All these quotes are from Napoleon. What do they tell you about him?

“Power is my mistress. I have worked too hard at her conquest to allow anyone to take her away from me.”

“There are but two powers in the world, the sword and the mind. In the long run the sword is always beaten by the mind."

“Impossible is a word to be found only in the dictionary of fools.” "He that makes war without many mistakes has not made war very long." “Death is nothing, but to live defeated and inglorious is to die daily.” “Ten people who speak make more noise than ten thousand who are silent.” “History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon”. “I know when it is necessary, how to leave the skin of lion to take one of fox.” “A man will fight harder for his interests than for his rights.” “A throne is only a bench covered with velvet.” “Religion is what keeps the poor from murdering the rich.”

The Rise and Fall of Napoleon’s

Empire

How does this Picture reflect the information you gathered from the quotes?

How about these two Pictures?

Church Representatives

Empress Josephine

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Napoleon---”Men of genius are meteors destined

to burn themselves out in lighting up their age.”

Napoleon: “Nothing is more difficult,

and therefore more precious, than to be

able to decide.”

Napoleon: “Glory is fleeting, but obscurity

is forever.”

Edmund Burke’s Prediction:True or False?

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British parliamentarian and political philosopher sometimes referred to as the ‘father of conservatism’.

Written straight after the French Revolution began Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) was strongly antirevolutionary, arguing that revolution would destroy also all that was good in society, create disorder, and lead ultimately to the coming to power of a tyrant seen as capable of restoring order.

Rise of Napoleon

• Artilleryman promoted from Captain to Brevet Brigadier General.

• Won acclaim in Toulon in 1793.• Defended the French government by using

cannons against mobs in 1795.• Student of the military art

– Voracious reader

Napoleon’s First Major Military Campaign---Italian Campaign

• Invaded Italy in 1796• Secured 12 victories in 12 months

– Rapid maneuver• To and in battle

– Concentrated his mass against enemy weaknesses– Interior lines– Flexible maneuver

• Revolutionary politics appealed to Italians• It was in Italy that Napoleon realized he was headed for greatness.

He was aware that he was a “world-historical figure”, a “great man”, and “a hero in history.”

• He later confided: “In Italy I realized I was a superior being and conceived the ambition of performing great things, which hitherto had filled my thoughts only as a fantastic dream.”

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Napoleon’s Rise to PowerEarlier military career the Italian Campaigns:

1796-1797 he conquered most of northern Italy for France, and had developed a taste for governing.

In northern Italy, he moved to suppress religious orders, end serfdom, and limit age-old noble privilege.

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Napoleon and Venice• 1797: Napoleon, being master of

all northern Italy, with the exception of Venice, the mistress of the Adriatic, though no longer qualified to keep equal rank with the first princes of Europe, was still proud and haughty, and not likely to omit any favourable opportunity of aiding Austria in the great and common object of ridding Italy of the French.

• Napoleon wished to make an ally of Venice.

• To her government he said …..

• "Your whole territory is imbued with revolutionary principles. One single word from me will excite a blaze of insurrection through all your provinces. Ally yourself with France, make a few modifications in your government, such as are indispensable for the welfare of the people, and we will pacify public opinion and will sustain your authority."

• Advice more prudent and humane could not have been given, but Venice was not to take it!

Napoleonic Campaign in Egypt:1798-1801

Napoleon’s attempt to seize Egypt and undermine Britain’s access to India◦Napoleon took control of Egypt on land◦Brought along scientists

Studied the pyramids, etc. Discovered the Rosetta stone British took control of Egypt and all discoveries following the defeat of the

French forces in EgyptBattle of the Nile – August 1-3, 1798

◦Britain’s Horatio Nelson defeated French naval forces◦Napoleon and his troops became stranded in Egypt◦August, 1799 – Napoleon snuck past the British blockade in the

Mediterranean and returned to Paris

Napoleon in Egypt, 1798

Napoleon’s Rise to Power: EgyptEarlier military career the Egyptian Campaign:

1798 he was defeated by a British navy under Admiral Horatio Nelson, who destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile.

Abandoning his troops in Egypt, Napoleon returned to France and received a hero’s welcome!

British Cartoon Making Fun of Napoleon’s Failed Campaign in Egypt

Napoleon’s Modernization of the French Army---His “Scarecrow Army”

• None of the French army had real uniforms.• Most of the soldiers had either tied rags around their feet or wore home-

made flip flops made from plaited straw.• They had not been paid for months and had not eaten in days.• When Napoleon was put in charge of the army, he spent most of his money in

the first few days.• He bought 18000 pairs of boots and enough corn meal to make three months

worth of bread if the soldiers mixed their flours with ground chestnuts.• Their weapons---the old-fashioned muskets were almost useless. • A soldier might be able to fire two rounds a minute if he was a crack shot.• And after 20 minutes, he would have to stop in the midst of battle to clean his

musket.• Because of this, Napoleon would turn to other military strategies to make

them more effective.

Napoleon’s New Military Strategies• He attacked the enemy before they had a chance to get

ready..• He attacked anywhere…not just on flat ground.• He attacked from any direction---from the front, the sides,

and the back.• He attacked where the enemy looked the weakest…war was

not a gentleman’s act.• He moved his troops incredibly quickly---attacking, winning,

marching on again, then attacking again.• He insisted on discipline in his army and did his best to stop

looting.• He demanded and got sole command of his army.

Napoleon’s Innovative Military Tactics• Reconnaissance

– Find gaps with skirmishers.• Concentrate artillery fire on the gaps.

– Weight “main effort”• Pour exploitation force through the gap.

– Reinforce success, not failure• Pursue with mobile forces.

– Strategic offense and tactical defense.– Sought to do more than just attrite the

enemy.

Napoleon as Military Reformer• In 1800 Napoleon

formally adopted the corps d’armee system – The corps consisted of

several divisions, elements of all arms, and a small staff

– They were highly mobile, flexible, and able to operate independently

Napoleon’s Innovative Military Tactics: Corps D’Armee

• Main tactical organization• Capable of independent maneuver/battle

– Infantry, artillery, cavalry• Make contact, then hold on until reinforced.• Heavy cavalry “corps” as Army reserve.

– Held for commitment at the decisive point.• New methods for logistical support enabled army

to move more quickly with greater security.

Additional Reforms• By 1805 Napoleon’s Grand Army had seven corps

that could operate independently or be grouped together to form ad hoc field armies

• Napoleon organized his cavalry into heavy, light, and line units which proved especially skilled in the pursuit

• He employed artillery with infantry divisions and cavalry brigades as well as maintaining an artillery reserve for the army

• The end result as a more uniform and flexible structure designed for offensive operations

Napoleonic Soldiers• Napoleon’s soldiers were different

from those in other European armies• They were largely combat veterans

that seldom saw garrison duty• New recruits spent little time in

training camps, instead learning by mingling with the veterans

• Napoleon prized eagerness and spirit over education

• Of Napoleon’s seven corps commanders in 1805, only two were over 40

• The ability to march long distances was essential

The Other Armies

• The other European armies, most notably the Austrians, had made few improvements

• The highest positions were reserved for members of the emperor’s family– Most officers received direct appointments or

transferred from foreign armies– Appointment of officers was the sole prerogative

of regimental colonels

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Revolutionary ideology marked a rejection of limited war in favor of total war– Armies got bigger in order to achieve the goals of

destroying enemies, overthrowing governments, and annexing territory

– The levee en masse mobilized every aspect of the country

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• The quality of soldiers and officers improved– Citizen-soldiers were motivated by patriotism– Officers corps were opened up to men of talent

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• The techniques of fighting changed– New emphasis on speed and mobility– Commanders subdivided armies to facilitate

movement, drawing supplies, and flexibility– Tactics were simplified and weapons, especially

artillery, were improved

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Helped Mahan formulate his theories on sea power– Saw the Navy’s economic strangulation of France

by blockade as the key to Britain’s defeat of Napoleon

– “It was not by attempting great military operations on land, but by controlling the sea, and through the sea the world outside Europe,” that the British “ensured the triumph of their country.”

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Problems– Some areas and conditions did not support Napoleon’s

desire to live off the land– Mounting casualties among veterans compelled an

increased reliance on poorly trained and less motivated conscripts and foreigners

– Guerrilla warfare did not facilitate Napoleon’s desire for decisive victory

– Napoleon’s enemies began partially implementing his reforms

– The British had a sea power advantage

Influences of Napoleonic Warfare

• Problems– Napoleon had his own limitations

• Failed to comprehend the new situations in Spain or Russia

• Overconfident and power-hungry• Unwilling to compromise at the peak of his power in

1809 or before in order to achieve a comfortable peace• A great campaigner, but not so skilled at grand strategy

or foreign policy

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Trafalgar (Lord Nelson: Fr. Navy lost!)

BritainFrance 1805: SeaPower

Battle of Trafalgar

Battle of Trafalgar: Causes

• 1803: Peace of Amiens between Britain and France broke down

• For nearly two years, Britain was on the defensive waiting for France to make the first move.

• 1804: Spain allied with France, giving Napoleon the ships he needed to challenge Britain.

Trafalgar(British Naval Superiority)

• In the Napoleonic era, the British navy dominated the sea while the French army dominated the European continent– The British naval superiority lay in its fleet greater

aggressiveness and skill• In 1804 Napoleon developed a plan to draw

the British fleet away from the English Channel where it blocked a French invasion

Trafalgar (British Naval Superiority)

• Napoleon had his fleet sail for the West Indies which would cause the British to divert ships from the Channel to meet this new threat

• The plan failed and instead Napoleon ordered Admiral Pierre de Villeneuve to “dominate” the coast of southern Spain

• British Admiral Horatio Nelson and Villeneuve then met off Cape Trafalgar on the southern tip of the Spanish coast on Oct 20, 1805

Events of Battle of Trafalgar

• Napoleon’s Franco-Spanish fleet battled in Toulon and broke out into the Atlantic in early 1805

• The British, led by Admiral Nelson, were waiting and chased them all the way to the West Indies.

• By late 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet found shelter at Cadiz and was positioned to attack British trading ships or Britain itself.

Events of the Battle of Trafalgar

• Admiral Nelson caught up with the Franco-Spanish navy at Cadiz

• The Franco-Spanish navy, under pressure by Napoleon, put out to sea on October 19, 1805.

• 33 Franco-Spanish ships faced 27 British ships• Admiral Nelson anticipated every move the

Franco-Spanish navy made.• He used a two column approach and engaged the

French quickly since a storm was coming.

Trafalgar (British Naval Superiority)

• Villeneuve’s fleet formed in a single line while Nelson formed his into two

• Nelson’s southern column attacked first cutting off 16 of the French and enemy ships and then the northern column struck

Battle of Trafalgar

Results of the Battle of Trafalgar• The British won due to speed and flexibility of their

ships.• Once the battle started, it ended with 12 British ships

facing 22 Franco-Spanish ships.• The leaders of the Franco-Spanish ships surrendered by

4:30PM.• 19 Franco-Spanish ships were taken.• The British sustained 1700 wounded or killed men.• Admiral Nelson died of injuries sustained in the battle.• 6,000 French/Spanish sailors were injured or killed.• 20,000 French/Spanish sailors were taken as prisoner.

Battle of Trafalgar: October 21, 1805Death of Horatio Lord Nelson

Trafalgar (British Naval Superiority)

• Nelson was killed by a sniper but the British gained one of the most decisive victories in naval history– The British took or destroyed

18 of the enemy’s 34 ships of the line while losing none of their own

• Trafalgar gave the British undisputed control of the seas and the French were confined to the land and made vulnerable to strikes from the coast

Battle of Trafalgar: October 1805

• This defeat ended Napoleon’s plans to invade Britain.

• A limit had been set on Napoleon’s empire and proved that he could be defeated.

• He then developed the Continental System to try to bring down Britain.

Next Political Cartoon On Defeat of Napoleon’s Navy

• Two scenes of battle are contrasted. On the left, titled "The Game of Brag," Napoleon exhorts his troops to join him in the game of conquest.

• He stands in a dramatic profile pose; although his body is turned towards the viewer, the caricaturist has chosen to delineate his hallmark profile. In his right hand Napoleon carries a large sword and with his left gestures towards the edge of the image--beyond which is Great Britain.

• In typical fashion, Napoleon's enormous black hat is ostentatiously decorated, as is his uniform.

• Soldiers holding bayonets stand in orderly rows and wear pristine uniforms. • The image on the right side of the sheet depicts "The Game of Hazard.“• Here, Napoleon and his troops have landed themselves in the choppy waters of the

English Channel. • In the distance, a warship explodes in a spectacular show of fire.• Other ships, presumably French, are covered in billowing clouds of smoke.• A British fort, proudly flying the flag, defends the coast with cannon fire that devastates

the French Navy. Napoleon is in the foreground of this image. • Half submerged in the water, he waves his arms and laments the loss of his "Invincibles,"

who drown and sink with him.

Campaigns

• Italy

• Austria

• Spain

• Russia

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Britain Austria Russia

(3rd Coalition)

France 1805: -Danube-Italy

e ULM: France defeated Austria.e AUSTERLITZ: France defeated

Austria & Russia.

Crowned “King of Italy” on May 6, 1805

Ulm(Mobility and decisive battle)

• In Sept 1805 the Austrians moved into Bavaria with three armies on line

• As soon as he ascertained the Austrians’ advance, Napoleon dispatched Marshall Joachim Murat’s cavalry followed by various corps

Ulm• Emperor Napoleon• French have seven corps spread over

a 100 mile front.–All converge on Ulm.

• Converge between Russians and Austrians.

• Austrians surrender 27 thousand troops without a fight.–Epitome of maneuver warfare…

Ulm (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Using his superior mobility and ability to live off the land, Napoleon drove deep into Germany and conducted a gigantic strategic envelopment of the Austrians

• 27,000 Austrians surrendered

Crossing the Alps-1805

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Three days after Ulm, Napoleon marched toward Vienna and the Russians opposing him withdrew and received reinforcements

• Napoleon realized that after chasing the allied armies almost 400 miles his lines of communications were vulnerable and winter was approaching

• He decided to lure the enemy into a decisive engagement to end the campaign with one great battle

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Napoleon did a careful reconnaissance and selected the Pratzen heights as the site for the battle but did not concentrate his entire army there in hopes of luring the allies into an attack

• When the allies attacked on Nov 30, Napoleon had his soldiers withdraw from the Pratzen heights, feigning disorder

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• The allies occupied the heights and on Dec 2 they launched a three column attack that was exactly what Napoleon had hoped for– As the allies advanced,

they weakened their center at the Pratzen heights in order to commit more forces to their southern attack

– Napoleon attacked the weakened allied center and it collapsed

Austerlitz December 1805• Napoleon realizes he can’t defeat England, so he

looks to the East for greater glory.• Russia + Austria = 89 thousand men

France 73 thousand men• Plans to lure Russians into premature attack by

creating appearance of a weak front and exposed flank.

• Surprise Russians with arrival of Davout.– Marched 140km in 48 hours to join the battle.

• Russians take bait and attack French right

Austerlitz (cont)• Orders his left to hold.• With both Allied flanks busy, he launches his main

effort (Soult) against their center, splitting the enemy force.

• Column under Bernadotte pushes through the hole and encircles Allied right; French left drives forward and squeezes.

• Soult starts behind Russian left and Russians break and retreat.

• Tactical victory that secured strategic victory.

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• Hundreds of Russians surrendered

• As others tried to escape across the ice covered Satschan and Menitz ponds, Napoleon fired artillery that helped break the ice and compel the Russians to surrender or drown

Austerlitz (Mobility and decisive battle)

• The allies lost almost a third of their troops

• Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg on Dec 26 which ended the Third Coalition but the Russians kept on fighting

Napoléon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by Francois Gerard

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

JENA: French Troops in Berlin!

BERLIN DECREES(“Continental System”)

PrussiaFrance 1806:Confed.of theRhine

4th Coalition created

Jena-Auerstadt(Corps System)

• In Oct 1806 a Fourth Coalition of Britain, Prussia, and Russia formed to fight Napoleon

• The Prussians had an outdated army that had a woefully immobile supply system

• On Oct 14 Napoleon concentrated 90,000 men and defeated what he thought was the main Prussian army at Jena

Jena-Auerstadt (Corps System)

• In the meantime, Davout’s corps of 26,000 men encountered a much stronger Prussian force about thirteen miles from Jena at Auerstadt

• Davout appealed to Bernadotte for help but Bernadotte ignored him

• With no choice but to fight or surrender, Davout fought with a determination that shocked the Prussians

Jena-Auerstadt (Corps System)

• At Auerstadt, Davout won although outnumbered three to two in infantry, six to one in cavalry, and five to one in artillery

• The victory proved the superiority of the corps system

• Napoleon vigorously pursued the fleeing Prussians who were almost completely destroyed

Marshall Louis Nicholas Davout

Napoleon’s Major Military Campaigns

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

FRIEDLAND: France defeated Russian troops : France occupied Konigsberg, capital of East Prussia!

RussiaFrance 1806: Poland

Napoleon’s Mistakes Effect on Empire

Napoleon’s Empire Collapses

4

continued . . .

Continental System

Peninsular War

Russian invasion

Weakening of France

Great loss of life and prestige

Loss of much of army

HOME

Napoleon Empire Collapses3 Costly Mistakes

• The Continental System (blockade)

• Peninsular War (Guerillas)

• Invasion of Russia (Scorched Earth Policy)

Napoleon’s Costly MistakesA) Continental System – blockade

against Great Britain, destroy economy, make continental Europe more self-sufficient, Britain did it better…

B) Peninsular War – French marched into Spain, took over govt., Spanish guerrilla forces attacked, French army severely weakened

C) Napoleon establishes his relatives as kings in the countries he conquers. These people are not competent rulers. The citizens of these countries revolt.

D) Invasion of Russia – Meant to punish Czar for selling grain to England.

1812- 600,000 + French soldiers invade Russia

Russians pull back and refuse to fight, practice scorched-earth policy, and burn Moscow down.

Napoleon marched back to France in winter, lost his army to the cold. 20,000 walk out…

“Swallows fell from the sky like stones, frozen in flight in the bitter cold…”

Napoleon’s Downfall• Major powers attacked:

England and Prussia• 1814 – Napoleon

surrendered at Liepzig, exiled to island of Elba

• New king unpopular, Napoleon escaped Elba, returns to France a Hero for 100 days and built a new army in 1815

• Battle of Waterloo – Napoleon defeated by combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria Sweden and England

• St. Helena – Exiled until his death in 1821

Continental System(Economics)

• With Britain safe from attack, Napoleon turned more energetically to economic warfare

• In Nov 1806, he established the Continental System which sought to blockade the British Isles and close the ports of France and its satellites to ships coming from Britain or its colonies

• The idea was to ruin Britain’s trade-based economy by eliminating its chief market

Continental System

• Napoleon decided to attack the “nation of shopkeepers” by:–Starving Britain of money–Destroying British trade, particularly

the re-export of colonial goods to Europe

The Continental SystemGOAL to isolate Britain and promote Napoleon’s mastery over Europe.

Berlin Decrees (1806)

British ships were not allowed in European ports.

No vessel coming directly from Britain or her colonies could enter a port under French control.

“Order in Council” (1806)

Britain proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized when it entered the Continent.

Confined Europe’s trade to neutral shipping. Britain controlled and taxed the neutral trade with Europe by making all vessels proceed via British ports.

Milan Decree (1807)

Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized when it entered the Continent.

Any country obeying the British decrees would be punished by the French.

These edicts eventually led to the United States declaring war on Britain WAR OF 1812.

The Continental System

Continental System (Economics)

• Enforcing the Continental System proved difficult because:– Europeans had become reliant on cheap British

goods– The British worked around the system through

smuggling and bribery– The system hurt the French too

Effects of Continental System

• Worth of British exports declined by 5 million pounds in 2 years.

• Liverpool’s imports of raw cotton dropped from 143,000 sacks in 1807 to 23,000 sacks in 1808

• In 1808, grain imports fell to 5% of their 1807 level• Corn prices rose from 66 shillings a quarter in

1807 to 94 shillings a quarter in 1808• Reduced the demand for manufactured goods

which led to low wages, shorter working times, and unemployment

Effects of the Continental System Continued

• In 1810, 5 British companies went bankrupt.• Strikes broke out in Britain.• By 1811, British exports to Europe fell to 20% of the

1810 level.• Gold payments to Europe doubled between 1808-1811• There were three bad harvests in a row in 1809, 1810,

and 1811. This led to starvation.• The British pound lost value and inflation spiked.• A three day week was introduced in Lancashire.

Effects of Continental System Continued

• Napoleon failed to take full advantage of Britain’s partial economic collapse and allowed European grain to be sold in Britain for gold.

• Trade restrictions were lifted and smuggling began.

Effects of the Continental System on France

• French custom revenue fell• European nations were starved for British colonial

goods of coffee, sugar, tobacco, cocoa, and cotton textiles

• Imported goods were addictive luxuries and people resented the French for depriving them of these luxuries

• Replacement items of sugar beets and linen were not tolerated.

• The British blockade of European ports in retaliation led to a scarcity of goods.

Reasons for the Failure of the Continental System

• British Counter-Blockade of continental Europe• Insufficient alternative means of transportation (i.e.

alternatives to sea routes)• Infant industries of mainland Europe unable to

replace the previous supply of goods from Britain• Britain made up for lost trade with Europe by finding

new markets around the world• British monopoly of many “luxury goods”• Smuggling

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British Cartoon: Napoleon the son of the Devil

Peninsular War(Guerrilla War)

• Napoleon’s efforts to enforce the Continental System eventually led him into battle on the Iberian Peninsula and later Russia– By the fall of 1807, all the nations of continental

Europe except Portugal and Sweden had joined the Continental System

– Napoleon arranged with the king of Spain to attack Portugal through Spain

Spanish or Penisular Campaign• Conquered Portugal in 1807; Spain in 1808.• Spanish populace was hostile.• Guerilla warfare

– Locals provide intelligence.– Difficult to distinguish guerillas from civilians.– French (conventional) tactics vs. Spanish (guerilla)

strategy– Surfaces and gaps?

• Entry of British regular forces eventually tipped the scales in favor of the Spaniards.

Peninsular Campaign: 1807-1810

e Portugal did not comply with the Continental System.

e France wanted Spain’s support to invade Portugal.

e Spain refused, so Napoleon invaded Spain as well!

e By 1807, Napoleon had become determined to crush Britain and make his Continental System effective.

e He set out to conquer Portugal because it was Britain’s oldest ally and trading partner.

Spain PortugalFrance 1806:

ContinentalSystem

Peninsular Campaign (ctd.)e By the Convention of Fontainbleu in November

1807, the Spanish government agreed to allow a French army to pass through Spain to attack Portugal; in return, most of the conquered Portugal would become Spanish territory.

e Marshal Junot and 20,000 troops were sent to capture Lisbon.

e The Portuguese royal family decided not to stay in their country and left immediately for their colony of Brazil the day before the French arrived in Lisbon.

e It took only the 1,500 French soldiers that were left of Junot’s force to accept the surrender of Portugal.

Peninsular Campaign (ctd.)

• It was unlikely that the Spanish would implement the Continental System effectively.

• Charles IV was aging and ineffectual; his wife, Queen Maria Luisa was a vicious adulteress with the First Minister, Godoy.

• Most Spaniards hated the three of them.• Napoleon summoned the Royal Family to meet him in

Bayonne where he persuaded them to hand over their claim to the Spanish crown.

• Napoleon then installed his brother Joseph as King of Spain.

• The result of this action was riots in Madrid and risings in each of the Spanish provinces that were led by the landed magnates and local clergy.

Peninsular War (Guerrilla War)

• Napoleon occupied Portugal easily but he was also becoming wary of Spain’s loyalty so he sent 127,000 troops into northern Spain and later forced the king and his son to abdicate in his favor

• Napoleon now controlled almost the entire European continent Napoleon made his brother

Joseph the king of Spain

Peninsular War (Guerrilla War)

• A resistance movement erupted in Spain and the British also sent an expeditionary force to Portugal– Sir Arthur Wellesley (the future

Duke of Wellington) commanded the British forces and compelled the French to evacuate Portugal

– In Spain Napoleon grew increasingly frustrated why his traditional methods that had brought victory elsewhere were unable to crush what had become a “people’s war” led by clerics and minor government officials The Duke of Wellington

Peninsular Campaign (ctd.)

• Companies of Spanish volunteers were formed and any Frenchmen and/or supporters of the French regime were massacred.

• Napoleon had a poor opinion of the fighting capacity of the Spaniards and also he believed that a “whiff of grape-shot” would quell the fiercest of rioters when opposed by disciplined soldiery.

• Consequently, he underestimated the seriousness of the Spanish revolt.

• His troops were already stationed in the north-east and around Madrid, and he contented himself with sending and army under General Duport to deal with the disturbances in the west and south.

Peninsular Campaign (ct’d.)

• Duport soon found himself in difficulties, short of food amid a hostile population, with enemy forces gathering in ever increasing numbers.

• Afraid to admit his difficulties to Napoleon, he delayed his retreat until he was surrounded and forced to surrender with 20,000 men at Baylen in July, 1808.

“The Spanish Ulcer”a Napoleon tricked the

Spanish king and prince to come to France, where he imprisoned them.

a He proclaimed his brother, Joseph, to be the new king of Spain.

a He stationed over 100,000 Fr troops in Madrid.

a On May 2, 1808 [Dos de Mayo] the Spanish rose up in rebellion.

a Fr troops fired on the crowd in Madrid the next day [Tres de Mayo].

“Third of May, 1808” by Goya (1810)

“The Spanish Ulcer”a Napoleon now poured 50, 000

troops into Spain over the next few years.

a But, the Fr generals still had trouble subduing the Spanish population.

a The British viewed this uprising as an opportunity to weaken Napoleon.

They moved an army into Portugal to protect that country and to aid the Spanish guerillas.

a After 5 long years of savage fighting, Fr troops were finally pushed back across the Pyrennes Mountains out of Spain.

The Surrender of MadridMay, 1809by Goya

Next Political Cartoon on Spanish Conflict

• In this apocalyptical scene, the figure of Spain (r.) attacks Corsica (l.), here represented as a seven-headed beast marked with the number "666."

• The crowns are inscribed Naples, Austria, Holland, Denmark, Russia, Prussia and France, indicating the territories at war with Spain.

• As Spain severs Napoleon's head from the beast's body, the crowns topple and fall towards the allegorical figure of Hope (center), who runs to catch the crowns in her apron.

• To the far left, a city, as well as the surrounding countryside, is obscured by flames.• At the right of the sheet, help arrives by ship above which is inscribed "Admiral

Purvis." • Rowlandson incorporates other apocalyptical references into the title of the sheet

outside the bottom border of the frame.• Underneath Napoleon's name, spelled phonetically as "Napolean Bounaparte,"

the artist records the correspondence between the letters and their sequence in the alphabet. The sum of these letters, "666," is provided for the viewer.

Peninsular War (Guerrilla War)

• The guerrilla war in Spain became a “bleeding ulcer” for Napoleon that eventually claimed the lives of some 300,000 Frenchmen

• Napoleon misunderstood the nature of the war and was never able to deal with both the guerrillas and Wellesley simultaneously

• So long as the British remained in Portugal, the Spanish guerrillas had hope and a source of supplies

• On June 21, 1813 Wellesley finally defeated the French at Vitoria and forced them out of Spain

• The loss of the Peninsular War was a major factor in the eventual collapse of Napoleon’s Empire

Napoleon’s Empire in 1810

Napoleon’s Family Rules!e Jerome Bonaparte King of Westphalia.e Joseph Bonaparte King of Spaine Louise Bonaparte King of Hollande Pauline Bonaparte Princess of Italye Napoléon Francis Joseph

Charles (son) King of Rome

e Elisa Bonaparte Grand Duchess of Tuscany

e Caroline Bonaparte Queen of Naples

Napoleon’s Family & Friends/Allies

Russia(Logistics)

• In 1812, Napoleon decided to invade Russia, believing that the Russians, who were growing increasingly frustrated by the Continental System, were conspiring with the British

• He assembled a massive army of 600,000 soldiers, but this enormous size required supply trains that limited Napoleon’s mobility

• Napoleon captured Moscow, but the Russians refused to surrender– Instead, Russian patriots burned the city, leaving Napoleon

without supplies or shelter

Russia (Logistics)

• Napoleon was forced to retreat– Defeated by “General

Winter”– Only 30,000 soldiers

made it back to France• The defeat in Russia

emboldened a coalition of British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies to converge on France

An episode from the retreat from Russia, by Nicolas-Toussaint Charlet

Russia

• Napoleon moves west with army of 500 –600k in June 1812

• Several battles (Smolensk, Borodino), but movement inflicts significant casualties as well– Russians leave nothing of use in wake of their

retreat– Weather --rain followed by heat and then by ice

and snow makes life miserable

The “Big Blunder” -- Russiaa The retreat from Spain came

on the heels of Napoleon’s disastrous Russian Campaign (1812-1813).

a In July, 1812 Napoleon led his Grand Armee of 614,000 men eastward across central Europe and into Russia.

The Russians avoided a directconfrontation with Napoleon.

They retreated to Moscow, drawing the French into the interior of Russia [hoping that it’s size and the weather would act as “support” for the Russian cause].

The Russian nobles abandoned their estates and burned their crops to the ground, leaving the French to operate far from their supply bases in territory stripped of food.

Next Political Cartoon on Napoleon and Russian Campaign

• In this image two Russian peasants teach Napoleon to "dance." Napoleon stands between a seated figure who plays a horn (l.), and figure who holds a whip (r.).

• The peasant with a whip leans menacingly toward Napoleon and instructs him by pointing to the ground and directing his feet.

• Napoleon in turn attempts to oblige--he raises one arm overhead and struts backward with one leg thrown out in front of him.

• According to Broadley, Russian caricatures of Napoleon are virtually unknown before the French invasion.

• Terebenev, one of the best known Russian caricaturists, took his lead from counterparts in Britain.

• In turn, George Cruikshank engraved several of Terebenev's designs for the British market.

• Broadley attributes this cross fertilization to the Tzar's realization of the efficacy caricatures had as patriotic propaganda in Britain.

• This image is printed on pale blue paper.

• In June of 1812, Napoleon began his fatal Russian campaign, a landmark in the history of the destructive potential of warfare.

• Virtually all of continental Europe was under his control, and the invasion of Russia was an attempt to force Czar Alexander I to submit once again to the terms of a treaty that Napoleon had imposed upon him four years earlier.

• Having gathered nearly half a million soldiers, from France as well as all of the vassal states of Europe, Napoleon entered Russia at the head of the largest army ever seen.

• The Russians, under Marshal Kutuzov, could not realistically hope to defeat him in a direct confrontation.

• Instead, they begin a defensive campaign of strategic retreat, devastating the land as they fell back and harassing the flanks of the French.

Russian Campaign

Russian Campaign

• The march from the banks of Niemen to Vilna was much tougher than expected.

• The weather was either too hot, or too rainy. The rain would turn the poor quality roads into muddy tracks that rendered the carriages impossible to move.

• Horses started to die in hundreds.• Several bridges on the way could not deal with the

load and gave way. • Each soldier carried his own four-day ration but

unfortunately, these rations were all consumed during the first day due to lack of discipline.

Russian Campaign (ctd.)

• The road did not offer any source of nutrition for the starving soldiers in the march.

• The wells had been polluted by dead horses thrown in by the Russians.

• The cattle had a hard time keeping up with the army's march since the animals were not used to marching for 15 miles for 6 to 7 hours.

• The immense heat following the relentless rainstorms dried up the tracks but soon turned the muddy roads into clouds of dust which also hindered the army.

Russian Campaign (ctd.)

• "Until Ianovo [a town north of the Kovno-Vilna road], the heat was oppressive and the dust stifling. In the afternoon, the thunder would roll and we were drenched to the skin. On 28 June, the rains settled in and the first order of the day was to build some huts. Our exertions on this and the days following were the reason for the outbreaks of dysentery and influenza, which soon ran through the rank without let-up and thinned them more effectively than enemy shot. The rain held on through the 29th and left us in dire straits. On the 30th, we left our swamp-camp at the crack of dawn and on the 1st of July, many more men and horses fell victim to the mud. On the 3rd, the sun greeted us again, but the dysentery raged so badly that several hundred sick had to be brought to Maliaty, where a field hospital had been hastily established." – Lieutenant Mertens from Wuerttemberg’s account

Russian Campaign (ctd.)

Russian Campaign Continued• The trip from Vilna to Vitebsk claimed another 8000

horses, and the cattle could not keep up with the army.

• Several carriages were abandoned.• Napoleon entered Vitebsk on July 29, 1812.• The Russian army had retreated further.• Napoleon’s troops were short on medical supplies

and doctors. Men with lost limbs died first. • Napoleon also began to show signs of mental

unbalance. He began to give orders that were impossible to execute under the given conditions.

Battle of Borodino

Russian Campaign: Battle of Borodino

• As the Russian neared Borodino, they stopped retreating.

• As the French entered Gzatsk, there were no resources left for them. There was meat, but no salt. Flour, but no bread. And there was a lack of water. The temperatures hit 90 degrees.

• The French has lost another 15,000 men. They stayed at Gzatsk until September 4, 1812.

• As the summer wore on, Napoleon's massive supply lines were stretched ever thinner, and his force began to decline.

• By September, without having engaged in a single pitched battle, the French Army had been reduced by more than two thirds from fatigue, hunger, desertion, and raids by Russian forces.

• The Czar insisted upon an engagement, and on September 7, with winter closing in and the French army only 70 miles (110 km) from the city, the two armies met at Borodino Field.

• By the end of the day, 108,000 men had died--but neither side had gained a decisive victory.

Russian Campaign (ctd.)

Borodino

Battle of Borodino: September 6, 1812

• The battlefield was open farmland and 70 miles west of Moscow.

• The Russians had a dense forest behind them and no obstacles in front.

• The battle became a “trial of mutual slaughter that could have taken place anywhere.”

• Napoleon had 100,000 infantry, 28,000 cavalry, and 590 guns.

• The Russians under the command of Kutuzov had 72,000 infantry, 10,000 semi-trained militia, 17,000 cavalry, 7,000 Cossacks, and 640 guns.

Borodino

Battle of Borodino Continued

• Began on September 7, 1812 at 6AM.• The battle ended with Kutuzov’s order to retreat

at 3AM on September 8, 1812.• Both sides had brutal losses.• Russians lost around 44,000 men.• The French lost at least 35,000 men including 3

fort-three generals.• The Russians were too tired to face another attack,

so Kutuzov gave the order to retreat.

Russian General Kutuzov

The Russian army defeated the French at Borodino.

Battle of Borodino Reflections• “We never suffered such losses. Never had the army’s

moral been so damaged. I no longer found the soldier’s old gaiety. A gloomy silence had replaced songs and amusing stories that previously had helped them forget the fatigues of long marches. Even the officers appeared anxious, and they continued serving only from a sense of duty and honor. This depression, natural in a defeated army, was remarkable after a decisive action, after a victory which opened to us the gates of Moscow.”

• -Colonel Fezensac on the state of the French army after Borodino

Russian Campaign: Moscow

• The Russians had withdrawn to Moscow unsure what to do next.

• Kutuzov did not want to hand over Moscow to the French without any resistance.

• Kutuzov called a meeting of almost all his commanders to a Council of War. The Council was divided and realized they were outnumbered by Napoleon.

• So Kutuzov called for a retreat.

Russian Campaign: Moscow Continued

• Russian Commander Kutuzov wrote in 1812:• “You are afraid of falling back through

Moscow, but I consider it the only way of saving the army. Napoleon is a torrent, which we are unable to stem. Moscow will be the sponge that will suck him dry.”

Moscow

• Kutuzov realized that any further defense of the city would be senseless, and he withdrew his forces, prompting the citizens of Moscow to begin a massive and panicked exodus.

• When Napoleon's army arrived on September 14, they found a city depopulated and bereft of supplies, a meager comfort in the face of the oncoming winter.

• To make matters worse, fires broke out in the city that night, and by the next day, the French were lacking shelter as well.

• After waiting in vain for Alexander to offer to negotiate, Napoleon ordered his troops to begin the march home.

Russian Campaign: Moscow

Moscow

Moscow

• Russians torch Moscow as the French enter in Sept 1812.– City of 250k has only 25k when French

arrive.• Napoleon’s army is exhausted and has no

means to support itself.• Napoleon is anxious about being away from

Paris for too long a period.• After occupying the city for a month, the

decision is made to return to France before winter.

The Scorched-Earth Policy of the Russians

Russian Campaign: Moscow

• At the time, Moscow had a population of 250,000.

• It was a mixture of palaces, rich homes, cabins, bazaars, 6 cathedrals and 1500 churches.

• Only 25,000 people remained when Napoleon arrived.

• Napoleon entered Moscow on September 14, 1812.

Battle For Moscow

Napoleon’s Troops at the Gates of Moscow

a September 14, 1812 Napoleon reached Moscow, but the city had largely been abandoned.

a The Russians had set fire to the city.

Russian Campaign: Moscow

Russian Campaign: Moscow

• The French army was given strict orders not to pillage, but the men could not be controlled and forced themselves into the palaces and rich houses.

• The remaining Russians set fire to various parts of the city, and the fire spread.

• Napoleon barely escaped the fires which burned from September 15 through September 18.

Moscow Is On Fire!

Results of Russian Campaign• 4/5 of the city burned down• Kremlin was saved by the few

Russian guards that had remained• Stunned Napoleon and showed

that there was no hope for establishing peace with Russia

• Russians would not surrender.• Napoleon began to retreat to Paris.• As Napoleon retreated, the Russian

winter came on and wiped out a large portion of his soldiers. Temperatures fell twenty-two degrees below zero.

• The Russian cossacks and armies also attacked the French as they crossed rivers using a pincer attack.

• Napoleon’s soldiers froze in the open country-side.

• One soldier wrote, “Our lips stuck together. Our nostrils froze. We seemed to be marching in a world of ice.”

• Food ran out. Horses died by the thousands. Hungry soldiers quarreled over the horseflesh.

• They were starving and dying from cold, fatigue, and disease.

• By the end of the retreat, only 10,000 to 20,000 of Napoleon’s soldiers out of a grande armee of over 500,000 had survived.

• Because the route south was blocked by Kutuzov's forces (and the French were in no shape for a battle) the retreat retraced the long, devastated route of the invasion.

• Having waited until mid-October to depart, the exhausted French army soon found itself in the midst of winter--in fact, in the midst of an unusually early and especially cold winter.

• Temperatures soon dropped well below freezing, Cossacks attacked stragglers and isolated units, food was almost non-existent, and the march was five hundred miles. Ten thousand men survived.

• The campaign ensured Napoleon's downfall and Russia's status as a leading power in post-Napoleonic Europe.

Russian Campaign Retreat

The Long Road Home• Napoleon chooses to use route of advance as

route of return.–Nothing left to forage.–Pursued by Russians.–Morale continues to fall.

• 30k unburied bodies from Battle of Bordino six weeks prior.

• Temps = 20 below zero.• Arrives in Poland mid-December with an army

less than 10% the size of the one that departed.

Napoleon’s Retreat from Moscow (Early 1813)

Retreat from Moscow

Napoleon’s Retreat From Russia

• Political Cartoon Commenting on the Effects of the Failed Russian Campaign on Napoleon’s Military Dominance and Control of Europe

Defeat – 5th Coalition (1809-1815)

• Russian campaign– 1812– Lost

400,000 men

– Abdicated in 1814 and sent to Elba

Defeat and Return

• For the first time Napoleon faced four great powers simultaneously

• The Coalition forced Napoleon to abdicate his throne in April 1814, restored the French monarchy, and exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, near Corsica

• In March 1815, Napoleon escaped, returned to France, and reconstituted his army

Battle of Dresden (Aug., 26-27, 1813)

e Coalition Russians, Prussians, Austrians.e Napoléon’s forces regrouped with Polish

reinforcements.e 100,000 coalition

casualties; 30,000 French casualties.

e French victory.

Napoleon’s Defeat at Leipzig(October 16-17, 1813)

“Battle of the Nations” Memorial

Next Political Cartoon on Battle of Leipzig

• Based on Johann Michael Voltz-

THE TRIUMP of 1813. ---The Antichrist. The beast of the Apocalypse.

Strictly speaking, this piece cannot be considered as a caricature but rather as a particularly violent satirical print typical of the Germans.

• The print of which several versions are listed, is associated with Franco-German explanations.

• The drawing alludes to the battle of Leipzig, a genuine trap set out for Napoleon: the Emperor's bust is composed of a map of Germany depicting the battles of the 1813 campaign, Lützen, Gros-Beeren, Hanau, and especially Leipzig.

• Napoleon is portrayed as a true death-god whose face is composed of corpses. According to the text, the eagle on top of his head which plays the part of a little hat, is the Prussian and not the imperial eagle.

The 6th Coalition Britain, Russia. Spain, Portugal, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, smaller German states

France 1813-1814:

Napoléon’sDefeat

Next Political Cartoon on Defeat of Napoleon

• Allies shaving shop or Boney in the suds• Protesting and attempting to slide off the barber's stool, Napoleon is covered by

mounds of soap suds.• On his left, the Czar pinches Napoleon's nose closed and prepares to take a swipe at

Napoleon's head with an absurdly large razor inscribed "Platoff's Improved." • On his right, Bernadotte stands with a plate of "Swedish Lathers" and a large brush

with which he applies the soap to Napoleon's face. • Behind Bernadotte and to his left, a fat Dutchman has rolled up his sleeves to froth

"Holland Suds" in a barrel labeled "Hollands.“• Francis I of Austria joins in carrying a dish piled high with "Austrian Suds." • Meanwhile, Frederick William sits on the right of the scene and sharpens a razor

inscribed "Prussian Steel," using a "Liptzic Whet stone." • A placard posted on the wall over Prussia's chair announces that the shop is "Russia

Prussia Austria Sweden & Co. Shavers in General To Nap Boney and His Grand Army." Significantly, none of the figures is obliquely caricatured; however, their features are slightly exaggerated to ease identification.

• Moreover, the engraver's skill is lacking when rendering perspectival details.

Napoleon Abdicates!e Allied forces occupied Paris on March 31, 1814.

e Napoléon abdicated on April 6 in favor of his son, but the Allies insisted on unconditional surrender.

e Napoléon abdicated again on April 11.

e Treaty of Fontainebleau exiles Napoléon to Elba with an annual income of 2,000,000 francs.

e The royalists took control and restored Louis XVIII to the throne.

Next Political Cartoon On Fall of Napoleon

• FROM TOP TO BOTTOM OR THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS.

Napoleon's defeat.---Paris, Thiers Library

Published after Napoleon's abdication on April 6, 1814, this caricature is not without reminding us of the German plate The Spanish Drink and The Russian ice-cube.

• Caught between fire and water, the Emperor, having taken too wide a step with his stilts, collapses in the court of Fontainebleau castle.

• This is one of the first plates in which Napoleon jumps or does the splits, a theme that was to be re-used in particular to illustrate his two consecutive exiles.

Exile to Elba•After being forced to retreat from Russia, Napoleon fought a series of often brilliant battles in an effort to defend his crumbling empire.

•However, the odds grew progressively worse as more states, seeing him weakened, joined the coalition against him.

•By the end of March 1814 Paris was occupied and on the 11th of April Napoleon was forced to surrender unconditionally.

•He was allowed to keep the title of Emperor... But his “Empire” was limited to the small island of Elba to which he was exiled.

As Napoleon was about to board the ship for Elba, he was surrounded by his old comrades and made this speech:

• “Soldiers of my Old Guard, I bid you good-bye. For twenty years I have found you uninterruptedly on the path of honour and glory. Lately no less than when things went well you have been models of courage and loyalty. With men like you our cause was not lost; but the war could not be ended: it would have been civil war, and that would only have brought France more misfortune. So I have sacrificed our interests to those of our homeland; I am leaving; you my friends, are going to go on serving France. France’s happiness was my one thought; and it will always be what I wish for most. Don’t be sorry for me; if I have chosen to go on living, I have done so in order to go on serving your glory. I want to write about the great things we have done together!....Goodbye, my children! I should like to press you all to my heart; at least I shall kiss your flag!”

Napoleon in Exile on Elba

Next Political Cartoon on Napoleon and Elba

• Napoleon's fishing expedition in the Isle of Elba. O! Woe! They are lost! (Variant)

• Broadley: Related to the Elban episode in Napoleon's career. 'The exile sits on a rock, with Rustan standing behind him holding a basket. His rod bends almost to breaking under the weight of a net containing the crown, eagles, Code Napoleon, and laurel wreaths, which he has lost.'

“The Hundred Days”• “The Hundred Days” is the name given to the period during which

Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France, raising a new army (albeit less well-trained and battle-ready) and claiming that he would now be satisfied with a constitutional monarchy and limited borders for the French state.

• Why Had Napoleon embarked on the Hundred Days? :- Ambition- Concern for Family- Rumors of being exiled further afar

• While the French people generally greeted their charismatic ruler enthusiastically, and while the the unpopular restored Bourbon monarch – Louis XVIII – had fled, the European powers were not convinced by Napoleon’s promises

• Napoleon was finally defeated by a combined force of British and Prussian troops at the battle of Waterloo that began on the 18th June 1815

The Hundred Days (1815)

• Escape from Elba• King Louis XVIII fled

France• Ruled for short

period • Battle of Waterloo• Sent to St. Helena• 1840—Napoleon’s

remains moved to Paris

Louis XVIII• Louis XVIII was the

brother of Louis XVI. • He was restored to the

throne by the European powers upon the defeat of Napoleon.

• (Louis XVI’s son having died in prison in 1795 during the French Revolution – never having been officially crowned).

• After being forced to flee during the Hundred Days, Louis XVIII returned again to France where he reigned as king till his death in 1824.Louis XVII

Louis XVI

Louis XVIII

“The War of the 7th Coalition”

Britain, Russia. Prussia, Austria, Sweden, smaller

German states

France 1815: Napoleon’s“100 Days”

e Napoléon escaped Elba and landed in France on March 1, 1815 the beginning of his 100 Days.

e Marie Louise & his son were in the hands of the Austrians.

Napoleon’s Defeat at Waterloo

(June 18, 1815)

Dukeof

Wellington

Prussian General Blücher

The Battle of Waterloo• The Battle of Waterloo was fought 13

kilometres south of Brussels between the French and Belgian border

• The soldiers were under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte and Allied armies by the Duke of Wellington from Britain and General Blücher from Prussia.

The Battle of Waterloo Cont.

• After his return to France, Napoleon developed his strategy to defeat the Allies

• He re-established himself in Paris and began building up his army in preparation for an invasion of Belgium

• His goal was to capture Brussels • His battle plan was to mount an offensive attack

on the Allied troops gathering in Belgium and to destroy them

Waterloo

Waterloo(Reverse Slope)

• On June 18, 1815 Napoleon had 72,000 men and 246 guns facing Wellington’s force of 68,000 men and 156 guns at Mount St. Jean, just south of Waterloo

• Wellington positioned many of his soldiers on the reverse slope of Mount St. Jean were they were partially hidden and received some protection from Napoleon’s artillery

Waterloo (Reverse Slope)

• The fighting went back and forth until Napoleon finally committed his last reserve– nine battalions of the Old Guard

• British infantrymen halted the Old Guard’s attack and it broke and ran

• British and Prussians pursued the retreating French and Wellington gained a decisive victory

Battle of Waterloo Continued

• Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo marked the end of the Emperor's final bid for power

• The battle was closely fought and either side could have won, but mistakes in communication, leadership and judgment led, ultimately, to French defeat

• He was exiled to the island of St Helena where he died in 1821

• Wellington fought his last battle at Waterloo and became a hero, throughout Europe.

Waterloo• Napoleon returned to Paris

fully intending to continue the struggle but the national legislature refused to support him

• Napoleon had no choice but to abdicate the throne

• This time the Allies banished him to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic

• He died in 1821 Napoleon was originally interred in St. Helena but in 1840 his remains were moved to Paris and are now in Les Invalides where many French military heroes are buried

Napoleon on His Way

to HisFinal Exile

onSt. Helena

St. Helena in PerspectiveThe choice of St. Helena was no coincidence. Unlike Elba, this island was not to be as pleasant a location. In the middle of the South Atlantic, thousands of kilometers from any major land-mass, escape was now virtually impossible. It was here that Napoleon was to die in 1821

• The Fall of an Emperor • Among the small entourage that accompanied the deposed

Emperor into exile was the Comte de Las Cases who kept a diary of his experience:

• "August 10 • This day we cleared the Channel. We had now entered upon the

dreary unknown course to which fate had doomed us. Again my agonies were renewed; again the dear connections I had abandoned resumed their sway over my heart. Meanwhile we advanced in our course and were soon to be out of Europe. Thus, in less than six weeks, had the emperor abdicated his throne and placed himself in the hands of the English, who were now hurrying him to a barren rock in the midst of a vast ocean. This is certainly no ordinary instance of the chances of fortune, and no common trial of firmness of mind.

• October 23-24 • The Emperor Napoleon, who lately possessed such boundless

power and disposed of so many crowns, now occupies a wretched hovel, a few feet square, which is perched upon a rock, unprovided with furniture, and without either shutters or curtains to the windows. This place must serve him for bedchamber, dressing room, dining room, study, and sitting room; and he is obliged to go out when it is necessary to have this one apartment cleaned. His meals, consisting of a few wretched dishes, are brought to him from a distance, as though he were a criminal in a dungeon. He is absolutely in want of the necessaries of life: the bread and wine are not only not such as he has been accustomed to, but are so bad that we loathe to touch them; water, coffee, butter, oil, and other articles are either not to be procured or are scarcely fit for use.

• ' We were all assembled around the emperor, and he was recapitulating these facts with warmth: 'For what infamous treatment are we reserved!' he exclaimed. This is the anguish of death. To injustice and violence they now add insult and protracted torment. If I were so hateful to them, why did they not get rid of me? A few musket balls in my heart or my head would have done the business, and there would at least have been some energy in the crime. Were it not for you, and above all for your wives, I would receive nothing from them but the pay of a private soldier. How can the monarchs of Europe permit the sacred character of sovereignty to be violated in my person? Do they not see that they are, with their own hands, working their own destruction at St. Helena?

• 'I entered their capitals victorious and, had I cherished such sentiments, what would have become of them? They styled me their brother, and I had become so by the choice of the people, the sanction of victory, the character of religion, and the alliances of their policy and their blood. Do they imagine that the good sense of nations is blind to their conduct? And what do they expect from it? At all events, make your complaints, gentlemen; let indignant Europe hear them. Complaints from me would be beneath my dignity and character; I must either command or be silent.'"

• References: The account of the Comte de Las Cases appears in Robinson, James Harvey, Readings in European History (1906); Hamilton-Williams, David, The Fall of Napoleon: the Final Betrayal (1994).

Napoleon’s Residence on St. Helena

Napoleon’s Death• Some think

Napoleon died of cancer.

• Others think he died from toxic fumes from the wallpaper in the house he spent the last 6 years of his life. (Arsenic)

• Researchers from the San Francisco Medical Examiner's Department outline their theory for the French Emperor's demise in New Scientist magazine. They say doctors killed Napoleon through over-zealous treatment.

• Napoleon died aged 52 in 1821, on the island of St Helena in the south Atlantic where he had been banished after his defeat at Waterloo.

• It's not as sexy as the idea that he was murdered. • Most historians accept the official explanation that Napoleon died from stomach cancer. • This was the verdict of an autopsy carried out after his death by his personal physician

Francesco Antommarchi and witnessed by five other doctors. • Stomach cancer had also killed Napoleon's father. • But doubts were raised in 2001 when French forensic specialists said tests on

Napoleon's hair suggested a "major exposure to arsenic". • It was suggested that the British governor of St Helena, Hudson Lowe, conspired with

French count Charles de Montholon to assassinate Napoleon• This new theory from the US scientists says arsenic clears the two suspects. It says

exposure to the poison from coal smoke and other environmental sources could have been a factor in Napoleon's death.

• But they say it is more likely that it was the treatments given to Napoleon in an attempt to cure him that actually killed him.

• He was given regular doses of antimony potassium tartrate, or tartar emetic a poisonous colourless salt which was used to make him vomit. He was also given regular enemas.

•

• The researchers, led by forensic pathologist Steven Karch, say this would have caused a serious potassium deficiency, which can lead to a potentially fatal heart condition called Torsades de Pointes in which rapid heartbeats disrupt blood flow to the brain.

• They say the final straw is likely to have been a 600 milligram dose of mercuric chloride, given as a purge to clear the intestines two days before his death.

• This was five times the normal dose, and would have depleted his potassium levels still further, they say.

• Dr Karch told BBC News Online he came to his conclusions after looking at modern cases where treatments had led patients to develop a potassium deficiency, and then Torsades de Pointes.

• He said: "There is a very strong argument for this - but it's not as sexy as the idea that he was murdered. "The arsenic wasn't killing him - his doctors did him in!"

• However Phil Corso, a retired Connecticut doctor, who advocates the cancer theory, told New Scientist: "It's really far-fetched when you think about it. He said Napoleon had clearly been sick for some time and would have died from his tumour, regardless of the treatment meted out to him by doctors.

• Was Napoleon poisoned or did he die of stomach cancer?• Antommarchi's autopsy report is very complete and shows Napoleon's general state of health at his

death, notably a chronic stomach ulcer and pulmonary lesions linked to tuberculosis. • Cancer cannot be diagnosed because of a lack of histological evidence from the stomach lining. • At any rate, one does not die 'of cancer', one dies of the effects of the cancer on the organism.• Analysis of the emperor's hair and the discovery of high level of arsenic therein poses several

questions. But it is intellectually impossible to accept the theory of death by arsenic poisoning.• First of all, we can never be 100% certain that the hairs analysed come from Napoleon. Furthermore,

the level of arsenic could be interpreted in different ways, notably the methods of analysis and the ways of calculating the levels used by the toxicologists (numbers obtained weighed against the number of hairs analysed: in fact, very few hairs have been analysed.

• Whilst presence of arsenic cannot be explained arguing from its external use (in cosmetics, for example), we still do not know where the arsenic came from, and it could have come from many sources. The hairs on the head of the people in Napoleon's entourage could also have a high arsenic content.

• Finally, to pass from toxicological results to a poisoning theory, then to a voluntary criminal act is very difficult. Indeed, one cannot establish a theory, accepting certain elements of the correspondence of one of the protagonists whilst eliminating other elements two paragraphs further on which contradict this position.

• The only certainties thus are, Napoleon's general state of health was very poor and no direct cause of death can be determined accurately.

• This is the only satisfactory conclusion from an ontological point of view, both for the scientist and for the historian. A deeply held conviction may be the starting point of an investigation but certainly not its conclusion.

St. Helena ... THE END!The German cartoon on the right ridicules the defeated Napoleon, showing him commanding an army of mice during his exile in St. Helena