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use of a homogeneous sample of subjects toeliminate variability on characteristics thatcould affect study outcomes.design that emerges in the field as thestudy unfolds.is used to remove the effect ofsituational factors that could affect the study outcomes(e.g., the environment) and intrinsic subjectcharacteristics extraneous to the researchquestion.Another technique is to control extraneous variablesthroughOne such procedureis known asconcerns thestrength of evidence that a relationship existsbetween two variables.concerns the degree to whichthe results of a study can be attributed to the independentvariable.study isperformed, as a means of controlling situationalfactors.

the exactnessof the relationships revealed after controllingextraneous variablesinvolves efforts to make groups comparableby matching subjects (either throughpair-matching or balancing groups(the ability to detect true relationshipsamong variablespreexisting group differences;(changes resulting fromthe passage of timeeffects of a preteston outcomesthe occurrence of eventsexternal to an independent variable that can affectoutcomesrefers to the generalizabilityof study findings to other samples and settingseffects attributable to subject attritionchanges in theway data are gathered over timethe populationfrom which a sample is drawnThreats to external validityqualitative researchers tend to becreative and intuitive, putting together an arrayof data drawn from many sources to arrive at aholistic understanding of a phenomenon.determine salient aspects ofthe phenomenon under studyrepresents a larger group of interestthat closely examines important aspectsof the phenomenoninclude expectancyeffects (Hawthorne effect, placebo effect, noceboeffect); novelty effects; interaction oftreatment and history effects; experimentereffects; and measurement effectsinvolvesseeking preliminary evidence of theeffectiveness of the treatment as designed inphase I.confirm findings.the researcher focusesprimarily on long-term consequences ofthe intervention, including both benefits andside effects.which are studies designed toassess the effectiveness of clinical interventions,are often designed in a series of phasesof a clinical trial is designed to finalizethe features of the interventionplotted on special graphs Most sequential trials use measures indicatingexperimental datafrom paired mini-experiments are continuouslyanalyzed; the experiment is stopped assoon as the evidence supports a conclusionabout the efficacy of the interventionthe plot crosses one of the boundaries,is a full experimental test ofthe treatment, often referred to as aassesses the effectivenessof a program, policy, or procedure to assistdecision-makers in choosing a course of action.attemptsto understand all the effects of a program,regardless of whether they were intendedtest whether an interventioncaused any net impacts relative to thecounterfactual.assesses the congruencebetween the goals of the program andactual outcomesdescribe the status of somecondition after the introduction of an intervention.seek to determinewhether the monetary costs of a programare outweighed by benefits and include bothcostbenefit analyses and cost-effectivenessanalyses.factors such as accessibility, range ofservices, facilities, and organizational climatedescribethe process by which a program gets implementedand how it functions in practice.is a term sometimesused to refer to a distinctive process of planning,developing, implementing, testing, and disseminatinginterventions.is undertaken to documentthe quality and effectiveness of health care andnursing services.which the design and evaluation ofan intervention flowthe investigator isconcerned with the development, validation, andassessment of methodologic tools or strategiesnursing interventions and actions)severity of illness andcase mix of the caseloaddeliberate attempts to test the implicationsof the original research)specific end-results of patient care in terms ofpatient functioningexact duplication of methods of an earlierstudy in a new studyclose approximation but not exact duplicationof methodsexamines peoples characteristics,behaviors, attitudes, and intentions byasking them to answer a series of questionsin which interviewers meetrespondents face-to-face and question themis a method of integrating thefindings of prior research using statistical procedures,counting each study as one unit ofanalysis.are self-administered(i.e., questions are read by respondents, whothen give written responses).are more economical, butare not recommended if the interview is long ordetailed or if the questions are sensitive or personal.focuses on the culture of a groupof people and relies on extensive field workis a method of problemsolving in which several rounds of questionnairesare mailed to a panel of experts.are studies to document theneeds of a group or community. The three maintechniques used to conduct needs assessmentsinclude the key informant, survey, or indicatorapproach.outsidersnsidersstrive to acquire an emic (insiders)perspective of a culture rather than anetic (outsiders) perspective. Nurses sometimesrefer to their ethnographic studies as ethnonursingresearch.as instrument isfrequently used by ethnographers to describethe significant role researchers play in analyzingand interpreting a culture.refers to studies in whichresearchers analyze previously collected dataseeks to discover the essenceand meaning of a phenomenon as it is experiencedby peoplean approach to studying socialpsychological processes and social structures,aims to discover theoretical preceptsgrounded in the data.the essence of the phenomenonby remaining open to meanings attributedto it by those who have experienced itcategories elicited from thedata are constantly compared with data obtainedearlier so that shared themes and variations canbe determined.which is grounded in data on aspecific substantive area,often using data from substantive theorystudies), which is at a higher level of abstraction.out preconceivedviewsthe systematic attemptto establish facts and relationships about pasteventsare intensive investigations of asingle entity or a small number of entities, suchas individuals, groups, organizations, families,or communities; such studies usually involvecollecting data over an extended period.which is concernedwith the authenticity of the sourcewhich assesses the worth of theevidence.focuses on story in studiesin which the purpose is to determine how individualsmake sense of events in their lives.are interpretivetranslations produced from the integration offindings from qualitative studies.Such studies may simply be referred toas qualitative studies, naturalistic inquiries, or asqualitativeis a systematicmeans of confirming the applicability ofclinical strategies suggested by a qualitativestudy and to evaluate clinical outcomes.is concerned with a critique of existingsocial structures; critical researchers striveto conduct inquiries that involve collaborationproducesknowledge through close collaboration withgroups or communities that are vulnerable tocontrol or oppression by a dominant cultureuses the principles of critical theoryin the study of cultures.which there is greater integration ofmethods throughout the research process.the blending of qualitative and quantitative datain a single project, can be advantageous in developingan evidence base for nursing practice.the qualitative and quantitative aspects ofthe study are implemented as discrete components,and are distinct during data collection anddata analysis.like critical research, is designedto be transformative, but the focus issharply on how gender domination and discriminationshape womens lives and their consciousness.Examples of component designstypes of integrated designs arealso used to illustrate, clarify,or amplify the meaning of quantified descriptionsor relationships.The most ambitious application of an integratedapproach is in the area ofResearchers usually sample from anis the process of selecting a portionThe criteria that specify population characteristicswhich is an entire aggregate of cases. is the basic unit about which informationis collectedusually humans in nursingresearch.to which they would like to generalizetheir results.extent to which the sample is similar to thepopulation and avoids biasrefers to the systematic over-representation orunder-representation of some segment of thepopulation.wherein elements are selected by nonrandommethods) are convenience, quota, andpurposive samplinguses the most readily available or mostconvenient group of people for the sampletype of conveniencesampling in which referrals for potential participantsare made by those already in the sample.divides the population into homogeneousstrata (subpopulations) to ensurerepresentation of the subgroups in the sampleparticipantsare hand-picked to be included in thesample based on the researchers knowledgeabout the population.designs, which involvethe random selection of elements from the population,yield more representative samplesinvolves the randomselection of elements from a sampling framethat enumerates all the elementsdivides the population into homogeneoussubgroups from which elements areselected at random.estimate samplesize needs.108which is thestandard distance between the selected elements.involves the successive selection of randomsamples from larger to smaller units by eithersimple random or stratified random methods.is the selection of everykth case from a list.that is, selectingcases that enrich and challenge the researchersconceptualizations.guide them in selecting data sourcesthat maximize information richness.which entailspurposely selecting cases with a wide range ofvariation.selecting cases that are intense butnot extreme);deliberately reducingvariationinvolves studying casesthat meet a predetermined criterion of importance.(selectingthe most unusual or extreme cases)selectingcases that illustrate what is typical)which involvessampling to the point at which no new informationis obtained and redundancy is achieved(selecting cases that are especiallyimportant or illustrativetypically work with a smallsample of people (10 or fewer) who meet thecriterion of having lived the experience understudymake numerous sampling decisions,including not only whom to sample butwhat to sampletypically use theoreticalsampling and work with samples ofabout 20 to 30 people.who serve as guidesand interpreters of the culture.(selecting cases on the basis oftheir representation of important constructs