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Pakistan Affairs

ALL ABOUT PAKISTAN AFFAIRS

LIST OF SUFFIS AND ULEMA`S

1. Hazrat sheikh bukhari2. Hazrat datta ghanj baksh3. Hazrat khuwaja mohiddin chushti4. Hazrat bhaw-al-din zikriya5. Hazrat fareed-al-din6. Hazrat Alla-al-din sabbir7. Hazrat majadid alaf saani8. Hazrat shah wali ullah9. Hazrat sheikh abdul haq muhdas10. Hazrat lal shebaaz ali qalander

11. Hazrat abdul-latif bhitai12. Hazrat syed ali hamdani13. Hazrat jalal-al-din sulheti14. mulana mohd qasim nanutuye15. mulana Ahmed ali khan brelwi16. mulana mehmood-al-hassan devbandi17. mulana ubaid allah sindhi18. mulana ashraf ali khanuwi19. mulana shabbit ahmed usmani

Mahmud Ghaznavi (977 - 1030)

Mahmud ghaznavi was the muslim ruler of ghazni who gained fame by raidingindia on seventeem times from 1000 to 1027 A.D. On each occasion he defeatedhindu kings and returned to Ghazni with enormous wealth.He is the person whobring Islam in sub-continent by capturing the Sommnath.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi (RA)

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was a muslim saint and scholar who flourished during thereigns of Akbar and Jahangir. He differed with etheistic view of Sheikh Mubarakand his sons Faizi and Abul Fazl.Jahangir imprisoned him for his religious activitiesbut released him shortly afterwards. Sheikh ahmed Sirhindi propounded thedoctrine of Wahdatul Shahud which successfully countered the Bhakti philosophyof Wahdatul Wujud.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-26)


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Ibrahim Lodhi was the last lodhi sultan of Delhi. He was defeated by Babur in theFirst Battle of Panipat in 1526.

MUGHAL EMPIRE

After defeating the Ibrahim lodhi ,The mughal empire had been came in existenceby Zahir-ul-din Babur

1. Zahir-ul-din Babur2. Humayun3. Akber4. Jahangir5. Shahjahan6. Orangzeb alamgir7. Bhadur Shah Zafar

Downfall of muslim rule (CAUSES)

1.Ignorance of religious beliefs2. Lack of solidarity3. Centralization of mughul Administration4. No law of succession5. Weakness of Character6.Educational Decline7. Military weakness8. No naval Force

Establishment of British rule

The british east India company was struggling for gaining ground to establishitself permanently on the subcontinent since 1600 A.D. The other Europeancolonialist powers had lost their will to keep themselves in row with the Englishbecause of their superiority on seas. Lord Clive established English influence onsound footing and returned to england in 1787When no rival European power was left on the scene , the English took advantageof the unsettled conditions of India and consolidated themselves politically.Theyclevely played one local ruler against the other and conquered India with themight of india.They demonstrated a great diplomati skill and employed improved

arms with a better knowledge of warfare. The indian rulers at last fell a victim totheir own entanglement. They were either forced to accept the authority of EastIndia Company or to be completely wiped off.This process of expansion of thebritish occupation od India continued in one form orthe other.Kingdom afterkingdom fell and then English finally pushed themselves ahead to succeed themughuls.Jehad Movement


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Jehad Movement was started by Syed Ahmed Barelvi and his companions in the

first half of the 19th century.This movement aimed at taking back control of India

from the british and the Sikhs. Jehad movement met some sucess in its early stage

when the Mujahideen defeated Sikh army and captured Peshawar.

Two Nation Theory

It is the theory that the hindus and muslims are two different nations because

each of them has a separate religion, language, architecture, culture and way of

life. This theory formed the basis of the pakistan movement which finally led to

the creation of pakistan in 1947. Allama Iqbal and Quaid-e-Azam were the

greatest exponents of Two-NationTheory.

In the view of Allama Iqbal:

"India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races , speaking

different languages and professing different religions....Even the Hindus do notform a homogeneous group. The principle of European democracy can not b

applied to india without recognizing the fact of communal groups The muslims

demand for the creation of a muslim india within India is, therefore, perfectly

justified"

According to Quaid-e-Azam

"We maintain and hold that Muslims and Hindus are two major nations by any

definition or test of a nation.We are a nation of a hundred million and what is

more we are a nation with our own distinct culture and civilization, language and

literature, art and architecture, names nad nomenclature, sense of values and

proportion"

Hindi-Urdu Controversy (1867)

Hindi- Urdu Controversy became the focus of nation attention in 1867 when some

hindus of benarus tried to replace urdu with hindi as the court language. Sir syed

ahmed was disappointed at the anti-Muslim attitude of Hindus.

War of Independence (1857)

The muslim of the Sub-continent fought a war of Independence in 1857 to

overthrow the British Raj.However, this war could not succeed because it lacked

competent leadership, coordination troops , military and financial resources and

modern weapons. After the war, the British held the muslim responsible for this


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catastrophe and unleashed a wave of oppression and repression on them

M.A.O college Aligarh

In 1875, Muhammad Anglo-Oriental High school was founded by Sir syed ahmed

khan. Two years later, in 1877 it was given the status of a college. It functioned

from 1877 to 1919 and educated thousands of muslim students who formed the

vanguard of pakistan movement.This college was given the status of a muslim

university in 1920,after the death of Sir syed ahmed khan.

Deoband Movement

Deoband movement was a socio-religious movement of Indian in the later half of

the 19th century. It was started by Maulana Mohd Qasim Nanautvi in 1866. It

aimed at educating the muslims in purely religious subjects by keeping english out

of its syllabus. It laid stress on Arabic and Persion languages.

Nadva-tul-Ulema, Lucknow

In 1894, Nadva-tu-Ulema, lucknow was founded by Maulana Abdul Ghafoor andMaulana Shibli Nomani. Nadva aimed at reforming Muslim society by imparting

both ecclesiastical and secular knowledge to muslims

Anjuman Himayat-e-Islam, Lahore

Anjuman himayat-e-Islam ,lahore was established in 1884. Khalifa hameeduddin

and Maulvi Ghulam Ullah were elected as its first president and secretary

respectively.Later on, the Anjuman opened many educational and welfare

institutionsion Lahore. Out of these Islamia college Railway road became very

famous. The students of Islamia college arranged the annual meeting of muslimleague at Lahore on 23rd march 1940 which passed lahore resolution.

First Constituent Assembly

First constituent assembly held its first meeting on 10th august,1947.Originally it


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comprised of 69 members of Central legislature belonging to punjab,sindh,NWFP

and Baluchistan.Later on,the numer of members was raised to 79.This first

constituent assemble was dissolved by ghulam mohammad in oct,1954.

Objectives Resolution

The Contituent Assembly approved the objective resolution on 12th mar,1949.It

embodied the basic principles for the future contituent of pakistan.The objective

resolution stated that the sovereignty belonged to Allah and declared that the

Muslims of pakistan would lead their lives according to the principles of Islam and

The minorities would b free to practise their religions.

Ulema`s 22 Points

The Govt of pakistan convened a convention of Ulema from 21-24th jan 1951 at

karachi.The convention was attended by 31 muslim religious scholars belonging to

all sects od Islam.The Ulema agreed on 22 points

Establishment of pakistan (Initial problems and events)

1. Demarcation of boundaries .....Radcliffe`s Award

2. Congress Reaction

3. Uprooting of muslim in punjab

4. Refugees problem and their resettlement5. Division of Armed forces and Military Assets

6. Division of financial Assets

7. Canal Water Dispute

8. Accession of Princely states (junagarh,kashmir and hyderabad)

9. economic problems and political problems

10. Constitutional problem

11. Death of Quaid-e-Azam

Indus water Treaty

Indus water treaty was signed by india and pakistan in 1960to resolve the

outstanding canal water dispute between the two countries

Rann of Kutch


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Rann of Kutch is a wide stretch of marshy land situated towards the south-east of

pakistan. In 1965 this area became a scene of border clash betweem india and

pak.

Six Points of Mujid-ur-rehman

In feb 1966, Sheikh Mujib the leader of Awami league announced his 6 points,

which demanded maximum autonomy for East pakistan.Later on, these points

became the basis for the separation movement by Bengalis.

Liaquat - Nehru Pact

Liaquat Ali khan and Nehru signed a pact on 8th april 1950 in delhi.According to

this agreement, both the countries agreed to protect the rights of their minorities

and undertook to stop propaganda against each other.

Simla Accord

The 1971 Indo-pak was abd the insurgency of bengalis resulted in the separation

of east pakistan. The way brought in its wake many issue, which included the

release of PoWs, trial of selected PoWs, return of Baharis to pakistan and

recognition of bangladesh . In july 1972, Z.A.Bhutto and Indira Gandhi signed anAccord in simla which is historically known as simla accord

Languages of pakistan

Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. About thirty-one distinct languages are spoken

in pakistan, not counting a number of dialects, but no single language is commonly

spoken or understood in all parts of the country.Many of the languages are spoken

by a relatively small proportion of the population and some are not even

commonly written, but sentiment and association among the speakers is almost

invariably opposed to absorption into one of the larger units. With minor exceptionall the languages are also spoken outside the country

Ratio of languages of pakistan

1. Urdu ( 7.6 )

2. Punjabi ( 44.1 )


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3. Pushto ( 15.4 )

4. Sindhi ( 14.1 )

5. Balochi ( 3.6 )

6. Saraiki ( 10.5 )

7. Others ( 4.7 )

POPULATION OF PAKISTAN BY RELIGION

According to census of 1981 , religion-wise population of pakistan was as under

1. Muslim = 81,450,057

2. Christians = 1,310,426

3. Hindus = 1,276,116

4. Ahmadis = 104,244

5. Bhuddist = 26396. Parsis = 7007

7. Others = 103,155

Economics of Pakistan (Five Year Plans)

So far the government of pakistan has launched the following nine five year plans.

( 1975 to 1978 ) is regarded as no plan period

1. First five year plan (1955-60)

2. Second five year plan (1960-65)

3. Third five year plan (1965-70)

4. Fourth five year plan (1970-75)

5. Fifth five year plan (1978-83)

6. Sixth five year plan (1983-88)

7. Seventh five year plan (1988-93)

8. Eighth five year plan (1993-98)

9. Ninth five year plan (1998-2003)

Important Rivers Of Pakistan

PUNJAB : Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Sutlej

SINDH : Hub , Mir Nadi , Arl Nadi

NWFP : Indus , Kabul , Swat , Bara , Chitral , Zhob , Panjkora , Gomal , Kurram

BALUCHISTAN : Hangol , Nari , Bolan , Dasht , Mula , Rakhshan , Pashin Lora


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The Largest in Pakistan

Air Lines : PIA

Air Port : Quaid-e-azam International Airport , Khi

Bank : State bank Of pakistan.The largest commercial bank is Habib bank Ltd withRs. 194.6 billion desposit

Barrage : Sukkur Barrage

City : Karachi, Estimated population 9.9 millions

Canal : Lloyd Barrage Canal

Dam : Tarbela Dam (vol 148 million cubic metres)

Desert : Thar (sindh)

Division : Kalat division (baluchistan),Area 1,38,633 sq km

District : Khuzdar (baluchistan)

Fort : Rani Kot (sindh)

Gas Field : Sui Gas Field, Baluchistan

Hospital: Nishtar Hospital , MultanHydro-Electric Power Station : Tarbela (3478 MW)

Industrial Unit : Pakistan Steel Mills , Karachi

Industry : Textile Industry

Island : Manora (karachi)

Jungle : Chhanga Manga (kasur)

Lake (Artificial) : Keenjhar Lake (sindh)

Lake (natural): Manchhar Lake, Dadu (sindh)

Library : The punjab public Library,Lahore (punjab)

Mine : Salt Mines , Khewra (punjab)

Mosque : Shah Faisal Mosque , Isl

Motorway : Lahore-Islamabad,motorwayMuseum : National Museum, karachi

Newspaper : Jang (urdu) ; The news (eng)

Nuclear Reactor : Karachi Nuclear Power plant (KANUPP)

Oil Field : Dhurnal Oil Field

Park : Ayub National Park , Rawalpindi

Radio station : Islamabad

Railway station : Lahore

River : Indus river

University : Punjab University , lahore

The Longest in Pakistan

coast : Balochistan (771 kms long)

Frontier : Pak-Afghan border (2252 kms)

Railway Platform : Rohri (sindh),Length 1894 feet

Railway track : Karachi to Landi kotal

Road : Karachi to peshawar


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Tunnel (railway) : Khojak baluchistan (2.43 miles)

Tunnel (road) : Lowari (5 miles)

Tunnel (water) : Warsak Dam Tunnel (3.5 miles)

The Tallest in pakistan

Tower : Minar-e-pakistan (height 196 feet 8 inches)

Minart : Four Minarets of Shah faisal Mosque with height of 286 feet each

Mountain pass : Muztagh Pass (Height 19030 feet)

Mountain peak : K-2 (karakoram) height 28269 feet

Mountain Passes Of Pakistan

1. Muztagh Pass

2. Karakoram Pass

3. Khan kun Pass

4. Zagar Pass

5. Kilik Pass

6. Khunjrab Pass

7. Mintaka Pass

8. Dorath Pass

9. Babusar Pass

10. Shandur Pass

11. Lowari Pass

12. Buroghil Pass

13. Khyber Pass

14. Shimshal Pass

15. Ganshero Pass

16. Tochi Pass

17. Gomal Pass

18. Durgai Pass

19. Malakand Pass

Foreign Banks Operating In pakistan

1. ABN Amro Bank N.V.

2. Albaraka Islamic Bank BSC (EC)

3. American Express Bank Ltd

4. Standard Chartared Grindlays Bank Ltd

5. Bank of Tokyo Mitsubisho Ltd

6. Bank of Ceylon

7. Citibank N.A


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8. Deutsche Bank A.G

9. Emirates Bank International Ltd

10. Habib bank A.G Zurich

11. Mashreq Bank P.S.C

12. Oman Internation Bank S.O.A.G

13 Rupali Bank Ltd14. Standard Chartered Bank

Saindak Metal (Pvt) Ltd.

The Saindak Metal is the first important metal mining project in pakistan.It is

designed to produce 15810 tonnes of blister copper annually which contained gold

(1.47 tonnes) and silver (2.76 tonnes)

Metallic Minerals In Pakistan

Alum : Kalat , Khairpur , Peshawar , Quetta

Antimony : Karangli , Qila Abdullah , Shekran

Arsenic : Gilgit , Londku

Bauxite : Dhamman , Jhal , Muzaffarabad , Niazpur

Chromite : Lasbela , Malakand , Muslim bagh , Raskoh

Copper: Koh Marani , Kalat , Maranj , Pishin , Saindak

Gold : Chitral , Gilgit , Karak , Mardan , Lasbella

Iron Ore : Chitral , Chilgazi , Kalabagh, Rashkoh

Lead : Chiral , Khuzdar , Lasbella , Mardan

Magnesite : Kalat , Khumhar , Abbottabad , Zhob

Manganese : Haji Mohd Khan , Abbottabad , Zhob

Silver : Saindak (baluchistan)

Non-Metallic Minerals In pakistan

Asbestos : Char Bagh , Chitral , D.I Khan , Zhob

Calcite : Lasbella , ZhobChina Clay : Hazara , Multan , Peshawar , Rawalpindi

Coal : Dandot , Degari , Makarwal

Dolomite : D.I Khan , Jhimpir , Rawal pindi

Flourite : Chitral , Dir , Hazara

Glass sand : Bande sadiq , Mianwali , Salt Range

Graphite : Chitral , Hazara , Khyber

Gypsum : Dadu , D.I khan , Hyderabad , Kohat , Sibi , Quetta


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Limestone : Daudkhel , D.I Khan , Hyderabad , Kalat , Rohri

Marble : Attock , Chagi , Gilgit , Hazara , Mardan, Swat

Natural Gas : Dhurnal , Kandhkot, Mayal , Mari , Sui ,Tut , Uch

Precious Stones : Chitral , Hunza , Malakand , Swat

Salt : Bahadur Khel , Khewra , Kalabagh

Silica : Dandot , Hazara , Jangshahi , MakarwalSulphur : Chitral , Hyderabad , Kalat , Koh sultan

NATIONAL ANTHEM OF PAKISTAN

National Anthem of pakistan was written by renowned poet " Hafeez Jullundari "

in 1954.The anthem consist of 50 words arranged in 15 lines.Renowned musician

"Abdul Karim Chhagle" composed the Anthem.A total number of 11 male and

female singers took part in its musical composition.Pakistan national anthem was

first played on 13th august,1954 before "Shah of Iran Raza Shah Pehlavi".

National Saving Organization (NSO)

The NSO works under the Directorate of National Saving. The directorate has 12

regions and 365 branches in pakistan. It offers many saving schemes which

include saving account,Defence Saving Certificates, Khas Deposit Certificates ,

Postal Life Insurance , Mahana Amdani Accounts and Prize Bonds

National Holidays

1. Pakistan republic day (23rd march)

2. Labour day (1st may)

3. Bank Holiday (1st july)

4. Independence day (14th aug)

5. Defence day (6th sep)

6. Death Anniversary of Quaid-e-Azam (11th sep)

7. Birth Anniversay of Allama Iqbal (9th nov)

8. Birth Anniversary of Quaid-e-Azam (25th dec)

In addition, The govt of pakistan notifies holidays on Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid -ul-

Uzha,Ashura Muharram and Eid Milad-un-Nabi according to islamic Calendar

Press Organization of pakistan


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1. APNS : All-Pakistan News Agency

2. PFUJ : Pakistan Federal Union of Jounalists

3. APNEC : All-Pakistan News Employees Confederation

4. NECP : Newspapers Editors Council of Pakistan

NEWS AGENCIES OF PAKISTAN

1. APP : Associated Press of Pakistan

2. INP : Independent News of Pakistan

3. IPS : Islamabad Press Service

4. PPI : Pakistan Press International

More Information of pakistan

* Syed Ahmed khan wrote " Khutbat-i-Ahmadiya " on 1869 in reply to william

muir`s " Life of Mohammad"

* Sir syed retired from service in 1976

* The total area of pakistan is 796096 square kilometres (307374 sq mi )

* There are 27 divisions and 108 districts in pakistan

* The total number of primary schools are 169,087,middle schools are 19180 and

high schools are 13108.

* The number of registered doctors are 92248, Nurses are 40114 and Dentists are

4622.

* The first postage stamp of pakistan issued on 9th july, 1948

* The first census of pakistan was conducted on 9th feb,1951

* Gen. Ayub khan took over as the president on 17th feb ,1960 and Gen. A M

Yahya khan took over on 31st mar.1969.

* PPP was founded by ZA bhutto on 30th nov,1967.

* The 1973 Constitution of pakistan promulgated on 12th april, 1973.

* Dr. Abdul Salam was awarded Nobel Peace Prize in Physics on 15th oct,1979.

Foriegn policy of pakistan

1.Foriegn policy

2.Principles of Pakistan foriegn policy


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3.SIX important phases of pakistan policy

4.Relation of pakistan and Super power (USA)

5.Relation of pakistan and Russia

6.Relation with Islamic world (Relation with

Afghanistan,Iran,Turkey,Saudiarab,Bangladesh)

7.Importance of kashmir problem in indo-pak relation8.Importance of foriegn policy

9.Pakistan and OIC,SAARC,NAM and ECO

Cultural Heritage of Pakistan

The land where the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is situated today had been a seat of worldsleading Civilizations from the time immemorial. There is plenty of evidence from the pre-historic and historic period to support this argument, e.g. fossil jaws of apes, circa 14millions years old found from Pothohar. They belong to a species named SivapithecusPakininsis, said to be the ancestor of Man. A 2 million years old earliest stone hand axe.Now on display in Islamabad Museum, Islamabad.

The legacy of our predecessors at the time of our independence, on August 14, 1947, cameto us as a treasure which may be called as Pakistans national heritage. So rich anddiversified is this heritage that Pakistani nation can be proud of its glorious past, be Islamic,Post Islamic or pre-Islamic period as far back as pre-historic times. No other country of theworld can produce the treasure of by gone days as can be found in Pakistan. It is nowincumbent upon us to treasure our national heritage and save it from further deteriorationand theft.The establishment of NFCH is much appreciated and a great interest is shown by thegeneral public hence since its establishment in 1994 hundreds of proposals were receivedfrom different agencies and individuals for the conservation, preservation and publication ofthe Pakistans national heritage. It is hoped that with the continued patronage of thegovernment, the Philanthropists and the Business Community to the NFCH we shall be able

to achieve the aforesaid goal.

The Cultural Heritage of Pakistan is spread over the centuries, starting from pre-historictimes to the present day and which may be summarized in the following periods:

Indus Civilization:

Gandhara Civilization:

Islamic Period:

Sikh Period:

British Period:

Post independence Period__________________

Pakistan's Historical Background

Pakistan emerged on the world map on August 14,1947. It has its roots into the remote

past. Its establishment was the culmination of the struggle by Muslims of the South-Asian


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subcontinent for a separate homeland of their own and its foundation was laid when

Muhammad bin Qasim subdued Sindh in 711 A.D. as a reprisal against sea pirates that had

taken refuge in Raja Dahir's kingdom.

The advent of Islam further strengthened the historical individuality in the areas now

constituting Pakistan and further beyond its boundaries. Stone Age Some of the earliestrelics of Stone Age man in the subcontinent are found in the Soan Valley of the Potohar

region near Rawalpindi, with a probable antiquity of about 500,000 years. No human

skeleton of such antiquity has yet been discovered in the area, but the crude stone

implements recovered from the terraces of the Soan carry the saga of human toil and labor

in this part of the world to the inter-glacial period. These Stone Age men fashioned their

implements in a sufficiently homogenous way to justify their grouping in terms of a culture

called the Soan Culture. About 3000 B.C, amidst the rugged wind-swept valleys and foothills

of Balochistan, small village communities developed and began to take the first hesitant

steps towards civilization. Here, one finds a more continuous story of human activity,

though still in the Stone Age.

These pre-historic men established their settlements, both as herdsmen and as farmers, in

the valleys or on the outskirts of the plains with their cattle and cultivated barley and other

crops. Red and buffer Cultures Careful excavations of the pre-historic mounds in these areas

and the classification of their contents, layer by layer, have grouped them into two main

categories of Red Ware Culture and Buff Ware Culture. The former is popularly known as the

Zhob Culture of North Balochistan, while the latter comprises the Quetta, Amri Nal and Kulli

Cultures of Sindh and South Balochistan. Some Amri Nal villages or towns had stone walls

and bastions for defence purposes and their houses had stone foundations. At Nal, an

extensive cemetery of this culture consists of about 100 graves. An important feature of this

composite culture is that at Amri and certain other sites, it has been found below the very

distinctive Indus Valley Culture. On the other hand, the steatite seals of Nal and the copperimplements and certain types of pot decoration suggest a partial overlap between the two.

It probably represents one of the local societies which constituted the environment for the

growth of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The pre-historic site of Kot Diji in the Sindh province has provided information of high

significance for the reconstruction of a connected story which pushes back the origin of this

civilization by 300 to 500 years, from about 2500 B.C.. to at least 2800 B.C. Evidence of a

new cultural elements of pre-Harappan era has been traced here. Pre-Harappan Civilization

When the primitive village communities in the Balochistan area were still struggling against

a difficult highland environment, a highly cultured people were trying to assert themselves

at Kot Diji, one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world whichflourished between the years 2500 and 1500 B.C. in the Indus Valley sites of Moenjodaro

and Harappa. These Indus Valley people possessed a high standard of art and craftsmanship

and a well developed system of quasi pictographic writing, which despite continuing efforts

still remains undeciphered. The imposing ruins of the beautifully planned Moenjodaro and

Harappa towns present clear evidence of the unity of a people having the same mode of life

and using the same kind of tools. Indeed, the brick buildings of the common people, the

public baths, the roads and covered drainage system suggest the picture of a happy and


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contented people. Aryan Civilization In or about 1500 B.C., the Aryans descended upon the

Punjab and settled in the Sapta Sindhu, which signifies the Indus plain. They developed a

pastoral society that grew into the Rigvedic Civilization. The Rigveda is replete with hymns

of praise for this region, which they describe as "God fashioned". It is also clear that so long

as the Sapta Sindhu remained the core of the Aryan Civilization, it remained free from the

caste system. The caste institution and the ritual of complex sacrifices took shape in theGangetic Valley. There can be no doubt that the Indus Civilization contributed much to the

development of the Aryan civilization. Gandhara Culture The discovery of the Gandhara

grave culture in Dir and Swat will go a long way in throwing light on the period of Pakistan's

cultural history between the end of the Indus Culture in 1500 B.C. and the beginning of the

historic period under the Achaemenians in the sixth century B.C. Hindu mythology and

Sanskrit literary traditions seem to attribute the destruction of the Indus civilization to the

Aryans, but what really happened, remains a mystery. The Gandhara grave culture has

opened up two periods in the cultural heritage of Pakistan: one of the Bronze Age and the

other of the Iron Age. It is so named because it presents a peculiar pattern of living in hilly

zones of the Gandhara region as evidenced in the graves. This culture is different from the

Indus Culture and has little relations with the village culture of Balochistan. Stratigraphy aswell as the artifacts discovered from this area suggest that the Aryans moved into this part

of the world between 1,500 and 600 B.C. In the sixth century B.C., Buddha began his

teachings, which later on spread throughout the northern part of the South-Asian

subcontinent. It was towards the end of this century, too, that Darius I of Iran organized

Sindh and Punjab as the twentieth satrapy of his empire.

There are remarkable similarities between the organizations of that great empire and the

Mauryan empire of the third century B.C., while Kautilya's Arthshastra also shows a strong

Persian influence, Alexander of Macedonia after defeating Darius III in 330 B.C. had also

marched through the South-Asian subcontinent up to the river Beas, but Greek influence on

the region appears to have been limited to contributing a little to the establishment of theMauryan empire. The great empire that Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, built

in the subcontinent included only that part of the Indus basin which is now known as the

northern Punjab. The rest of the areas astride the Indus were not subjugated by him. These

areas, which now form a substantial part of Pakistan, were virtually independent from the

time of the Guptas in the fourth century A.D. until the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in the

thirteenth century. Gandhara Art Gandhara Art, one of the most prized possessions of

Pakistan, flourished for a period of 500 years (from the first to the fifth century A.D.) in the

present valley of Peshawar and the adjacent hilly regions of Swat, Buner and Bajaur. This

art represents a separate phase of the cultural renaissance of the region. It was the product

of a blending of Indian, Buddhist and Greco-Roman sculpture. Gandhara Art in its early

stages received the patronage of Kanishka, the great Kushan ruler, during whose reign theSilk Route ran through Peshawar and the Indus Valley, bringing great prosperity to the

whole area. Advent of Islam The first followers of prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him),

to set foot on the soil of the South-Asian subcontinent, were traders from the coast land of

Arabia and the Persian Gulf, soon after the dawn of Islam in the early seventh century A.D.

DAWN OF ISLAM


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The first permanent Muslim foothold in the subcontinent was achieved with Muhammad bin

Qasim's conquest of Sindh in 711 A.D. An autonomous Muslim state linked with the

Umayyed, and later, the Abbassid Caliphate was established with jurisdiction extending over

southern and central parts of present Pakistan. Quite a few new cities were established and

Arabic was introduced as the official language. At the time of Mahmud of Ghazna's invasion,

Muslim rule still existed, though in a weakened form, in Multan and some other regions. TheGhaznavids (976-1148) and their successors, the Ghaurids (1148-1206), were Central Asian

by origin and they ruled their territories, which covered mostly the regions of present

Pakistan, from capitals outside India. It was in the early thirteenth century that the

foundations of the Muslim rule in India were laid with extended boundaries and Delhi as the

capital. From 1206 to 1526 A.D., five different dynasties held sway. Then followed the

period of Mughal ascendancy (1526-1707) and their rule continued, though nominally, till

1857. From the time of the Ghaznavids, Persian more or less replaced Arabic as the official

language. The economic, political and religious institutions developed by the Muslims bore

their unique impression. The law of the State was based on Shariah and in principle the

rulers were bound to enforce it. Any long period of laxity was generally followed by

reinforcement of these laws under public pressure. The impact of Islam on the South-Asiansubcontinent was deep and far-reaching. Islam introduced not only a new religion, but a

new civilization, a new way of life and new set of values. Islamic traditions of art and

literature, of culture and refinement, of social and welfare institution, were established by

Muslim rulers throughout the subcontinent. A new language, Urdu, derived mainly from

Arabic and Persian vocabulary and adopting indigenous words and idioms, came to be

spoken and written by the Muslims and it gained currency among the rest of the Indian

population.

URDU AS THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE OF PAKISTAN

Apart from religion, Urdu also enabled the Muslim community during the period of itsascendancy to preserve its separate identity in the subcontinent.

Muslim Identity -- The question of Muslim identity, however assumed seriousness during the

decline of Muslim power in South Asia. The first person to realize its acuteness was the

scholar theologian, Shah Waliullah (1703-62). He laid the foundation of Islamic renaissance

in the subcontinent and became a source of inspiration for almost all the subsequent social

and religious reform movements of the nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. His immediate

successors, inspired by his teachings, tried to establish a modest Islamic state in the north-

west of India and they, under the leadership of Sayyed Ahmad Shaheed Barelvi (1786-

1831), persevered in this direction. British Expansionism and Muslim Resistance Meanwhile,

starting with the East India Company, the British had emerged as the dominant force inSouth Asia. Their rise to power was gradual extending over a period of nearly one hundred

years. They replaced the Shariah by what they termed as the Anglo-Muhammadan law

whereas Urdu was replaced by English as the official language. These and other

developments had great social, economic and political impact especially on the Muslims of

South Asia. The uprising of 1857, termed as the Indian Mutiny by the British and the War of

Independence by the Muslims, was a desperate attempt to reverse the adverse course of

events. Religious Institutions The failure of the 1857 War of Independence had disastrous


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consequences for the Muslims as the British placed all the responsibility for this event on

them. Determined to stop such a recurrence in future, the British followed deliberately a

repressive policy against the Muslims. Properties and estates of those even remotely

associated with the freedom fighters were confiscated and conscious efforts were made to

close all avenues of honest living for them. The Muslim response to this situation also

aggravated their plight. Their religious leaders, who had been quite active, withdrew fromthe mainstream of the community life and devoted themselves exclusively to imparting

religious education. Although the religious academies especially those of Deoband, Farangi

Mahal and Rai Bareilly, established by the Ulema, did help the Muslims to preserve their

identity, the training provided in these institutions hardly equipped them for the new

challenges. Educational Reform The Muslims kept themselves aloof from western education

as well as government service. But, their compatriots, the Hindus, did not do so and

accepted the new rulers without reservation. They acquired western education, imbibed the

new culture and captured positions hitherto filled in by the Muslims. If this situation had

prolonged, it would have done the Muslims an irreparable damage. The man to realise the

impending peril was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1889), a witness to the tragic events of

1857. He exerted his utmost to harmonize British Muslim relations. His assessment was thatthe Muslims' safety lay in the acquisition of western education and knowledge. He took

several positive steps to achieve this objective. He founded a college at Aligarh to impart

education on western lines. Of equal importance was the Anglo-Muhammadan Educational

Conference, which he sponsored in 1886, to provide an intellectual forum to the Muslims for

the dissemination of views in support of western education and social reform. Similar were

the objectives of the Muhammadan Literary Society, founded by Nawab Adbul Latif (1828-

93), active in Bengal, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's efforts transformed into a movement, known

as the Aligarh Movement, and it left its imprint on the Muslims of every part of the South-

Asian subcontinent. Under its inspiration, societies were founded throughout the

subcontinent which established educational institutions for imparting education to the

Muslims.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was averse to the idea of participation by the Muslims in any

organized political activity which, he feared, might revive British hostility towards them. He

also disliked Hindu Muslim collaboration in any joint venture. His disillusionment in this

regard stemmed basically from the Urdu Hindi controversy of the late 1860s when the Hindu

enthusiasts vehemently championed the cause of Hindi to replace Urdu. He, therefore,

opposed the Indian National Congress when it was founded in 1885 and advised the

Muslims to abstain from its activities. His contemporary and a great scholar of Islam, Syed

Ameer Ali (1849-1928), shared his views about the Congress, but, he was not opposed to

Muslims organizing themselves politically. In fact, he organised the first significant political

body of the Muslims, the Central National Muhammadan Association. Although, itsmembership was limited, it had more than 50 branches in different parts of the

subcontinent and it accomplished some solid work for the educational and political

advancement of the Muslims. But, its activities waned towards the end of the nineteenth

century. The Muslim League At the dawn of the twentieth century, a number of factors

convinced the Muslims of the need to have an effective political organization. Therefore, in

October 1906, a deputation comprising 35 Muslim leaders met the Viceroy of the British at

Simla and demanded separate electorates. Three months later, the All-India Muslim League


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was founded by Nawab Salimullah Khan at Dhaka, mainly with the objective of safeguarding

the political rights and interests of the Muslims. The British conceded separate electorates in

the Government of India Act of 1909 which confirmed the Muslim League's position as an

All-India party. Attempt for Hindu Muslim Unity The visible trend of the two major

communities progressing in opposite directions caused deep concern to leaders of All-India

stature. They struggled to bring the Congress and the Muslim League on one platform.Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) was the leading figure among them. After

the annulment of the partition of Bengal and the European Powers' aggressive designs

against the Ottoman Empire and North Africa, the Muslims were receptive to the idea of

collaboration with the Hindus against the British rulers.

The Congress Muslim League rapprochement was achieved at the Lucknow sessions of the

two parties in 1916 and a joint scheme of reforms was adopted. In the Lucknow Pact. as the

scheme was commonly referred to, the Congress accepted the principle of separate

electorates, and the Muslims, in return for `weightage' to the Muslims of the Muslim

minority provinces, agreed to surrender their thin majorities in the Punjab and Bengal. The

post Lucknow Pact period witnessed Hindu Muslim amity and the two parties came to holdtheir annual sessions in the same city and passed resolutions of identical contents.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

The Hindu Muslim unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and the Non-cooperation

Movements. The Muslims of soothsayer, under the leadership of the Ali Brothers, Maulana

Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali, launched the historic Khilafat Movement after the

First World War to protect the Ottoman Empire from dismemberment. Mohandas

Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) linked the issue of Swaraj (self-government) with the

Khilafat issue to associate the Hindus with the Movement. the ensuing Movement was the

first countrywide popular movement.

Although the Movement failed in its objectives, it had a far-reaching impact on the Muslims

of South Asia. After a long time, they took united action on a purely Islamic issue which

momentarily forged solidarity among them. It also produced a class of Muslim leaders

experienced in organizing and mobilizing the public. This experience was of immense value

to the Muslims later during the Pakistan Movement The collapse of the Khilafat Movement

was followed by a period of bitter Hindu Muslim antagonism. The Hindus organized two

highly anti Muslim movements, the Shudhi and the Sangathan. The former movement was

designed to convert Muslims to Hinduism and the latter was meant to create solidarity

among the Hindus in the event of communal conflict. In retaliation, the Muslims sponsored

the Tabligh and Tanzim organizations to counter the impact of the Shudhi and theSangathan. In the 1920s, the frequency of communal riots was unprecedented. Several

Hindu-Muslim unity conferences were held to remove the causes of conflict, but, it seemed

nothing could mitigate the intensity of communalism. Muslim Demand Safeguards In the

light of this situation, the Muslims revised their constitutional demands. They now wanted

preservation of their numerical majorities in the Punjab and Bengal, separation of Sindh

from Bombay, constitution of Balochistan as a separate province and introduction of

constitutional reforms in the North-West Frontier Province. It was partly to press these


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demands that one section of the All-India Muslim League cooperated with the Statutory

commission sent by the British Government under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon in

1927.

SIMON COMMISSION

The other section of the League, which boycotted the Simon Commission for its all-White

character, cooperated with the Nehru Committee, appointed by the All-Parties Conference,

to draft a constitution for India. The Nehru Report had an extremely anti-Muslim bias and

the Congress leadership's refusal to amend it disillusioned even the moderate Muslims.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal Several leaders and thinkers, having insight into the Hindu-Muslim

question proposed separation of Muslim India. However, the most lucid exposition of the

inner feeling of the Muslim community was given by Allama Muhammad Iqbal(1877-1938)

in his Presidential Address at the All-India Muslim League Session at Allahabad in 1930. He

suggested that for the healthy development of Islam in South-Asia, it was essential to have

a separate Muslim state at least in the Muslim majority regions of the north-west. Later on,

in his correspondence with Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, he included the Muslimmajority areas in the north-east also in his proposed Muslim state. Three years after his

Allahabad Address, a group of Muslim students at Cambridge, headed by Chaudhry Rehmat

Ali, issued a pamphlet, Now or Never, in which drawing letters from the names of the

Muslim majority regions, they gave the nomenclature of "Pakistan" to the proposed State.

Very few even among the Muslim welcomed the idea at the time. It was to take a decade

for the Muslims to embrace the demand for a separate Muslim state. Quaid-i-Azam

Muhammad Ali Jinnah Meanwhile, three Round Table Conferences were convened in London

during 1930-32, to resolve the Indian constitutional problem. The Hindu and Muslim

leaders, who were invited to these conferences, could not draw up an agreed formula and

the British Government had to announce a `Communal Award' which was incorporated in

the Government of India Act of 1935. Before the elections under this Act, the All-IndiaMuslim League, which had remained dormant for some time, was reorganized by Quaid-i-

Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who had returned to India in 1934,after an absence of nearly

five years in England. The Muslim League could not win a majority of Muslim seats since it

had not yet been effectively reorganized. However, it had the satisfaction that the

performance of the Indian National Congress in the Muslim constituencies was bad. After

the elections, the attitude of the Congress leadership was arrogant and domineering. The

classic example was its refusal to form a coalition government with the Muslim League in

the United Provinces. Instead, it asked the League leaders to dissolve their parliamentary

arty in the Provincial Assembly and join the Congress. Another important Congress move

after the 1937 elections was its Muslim mass contact movement to persuade the Muslims to

join the Congress and not the Muslim League. One of its leaders, Jawaharlal Nehru, evendeclared that there were only two forces in India, the British and the Congress. All this did

not go unchallenged.

Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah countered that there was a third force in South-Asia

constituting the Muslims. The All-India Muslim League, under his gifted leadership, gradually

and skillfully started organising the Muslims on one platform. Towards a Separate Muslim

Homeland The 1930s witnessed awareness among the Muslims of their separate identity


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and their anxiety to preserve it within separate territorial boundaries. An important element

that brought this simmering Muslim nationalism in the open was the character of the

Congress rule in the Muslim minority provinces during 1937-39. The Congress policies in

these provinces hurt Muslim susceptibilities. There were calculated aims to obliterate the

Muslims as a separate cultural unit. The Muslims now stopped thinking in terms of seeking

safeguards and began to consider seriously the demand for a separate Muslim state. During1937-39, several Muslim leaders and thinkers, inspired by Allama Iqbal's ideas, presented

elaborate schemes for partitioning the subcontinent according to two-nation theory.

Pakistan Resolution The All-India Muslim League soon took these schemes into

consideration and finally, on March 23, 1940, the All-India Muslim League, in a resolution,

at its historic Lahore Session, demanded a separate homeland for the Muslims in the Muslim

majority regions of the subcontinent. The resolution was commonly referred to as the

Pakistan Resolution. The Pakistan demand had a great appeal for the Muslims of every

persuasion. It revived memories of their past greatness and promised future glory. They,

therefore, responded to this demand immediately. Cripps Mission The British Government

recognized the genuineness of the Pakistan demand indirectly in the proposals for the

transfer of power after the Second World War which Sir Stafford Cripps brought to India in1942. Both the Congress and the All-India Muslim League rejected these proposals for

different reasons. The principles of secession of Muslim India as a separate Dominion was

however, conceded in these proposals. After this failure, a prominent Congress leader, C.

Rajgopalacharia, suggested a formula for a separate Muslim state in the Working Committee

of the Indian National Congress, which was rejected at the time, but later on, in 1944,

formed the basis of the Jinnah-Gandhi talks. Demand for Pakistan

PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

The Pakistan demand became popular during the Second World War Every section of the

Muslim community-men , women, students, Ulema and businessmen-were organized underthe banner of the All-India Muslim League. Branches of the party were opened even in the

remote corners of the subcontinent. Literature in the form of pamphlets, books, magazines

and newspapers was produced to explain the Pakistan demand and distributed widely. The

support gained by the All-India Muslim League and its demand for Pakistan was tested after

the failure of the Simla Conference, convened by the Viceroy, Lord Wavell, in 1945.

Elections were called to determine the respective strength of the political parties. The All-

India Muslim League election campaign was based on the Pakistan demand. The Muslim

community responded to this call in an unprecedented way. Numerous Muslim parties were

formed making united parliamentary board at the behest of the Congress to oppose the

Muslim League. But the All-India Muslim League swept all the thirty seats in the Central

Legislature and in the provincial elections also, its victory was outstanding. After theelections, on April 8-9,1946, the All-India Muslim League called a convention of the newly-

elected League members in the Central and Provincial Legislatures at Delhi. This convention,

which constituted virtually a representative assembly of the Muslims of South Asia, on a

motion by the Chief Minister of Bengal, Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy, reiterated the

Pakistan demand in clearer terms. Cabinet Plan In early 1946, the British Government sent

a Cabinet Mission to the subcontinent to resolve the constitutional deadlock. The Mission

conducted negotiations with various political parties, but failed to evolve an agreed formula.


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spheres in accordance with the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the HolyQuran and Sunnah;

Wherein adequate provision shall be made for the minorities freely to profess and practisetheir religions and develop their cultures;

Wherein the territories now included in or in accession with Pakistan and such otherterritories as may hereafter be included in or accede to Pakistan shall form a Federationwherein the units will be autonomous with such boundaries and limitations on their powersand authority as may be prescribed;

Therein shall be guaranteed fundamental rights, including equality of status, of opportunityand before law, social, economic and political justice, and freedom of thought, expression,belief, faith, worship and association, subject to law and public morality;

Wherein adequate provision shall be made to safeguard the legitimate interests of minoritiesand backward and depressed classes;

Wherein the independence of the judiciary shall be fully secured;

Wherein the integrity of the territories of the Federation, its independence and all its rights,including its sovereign rights on land, sea and air, shall be safeguarded;

So that the people of Pakistan may prosper and attain their rightful and honoured place

amongst the nations of the World and make their full contribution towards internationalpeace and progress and happiness of humanity :

Now, therefore, we, the people of Pakistan,

Cognisant of our responsibility before Almighty Allah and men;

Congnisant of the sacrifices made by the people in the cause of Pakistan;

Faithful to the declaration made by the Founder of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad AliJinnah, that Pakistan would be a democratic State based on Islamic principles of socialjustice;

Dedicated to the preservation of democracy achieved by the unremitting struggle of thepeople against oppression and tyranny;


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Inspired by the resolve to protect our national and political unity and solidarity by creatingan egalitarian society through a new order;

Do hereby, through our representatives in the National Assembly, adopt, enact and give toourselves, this Constitution.

It is consist of 280 articles which include amendments in several years

For further instance explore on following link :http://www.nrb.gov.pk/constitutional...ion/index.html

Creation of Pakistan

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan emerged as an independent state on 14 August 1947. Ithas its roots into the remote past. Its establishment was the culmination of the longstruggle by Muslims of the South-Asian subcontinent for a separate homeland of their own.

Its foundation was laid when Mohammad bin Qasim subdued Sindh in 711 AD as a reprisalagainst sea pirates that had taken refuge in Raja Dahirs kingdom. The advent of Islamfurther strengthened the historical individuality in the areas now constituting and furtherbeyond its boundaries.

The impact of Islam on the South-Asian subcontinent was deep and far-reaching. Islamintroduced not only a new religion, but also a new civilization, a new way of life and new setof values. Islamic traditions of art and literature, of culture and refinement, of social andwelfare institutions were established by Muslim rulers throughout the subcontinent. A newlanguage URDU, derived mainly from Arabic and Persian vocabulary and adaptingindigenous words and idioms, came into existence.

With the decline of Muslim power during 16th and 17th centuries the British (starting withthe East India Company) began to emerge as the dominant force in South Asia. Their rise topower was gradual, extending over a period of 100 years. They replaced the Shariah bywhat they termed as Anglo-Muhammadan law whereas Urdu was replaced by English as theofficial language. These and many other developments had great social, economic, andpolitical impact especially on the Muslims of subcontinent.

WAR OF INDEPENDENCEThe uprising of 1857, termed as the Indian Mutiny by the British and the War ofIndependence by the Muslims, was a desperate attempt to reverse the adverse course ofevents. The failure of the 1857 War of Independence had disastrous consequences for theMuslims as the British placed all the responsibility for this event on them. Determined tostop such a recurrence in future, the British followed a repressive policy against theMuslims. Properties and estates of those even remotely associated with the freedom fighterswere confiscated and efforts were made to close all avenues of honest living for them. TheMuslim response to these situations also aggravated their plight. While this repression was


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Musalmans are a nation by any definition The problem in India is not of inter-communalbut manifestly of an international character. The only course open to us all is to allow themajor nations separate homelands by dividing India into autonomous national states.

URDU-HINDI CONTROVERSYThe Urdu-Hindi Controversy arose when Hindus demanded implementation of theDevanagari script in government offices, law courts and schools. Muslims coming to India,spoke their own language and also learned the language spoken by the natives. Out of thisintermingling of languages, there arose a lingua franca, which came to be spoken by bothMuslims and Hindus. The official language continued to be Persian; Turkish was the mothertongue of Muslims from Turkey, and Arabic was the language of the religion, Islam. The

mixture of these languages with that spoken in India came to be known as Urdu. It soonbecame the language of society and of sublime poetry. It gradually supplanted Persian andbecame a language spoken and understood in most parts of India. It is a language whichhas risen as a result of the mixture of foreign and native languages. Urdu had powerfulappeal as its literature grew rapidly. During the eighteenth century Urdu spread to allcorners of India, and Urdu literary circles were established in every part of India.

Contrary to this, Hindi was written in Devanagri script, had a similarly high percentage ofSanskrit words, and was loosing its importance. When it came to poetry, differences wentmuch deeper. In Urdu, the forms, the thought and the imagery were borrowed from Iranand Central Asia, whereas in Hindi they were indigenous. Seeing the ever increasingsignificance of the Urdu language, it was introduced as a official language in 1825. Itspopularity was a source of annoyance to Hindus. They were out to destroy the cultural

heritage and religion of Muslims, and this they could do by causing harm to the Urdulanguage, as a good deal of Muslim cultural heritage was preserved in Urdu. Also theliterary, religious and intellectual works of Muslim scholars and poets were preserved inUrdu. Moreover, the exegesis of the Holy Quran, Hadith, Islamic jurisprudence and allreligious books had been produced in Urdu. Thus, to eliminate Urdu was to deprive Muslimsof their great cultural and religious heritage.

As part of a deliberate scheme to destroy Muslim culture in India, Hindus started an anti-Urdu movement in Benares in 1867, which gradually spread to Bihar, U.P. and other partsof India. The Hindus opposed the use of Urdu in courts, public offices and schools anddemanded its replacement by Hindi. This unjustified opposition to Urdu convinced Sir SyedAhmed Khan that Muslims and Hindus were two different nations. The entire Muslim

community in India also criticized this policy. Initially, the controversy caused no seriousharm, but in later years it developed into a formal movement. But when Sir AnthonyMcDonnel, Lt. Governor of United Provinces, issued a resolution on 19 April 1900 whichdecreed the use of Hindi in Devanagari script, and the seventy-five year history of Urdu asan official language came to on end, Muslims were deeply agitated. Considered from thepoint of view of their educational needs, legal and social business, literature and also fromthe point of view of Hindu-Muslim amity, this resolution was very harmful.

Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, successor of Sir Syed in political and educational affairs of the


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Muslims, requested the governor to allow the Muslims to clarify their viewpoint in regard toUrdu, but no heed was paid. As a result a public meeting was held at Aligarh on May 13,1900 to protest against the language decree. In the meantime, the Urdu DefenceAssociation was formed on August 8, 1900 which unanimously adopted a resolutiondemnding withdrawl of the recognition accorded to Hindu. The Nawab declared that Muslimswho did not weild the pen, had the strength to wield the sword and expressed his

amazement that hte community was foresaken and ignored by the government. This wasthe first public demonstration of a political nature staged by Muslims. The lieutenantgovernor disliked demonstrations, which became routine throughout the country, collectedthe trustees of Aligarh College, expressed his disapproval, and alleged that Aligarh studentshad been made propagandists of this movement. He also threatened to stop thegovernment grant for the college if it continued. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk resigned assecretary of Aligarh College in order to be free to carry on his campaign in defence of Urduso that his personal prestige should not stand in the way of progress and future of thecollege. However, he took up the pen in defence of Urdu and also took up the task which SirSyed had left. The Urdu Defence Association did great services to the Urdu language.

In 1902, Sir James La Touche replaced Lt. Governor McDonnel in U.P. He made it clear thatthe government did not restrict anyones freedom, and Urdu was restored to its former

position in offices and law courts. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk secured a significant victory fromthe point of view of the political interests of the Muslim nation, thus paving the way for itseventual organization as a political force which could not be ignored.

SIMLA DEPUTATIONThe Simla Deputation occupies a very important place in the history of modern MuslimIndia. For the first time, Hindu-Muslim conflict was lifted to the constitutional plane. The riftin society was now to be translated into legal and political institutions. The Muslims hadmade it clear that they had no confidence in the Hindu majority, that they were notprepared to put their future in the hands of assemblies elected on the assumption of ahomogeneous Indian nation. By implication they rejected the idea of a single Indian nationon the ground that the minority could not trust the majority. From this it was but a shortstep to demanding a separate state for the Muslims of India It is in this sense that in thebeginnings of separate electorates may be seen the glimmerings of the two-nation theory.The significance of the Simla demand lay in the reservations which the Muslims had abouttheir Indian nationality.

Soon after the War of Independence of 1857, the British government realised that it wasnot safe to legislate for millions of people with few means of knowingexcept by a rebellionwhether the laws suit them or not. Undoubtedly, Syed Ahmad Khans pamphlet Causes ofthe Indian Revolt contributed to this realisation on part of the British. It asserted that theabsence of Indians from the councils of the country was mainly responsible for the troublesof 1857.

In 1861, the governor generals council was enlarged to include 50% non-officialsnominated by the governor general. Their appointment indicated a desire on the part of the


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ALL INDIA MUSLIMLEAGUE 1906Up to the end of nineteenth century, the Muslims had stayed away from organized polities.However, Hindu agitation against the partition of Bengal, and Hindu religious revivalism andhostility to the Muslims injected into the Congress by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a fundamentalist

Hindu leader changed the situation. By 1906, Muslim leaders were convinced that theyshould form their own party to protect Muslim interests and speak for the community on allimportant occasions. The Simla Deputation strengthened this belief by demonstrating thepotency of united action.

In 1901, a meeting of Muslim leaders was held at Lucknow under the presidentship ofNawab Viqar-ul-Mulk for this purpose. This meeting decided to establish an organisation tolook after the social and political needs of the Muslims. But this organisation remainedconfined to one province of northern India.

Five years later, on December 30, 1906, at a conference of Muslim leaders (theMuhammadan Educational Conference) in Dhaka, the efforts of this deputation succeeded,

and the All India Muslim League was formed.

It was Sir Salimullah who initially sketched a plan for an all India Muslim organisation, whichwas seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan. Other prominent Muslim leaders such as NawabMohsin-ul-Mulk, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk, Syed Nawab Ali Chaudary, Justice Shah Din, MaulanaZafar Ali Khan and Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar participated in the effort.

The League was intended to promote loyalty among Indian Muslims to the Britishgovernment and to remove any misconceptions about the intentions of the government.Second, it aimed to protect and advance the political rights and interests of Indian Muslimsand represent their needs and aspirations to the government. Finally, it hoped to preventthe rise of Muslim hostility towards other communities.

It was provided that the membership of the All-India Muslim League would not exceed fourhundred, which would be distributed among the different provinces according to fixedproportions. Every candidate was to be a Muslim, not less than 25 years of age, capable ofreading and writing in one of the languages and possessing an annual income of not lessthan Rs. 500. The League was to have a president, six vice-presidents, a secretary and twojoint secretaries, all elected for a term of three years.

In another resolution, a provisional committee consisting of sixty members includingmembers of the Simla Deputation was appointed to draft the constitution. The Leagueconstitution was written in English, by a graduate of Cambridge University, MaulanaMuhammad Ali Johar. The book was named The Green Book.

As the Indo-Pak history unfolds, the struggle of the Muslim League to safeguard theinterests of the Indian Muslims become more and more evident ultimately leading to thecreation of Pakistan in 1947.


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MORLEY MINTO REFORMS (1909)

Officially known as the Government of India Act, 1909, the Minto-Morley Reforms take their

name after their official sponsor, Minto, then Governor-General and John Morley (1838-

1923), Secretary of State for India. When Lord Minto came as viceroy to India, the wholecountry was in a state of political unrest. In collaboration with Lord Morley, secretary of

state for India, Minto appointed a committee to go into details and prepare a despatch

regarding constitutional reforms. This despatch was ready in 1907 and was sent to London

on March 19. It served as the basis of the reforms which were enacted into law by the

Indian Councils Act of 1909.

The important constitutional changes introduced by these reforms were several. Provincial

legislative councils were enlarged up to a maximum of 50 members in the larger provinces

and 30 in the smaller ones. The number of the unofficial members was raised equal to that

of the official members. The method of election was partly indirect and partly direct.

Second, Muslims were given separate representation in most provinces. In addition, thepower of legislative councils was increased. The Imperial Legislative Council was also

enlarged, but the officials would remain in majority. Finally, an Indian member was taken

into the executive council of the viceroy and in each of the provincial executive councils.

Despite many defects in this scheme, the Morley-Minto reforms were important in several

aspects. For Muslims, the most important change brought about by the reforms was the

establishment of separate electorates. The Simla deputation demand was met, and a

system of separate Muslim representation was introduced.

All Hindu and several British observers of the Indian scene criticised the creation of

communal electorates as a breach of democratic principle. But Morley saw the force of theMuslim argument that to make Muslim seats dependent on Hindu votes would embitter

communal relations. Mere reservation of seats would not have gone to a Muslim candidate

who identified himself wholeheartedly with the interests of his own community. Another

argument in support of this was that it was the unanimous demand of a large community.

But Hindu politicians and the Congress immediately began a campaign of criticism and

opposition. At the

1910 Congress session, it condemned the provision of separate representation for Muslims

and demanded withdrawal of the resolution. From then on up to the passing of the 1935

Act, the Congress made a habit of it to condemn separate electorates and to advocate their

removal.

The sober, well-reasoned and constitutional advocacy of the Muslim League thus did not fail

to achieve its objective. Within two years of its inception, the Muslim League scored a major

political victory against a more powerful political organisation. The day the demand for

separate electorate was conceded, the course for the Muslim freedom movement changed.

It laid down the foundation for the growth of the Muslim national consciousness which, after

a forty year struggle, was to achieve for the Muslims the culmination of their aspirations as


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a distinct nation.

IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON INDIA

The impact of would war I created a minor revolution in Indias political and constitutionalposition. Unlike world war II, India remained loyal to the British Government during thewar. No large scale effort was mode to embarrass Britain in her hour of travail or to exploither weakness in order to gain political concessions. Thousands of Indians volunteered tofight for Britain. Legislative councils readily voted for all emergency powers to the executiveas well as full financial backing to war expenditure.

The most profound effects of the war were, that it brought the Congress and the muslimleague closer. The basic differences between the two were momentarily forgotten due to astrong foreign stimulus.It seemed that the political exigency had overcome deep rooted andsuspicions. For the first time a desire developed to arrive at some understanding betweenthe two otherwise apart communities.

On the other hand the British projected that they were fighting the war to further the causeof freedom and self determination. It was expected that due to the Indian complacenceduring the war, a set of reforms will be despatched once the war ended. These reforms wereexpected to make India a self governing member of the British common wealth. This notionin the Indian populace produced a vigour in the populace unseen and unheard of before.However the end of the war did not bring any such measures and the local Indian werefurther disillusioned with false British promises and vows.

LUCKNOW PACT 1916In 1913, the Muslim League adopted the principle of self-rule. This brought Congress andMuslim League closer to each other. The leaders of both parties decided that they shouldcooperate with each other to bring the government around to accept their demands.Therefore in 1916 Muslim League and Congress held sessions in Lucknow. The MuslimLeague session was presided over by Quaid-e-Azam, while Ambeka Choian Maujamdarpresided over the Congress session. There, Congress and the Muslim League reached anagreement on a scheme of constitutional reforms known as the Lucknow Pact. Theagreement inncluded separate electorates for Muslims and provided for elections of centraland provincial councils and responsibility of the executive to the legislature. They agreed tothe principle of a separate electorate and reservation of one-third of the seats in the centrallegislature for Muslims. The Muslim representation was fixed at: 33% of the electedmembers of the central government, 50% for Punjab, 40% for Bengal, 33% for Bombay,30% for U.P, 25% for Bihar, 15% for C.P and 15% for Madras

It was also decided that the members of assemblies should have the right to presentadjournment motions. In addition, provincial autonomy should be given to the provincesand the communal problems should be solved. The pact stated that seats should bereserved for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, and that Hindus


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should be protected in Muslim majority provinces. Finally, no resolution or motion could bepresented in the assembly which would affect the interests of any of the two communitieswithout the approval of the concerned group. The Lucknow Pact was considered a greatachievement. For the first time, Hindus acknowledged Muslims as a separate nation andaccepted their right to a separate electorate.

MONTAGUE CHELMSFORD REFORMS 1919The reforms introduced by the act of 1909 failed to satisfy the people of India because theydid not give enough power to the Indians. The parliamentary form of government wasintroduced, but the executive was not made responsible to the legislature. The Muslimswere at first friendly to the government because they had been given a separate electorate,but with time they were dissatisfied. The annulment of the partition of Bengal came as a

shock, and they began to lose faith in the British government. Also, Britain did not helpTurkey against Italy during the Turco-Italian war, which Indian Muslims resented. DuringWorld War I, in spite of their grievances, Indians helped the British by providing both menand money. In return for their services Indians expected that they would be given self-rule.As the war went on, Indians began to suspect that the British were not planning to grantthem self-government. At this time Mrs. Annie Besant started the Home Rule Movement,which declared that self-government was the birthright of Indians.

In order to pacify the Indian youth who were getting restless, the British governmentdecided that something must be done. Therefore, on August 20, 1917, Lord Montague,Secretary of State for India, made a declaration in the British Parliament, that Indiansshould slowly be admitted to every branch of administration in order to introduce self-government gradually. It was further stated that his majestys government and the

government of India would be the judges of the time and measure for each advance.

Lord Montague visited India and in collaboration with the governor-general, LordChelmsford, drafted a scheme of reforms. It was submitted to the British Parliament, whichthen passed the act in 1919 known as the Montague-Chelmsford reforms. This actestablished legislative councils in the provinces with a system of dyarchy. Under this systemanything relating to law and order was to be administered by executive councilorsresponsible to the governors.

The act made numerous recommendations. India was to remain an integral part of theBritish empire and responsible government was to be given by stages. The Britishgovernment was to be the judge of the measure of each province. It also aimed at

introducing partial responsible government in the provinces, which necessitated the divisionof subjects. The central subjects included defence, foreign and political relations, customs,posts and telegraphs, currency, and communications. The provincial subjects included localself-government, public health, sanitation, education, public works, irrigation andagriculture.

In addition, the position of secretary of state for India and the Indian council was changed.Some of the powers of the secretary of state were transferred to the governor-general inthe council. The office of the high commission for India was created. A bicameral legislature


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was established in the centre; the upper house consisted of 60 members with a tenure of 5years. The lower house consisted of 145 members for the period of 3 years. Moreover,separate electorates were reserved for Muslims and Sikhs. In addition, out of the 103 seatsof the imperial legislative council 30 sets were reserved for Muslims.

A system of dyarchy was introduced in the provinces by which the law enforcing

departments and a few other departments were put under the direct control of the governorand the remaining came under the executive council. Under the system of dyarchy, thegovernor-general could interfere in provincial matters. Finally, the act stated that moreconstitutional reforms would be introduced after 10 years.

The various political circles in the country were not happy with these reforms. Congress wasdivided over the reforms, nor was the Muslim League very optimistic about them. However,Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved the proposals.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENTAfter the end of the First World War, the victorious allied countries planned to demolish theOttoman Caliphate of Turkey because Turkey had chosen to fight on the side of Germanyagainst the allied powers. The Indian Muslims, because of their sentimental attachment tothe caliph, had always held the institution of the caliphate in the highest esteem. Since theydid not wish for the end of the caliphate, they presented the British colonial governmentwith the threat of an internal law and order situation. They asked the government to assurethat the caliphate would not be demolished and that due respect would be shown for thesacred places of the Muslims. The British promised to respect the institution of the caliphand the right of the Turks to their homeland. But when the war came to an end the IndianMuslims found, to their disappointment, that Turkey had been divided among the allies.Thus Muslims decided to launch a movement for the protection of the caliphate. A Khilafat

Committee was set up to organize the movement with Maulana Shaukat Ali as its secretary.Under the presidency of Maulana Fazlul Haq the first meeting of the committee was held on23 November, 1919.

Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Hindus came forward with their full supportfor the movement. Gandhi had planned to use the Khilafat agitation in order to pressurizethe government to come to terms with Indian independence. He therefore advocated fullsupport and outlined a programme of non-cooperation. The plan was to paralyse theadministration by a complete boycott of British institutions and goods. Indians were askedto give up government service, renounce titles, boycott courts of law, walk out of schoolsand colleges and take no part in elections.

The Khilafat Committee decided to send a delegation under the leadership of MaulanaMuhammad Ali Jauhar to England to put their views before the British government. TheKhilafat Delegation left for England in March, 1919 and met Prime Minister Lloyd George.But they returned without achieving their objectives.

The cooperation between Muslims and Hindus could not last long. In February of 1922 atthe village of Chauri Chaura, a fight erupted between the police and a demonstratingprocession. The hostile mob set fire to the police station where twenty-two policemen wereburnt alive. Gandhi immediately and unilaterally called off the non-cooperation movement,


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doing damage to the entire Khilafat movement. This sudden action dismayed the Muslimmasses and leaders. In the meantime in Turkey, the Turks under the leadership of MustafaKamal launched effective measures to protect their independence. In 1924 the Turkishgovernment under Kamal abolished the institution of the khilafat and established anationalist government. With this the Indian Khilafat movement also lost ground. Though itwas not fully successful, the Khilafat movement helped to create political consciousness in

the Muslim masses in India.

HIJJRAT MOVEMENTIn 1924 Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar was released from jail after his arrest during theKhilafat movement. He was deeply troubled to see the awful state of Indian society anddeclared India the Dar-ul-Harb, (House of War) and urged Muslims to migrate to a place

where their religion and national image would not be endangered. This declaration was dulyendorsed by the majority of ulema At his call, nearly 18,000 Muslims migrated toAfghanistan in protest against the British policy on the caliphate. The Afghan governmentwelcomed the migrants in the beginning but refused to accept them when their numbersincreased later. These immigrants faced many difficulties; many of them died on the way.Those who were not allowed to enter Afghanistan had to go back to India to find themselveshomeless. The migration to Afghanistan is known as the Hijrat Movement. Those who hadblindly responded to the call by their religious leaders disposed their belongings with thehope of a better future, but when they came back they found themselves homeless andhelpless.

DELHI PROPOSALSBy 1926, the Hindu Mahasbha (a Hindu organization) managed to become part of theCongress. The new leadership of Congress initiated a violent propaganda campaign againstthe Muslims demand for a separate electorate. Pandit Nehru in 1927 told Quaid-e-Azamthat if Muslim League surrendered its demand for a separate electorate, then Congresswould accept any other demand in its place. In reply to this, Quaid-e-Azam convened ameeting of Muslim leaders on March 20, 1927 in Delhi. The meeting discussed in detail the

offer made by the Congress and finally decided to surrender the demand for a separateelectorate. The meeting presented a set of proposals in place of the separate electorate,which are known as the Delhi Proposals.

These stated that Sindh should be separated from Bombay and that both Balochistan andNWFP should be given provincial status and reforms should be introduced. They furtherdemanded that Muslims should have one-third of the seats in the central legislature andshould be given representation in Bengal and Punjab in accordance with their strength.Congress and Hindu leaders in the beginning welcomed the Delhi proposals but afterwards


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began opposing them.

SIMON COMMISSIONWhen the Montague Chemlsford Reforms were introduced in 1919, the British governmentannounced that a commission would be sent to India to examine their effects and introducemore reforms. Therefore, the British in 1927 appointed a commission under thechairmanship of Sir John Simon to report on Indias constitutional progress and to makerecommendations for a new constitution. Since the commission had no Indian member, theCongress and a section of the Muslim League, who were working under the leadership of theQuaid-e-Azam, boycotted the commission. The other section of Muslim League was infavour of cooperating with the commission.

There was large scale agitation against the commission. Wherever it went, largedemonstrations occurred, with slogans like Simon go back, Simon go back. In spite of theagitation and hostile demonstrations, the commission prepared a detailed report forconstitutional reforms in India and sent it to the government for approval, who in turn madea plan for constitutional reforms, but Congress and the Muslim League refused to accept thecommissions recommendations.

FOURTEEN POINTS OF QUAID-E-AZAM

The Nehru Report submitted by Pandit Moti Lal Nehru turned down the Delhi Proposals and

the Muslims demand for separate representation. Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah

refused to accept the Nehru Report. He convened a meeting of the Muslim League in 1929

in Delhi and put forward the Muslim point of view in a document known as the Fourteen

Points. The meeting declared that the Muslims would reject any constitution which did not

include the Fourteen Points.

These demands were rejected by the Hindu leadership, creating a rift between the two

communities. Meanwhile, Congress demanded that a new constitution be presented by 31December 1929. The government turned down this demand and issued a two-fold

declaration. The first part related to the constitution. The second announced that a Round

Table Conference would be convened at which the British Government would meet the

representatives of British India and the princely states for the purpose of agreeing on

constitutional proposals.

Rejection of the Fourteen Points cost the Nehru Report its credibility among the Muslim


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Hidayatullah. The conference unanimously decided to create a federal system for India.Even the princely states agreed to join an All India Federation.

Eight subcommittees were established to work out agreement on major points of concern:the federal structure, the provincial constitution, franchise, the provinces of Sindh andNWFP, defence services, and minorities. Among the important decisions taken were the

following:

A federation would be established comprising the provinces of British India; dyarchy wouldbe abolished in the provinces and responsible government under Indian ministers would beintroduced; the separation of Sindh from Bombay was agreed in principle and a committeewas to be appointed to deal with the ensuing financial problems; North West FrontierProvince was to receive the status of a Governors province.

Differences arose concerning the distribution of subjects in the federal system, and thesubcommittee on minorities failed to reach agreement about their rights. At the end of theconference, the Muslims declared that no advance would be possible without sufficientsafeguards for the Muslims of India.

The First Round Table Conference ended on 19 January 1931. The British Prime Ministerexplained Government policy toward resolving the Indian constitutional problem andaccepted the proposal for responsible governments in the provinces and a federalgovernment at the centre. After the conclusion of the first session, it was generally felt thata second session would be of little use if Congress refused to participate again.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact

After the First Round Table Conference concluded, Congress felt very isolated. When thecivil disobedience movement failed, Congress began looking for ways to come to terms withthe government. For its part, the British government wanted Congress to attend the SecondRound Table Conference, because it would be difficult to implement any constitutional

reforms without the largest party in India.

When Lord Irwin invited Gandhi for talks, Gandhi agreed to end the civil disobediencemovement with no preconditions. Talks between Gandhi and Irwin continued from 17-19February 1931, culminating in the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, signed on 5 March 1931.

Under the Pact, Congress agreed to end the civil disobedience movement and to attend theSecond Round Table Conference. The government agreed to withdraw all ordinances curbingCongress, to withdraw all notifications and enactments relating to offenses not involvingviolence, and to release all persons detained during the civil disobedience movement.

Second Round Table Conference

The Second Round Table Conference opened on 7 September 1931 in London and lasteduntil 1 December 1931. Gandhi was there as the representative of Congress. MaulanaMuhammad Ali Jauhar died before the Second Round Table Conference. In his place, AllamaMuhammad Iqbal came as the Muslims representative.

Two committees were set up under the conference, one on federal structure and the otheron minorities. Gandhi was a member of both. The most important and sensitive issue beforethe conference was the Hindu-Muslim relationship. From the Muslim point of view, this wasbound to affect the shape of the proposed federation.


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The minorities subcommittee faced many difficulties, as Gandhi refused to accept minoritydemands and declared that it was difficult to reach agreement. He attributed this difficultyto the composition of the Indian delegation and demanded that the minority committee bedisbanded so that it should not block the progress of constitution making. Gandhi demandedthat the work of constitution making be started by putting aside the minorities issue.

Sir Muhammad Shafi, a Muslim representative, did not agree to Gandhis proposal andinsisted that minorities issue must be resolved before taking up constitution making. SirShafi also demanded that Jinnahs Fourteen Points be incorporated in the future constitutionof India. No settlement of the minorities issue was reached due to Gandhis refusal to acceptthe existence of the communal problem. Gandhi put forward his own scheme to solve thisproblem. His solution was based on proposals made in the Nehru Report.

Independently, the minority groups; Muslims, Anglo-Indians, a section of the IndianChristians, and members of the European business community reached an agreementamong themselves and endorsed the principle of separate electorates. This agreement waspresented by the Agha Khan to the tenth meeting of the minorities committee on 13November 1931, but it was rejected by Gandhi, who insisted that as Congress represented

85 to 95 percent of the entire Indian population, only Congress could speak for theminorities. Under these circumstances, further progress was impossible.

The communal problem also hampered the work of the federal structure committee. TheSecond Round Table Conference thus ended without reaching any concrete conclusion. TheBritish Government placed responsibility for reaching a solution upon the Indian delegatesand warned them that if the Indians were unable to solve the communal problem, then theBritish government would have to decide the problem of representation.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1935The three Round Table Conferences which wore held in 1930, 1931, 1932 were unable toachieve anything despite efforts to solve the constitutional problem of India. In March 1933,the British government issued a White Paper containing their recom

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