THE POLICY OF FUSION

AND THE RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MACEDONIANS

ALEXANDER THE

GREAT

CONQUEST OF PERSIA & POLICY OF FUSIONBackground:Alexander marched on to the capital of Persia, Persepolis, in 330BC where he remained for 4 months.

Initially he allowed his men to loot and many natives were killed.

When everything settled Alexander made it quite clear that he intended to adopt a policy of fusion and therefore he would rule with the help of the Persian nobility. This marked the beginning of his policy of fusion.

Key events in Persepolis:Treasures of Persepolis:

A vast sum of money and treasures was found here and after rewarding his troops handsomely, he instructed Parmenio to take it to Ecbatana in the north. Here it would be handed over to Alexander’s childhood friend Harpalus, who was appointed to the position of Imperial Treasurer.

Parmenio’s new position:

Parmenio remained at Ecbatana. He was no longer second-in-command. His new position, chief communicator with the west, was not a demotion. He was 70 years old and the new type of warfare suited a vigorous and adaptable person. Some historians however, point out that he disapproved of Alexander’s policy of fusion and perhaps this is the reason why he was sent away.

Second-in-command: this position went to Craterus.

The Policy of Fusion

What is the policy of fusion?

It is the policy of

treating the natives as equals rather than inferior

tolerating the native customs and religion.

adopting some of the native customs.

To what extent and why did Alexander adopt a policy of fusion?

1. He used Persian noblemen to help him rule the empire:

Why? Not because there was a shortage of Greek and Macedonian administrators but because he believed:

o the local satraps could rule their people better as they understood their way of thinking.

o the empire would be best governed with the co-operation of the ruled.

However, the power of the satraps was limited, as they did not have financial or military control.

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2. He appointed Persian soldiers in his army:

Why? Not because there was a shortage of Greek or Macedonian soldiers, but in order to achieve a close working relationship with Persians.

However, Macedonians continued to fill the top positions in the army.

3. He adopted Persian luxury and the extravagance of the kings of Asia. For example, he arranged for the most notable individuals to act as his guards, among them Darius’ brother Oxathres.

Why? He did these in order to appease the Persians and because it appealed to his megalomania ie he enjoyed the aura that surrounded the Persian kings. So he adopted the Persian diadem and dressed himself in the pure white robe and the Persian sash.

However, Alexander realised some of the companions were unhappy about this therefore he tried to lessen their resentment. Therefore, he avoided wearing the more controversial baggy trousers and long-sleeved woollen candys (jacket). He also maintained separate courts for Macedonians and Persians. When his efforts to introduce the custom of proskynesis to the Macedonians failed (see notes later), he backed down and did not impose the custom upon them.

4. He married Persian princesses and arranged for the weddings of Persian women and Macedonian officers and soldiers. The wedding ceremonies were performed according to Persian custom.

Why? He did this in order to fuse the races and achieve harmony between Persians and Greeks/Macedonians.

However, he promised that all the children conceived as a result of the weddings, would be educated according to Greek custom and raised as Macedonian.

5. Alexander showed respect for the local religions and indeed wished to learn from the local priests. Eg, he spent time with the gymnosophists, Indian gurus.

Why? He did this because he was genuinely interested in learning but also because he understood the resentment of local people whose temples had been destroyed by conquerors. Therefore he aimed to appease them by accepting their religious customs and beliefs.

He showed respect for local religions throughout his reign and he rarely did anything to upset the status quo.

6. Alexander showed respect to the famous Persian kings of the past. For example, he visited Cyrus’ tomb at Pasargadae and when he discovered that it had been plundered he ordered that it should be repaired and restored to its original glory. Similarly, he showed respect to the dead Darius and buried the body in the traditional tomb of the kings.

He did these because he believed that royalty should be respected irrespective of race but also because his actions gained him the favour of the Persians.

An exception to this is the burning of the palace of Xerxes at Persepolis.

7. There is no evidence that the policy of fusion was enforced in the new cities he built all over Asia. These were mainly Greek cities, settled by Greek mercenaries. The official language was Greek and the education was based on the Greek system. However, there is no evidence that they were designed like Greek cities i.e. with a theatre, agora, gymnasium etc.

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What problems were caused by the policy of fusion and why?

Macedonians and Greeks believed they were a superior race. Therefore they did not understand Alexander’s tolerance of Persians and his policies. Many were offended by Alexander’s actions and as a result the relationship of Alexander and some Macedonian officers and soldiers was damaged.

Events relating to Alexander’s Relationship with Macedonians:

Burning of Persepolis 330BC

Death of Philotas and Parmenio 330BC

Death of Cleitus 328BC

Callisthenes and proskynesis 327BC

Royal Pages Conspiracy 327BC

Mutiny on the Hyphasis 326BC

Journey through Gedrosia 325 BC

Execution of Generals of Medea 325BC

Flight of Harpalus 325BC

Mutiny at Opis 324BC

Susa weddings 324BC

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The Burning of the Palace AT Persepolis 330BC

Whose palace did they burn and why is this significant?This was the grand palace of Xerxes, the old king of Persia who had invaded and plundered the Greek states at 480 BC. It was set on fire and completely destroyed by the Macedonians and Greeks.

Why? The official reason / Arrian’s reason for the burning of the palace?

Why is this unlikely to be the correct reason?

The most likely cause of the fire as explained by Plutarch / Diodorus ?

What do we learn about Alexander from this incident?

What do we learn about the Greek / Macedonian troops?

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Read Diodorus’ version and highlight key parts.

The Burning of Persepolis - Diodorus

As for Persepolis, the capital of the Persian Empire, Alexander described it to the Macedonians as their worst enemy among the cities of Asia, and he gave it over to the soldiers to plunder, with the exception of the royal palace.

It was the wealthiest city under the sun and the private houses had been filled for a long time with riches of every kind. The Macedonians rushed into it, killing all the men and plundering the houses, which were numerous and full of furniture and precious objects of every kind. Here much silver was carried off and no little gold, and many expensive dresses, embroidered with purple or with gold, fell as prizes to the victors.

But the great royal palace, famed throughout the inhabited world, had been condemned to the indignity of total destruction. The Macedonians spent the whole day in pillage but still could not satisfy their inexhaustible greed. As for the women, they dragged them away forcibly with their jewels, treating as slaves the whole group of captives. As Persepolis had surpassed all other cities in prosperity, so she now exceeded them in misfortune.

Alexander went up to the citadel and took possession of the treasures stored there. They were full of gold and silver, with the accumulation of revenue from Cyrus, the first king of the Persians, down to that time. Reckoning gold in terms of silver, 2,500 tons were found there. Alexander wanted to take part of the money with him, for the expenses of war and to deposit the rest at Susa under close guard. From Babylon, Mesopotamia and Susa, he sent for a crowd of mules, partly pack and partly draught animals, as well as 3,000 pack camels, and with these he had all the treasure conveyed to the chosen places. He was very hostile to the local people and did not trust them, and wished to destroy Persepolis utterly.

Alexander held games to celebrate his victories; he offered magnificent sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends lavishly. One day when the Companions were feasting, and intoxication was growing as the drinking went on, a violent madness took hold of these drunken men. One of the women present (she was an Athenian called Thais) declared that it would be Alexander's greatest achievement in Asia to join in their procession and set fire to the royal palace, allowing women's hands to destroy in an instant what had been the pride of the Persians.

These words were spoken to young men who were completely out of their minds because of drink, and someone, as expected, shouted to lead off the procession and light torches, exhorting them to punish the crimes committed against the Greek sanctuaries. Others joined in the cry and said that only Alexander was worthy of this deed. The king was excited with the rest by these words. They all leaped out from the banquet and passed the word around to form a triumphal procession in honour of Dionysus.

A quantity of torches was quickly collected, and as female musicians had been invited to the banquet, it was to the sound of singing and flutes and pipes that the king led them to the revel, with Thais the courtesan conducting the ceremony. She was the first after the king to throw her blazing torch into the palace. As the others followed their example the whole area of the royal palace was quickly engulfed in flames. What was most remarkable was that the sacrilege committed by Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the Acropolis of Athens was avenged by a single woman, a fellow-citizen of the victims, who many years later, and in sport, inflicted the same treatment on the Persians.

This translation of Diodorus is by M.M. Austin.

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Conspiracy of Philotas & murder of Parmenio 330-329 BC

Who was Philotas?

The plot and Philotas’ execution:

A Macedonian called Dimnus was involved in a plot to kill Alex. ↓

He invited his lover, Nicomachus to help him. ↓

Nicomachus rejected Dimnus’ invitation and told his brother Cebalinus.↓

The two brothers, Cebalinus and Nicomachus approached Philotas, told him about the plot and requested an audience with Alexander.

↓Philotas claimed the king was busy and did not take the brothers to him.

↓The brothers made a second approach but Philotas refused yet again.

↓The brothers suspecting Philotas, approached someone else who took them to Alexander. They told Alexander about the plot and what happened with Philotas.

↓An officer was sent to arrest Dimnus, but he was killed resisting arrest.

↓Philotas was arrested and put on trial before the Macedonian assembly which was made up of a number of assembled troops. Philotas’ own cavalry troops were in the minority.

↓Philotas was charged with treason but during his defence, he claimed that even though he knew about the plot he didn’t take it seriously. He thought the plot was fictitious and the product of Cebalinus’ overactive imagination and that was why he failed to inform the king.

↓The assembly adjourned and torture was used to extract an admission of disloyalty from Philotas.

↓Philotas was stoned to death according to Macedonian custom, together with the conspirators named by Cebalinus.

What evidence is there to suggest that Philotas was guilty?

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Reasons why Alexander may have wanted to be rid of Philotas:1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Parmenio’s murderWhen/where/how was Parmenio murdered?

Why did Alexander kill Parmenio?

Alexandria Prophthasia: why was this built?

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The murder of Cleitus 328 BC Who was Cleitus?

Where was he murdered?

Events leading to Cleitus’ death (flowchart)

Use the space below to make a flowchart of events leading to Cleitus’ death. The first one has been done.

The significance of this incident

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Alexander received some exotic fruit that he wanted to share with Cleitus.

Callisthenes and Proskynesis1. What is Proskynesis?

To the Persians:

To the Greeks and Macedonians:

2. Why did Alexander attempt to introduce proskynesis?

3. How did Alexander attempt to introduce proskynesis to the Macedonians?

4. Why did Callisthenis object to proskynesis?

5. Events following Alexander’s attempt to introduce proskynesis.

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The Royal Pages Conspiracy1. Who are the Royal Pages?

2. Events relating to the conspiracy

3. Why did the Pages conspire to kill Alexander?

4. Callisthenes involvement?

5. What happened to Callisthenes?

6. How did the Greeks react to Callisthenes’ fall from grace / possible death?

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RETURNING TO THE WEST: The Two Mutinies Mutiny: When soldiers refuse to obey orders from their commanding officer(s).

MUTINY AT THE BEAS / HYPASIS MUTINY AT OPIS

When/Where?

Causes

Alexander’s Responses

Outcomes

JOURNEY THROUGH GEDROSIA 325 BC While Nearchus was leading the fleet down the Indian Ocean to the west, Alexander rode along the coast with the rest of the army.

Why did Alexander take the army along the coastline and through Gedrosia? To help open the way for the fleet by preparing harbours and supplies.

To out-do Cyrus and Semiramis (old Persian monarchs) both of whom suffered great defeats by the natives.

Historians do not support the view that Alexander took his troops through Gedrosia in order to punish them for the mutiny.

The journey through Gedrosia:The journey through Gedrosia was marked by great suffering.

What evidence is there of Alexander’s excellent leadership skills during the difficult march through Gedrosia?

What problems did

Alexander’s army face in Gedrosia?

ALEXANDER PUNISHES BAD BEHAVIOURWhen Alexander got to Carmania in 324 BC he received news of:

rebellion in various Persian states

Satraps acting more independent

Mistreatment of Persian people and funds by the Greek / Macedonian troops and governors – among them were the generals of Medea and his Imperial Treasurer, Harpalus.

Why?Alexander had been away more than 5 years since he had captured Persepolis – people, including Greeks and Macedonians, were starting to think he was not coming back.

Result?Alexander set out to punished all those whose behaviour was unacceptable

The Macedonian generals of Media

Charges were brought against the Macedonian generals left in charge of the army at

Media (Cleander, Agathon, Sitacles and Heracon) and 600 officers and

soldiers.

The charges were made by both native people and their own soldiers.

The charges were: Gross misconduct and abuse of power including sacrilege - they were accused for

plundering temples and robbing ancient tombs.

Mistreatment of natives - rape of native women.

Cleander and Sitacles were found guilty and put to death.

Heracon was initially cleared but was later found guilty of sacrilege and executed.

It is not known what happened to Agathon but it is likely that he too was executed.

Why did Alexander punish them so severely? In order to teach others that he would not tolerate that kind of behaviour. He expected

all members of his empire to be treated fairly by his officials.

Some historians however, believe Alexander was anxious to be rid of these generals because they are the ones who murdered Parmenio. Alexander was therefore concerned that they could turn against him.

Result: Fear spread throughout the empire and even Harpalus fled in fear.

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the harpalus affair 325-324 BC Who was Harpalus?While Alexander was fighting in India, Harpalus lived in absolute luxury in Babylon, with his mistress Glycera.

When he received news that the generals of Media had been executed, he panicked, knowing that he had also abused his position. For example:

When his Athenian mistress Pythonice died, he built an expensive memorial in her honour using Alexander’s money, without his permission.

He established his mistress Glycera as the queen at Tarsus. Only Alexander had the right to appoint people to such a position.

So, fearing for his life, Harpalus fled together with his mistress, 6000 mercenaries and 5000 talents.

Where did Harpalus escape to and why?

What happened there and why?

↓

↓

↓

↓

Eventually Harpalus escaped. He collected his forces from Taenarum and went to the island of Crete. There he was killed by his lieutenant.

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SUSA WEDDINGSMany important events occurred during Alexander’s second visit in Susa in 324BC.

A. Festivities in Susa :Just before reaching Susa, Alexander was reunited with the leaders of the fleet. They had explored the Persian Gulf and had sailed up the Pasitigris River to meet the King. Games and sacrifices and a very impressive and drunken ceremony was held to:

mark the safe and successful trip of the fleet

mark the end of the Indian campaign

decorate men who had excelled in some way

B. Weddings in Susa 324 BC While in Susa, Alexander arranged an elaborate and expensive marriage ceremony during which the Persian princesses and other noble women were married to Macedonians.

Why?

The wedding ceremonies:

The weddings were celebrated after the Persian manner, seats being placed in a row for the bridegrooms; and after the banquet the brides came in and seated themselves, each one near her own husband. The bridegrooms took them by the right hand and kissed them; the king being the first to begin, for the weddings of all were conducted in the same way. This appeared the most popular thing which Alexander ever did; and it proved his affection for his Companions. Each man took his own bride and led her away; and on all without exception Alexander bestowed dowries, He also ordered that the names of all the other Macedonians who had married any of the Asiatic women should be registered. They were over 10,000 in number; and to these Alexander made presents on account of their weddings. The wedding ceremonies lasted for 5 days and took place in a luxurious tent erected for the occasion.

Arrian

Who married who? Alexander married 2 princesses, the eldest daughter of Darius, Barsine, and the

youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III.

Hephaistion married another daughter of Darius (so that Alexander was uncle to his children).

The other companions married Persian noble women; more than 90 noble marriages were celebrated and each pair was given a handsome dowry by Alexander.

Alexander also ordered all the Macedonians who had previously married Asiatic women to register their marriages. 10,000 men followed this order and Alexander rewarded them with wedding gifts. (This act was designed to improve relations with his troops and it had nothing to do with the policy of fusion which was confined to Macedonians and Persians, not all Asians).

The significance of the Susa Weddings:__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Many of these marriages did not last after Alexander’s death but they were very important:

1. Symbolic of the fact that power had now passed to the Macedonians.

2. Marked the fact that Alexander was now the Great King ruling in an

oriental style as the absolute monarch (the weddings were another example of

Alexander’s policy of fusion).

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To sum up: To what extent did Alexander believe in the ‘Brotherhood of Man’? Was the policy of fusion about equality between races, or maintenance of an Empire?Explain your view in the space below, using examples from the episodes covered in this book.