates being told what to do.

We enjoy Mr Lee teaching us new things. We enjoy being taught new things by Mr Lee.

Το infinitive της ενεργητικής φωνής μετατρέπεται σε passive infinitive (be + past participle) στην παθητική.

Αντίστοιχα, το gerund της ενεργητικής φωνής μετατρέπεται σε passive gerund (being + past participle) στην παθητική.

be + past participle being + past participle

Passive Voice (4): Personal vs. Impersonal StructuresLesson 10b

BE SAID, BELIEVED, THOUGHT, KNOWN ...

Ρήματα όπως say, believe, think, know, expect, report, κτλ. σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή με δύο τρόπους:

την απρόσωπη(1) (impersonal) και την προσωπική(2) (personal) σύνταξη.

1. Impersonal structure: It + passive verb (+ that) + clause (πρόταση)

2. Personal structure: Subject + passive verb + to + infinitive

Active: People think (that) his new novel is excellent.

Passive: 1. It is thought (that) his new novel is excellent.

2. His new novel is thought to be excellent.

Active: Everyone knows (that) we are the best in our field.

Passive: 1. It is known (that) we are the best in our field.

2. We are known to be the best in our field.

Active: They say (that) Ken has stolen the money.

Passive: 1. It is said (that) Ken has stolen the money.

2. Ken is said to have stolen the money.

Active: The newspaper reported (that) the police have

arrested the thieves.

Passive: 1. It was reported (that) the police have arrested

the thieves.

2. The police were reported to have arrested

the thieves.

NOTES:

1. Προσοχή στη συμφωνία των χρόνων των εισαγωγικών

ρημάτων μεταξύ ενεργητικής και παθητικής φωνής.

They say (that) he is ...

It is said that he is ... / He is said to be ...

They said (that) he is ...

It was said that he is ... / He was said to be ...

They have said (that) he is ...

It has been said that he is ... /

He has been said to be ...

2. Η προσωπική παθητική σύνταξη ακολουθείται από past

infinitive (= have + past participle) όταν το ρήμα της

δευτερεύουσας πρότασης στην ενεργητική είναι σε past

simple ή present / past perfect.

They say (that) he was / has been / had been ...

He is said to have been ...

People believe (that) he stole / has stolen / had stolen ...

He is believed to have stolen ...



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Conditionals (1): Ζero & First - Temporals

FIRST CONDITIONAL USE EXAMPLES

• If + Present Simple , + Future Simple

If + Present Simple , + can / may + infinitive

• If + Present Simple , Imperative

• πιθανά αποτελέσματα

στο μέλλον

• προσταγές υπό

προϋποθέσεις

If he tries hard enough, he will / can /

may pass the exam.

If you see Kevin, ( don't ) tell him about

the party.

Lesson 11a

ZERO CONDITIONAL USE EXAMPLES

• If + Present Simple , + Present Simple

or: When + Present Simple , ...

• γενικές αλήθειες &

συνήθη αποτελέσματα

πράξεων

If / When you boil water, it evaporates .

If / When he doesn’t sleep enough, he is

in a bad mood all day long.

TEMPORALS USE EXAMPLES

When (*) + Present tenses , + Future tenses

(*) as soon as, once, after, before, until / till, while, by the time, ...

χρονικές προτάσεις

με μελλοντική

σημασία

When I wake up, I will have a shower.

Once he has finished his project, he willtake some time off.

NOTES

1. Σε περίπτωση που προηγείται η απόδοση και ακολουθεί η υπόθεση, δε χωρίζονται οι προτάσεις με κόμμα.

We will take the bus to school if mum doesn't drive us. BUT: If mum doesn't drive us to school, we will take the bus.2. Μπορούμε να βάλουμε unless + affirmative (αν δεν, εκτός κι αν) στη θέση του if + negative και το αντίστροφο.

If she doesn’t pay attention, she won’t understand this. Unless she pays attention, she won't understand this.

3. Για να εκφράσουμε προϋποθέσεις ή ενδεχόμενα μπορούμε να βάλουμε στη θέση του if τα παρακάτω:

• providing / provided (that) (με τον όρο να) I will lend you the car providing ( that ) you drive carefully.

• as long as (εφόσον, με την προϋπόθεση να) As long as you do your homework, Mr White will be happy.

• in case (σε περίπτωση που, μην τυχόν και) I will take my umbrella in case it rains.

* REMEMBER:Οι χρονικοί σύνδεσμοι δε συντάσσονται ποτέ με Future tenses. (NOT: When I will wake up, ... / Once he will have finished ...)

Ακολουθούνται από Present Simple ή Present Perfect (για να τονίσουμε την ολοκλήρωση μιας πράξης στο μέλλον).

Conditionals (2): Second & ThirdLesson 11b

SECOND CONDITIONAL USE EXAMPLES

If + Past Simple , + would

+ could + infinitive

+ might

• φανταστικά σενάρια

στο παρόν ή το μέλλον

• συμβουλές, συστάσεις

1. If we had a lot of money, we would /

could / might buy a yacht.

2. If I were* you, I would see a doctor.

THIRD CONDITIONAL USE EXAMPLES

If + Past Perfect , + would have

+ could have +

+ might have

φανταστικά σενάρια στο

παρελθόν (συχνά γιαπράξεις που μετανιώνουμε)

1. If I had hurried* up, I wouldn’t

have missed the train.2. If he had fallen* , he could / might

have broken his leg.

(*) Βάζουμε were σε όλα τα πρόσωπα του ρήματος be μετά το if. (NOT: If I was you, ...)

pastparticiple





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MODAL PERFECT FORMS USE EXAMPLES

could(n't) have + pastparticiple

δυνατότητα στο παρελθόν= (δεν) θα μπορούσε να είχε γίνει

κάτι (αλλά έγινε το αντίθετο)

I could have left after the film but I stayed.

He couldn't have avoided me. He had no

choice but talk to me.

should(n't) haveought (not) to have

+ past

participle

υποχρέωση /συμβουλή για το

παρελθόν= (δεν) έπρεπε να γίνει κάτι (αλλάέγινε το αντίθετο)

You shouldn’t have eaten so much pizza. No

wonder your stomach hurts.

They ought to have accepted your offer. I’m

sure they will regret it.

would(n't) have + pastparticiple

ανεκπλήρωτη πράξη στο παρελθόν

(+ 3rd conditional)= (δεν) θα είχε γίνει κάτι (υπόάλλες συνθήκες)

We would have bought that MP3 player but we

didn’t have enough money.

If I had seen to it, I wouldn't have run out of gas.

Οι σχηματισμοί modal verb + have + past participle ονομάζονται Modal Perfect Forms.

Αναφέρονται στο παρελθόν δηλώνοντας βεβαιότητα, πιθανότητα, δυνατότητα ή υποχρέωση. Σε αυτούς περιλαμβάνεται

και το would have + past participle του 3ου υποθετικού λόγου που βλέπουμε εδώ σε επανάληψη.

REMEMBER:needn't have + past participle didn't need to + infinitive

You needn’t have washed my black shirt again! It was perfectly clean! (=δε χρειαζόταν αλλά το έκανες)

BUT: I didn't need to wash my black shirt because it was clean. (=δε χρειάστηκε και δεν το έκανα)

must have + past participle had to + infinitive

He must have left early. He was very tired. (=μάλλον έφυγε - το υποθέτουμε)

BUT: He had to leave early. He had work to do. (=έπρεπε να φύγει και το έκανε)

QUESTION WORDS

SUBJECT QUESTIONS

Α. WH-QUESTIONS

who Who sent this message?

whom With whom are you going out? (σπάνιο)

(BUT: Who are you going out with?)

whose Whose is this pen? / Whose pen is this?

what What would you like to eat?

which Which bag is yours?

Which (one) is your car?

where Where were you born? when When will you travel to France?

why Why are you so sad today?

Questions & Question TagsLesson 13a

B. HOW-QUESTIONS

how How was the wedding ceremony?

how much How much money do you need?

how many How many people have you invited?

how long How long have you been / lived here?

how often How often do you go to the gym?

how + adj./ adv. How old / tall is your brother?

How thick is this wall?

How fast is your new car / can you run?

How far is the nearest hospital?

How long is Mary’s new skirt?

Όταν ρωτάμε για το υποκείμενο μιας πρότασης κάνουμε subject questions. Στις ερωτήσεις αυτές, η ερωτηματική λέξη είναι το υποκείμενο (S). Το ρήμα ( V ) ακολουθεί χωρίς να αλλάξει μορφή. Συνεπώς δεν προσθέτουμε τα βοηθητικά do/does &did στον Present Simple & Past Simple.

(S) ( V )

The rain damaged the plants.

‘ What damaged the plants?'‘ The rain (did).'

(NOT: What did damage the plants? )

(S) ( V )

That kid took my bag.

‘ Which kid took your bag?’‘ That one (did).'

(NOT: Which kid did take your bag? )

(S) ( V )

Romeo loves Juliet.

‘ Who loves Juliet?’‘ Romeo (does).’

(NOT: Who does love Juliet? )



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QUESTION TAGS SO - NEITHER/NOR

Question tags είναι σύντομες ερωτήσεις στο τέλος των προτάσεων πουζητούν επιβεβαίωση (=έτσι δεν είναι;). Αποτελούνται από ένα βοηθητικόρήμα (ή modal) και μια προσωπική αντωνυμία. Όταν η πρόταση είναι σεκατάφαση, τα question tags είναι σε άρνηση και το αντίστροφο.

Χρησιμοποιούμε So ή Neither/Nor για νασυμφωνήσουμε με καταφατικές ή αρνητικέςπροτάσεις αντίστοιχα.

FORM:So + auxiliary verb + subjectNeither/Nor

EXAMPLES:

- She plays tennis. - Kate went to school.- So do I. - So did Ben.

- John can’t swim. - Mary doesn’t eat meat.- Neither/Nor can I. - Neither/Nor does Kim.

The Lees live here, don’t they? Mary locked up, didn’t she?

You aren’t sleeping , are you? He hasn’t got a sister, has he? Bob ’s watching TV, isn’t he? We' d better go now, hadn't we?

REMEMBER: Τα υπόλοιπα είδη ερωτήσεων με ερωτηματικές λέξεις συντάσσονται διαφορετικά:Ερωτηματική λέξη - V 1 (βοηθητικό/modal) - Υποκείμενο (S) - V 2 (κύριο ρήμα)

(S) ( V )

Romeo loves Juliet .( V 1) (S) ( V 2)

- ‘ Who does Romeo love?' / - ‘ Juliet .'

(S) ( V )

That kid took my bag .( V 1) (S) ( V 2)

‘ What did that kid take?' / - ‘ My bag ’.

SPECIAL CASES:• Imperative Write to me, will you / won’t you ?

Don’t shout, will you ? • I am I’m taller than you, aren’t I ? • let’s Let’s go for a walk, shall we ?

• there is/are There is room for me, isn’t there ? • someone, everyone ... Everyone came, didn’t they ? • something, everything Something's wrong, isn’t it ? • no-one, nobody Nobody knows, do they ? • nothing Nothing has happened, has it ?

POSSESSIVE CASE vs. "OF"

Personal Pronouns, Possessives & Possessive Case

REMEMBER:

Subject pronouns Υποκείμενα ρημάτων

He is coming out. They have arrived.

Object pronouns Αντικείμενα ρημάτων ή μετά

από προθέσεις

We can't see him . Don't worry about them .

Possessive adjectives Συνοδεύουν ουσιαστικά

My house is here. That's our car.

Possessive pronouns Αντικαθιστούν ουσιαστικά

This house is mine . Which one is yours ?

This car is ours . That one is theirs .

Lesson 13b

FORMS USE EXAMPLES

's 1. ουσιαστικά ενικού αριθμού

2. κύρια ονόματα

3. ουσιαστικά με ανώμαλο πληθυντικό (χωρίς -s)

4. αναφορές σε τόπο ή χρόνο

1. that boy ’s toys, my mother ’s dress, this man ’s eyes

2. Bob ’s toys, Mrs Brown ’s dress, John Lee ’s eyes

3. the children ’s toys, those women ’s / men ’s clothes

4. at the chemist ’s , at the greengrocer ’s , at Mary ’s (house)

today ’s news, yesterday ’s exam, tomorrow ’s test

(-s)' 1. ουσιαστικά πληθυντικού αριθμού (σε -s)

2. κύρια ονόματα πληθυντικού (οικογένειες)

1. those boys ’ toys, my parents ’ car

2. the Browns ’ house, the Lees ’ car

of 1. πράγματα / αφηρημένες έννοιες

2. σύνταξη noun + of + possessive pronoun

name + 's

1. the colour of that car, this way of life

2. a teacher of mine, this/that cousin of yours

a friend of Helen’s, those neighbours of John’s

SUBJECT

PRONOUNS

OBJECT

PRONOUNS

POSSESSIVE

ADJECTIVES

POSSESSIVE

PRONOUNS

I me my mine

you you your yours

he

sheit

him

herit

his

herits

his

hers--

we us our ours

you you your yours

they them their theirs

Για να δηλώσουμε κτήση χρησιμοποιούμε τη Γενική Κτητική (Possessive Case) ή την πρόθεση of στις εξής περιπτώσεις:



24 All you need B1+

NOTE 1:

Peter ’s and Tim ’s houses = ο καθένας έχει το δικό του σπίτι

BUT: Cathy and Stella ’s room = το δωμάτιο ανήκει και στις δύο

NOTE 2:

Σε ονομασίες τοποθεσιών βάζουμε είτε ’s, είτε of.

London ’s population OR the population of London

Relative PronounsLesson 14a

RELATIVE PRONOUNS USE EXAMPLES

who αναφορά σε πρόσωπα

(ο/η/το οποίος,α,ο, οι/τα οποίοι,ες,α / που)

This is the lady who has just moved in next door.Is that the boy who you met yesterday?

whom

στη θέση του who:

1. ως αντικείμενο ρήματος (σπάνια)2. μετά από προθέσεις

1. Is that the boy whom / who you met yesterday?

2. Those are the people with whom I work. BUT: Those are the people who I work with.

which αναφορά σε ζώα ή πράγματα

(ο/η/το οποίος,α,ο, οι/τα οποίοι,ες,α / που)

The box which is on that table is very heavy.

I must return the book which I borrowed from Tim.

whose αναφορά σε κτήτορα

(του οποίου, της οποίας, των οποίων)

Sam’s dating a girl whose mother is a doctor.

( NOT : whose the / her mother)

where αναφορά σε τόπο (όπου)

(ALSO: in / on / at / to which)Let’s visit the place where mum grew up.

OR : Let’s visit the place in which mum grew up.

when αναφορά σε χρόνο (όταν, που) I’ll never forget the day when we first met.

that στη θέση των who(m), which & when

(ONLY in defining relative clauses - see 14b)

That’s the man that / who stole my bag! Can you see the dog that / which is barking? Was it during the week that / when I was ill?

Oι αναφορικές αντωνυμίες (relative pronouns) εισάγουν δευτερεύουσες αναφορικές προτάσεις (relative clauses) και

αναφέρονται σε πρόσωπα, πράγματα ή ζώα, κτήση, τόπο και χρόνο όπως βλέπουμε αναλυτικά εδώ.

Relative Clauses: Defining vs. Non-DefiningLesson 14b Υπάρχουν δύο είδη αναφορικών προτάσεων: οι προσδιοριστικές (defining) και οι μη προσδιοριστικές (non - defining).

Τα χαρακτηριστικά τους και οι διαφορές τους είναι οι εξής:

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

1. Δίνουν απαραίτητες πληροφορίες. Χωρίς αυτές δε θα

καταλάβαιναν οι άλλοι σε τι/ποιον αναφερόμαστε.

The woman who works in this bank is Rob’s mother.

NOT : The woman is Rob’s mother. (Which woman?)

1. Δίνουν επιπρόσθετες πληροφορίες. Χωρίς αυτές

παραμένει ξεκάθαρο σε τι/ποιον αναφερόμαστε.

Shakespeare, who was a playwright, was born in 1564.

Shakespeare was born in 1564. (OK!)

2. Δε διαχωρίζονται από τις κύριες προτάσεις με κόμματα.

I need the book which is on your desk.

2. Διαχωρίζονται από τις κύριες προτάσεις με κόμματα.

I need my maths book , which is on your desk.

3. Εισάγονται προαιρετικά και με that.

The woman who / that works in this bank is Rob’s mother.

I need the book which / that is on your desk.

3. Δεν εισάγονται ποτέ με that.

NOT: Shakespeare, that was a playwright, was born ...

NOT: I need my maths book , that is on your desk.

4. Τα who(m), which, that μπορούν να παραληφθούν εάν

είναι σε θέση αντικειμένου (πριν από υποκείμενο + ρήμα ).

The boy who ( m )/ that we saw in the park is Mary’s friend.

The boy we saw in the park is Mary’s friend.

4. Δεν παραλείπονται ποτέ οι αναφορικές αντωνυμίες τους.

Mary’s friend, who we saw in the park, is 12 years old.

NOT: Mary’s friend, we saw in the park, is ...



25 All you need B1+

ΝΟΤΕ ON PREPOSITIONS:

That’s the woman. He was talking to her.

That’s the woman to whom he was talking. (σπάνιο, επίσημο)

That’s the woman who / that he was talking to . (πιο σύνηθες)

OR: That’s the woman he was talking to .

She has lost the doll. She sleeps with it.

She has lost the doll with which she sleeps. (σπάνιο, επίσημο)

She has lost the doll which / that she sleeps with . (πιο σύνηθες)

OR: She has lost the doll she sleeps with .

Nouns: Countable & Uncountable - Quantifiers

Τα μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά (countable nouns) σχηματίζουνπληθυντικό ως εξής:

1. με κατάληξη -s: school - school s , house - house s

2. με κατάληξη -es όταν λήγουν σε -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o:bus - bus es dress - dress es

brush - brush es church - chuch es

box - box es potato - potato es ΒUT: photo - photo s , kilo - kilo s , video - video s (ουσιαστικά ξένης προέλευσης)

3. με κατάληξη -ies όταν λήγουν σε σύμφωνο + y:lady - lad ies baby - bab ies

4. με κατάληξη -ves όταν λήγουν σε -f, -fe:leaf - lea ves knife - kni ves

BUT: roof - roof s , handkerchief - handkerchief s

5. με ανώμαλο τρόπο:man - m e n mouse - mice

woman - wom e n child - child ren foot - f ee t sheep - sheep

tooth - t ee th fish - fish goose - g ee se species - species ox - ox en deer - deer

NOTE: Κάποια μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά έχουν ΜΟΝΟπληθυντικό αριθμό. Συνήθως αναφέρονται σε:

• πράγματα που αποτελούνται από δύο μέρη όπως:glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts, scissors, pyjamas, etc.

These shorts are dirty. Your jeans need washing.

Για να τα αριθμήσουμε, χρησιμοποιούμε τη λέξη pair:one pair of jeans, two pairs of scissors, ...

• πράγματα που από τη φύση τους αποτελούνται απόπολλές μονάδες, κομμάτια ή μέλη όπως:clothes, stairs, goods, etc.

My clothe s are still wet. The stair s have collapsed.

Lesson 15a

Τα μη μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά (uncountable nouns) δενμπορούν να απαριθμηθούν και δεν έχουν πληθυντικόαριθμό. Πρόκειται συνήθως για:

• τροφές / υγρά: cheese, bread, butter, meat, sugar,

chocolate, fruit, water, milk, juice, oil, petrol, ...

• υλικά: paper, plastic, cotton, metal, wool, wood, ...

• αφηρημένες έννοιες: love, hate, health, freedom, ...• διάφορα άλλα: fun, time, traffic, help, advice, baggage,

luggage, equipment, furniture, money, hair, information,

rubbish, weather, accommodation, work, ...

Για να αναφερθούμε στην ποσότητά τους χρησιμοποιούμεμονάδες μέτρησης ή άλλα ουσιαστικά + of:

a kilo of flour a carton of milk 200 grams of sugar a jar of honey / jam a pound of ham a loaf of bread

a litre of juice / water a packet of tea a bar of chocolate / soap a piece / slice of cheese a bowl of soup a tube of toothpaste

a can of coke / beer a bag of flour a piece of information / advice / furniture / baggage

NOTES:

• Το ουσιαστικό news (ειδήσεις, νέα) και σχολικάμαθήματα όπως maths , physics , gymnastics , ... αν καιέχουν καταλήξεις πληθυντικού, συντάσσονται με ρήματασε ενικό αριθμό:

There is good news and bad news. ( NOT are)

Maths has always been my favourite subject. ( NOT have)

• Αντίστροφα, το ουσιαστικό police (αστυνομία), αν καιέχει μορφή ενικού αριθμού, συντάσσεται πάντα με

ρήματα πληθυντικού: The police are investigating this case. ( NOT is)

QUANTIFIERS COUNTABLE NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

muchmany

------ X ------

There aren't many people in this room.

We haven't got much sugar left.

------ X ------

a little (+)little (-)

------ X ------

------ X ------

There's still a little soup in the pot. (= λίγο που αρκεί)

I have little time for hobbies. (= πολύ λίγο, δεν αρκεί)

a few (+)few (-)

Ι get by with a few dollars a week. (=λίγα που αρκούν)

Few people like that man. (=πολύ λίγοι, δεν αρκούν)

------ X ------ ------ X ------

a lot of / lots of

plenty ofsomeanyno

We've got a lot of / lots of roses in our garden.I usually buy plenty of vegetables.There are some pens here.

Are there any pens here? / There aren't any pens.There are no potatoes left.

There is a lot of / lots of chocolate in this cake.We’ve got plenty of juice in the fridge.I need to buy some butter.

Do you need any butter? / I don't need any butter.There is no furniture in my new flat.

COUNTABLE NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS



26 All you need B1+

NOTES: Τα much / many χρησιμοποιούνται συνήθως στην άρνηση και την ερώτηση. Τα συναντάμε και σε κατάφαση κυρίωςμετά από λέξεις όπως too, as, so. E.g. I've spent too much money. / Take as many apples as you want.

Το some χρησιμοποιείται και στην ερώτηση όταν π.χ. προσφέρουμε, ζητάμε κάτι ή περιμένουμε θετική απάντηση. - Would you like some more cake / peanuts? - Yes, please. - Can I have some water, please?

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE & MOVEMENT

Prepositions of Time & Place - Articles

on (+ μέρες)

on Mondayon Monday morningon 18th Mayon a hot / cold dayon my birthdayon Christmas Eve

on (για μεταφορικάμέσα / επιφάνειες)

on the bus, train, planeon the beach / coaston this floor / the farmon page ten

to (για κατεύθυνση)I'm going ...

to France, to the UK ...to the cinema ...to bed, to work, to schoolto the beach, to the party

by <> until / till

I’ll be at home by ten.

(το πολύ μέχρι τις δέκα)

I’ll be there until / till ten.

(μέχρι τις δέκα ακριβώς)

Lesson 15b

ARTICLES

at (+ χρονικό σημείο)

at ten o’clockat Christmas / Easterat noon / middayat breakfast / lunch / dinnerat the momentBUT: at night, at the weekend

in (για εσωτερικό κλειστών χώρων / τοποθεσίες)

in the garden / housein bed, in classin France, in the UK /USAin London

MORE PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE:

over (πάνω από) The lamp hangs over my bed.

above (πάνω από) There’s a sign above the door.

inside (μέσα σε) Let’s see what’s inside the box.

outside (έξω από) I’m waiting outside the bank.

under (κάτω από) There’s a shoe under the bed.

below (κάτω από) I wear my skirts below the knee.

near (κοντά σε) Is there a post office near here?

next to (δίπλα σε) The dentist’s is next to the bank.

in (+ χρονική περίοδος)

in the eleventh centuryin 1996, in 2005in spring, in (the) summerin September, in Augustin the morning, in the afternoonin two hours / ten minutes

at (για συγκεκριμένα σημεία,κτίρια, περιβάλλοντα)

at the bus stop, at the cornerat the station / cinema / theatreat home, at school, at workat the party

NOTE: during + noun She fell asleep during the lesson. (πρόθεση = «κατά τη διάρκεια του/της/των»)

while + clause BUT: She fell asleep while she was listening to the teacher. (σύνδεσμος = «ενώ»)

MORE PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT:

up / down We ran up / down the stairs.

into / out of They've just got into / out of the car.

from He got back from work very tired.

towards (προς) She was walking towards him angrily.

beside / by (δίπλα σε) Their house is beside / by the lake.in front of (μπροστά σε) There's a tree in front of the house.

behind (πίσω από) The pool is behind that fence.

between (μεταξύ δύο) Lia is sitting between Tim and Tom.

among (ανάμεσα This painting was among old things.

σε πολλά)

opposite (απέναντι) Her desk is opposite the window.

(a)round (γύρω από) There’s a garden ( a )round our school.

along (κατά μήκος) Walk along High Street.

across (κατά πλάτος) I swam across the river.

past (μπροστά από) Walk past the church.

through (διαμέσου) Did you run through the forest?

A / AN THE ZERO ARTICLE

1. όταν μιλάμε γενικά για κάτι Ηe wants to buy a car.

2. εκφράσεις μετρήσεων, ταχύτητας ή συχνότητας:

a thousand, a million, fiftykilometres an hour, oncea week, twice a month /

a year

3. ιδιότητα, επάγγελμα,θρησκεία:

He’s a student / a teacher.She’s a Catholic.

1. όταν μιλάμε για κάτι συγκεκριμένο

The people of this village work in farms.

2. κύρια ονόματα πληθυντικού (οικογένειες,οροσειρές, νησιά, ενωμένα κράτη): the Smiths,the Alps, the Bahamas, the UK, the USA ...

3. ωκεανοί, θάλασσες, ποτάμια:

the Pacific ocean, the Aegean, the Thames

4. μουσικά όργανα: the guitar, the violin ...

5. μοναδικά πράγματα: the sun, the moon

6. δεκαετίες, αιώνες: the 1960s, the 16 th century

7. επίθετα (αναφορά στο σύνολο): the poor, the old and the young, the homeless, ...

8. ουσιαστικά ενικού (αναφορά στο σύνολο): The dolphin is a sea mammal.

9. με ονόματα εφημερίδων και περιοδικών: Fatherusually reads the Guardian every evening.

1. κύρια ονόματα προσώπων, τόπων, λιμνών: Mary, Tom, Europe, Greece,

Athens, Lake Baikal, ...

2. παιχνίδια, μαθήματα, αθλήματα, γλώσσες, γεύματα: Monopoly, history,basketball, English, breakfast /lunch ...

3. αφηρημένες έννοιες: freedom, nature ...

4. μεταφορικά μέσα: by car, by train, bybus ... BUT : on foot

5. εκφράσεις όπως: watch TV, listen tomusic, go home, go to bed / school

/ church / hospital / work ...

6. ουσιαστικά πληθυντικού (αναφορά στοσύνολο): Dolphins are mammals.



27 All you need B1+

Special Structures (1)

STRUCTURES EXAMPLES

too + adjective (for sb) + to dotoo + adverb (for sb) + to do

very + adjective / adverb

adjective + enough (+for sb) + to do

adverb + enough (+for sb) + to do

enough + noun (+for sb) + to do

Bob is too short to reach the top shelf. (υπερβολή με αρνητικές She speaks too quickly for us to follow. συνέπειες)

Bob is very short but he can reach the top shelf. (έμφαση χωρίς

She speaks very quickly but we can follow her. αρνητικές συνέπειες)

They are old enough to drive a car.

He isn't reliable enough for me to lend him anything.

That athlete doesn't run fast enough to win the race.

She didn't do well enough in the test for the teacher to let her pass.

We don't have enough money to go to the concert.

so + adjective / adverb

so + many / few + plural noun much / little + uncountable

so + adjective/adverb + that + clause

I've never been so anxious in my life.

It's the first time she has performed so badly.

We've never seen so many / so few tourists in this village.

I didn't know he had so much / so little patience.

He’s so tall that he can reach the ceiling.

He speaks English so well that he sounds like a native speaker.

such (a/an) + (adjective) + noun

such (a/an) + (adjective) + noun+ that + clause

It was such a nice film! He was such an idiot!

We had such bad weather that we couldn't go outside.

You're such a nice person that you can't say "no".

each + singular nouneach + of + plural noun / pronoun

every + singular noun

Each contestant is asked a question. And each must answer quickly.

Each of my friends / them has a car of their own. (ο καθένας ξεχωριστά)

Every summer we go to the beach. (κάθε = όλοι, ες, α / για 3 και πάνω)

both … and (και ... και .../για δύο) Both Tina and Len work at school.

I can both study and listen to music at the same time.

either … or (είτε … είτε)Either you or Thomas will have to help me out here.

You can either tidy your room or water the plants.

neither … nor (ούτε … ούτε) Neither Andrew nor Evie enjoyed the performance.

I can play neither the piano nor the guitar.

Lesson 16a

Special Structures (2)

STRUCTURES EXAMPLES

prefer + gerund/noun + to + gerund/noun

prefer + to do

I prefer reading books to watching TV.He prefers tea to coffee.

(γενικά)

We prefer to visit them on Monday.

I prefer not to have another drink.(πιο συγκεκριμένα)

would prefer + to do (+ rather than + do) I would prefer to go out tonight ( rather than stay in).

would rather + dowould rather + do + than + do

would rather + subject + Past Simple

I’ d rather (not) speak to him first.

I ’d rather walk than drive.(ταυτοπροσωπία)

I ’d rather we went out to dinner. (ετεροπροσωπία)

had better + do You’ d better go to the doctor.

You’ d better not do that again.(μόνο ταυτοπροσωπία)

It’s time (for sb) + to do

It’s time + subject + Past Simple

It’s time (for us) to leave. (ουδέτερη διάθεση)

It’s time he started behaving himself. (συνήθως δείχνει ενόχληση)

Lesson 16b



28 All you need B1+

ΤΗΕ SUBJUNCTIVE

NOTE:

Τα παραπάνω ρήματα και επίθετα είναι ενδεικτικά. Γενικότερα, υποτακτική παίρνουν:

• ρήματα που προτείνουν ή επιβάλλουν σε κάποιον να κάνει κάτι. I prefer / insist / propose / request ... that you not do this.

• επίθετα που δείχνουν ανάγκη ή πόσο σημαντικό είναι να γίνει κάτι. It's imperative / essential / crucial ... that he listen carefully.

Εναλλακτικοί τρόποι σύνταξης:

suggest + gerund I suggested going to the cinema.

recommend + gerund We recommend taking these pills after lunch.

demand + to do They demand to be served first.

It’s important + to do It’s important to ask for your teacher’s help.

suggest

recommend

demand

It is important

It is necessary

+ (that) SUBJECT (should) DO

Η υποτακτική σύνταξη (subjunctive) συναντάταιμετά από κάποια ρήματα ή επίθετα και έχει ως εξής:

EXAMPLES:

He suggested (that) she (should) take some time off.

The doctor recommends (that) Ray (should) get some rest.

We demand (that) he (should) be punished.

It is important (that) Jill (should) have a room of her own.

It is necessary (that) he (should) deliver the parcel today.

INDIRECT STATEMENTS

Πλάγιο λόγο (indirect speech) χρησιμοποιούμε όταν μεταφέρουμε τα λόγια που είπε κάποιος μιλώντας σε ευθύ λόγο

(direct speech). Παρατηρήστε τις αλλαγές στο παρακάτω παράδειγμα:

Direct speech: “I like this dress,” she said. Indirect speech: She said (that) she liked that dress.

Συνεπώς, όταν μεταφέρουμε προτάσεις σε πλάγιο λόγο:

1. Χρησιμοποιούμε εισαγωγικά ρήματα, π.χ. say (+ to sb) & tell + sb.

Direct speech Indirect speech

Sue: I am tired. Sue said (that) she was tired.

Sue said to me / us (that) she was tired.

Sue told me / us (that) she was tired.

2. Αλλάζουμε τα κτητικά επίθετα και τις αντωνυμίες (προσωπικές, κτητικές, αυτοπαθείς) ανάλογα με τους (συν)ομιλητές.

Helen: “ I ’m going to put on my sunglasses”. Helen said (that) she was going to put on her sunglasses.

Ken: “ You haven’t been yourself lately”. Ken told me (that) I hadn't been myself lately.3. Αλλάζουμε τους χρόνους των ρημάτων ως εξής ( μόνο όταν τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα είναι σε Past tense ):

Indirect Speech (1): Statements

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

PRESENT & PAST SIMPLE TENSES

• PRESENT SIMPLE:“I like Jill's dress,” he said.

“I don’t like Jill’s dress,” he said.

PAST SIMPLE:He said (that) he liked Jill's dress.

He said (that) he didn’t like Jill’s dress.

• PAST SIMPLE:“I saw Bill at ten o’clock,” he said.

“I didn’t enjoy Roy’s party,” he said.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE:He said (that) he had seen Bill at ten o’clock.

He said (that) he hadn’t enjoyed Roy’s party.

Lesson 17a



29 All you need B1+

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

PRESENT & PAST SIMPLE TENSES

• PRESENT SIMPLE:“I like Jill's dress,” he said.

“I don’t like Jill’s dress,” he said.

PAST SIMPLE:He said (that) he liked Jill's dress.

He said (that) he didn’t like Jill’s dress.

• PAST SIMPLE:“I saw Bill at ten o’clock,” he said.

“I didn’t enjoy Roy’s party,” he said.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE:He said (that) he had seen Bill at ten o’clock.

He said (that) he hadn’t enjoyed Roy’s party.

AUXILIARIES in OTHER TENSES

• am / is / are“Liz is running fast,” he said. (Present continuous)

was / wereHe said (that) Liz was running fast. (Past continuous)

• has / have“I have already eaten,” he said. (Present perfect)

“She has been crying,” he said. (Present perfect cont.)

hadHe said (that) he had already eaten. (Past perfect)

He said (that) she had been crying. (Past perfect cont.)

• was / were“They were watching TV,” he said. (Past continuous)

had beenHe said (that) they had been watching TV. (Past perfect cont.)

• will“I will see / be seeing them,” he said.

“They will have slept / have been sleeping,” he said.

wouldHe said (that) he would see / be seeing them.

He said (that) they would have slept / have been sleeping.

MODAL VERBS

• can / may / must“She can / may / must pass the test,” he said.

could / might / had toHe said (that) she could / might / had to pass the test.

tonight, today that night, that day

now then, at that time

yesterday the day before, the previous day

last night / month ... the previous night / month ...a week ago the week before

tomorrow the next / following day

the day after

next week /year ... the following week / year

here therethis / these that / those

4. Αλλάζουμε τις παρακάτω χωροχρονικές λέξεις / φράσεις ( μόνο όταν τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα είναι σε Past tense ):

INDIRECT QUESTIONS

Indirect Speech (2): Questions

DIRECT QUESTIONS (with question words) INDIRECT QUESTIONS (with question words)

“ Where are my books?” he asked.

“ What have you done with my bag?” she asked me.

“ How do you like your eggs?” she asked us.

“ How much did Sally pay for this dress?” he wondered.

“ Why didn't you tell me the truth?” she asked me.

He asked where his books were.

She asked me what I had done with her bag.

She asked us how we liked our eggs.

He wondered how much Sally had paid for that dress.

She asked me why I hadn't told her the truth.

asked

(1)question word

if / whether

(2)subject

(3)verb in different tense

(affirmative or negative)

Lesson 17b

Οι πλάγιες ερωτήσεις (indirect questions) εισάγονται με ρήματα όπως ask (+sb), wonder, want / would like to know, ...

Ακολουθούν:

1. η ερωτηματική λέξη ή if / whether

2. το υποκείμενο

3. το ρήμα σε άλλο χρόνο (*) και με μορφή

κατάφασης ή άρνησης (ΟΧΙ ερώτησης).

Direct question: «Where is dad going?» he asked. Indirect question: He asked where (1) dad (2) was going (3).( NOT: where was dad going)

Μελετήστε προσεκτικά τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα:



30 All you need B1+

DIRECT QUESTIONS (no question words) INDIRECT QUESTIONS (with: if / whether)

“Are these Bob's books?” he asked.

“Can you understand this theory?” she asked us.

“Does everyone agree with Tom?” I wondered.

“Did you see Kim yesterday?” he asked me.

He asked if / whether those were Bob's books.

She asked us if / whether we could understand that theory.

I wondered if / whether everyone agreed with Tom.

He asked me if / whether I had seen Kim the previous day.

Μελετήστε προσεκτικά τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα:

* NOTE:

Μόνο όταν τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα (ask, wonder, ...) είναι σε Past tense αλλάζουν οι χρόνοι των ρημάτων των πλαγίων

ερωτήσεων ή οι χωροχρονικές λέξεις που είδαμε στο Lesson 17a, p. 132. Διαφορετικά παραμένουν όπως είναι στον ευθύ λόγο.

Indirect Speech (3): Commands & Requests

DIRECT COMMANDS & REQUESTS INDIRECT COMMANDS & REQUESTS

“ Watch out,” Ted said to me. Ted told me to watch out. (command)

“ Help me out with this please,” Ann said to us. Ann asked us to help her out with that. (request)

“ Don’t drop these boxes Bob,” I said. I told Bob not to drop those boxes. (command)

“Please mum, don’t shout at us,” we said. We asked mum not to shout at us . (request)

Lesson 18a

INDIRECT COMMANDS/REQUESTS

Πλάγιες προσταγές ή παρακλήσεις σχηματίζουμε όταν μεταφέρουμε σε πλάγιο λόγο προτάσεις με ρήματα σε προστακτική(imperative).

1. Οι πλάγιες προσταγές (indirect commands) εισάγονται με tell / order + sb.

Οι πλάγιες παρακλήσεις (indirect requests) εισάγονται με ask / beg + sb.

2. Τα ρήματα σε προστακτική του ευθέος λόγου, στον πλάγιο λόγο γίνονται:

Μελετήστε τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα:

not to + infinitive στην άρνηση

Beth (to Ron): “ Don’t talk to me like this, please!”

Beth asked Ron not to talk to her like that.

to + infinitive στην κατάφαση

Ron (to Beth): “ Leave me alone!”

Ron told Beth to leave him alone.

NOTE ON SUGGESTIONS (let's):

To let's + infinitive του ευθέος λόγου μεταφέρεται στον πλάγιο λόγο με το ρήμα suggest με τους εξής δύο τρόπους:

1. suggest + gerund

2. suggest (+that) + subject (+should) + infinitive

Ron (to me/us): “ Let’s take a trip this weekend!”

1. Ron suggested (our) taking a trip that weekend.

2. Ron suggested (that) we (should) take a trip that weekend.

SPECIAL INTRODUCTORY VERBS

Indirect Speech (4): Special Introductory Verbs

Τα παρακάτω εισαγωγικά ρήματα (introductory verbs) μας επιτρέπουν να μεταφέρουμε τα λόγια κάποιου σε πλάγιο λόγο, όχιακριβώς επί λέξη, αλλά εκφράζοντας το γενικότερο νόημα της κάθε πρότασης. Προσοχή στη σύνταξη που απαιτεί το καθένα.

Lesson 18b



31 All you need B1+

NOTE: Τα ρήματα με αστερίσκο (*) ακολουθούνται και από that + indirect statement, δίνοντάς μας τη δυνατότητα ναμεταφέρουμε επί λέξη τα λόγια κάποιου σε πλάγιο λόγο.

Ε.g.: I claimed that I knew everything about it. He complained that he had a boring job.

The kids promised that they would tidy their rooms. I denied that I had stolen the money.

I threatened that I would tell mum what he had done. She insisted that she was going out no matter what.

I reminded her that she should phone Ted. They suggested that we (should) go to the cinema.

INTRODUCTORY VERBS DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

agree

* claim

explain how

offer

* promise

refuse* threaten

+ to do

“Yes, I’ll help you,” he said to me.

“I know everything about it,” I said.

“This is how you make bread,” she said.

“Shall I carry it for you?” he said to me.

“We’ll tidy our rooms,” the kids said.

“No, I won’t go on foot,” she said.“I’ll tell mum what you did,” I said to him.

He agreed to help me.

I claimed to know everything about it.

She explained how to make bread.

He offered to carry it for me.

The kids promised to tidy their rooms.

She refused to go on foot.I threatened to tell mum what he had done.

advise

allow

ask / beg

encourage

invite

order

* remind

warn

want

+ sb to

do

“You should eat more fruit,” she told me.

“You may take my car,” he said to her.

“Please, don’t do this,” I said to him.

“Go on, open up!” he said to me.

“Would you like to join us?” I said to him.

“Stand up!” he said to them.

“Don't forget to phone Ted,” I said to her.

“Don’t go in there,” she said to me.

“I’d like you to come here,” he said to her.

She advised me to eat more fruit.

He allowed her to take his car.

I asked / begged him not to do that.

He encouraged me to open up!

I invited him to join us.

He ordered them to stand up.

I reminded her to phone Ted.

She warned me not to go in there.

He wanted her to go there.

accuse sb of

apologize for

* complain of

* deny

* insist on

* suggest

+ doing

“You broke the vase,” he said to me.

“I’m sorry I upset you,” she told them.

“I've got a boring job,” he said.

“No, I didn’t steal the money,” I said.

“I am going out no matter what,” she said.

“Let’s go to the cinema,” they said to us.

He accused me of breaking the vase.

She apologized for upsetting them.

He complained of having a boring job.

I denied stealing the money.

She insisted on going out no matter what.

They suggested going to the cinema.

inform sb

exclaim+ that

clause

“They will be late,” she said to us.

“What a wonderful view!” we said.

She informed us that they would be late.

We exclaimed that it was a wonderful view.

USE: Οι παραπάνω αντωνυμίες έχουν δύο χρήσεις: την

αυτοπαθή (reflexive) και την εμφατική (emphatic).

Reflexive / Emphatic Pronouns - Causative Form (1)Lesson 19a

REFLEXIVE - EMPHATIC PRONOUNS

myself ourselves

yourself yourselves

himselfherselfitself

themselves

P L U R A L

S I N G U L A R

Α. REFLEXIVE USE

Η ενέργεια του υποκειμένου επιστρέφει στον "εαυτό του":

I cut myself by mistake. (= κόβομαι)

Did you entertain yourselves ? (= ψυχαγωγούμαι)

He sometimes hates himself . (= μισεί τον εαυτό του)

They can take care of themselves . (= φροντίζουν τον εαυτό τους)

SPECIAL PHRASES:I enjoy myself = διασκεδάζω, ψυχαγωγούμαι

I help myself to sth = "σερβίρομαι", πάω και παίρνω κτ. μόνος μου

I behave myself = συμπεριφέρομαι σωστά / καθώς πρέπει

I introduce myself to sb = συστήνομαι σε κπ.

I make myself at home = νιώθω / βολεύομαι σαν στο σπίτι μου



32 All you need B1+

CAUSATIVE FORM (1)

Present

Simple

She has her dresses made.I don't have my homework done.Does Bob have his shirts ironed?

Past

Simple

I had my e-mails typed.He didn’t have his lawn cut.Did you have the car washed?

Present

ContinuousWe are having our roof fixed.Is he having his car repaired?

Past

Continuous

I was having my room cleaned.Were you having your lunch served?

Present

Perfect

I have had my house painted.Has she had the dog fed?

Past

Perfect

Sue had had the letters sent by six.I hadn't had my laptop fixed by then.

Future

Simple

They will have their trees trimmed.

We won't have our drinks paid for.Future

Perfect

We will have had our kitchen

renovated by next week.

Infinitive I should have my hair cut.You'd better have your eyes tested.

Gerund I like having my feet massaged.She regrets having her hair dyed.

USE:

Η αναθετική σύνταξη (causative form) δηλώνει ότι αναθέτουμε σε κάποιον άλλο να κάνει κάτι για μας.

Paul didn't clean the desk himself. He asked Mary to do it. Paul had the desk cleaned (by Mary).

Δείτε παρακάτω παραδείγματα αναθετικής σύνταξης σε διάφορους χρόνους και μορφές:

FORM:

+ have / get (*) + something + done (+ by someone) (object = thing) (past participle)

Lesson 19b Causative Form (2) - Words Often Confused

EXAMPLES: Mum had Tom wash the dishes. (τον έβαλε να ...)

Mum made Tom wash the dishes. (τον ανάγκασε να ...)

Mum got Tom to wash the dishes. (τον έπεισε να ...)

ΝΟΤΕ: Αυτός ο δεύτερος τύπος αναθετικής

σύνταξης δεν έχει ως αντικείμενο το "πράγμα"

που αναθέτουμε να γίνει (βλ. Lesson 19a) αλλά το

πρόσωπο στο οποίο αναθέτουμε να κάνει κάτι.

CAUSATIVE FORM (2)

FORMS: + have (*) + someone + do something make (object = person) (bare infinitive)

+ get (*) + someone + to do something (object = person) (full infinitive)

(*) Τα ρήματα have , make , get κλίνονται ως κύρια ρήματα στο χρόνο που

απαιτεί το νόημα της πρότασης.

Μπορούμε λοιπόν τώρα να εκφράσουμε ανάθεση με δύο τρόπους:

Dad doesn't wash the car himself. He always asks Ted to do it.

1. Dad always has the car washed (by Ted). (CAUSATIVE FORM 1: have/get sth done)

2. Dad always has / makes Ted wash the car. (CAUSATIVE FORM 2: have/make/get sb (to) do sth) Dad always gets Ted to wash the car.

NOTES:

• Ρήματα όπως wash, dress, shave, relax , ... συνήθως δεν παίρνουν αυτοπαθείς αντωνυμίες.

I'm trying to relax now. NOT: I'm trying to relax myself now.

• Το wash or dress μπορούν να πάρουν αυτοπαθείς αντωνυμίες όταν μιλάμε για μικρά παιδιά ή ζώα.

The little boy is trying to dress himself . The dog is washing itself in the pond.

B. EMPHATIC USE

Τονίζεται ότι κάποιος έκανε κάτι ο ίδιος προσωπικά ή μόνος του, χωρίς βοήθεια:

The President himself announced the results. Beth made this chocolate cake herself . Rob himself repaired the family car.

ΒΥ + EMPHATIC PRONOUN:

• μόνος, χωρίς συντροφιά I live in this flat by myself .

• μόνος, χωρίς βοήθεια You should do this by yourself . (or: yourself )

(*) Τα ρήματα have ή get κλίνονταιως κύρια ρήματα στο χρόνο που

απαιτεί το νόημα της πρότασης.



33 All you need B1+

AGO - BEFORESusie graduated school three years ago .

She did her homework before she went to the cinema.

We got the tickets two days before the show.

I've never climbed such a high mountain before .

BESIDE - BESIDESThe bed is beside the bookcase. (δίπλα)

Besides clothes, they also sell shoes. (εκτός από)

I'm not hungry now. Besides , I don't like beans. (εξάλλου)

AFTER - AFTERWARDSI went out after I had tidied my room. (αφού)

We had dinner after the cinema. (μετά από κτ.)

I tidied my room and afterwards I went out. (μετά, κατόπιν)

ALSO - AS WELL (AS)He bought some milk. He also bought some cookies.

He bought some milk as well as some cookies. He bought some milk. He bought some cookies as well .

LIKE - ASHe repeats everything like a parrot. (σαν, για παρομοίωση)

She works here as a secretary. (ως, για ιδιότητα)

This is my expert opinion as a doctor.

ON TIME - IN TIMEThe bus arrives on time . (ακριβώς στην ώρα του)

I didn't finish my project in time . (εγκαίρως, μέσα στα

χρονικά περιθώρια)

AT THE END - IN THE ENDAt the end of the day I like to relax with a book. (στο τέλος)

We had decided to paint the room blue, but in the end we chose yellow. (τελικά)

AT THE BEGINNING - IN THE BEGINNINGShe fell asleep at the beginning of the film. (στην αρχή)

In the beginning , the film looked interesting. But then itgot really boring. (αρχικά)

MOST - MOSTLY Elderly people are most affected by heat. (πάρα πολύ)

We mostly wear casual clothes. (κυρίως)

ALSO REMEMBER: • hard (σκληρά) hardly (σχεδόν καθόλου, μετά βίας) They work hard . - We hardly know them.

• late (αργά) lately (τον τελευταίο καιρό) It's getting late . - He's been very busy lately .

• near (κοντά) nearly (σχεδόν) It's near the hospital. - We nearly crashed into a tree.

• high (ψηλά) highly (πολύ, σε μεγάλο βαθμό) I can't jump so high . - She's highly educated.

• deep (βαθιά, σε βάθος - κυριολεκτικά)

deeply (βαθιά, σε μεγάλο βαθμό - μεταφορικά)

Don't dive too deep into these waters. BUT: I was deeply touched by his gesture.

WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED

Clauses of Manner, Time & Result

• as if / as though + Past tenses (= σαν να ...)

Μετά από ρήματα όπως: act, appear, be, behave, feel,

look, seem, smell, sound, taste, ...

+ Past Simple: για κάτι απίθανο στο παρόν

She behaves as if she was / were the boss (but she isn't).

BUT: She behaves as if she is the boss (she might be).

+ Past Perfect: για κάτι απίθανο στο παρελθόν

She felt as if they had misled her (but they didn't).

• how, (in) the way

We don't understand how you do this.

I don't know how to replace a flat tyre.

Try to do it the way I showed you. (όπως)

This is the way mum folds our T-shirts. (ο τρόπος που)

Lesson 20a

CLAUSES OF MANNER (τρόπου) CLAUSES OF RESULT (αποτελεσματικές)

• so + adjective / adverb + that

The play was so boring that we left before the end.

He runs so quickly that he’s going to win the race.

• so + much/many/little/few + noun + that

They have so much money that they spend it carelessly.

There were so few participants that the meeting was put off.

• such + a/an (+adjective) + singular noun + that

Sue is such a nice girl that everybody likes her.

Her baby is such an angel that I can't take my eyes off him.

• such (+adjective) + plural noun/uncountable + that

She makes such delicious meals that I can never resist.

We had such heavy luggage that we couldn't lift it.

• as a result / so + clause

The pub was too crowded so we didn't stay long.The pub was too crowded. As a result, we didn't stay long.



34 All you need B1+

Clauses of Reason, Purpose & Concession/Contrast

Lesson 20b

• as / since + clause (εφόσον, επειδή)

Μπαίνουν συνήθως στην αρχή, πριν την κύρια πρόταση.

As their car broke down, they had to call a taxi.

Since he was late, he couldn’t get into the theatre.

• because + clause (διότι, επειδή)

"Why don't you like him?" " Because he's arrogant."

We didn't go for a picnic because it was raining.

BUT: because of + noun phrase (εξαιτίας, λόγω)

Because of the rain, we didn’t go for a picnic.

• reason+ why + clause

• this/that is

This is the reason why I didn’t help you. (ο λόγος που)

There's no reason why you shouldn't do it. (λόγος να)

He's lost his dog. That's why he's so sad. (γι αυτό το λόγο)

CLAUSES OF REASON (αιτιολογικές)

CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (του σκοπού)

CLAUSES OF CONCESSION/CONTRAST(παραχωρητικές / εναντιωματικές)

• to + infinitive (για να - σε ταυτοπροσωπία)

We called Uncle Ben to invite him to the wedding.

• for sb + to + infinitive (για να - σε ετεροπροσωπία)

I'm making pizza for the children to eat .

• in order (not) to+ infinitive (για να, έτσι ώστε να)

• so as (not) to

She’s studying in order to / so as to become a teacher.

We didn't tell him the truth in order not to upset him.

I concentrated hard so as not to make any mistakes.

• so that + clause (έτσι ώστε να)

Συχνά ακολουθείται από can, could, will, would + infinitive.

I’ll work hard so that I can / will get a promotion.

We hurried up so that we wouldn't be late.

• in case + clause (μην τυχόν και / σε περίπτωση που)

We’ll pack some sandwiches in case we get hungry.( NOT: in case we will get ...)

She took her coat in case the weather got worse.

• Although

• Even though + clause (παρόλο που, αν και)

• Though

Although / Even though / Though it was snowing, I went

jogging in the park.

OR: I went jogging in the park, although / even though/

though it was snowing.

NOTE: Το though μπαίνει και στο τέλος κύριων προτάσεων

όπου σημαίνει "παρόλα αυτά / κι όμως" .

It was snowing heavily. I went jogging in the park, though .

• However,+ main clause (παρόλα αυτά, ωστόσο)

• Nevertheless,

It was snowing. However , I went jogging in the park.

She had high fever. Nevertheless , she kept on working.

• In spite of+ noun phrase / gerund / the fact that

• Despite

In spite of / Despite the snow, I went out. (παρά)

In spite of / Despite studying hard, he failed. (αν και)

In spite of / Despite the fact that he studied hard, he failed.

(παρά το γεγονός ότι)

• yet / but + clause (κι όμως / αλλά)

She did her best, yet / but she wasn't successful.

• whereas / while + clause (ενώ)

John likes meat whereas / while Mary likes vegetables.

CLAUSES OF ΤΙΜΕ (χρονικές)

• after, as soon as, once, before, by the time, until/till, when, while, as, ... + clause

They had to wait for hours until the rescue team arrived.

She called him as soon as she got into the house.

By the time we arrived, the ferry boat had left.

REMEMBER: Δε βάζουμε Future tenses στις χρονικές προτάσεις που αναφέρονται στο μέλλον. Στη θέση τους βάζουμεPresent Simple ή Present Perfect.

By the time the bus arrives , she will have taken a taxi. ( NOT: By the time the bus will arrive, ...)

Call me once you' ve prepared everything. ( NOT: ... once you will have prepared ...)



35 All you need B1+

NOTES



Documents

All You Need B1 - Grammar in Greek2