Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

When you think memorable people of the Ancient Greeks you just might think of Alexander the Great. Who is Alexander the great? What has he accomplished that has made him so significant? why is he called Alexander the great? In this research, you will find out how alexander the Great was a true hero of his time.This is a simple research about one of the greatest rulers and greatest military intellects in history. You will find out how in the succeeding chapters of this research. In chapter II, you will find the bibliography of Alexander the great. In chapter III, you will know the kingdom of Alexander the great. Chapter IV discusses about some of alexanders expeditions. Chapter V discusses about his death. Chapter VI is the conclusion. Alexander the Great is known as one of the greatest rulers and greatest military intellects in history. He inherited the throne of Macedonia after the death of his father, and set out on a quest to invade Persia. Alexander succeeded in taking over Persia and went even further to take over Egypt and India. But, soon after he defeated the prince of India, Alexander died in Babylon, leaving behind a legacy that no person has yet to overcome.The reason why the researcher wrote this research is to remind people why Alexander the great was known as one of the greatest rulers and greatest military intellects in history.To enumerate his accomplishments that made him so significant in the history.Chapter II

Alexanders biography:Who is he?

Alexander was born around july 20, 356B.C..to King Philip II of Macedon (382336B.C.E.) and Queen Olympias (375316B.C.E.). Growing up, Alexander rarely saw his father, who was usually involved in long military campaigns. Olympias, a fierce and possessive mother, dominated her son's youth and filled him with a deep resentment of his father. Nonetheless, their son's education was important to both parents.

One of Alexander's first teachers wasLeonidas, a relative of Olympias, who struggled to control the defiant boy. Philip hired Leonidas to train the youth in math, archery, and horsemanship (the training and care of horses). Alexander's favorite tutor was Lysimachus. This tutor devised a game in which Alexander impersonated the heroAchilles. Achilles was a heroic Greek warrior from a famous ancient poem called theIliad.Achilles became the model of the noble warrior for Alexander, and he modeled himself after this hero. This game delighted Olympias because her family claimed the hero as an ancestor.In 343 Philip askedAristotle(384322B.C.E.), the famous Greek philosopher and scientist, to tutor Alexander. For three years in the rural Macedonian village of Mieza, Aristotle taught Alexander philosophy, government, politics, poetry, drama, and the sciences. Aristotle wrote a shortened edition of theIliad,which Alexander always kept with him.Alexander's education at Mieza ended in 340B.C.E.. While Philip was away fighting a war, he left the sixteen-year-old prince as acting king. Within a year Alexander led his first military attack against a rival tribe. In 338 he led the cavalry (troops who fight battles on horseback) and helped his father smash the forces of Athens and Thebes, two Greek city-states.Alexander's relationship and military cooperation with his father ended soon after Philip took control of the Corinthian League. The Corinthian League was a military alliance made up of all the Greek states except forSparta. Philip then married another woman, which forced Alexander and Olympias to flee Macedon. Eventually Philip and Alexander were reunited.In the summer of 336B.C.E.at the ancient Macedonian capital of Aegai, Alexander's sister married her uncle Alexander. During this event Philip wasassassinatedby a young Macedonian noble, Pausanias. After his father's death Alexander sought the approval of the Macedonian army for his bid for kingship. The generals agreed and proclaimed him king, making Alexander the ruler of Macedon. In order to secure his throne, Alexander then killed everyone who could have a possible claim to the kingship.Although he was the king of Macedon, Alexander did not automatically gain control of the Corinthian League. Some Greek states rejoiced at Philip's murder, and Athens wanted to rule the League. Throughout Greece independence movements arose. Immediately Alexander led his armies to Greece to stop these movements. The Greek states quickly recognized him as their leader, while Sparta still refused to join. The League gave Alexander unlimited military powers to attack Persia, a large kingdom to the east of Greece.

In October 335B.C.E.Alexander returned to Macedon and prepared for his Persian expedition. In numbers of troops, ships, and wealth, Alexander's resources were inferior to those ofDarius III(380330B.C.E.), the king of Persia. In the early spring of 334 Alexander's army met Darius's army for the first time. Alexander's army defeated the Persians and continued to move west. Darius's capital at Sardis fell easily, followed by the cities ofMiletusand Halicarnassus. The territories Alexander conquered formed the foundations of his Asian empire.By autumn 334 Alexander had crossed the southern coast of Asia Minor (now Turkey). In Asia Minor, Alexander cut the famousGordian Knot. According to tradition, whoever undid the intricate Gordian Knot would become ruler of Asia. Many people began to believe that Alexander had godlike powers and was destined to rule Asia.Then in 333 Alexander moved his forces east and the two kings met in battle at the city of Issus. Alexander was outnumbered but used creative military formations to beat Darius's forces. Darius fled. Alexander then attacked the Persian royal camp where he gained lots of riches and captured the royal family. He treated Darius's wife, mother, and three children with respect. With Darius's army defeated, Alexander proclaimed himself king of Asia.As a result of the defeat, Darius wanted to sign a truce with Alexander. He offered a large ransom for his family, a marriage alliance, a treaty of friendship, and part of his empire. Alexander ignored Darius's offer because he wanted to conquer all of Asia.

Alexander then pushed on into Egypt. Egypt fell to Alexander without resistance, and the Egyptians hailed him as their deliverer from Persian domination. In every country, Alexander respected the local customs, religions, and citizens. In Egypt he sacrificed to the local gods and the Egyptian priesthood recognized him as pharaoh, or ruler of ancient Egypt. They hailed Alexander as a god. Alexander then worked to bring Greek culture to Egypt. In 331B.C.E.he founded the city of Alexandria, which became a center of Greek culture and commerce.In September 331B.C.E.Alexander defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela. The Persian army collapsed, and again Darius fled. Instead of chasing after him, Alexander explored Babylonia, which was the region that Darius had abandoned. The land had rich farmlands, palaces, and treasures. Alexander became "King of Babylon, King of Asia, King of the Four Quarters of the World."Alexander next set out for Persepolis, the capital of the Persian Empire. To prevent an uprising, Alexander burned Persepolis. In the spring of 330 he marched to Darius's last capital, Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). There Alexander set off in pursuit of Darius.By the time Alexander caught up with Darius in July 330, Darius's assistants had assassinated him. Alexander ordered a royal funeral with honors for his enemy. As Darius's successor, Alexander captured the assassins and punished them according to Persian law. Alexander was now the king of Persia, and he began to wear Persian royal clothing. As elsewhere, Alexander respected the local customs.

After defeating Darius, Alexander pushed eastward toward Iran. He conquered the region, built cities, and established colonies of Macedonians. In the spring of 327B.C.E.he seized the fortress of Ariamazes and captured the prince Oxyartes. Alexander married Oxyartes's daughter Rhoxana to hold together his Eastern empire more closely in a political alliance.In the summer of 327 Alexander marched toward India. In northern India, he defeated the armies of King Porus. Impressed with hisbraveryand nobility, Alexander allowed Porus to remain king and gained his loyalty.By July 325 the army continued north to the harsh and barren land in the Persian Gulf. The hardship and death that occurred after arriving brought disorganization to the army. It was also at this time that disorder began to spread throughout the empire. Alexander was greatly concerned with the rule of his empire and the need for soldiers, officers, and administrators.In order to strengthen the empire, Alexander then made an attempt to bind the Persian nobility to the Macedonians to create a ruling class. To accomplish this goal, he ordered eighty of his Macedonian companions to marry Persian princesses. Alexander, although married to Rhoxana, married Stateira, a daughter of Darius, to solidify his rule.

When Alexander incorporated thirty thousand Persians into the army, his soldiers grumbled. Later that summer, when he dismissed his aged and wounded Macedonian soldiers, the soldiers spoke out against Alexander's Persian troops and his Persian manners. Alexander arrested thirteen of their leaders and executed them. He then addressed the army and reminded his soldiers of their glories and honors. After three days the Macedonians apologized for their criticism. In a thanksgiving feast the Persians joined the Macedonians as forces of AlexanderIn the spring of 323B.C.E.Alexander moved to Babylon and made plans to explore theCaspian Seaand Arabia and then to conquer northern Africa. On June 2 he fell ill, and he died eleven days later.Alexander's empire had been a vast territory ruled by the king and his assistants. The empire fell apart at his death. The Greek culture that Alexander introduced in the East had barely developed. In time, however, the Persian and Greek cultures blended and prospered as a result of his rule.

Chapter III

Alexanders hometown:Macedonia

Macedonia is located in the center of the Southern Balkans, north of ancient Hellas (Greece), east of Illyria, and west of Thrace. The name "Macedonia" is the oldest surviving name of a country on the continent of Europe. The ancient Macedonians were a distinct nation, ethnically, linguistically, and culturally different from their neighbors. Their origins are in the ancient Brygian (Phrygian) substratum that occupied the whole of Macedonian territory and in Indo-European superstratum, which settled here at the end of the 2ndmillennium.Archaeological evidence shows that old European civilization flourished in Macedonia between 7000 and 3500 BC.Caranus establishes the ancient Macedonian kingdom and is the first known Macedonian king (808-778 BC).Alexander I "Philhellene" (498-454 BC) expend the kingdom and fight as Persian ally in the Greek-Persian wars.Alexanders son Perdiccas II (453 - 413 BC) instigates a conflict between Athens and Sparta which turns into a 27 year long Peloponnesian War resulting in a near exhaustion of almost every Greek city-state.Archelaus (413-399 BC) turns Macedonia into an economic power and reorganizes the Macedonian army.

Philip II(359-336 BC) raises Macedonia into the greatest European Power after subduing all of Macedonia's neighbors - Illyrians, Thracians, and Greeks.The Battle of Chaeronea where the Macedonians defeat the Greeks on August 2, 338 BC, marks an end of Greek history and the beginning of the Macedonian Era. The ancient Greek writer Theopompus declares Philip the greatest man that Europe had ever given.[336-323 BC]Philips sonAlexander III the Great(356-323 BC) carries the Macedonian armies into Asia and conquers the Persian Empire. Macedonia becomes the worlds largest Empire stretching from Europe, to North Africa and India.[323-300 BC]The death of Alexander the Great plunges the Macedonian nation into a civil war as the leading Macedonian generals fight over the rule of the Empire.By 300 BC, the Macedonian Empire is carved up between the dynasties of Alexanders generals Antigonus I (Macedonia and Greece), Ptolemy I (Egypt), and Seleucus I (Asia). [300-146 BC]Under Antigonus II Gonatas (276-239), the grandson of Antigonus I, Macedonia achieves a stable rule and strengthens its occupation of Greece. His grandson Philip V (222-179 BC) clashes with Rome that begun expanding eastward.The two "Macedonian Wars" against the Romans end up in defeat of Philip Vs armies. Macedonia loses the whole of Greece and is reduced to its original borders. In the third "Macedonian War", Rome defeats the Macedonian army under the last Macedonian king, Philip's son Perseus (179-168 BC). Perseus dies prisoner in Italy, a rebellion against the Roman rule fails, and by 146 Macedonia is a Roman province. [65 BC]Rome conquers theSeleucid Macedonian kingdom in Asiaunder its last king Antiochus XII.Chapter IVAlexanders accomplishments

The Battle of Issus (334)The Persian Empire's military machine was powerful and ponderous. When Darius finally came to meet him, Alexander was already in southern Turkey. The situation for the Greeks was serious. They were still in the mountains, trying to find a safe passage to the sea. Darius managed to get in between and Alexander had to fight his way through.30,000 Greeks faced 100,000 Persians across a small river called the Pinarus, near the town of Issus. Fighting across a river is always difficult, for the attacker has to wade through the water and climb the opposite bank before ever engaging the defender.Parmenio led the Greek left and had a hard fight of it. Alexander personally led the right, which held the Macedonian cavalry. The battle was still very much at issue when Alexander led a charge straight at Darius himself.

Seeing Alexander cutting his way through the Persians, obviously making for the king himself, Darius panicked and fled. Once the king was seen abandoning the field -- he was easy to spot in his golden chariot -- the Persian army collapsed.Issus marked the beginning of the end of Persian power in the Mediterranean. After Issus, Alexander knew he could bring Darius down; he began to dream of replacing him as King of Kings.The Siege of Tyre (333)Alexander's capture of Tyre was not as important as the battles at Issus or Gaugamela, but the city was vital to Alexander's larger plans and the siege shows how adept the Greeks were at this type of warfare.Tyre was on an island off the coast of modern Lebanon, far enough from the mainland that the water was 18' deep. With mammoth walls, a fortified harbor, and virtually no land outside the walls, the city was long thought impregnable.Alexander needed the city, to control the Eastern Mediterranean and provide him a secure port through which to funnel reinforcements and supplies. For, the Greeks ruled the sea.His initial attempts to take the city failed. He quickly enough cut the city off from supply, but Tyre knew he was coming, had stocked up on supplies, and had its own fresh water. He tried bombarding the walls with catapults mounted on the decks of ships. He tried placing siege towers on ships, bringing them right up to the walls, but the citizens sank the ships with great boulders.Finally, Alexander resolved on an ambitious approach. He could only take the city by getting his soldiers close enough to let his huge siege engines do their damage. To this end, Alexander ordered his engineers to build a mole -- a land bridge from the mainland to the island. It was 200' wide and took months to complete.When it was ready, he brought his siege engines along it to the walls. The citizens now fought desperately, and the Greeks were repeatedly driven back. But the city was running out of food and, after a seven month siege, Tyre fell. Alexander was so furious that this one city had halted his progress for so long, that he gave the city over to plunder and his soldiers sacked it without mercy.The siege of Tyre had a lasting effect, for the mole stayed, silted up, and today Tyre is connected to the mainland. Alexander, in his drive to conquer, permanently changed the face of the land. It is deeds like these that drive the many legends of Alexander and made him famous from his day to ours.Alexander in EgyptWhen he arrived in Egypt, Alexander faced no resistance. The Egyptians were glad to be rid of the Persians, who forced Persian gods and customs upon them, and to welcome the Greeks, who liberated them and restored their liberties -- provided, of course, that they become allies of Alexander.

While in Egypt, Alexander took another of his detours that became legendary. He visited the shrine of Zeus Ammon, a site sacred to Egyptians and Greeks alike, at the oasis of Siwah, well into the desert in Libya. There, while visiting the Egyptian priests, he was proclaimed a god by the Egyptians -- an honor he did not decline. He submitted to the Egyptian ceremonies, even going so far as to wear Egyptian dress.This incident did not set well with some of Alexander's pragmatic and traditional veterans. They knew he was no god. Alexander reassured them that he was merely bowing to local customs, but not everyone was convinced by this. More than once Alexander's soldiers would question whether their general considered himself a man or a god.Alexander spent some time securing his position here and in Palestine and Syria. He knew he must eventually face Darius for the final struggle, but he knew also that he could not afford to be so far from Greece without being absolutely certain of his lines of supply.At last, however, he set out. His army had grown, despite having to leave garrisons everywhere he went, for he gathered new recruits in each nation.The Battle of GaugamelaDarius was determined that he would not repeat the mistakes of Issus. There, he had engaged Alexander in a narrow mountain valley, where he was unable to bring to bear his numerical superiority. This time, he chose his own ground.

Gaugamela is located in northern Iraq, on open plains. Here, Darius was able to deploy the full force of his 200,000 men. Alexander had only about 40,000. Darius was sure of victory.His soldiers, however, were less sure. Alexander did not even try to out-flank such a superior force. Instead, he attacked the Persian center, where Darius was, and relied on cavalry to protect his flanks.This was a typical calculated gamble on Alexander's part. He was gambling that if he broke the Persian center, the rest would dissolve, and he was calculating that his soldiers were superior enough to deliver the blow.He was right, of course. Once again Alexander led the charge on Darius himself and again Darius panicked and ran away, and once again the rest of the Persian army evaporated. And, once again, Darius escaped, despite a furious pursuit by Alexander that lasted three days.Occupation of PersiaAlexander now entered the Persian Empire. Babylon welcomed him as liberator. The sacred Pharsi city of Susa resisted and fell to a siege. Alexander ordered the city burned. He went on to occupy Persis, the capitol city and at last sat on the Persian throne of Darius.Alexander now ruled the largest empire the Western world had ever seen, but he could not rest secure, for Darius was still a threat. As long as Darius remained alive, Alexander would not be able to claim his titles.

After arranging affairs in Persia, Alexander set off in pursuit. Darius fled, keeping a few steps ahead of the Greeks. He entered Bactria and sent word ahead to its king, asking for his aid.The Bactrian king assessed the odds and made his decision. A few days later, Alexander finds Darius dead by the roadside (330).Campaigns in Iran and AfghanistanHaving eliminated Darius, Alexander was still faced with the task of securing his new empire. Toward this end he engaged in numerous battles in Afghanistan and dealt with rebellions and plots in his conquered territories.Internal ChangesNow that he was king of Persia, Alexander began to adopt Persian dress, at least when dealing with Persian subjects. With his Macedonians he still dressed as a Greek, but this did not entirely quell the grumbling among his officers.Other changes were more troubling. For the first time, the Greeks were made members of his empire, rather than the special allies they had been. The Macedonians were troubled not only by his adoption of Eastern customs, but even more by his appointment of Eastern officials. A number of plots and rebellions were hatched, but he dealt with each of them. Most of the trouble came from his officer corps; his troops were still intensely loyal.Alexander launched two years of hard campaigning in Afghanistan, pressing as far north as the Oxus River. This was wild, hard country, whose natives were master horsemen. The further Alexander progressed, the further he seemed to want to go. At last, he announced his intention of crossing the Hindu Kush and conquering India.IndiaAlexander entered India in 327, encountering some of the toughest fighting of his career in the the crossing. He reached the Indus River in 326.None of the Greeks had ever encountered anything to prepare them for India. The terrain, the monsoons, the fierce tribes, all combined with the long years of campaigning to take some of the heart out of the Macedonians.Alexander's geographers had assured him that just beyond India was Ocean, the great body of water that completely encircled the world. India itself was surely no bigger than the Persian Empire. We do not know what was in Alexander's mind, but most historians guess that he had no idea of the true size of the subcontinent and that he truly believed he need make only one more push to bring all the eastern world under his dominion.

Chapter IV

Alexanders death

In 323 BCAlexander the Great, king ofMacedonia, ruled a dominion that stretched from the Balkans to the Himalayasand fromEgyptto theCaspian Sea. Possibly the most brilliant soldier in history, he had led a small and poorly equipped European army on a campaign of over 20,000 miles to conquer the mightyPersian Empire. Originally fromIran, the Persians held sway over a domain which also included all of what are nowTurkey,Iraq,Afghanistan,Syria,Jordan,IsraelandEgypt. It had taken him twelve years and he was still only thirty-two. Alexander the Great may have been the undisputed master of the world, but he was a slave to destiny. He did not die a warriors death in battle, but expired as helpless as a baby in his own bed.In the summer of that year Alexander had finished his conquest of thePersian Empireand returned toBabylon, the greatest city on earth. Situated on the banks of the River Euphrates, in what is now centralIraq, the city was to be the capital of his new empire. On the night of June 1, in chambers within the royal palace, Alexander was holding a memorial feast to honor the death of a close personal friend. Suddenly, around mid-evening, he was seized with intense pain and collapsed. He was taken to his bedchamber where, after ten days of agony, convulsions and delirium, he fell into a coma and died.The death of Alexander the Great is one of historys most enduring mysteries. What caused the strong and healthy young ruler of half the known world to die so unexpectedly at the very height of his power? Historians have proposed malaria, typhoid and alcohol poisoning as possible causes of death. There have also been those who have suggested murder, but until now no one has seriously investigated the possibility.Unlike many events in ancient history, the details of Alexanders death have been preserved. The initial symptoms were agitation, tremors, aching or stiffness in the neck, followed by a sudden, sharp pain in the area of the stomach. He then collapsed and suffered acute and excruciating agony wherever he was touched. Alexander also suffered from an intense thirst, fever and delirium, and throughout the night he experienced convulsions and hallucinations, followed by periods of calm. In the final stages of the condition he could not talk, although he could still move his head and arms. Ultimately, his breathing became difficult and he fell into a coma and died.The three popular theories concerning the cause of Alexanders death Malaria, typhoid and alcohol poisoning - can now be discounted.Malariais carried by mosquitoes that live in jungle and tropical locations, but not indesertregions such as centralIraqwhere Alexander died. Two years earlier, Alexander hadbeenin an area ofIndiawhere malaria was common. Nevertheless, the disease cannot remain dormant for this period of time without producing symptoms. Alexanders life from the time he was inIndiais well documented but there is no report whatsoever of a previous illness of this kind.Typhoidis transmitted by food or water contaminated by bacteria which causes epidemics and not just single, individual cases. There is nothing in any of the historical accounts to suggest such outbreak inBabylonat the time Alexander died. The main effect ofalcohol poisoningis continual vomiting, but not once do any of the historical sources mention vomiting or even nausea as one of Alexanders symptoms. One theory that has only recently been proposed is that Alexander died of an epidemic of the so-calledWest Nile Virus. Although a television documentary made the idea popular for a while, scientists soon pointed out that the virus is only a relatively recent disease that could not have infected someone over 2000 years ago.Sowhat did kill Alexander? According to the historical accounts, Alexanders body failed to show any signs of decay for six days after death, even though it was kept in a hot, sultry place. If Alexanders body had remained preserved for this amount of time under the conditions described, somehow bacteria had been prevented from starting the process of decomposition. There could be only two causes: radiation, which could be discounted for the time, or a lethal does of a toxic substance that pervaded the corpse. The corpses state of preservation could only have been caused by large amounts of a toxic substance in the bodys system. Alexander the Great had to have been poisoned.The only known poisons to produce the symptoms from which Alexander is recorded to have suffered are alkaloid vegetable toxins. Coming from plants, shrubs and trees, these nitrogen-bearing chemicals especially affect the nervous system, causing shaking limbs and muscle pains in the back or neck before the victim experiences severe agony and seizures. Most of thealkaloid poisonscause stomach pain, and many produce seizures, delirium and hallucinations; all of which are described in Alexanders case. However, the list of poisons that could have killed Alexander can be shortened considerably because many of the alkaloid toxic plants also produce severe vomiting and intense headaches that are not reported. With the help of the Los Angeles County Regional Poison Centre at theUniversityofSouthern California, Graham eventually narrowed down the poisons to just one: strychnine, which comes from the fruit of the Nux Vomica tree.

Chapter IX

CONCLUSION

Of all the kings and conquerors of antiquity, Alexander the Great is the most famous of all. A legend in his own lifetime, he has become a near-mythical figure. He conquered territories on a superhuman scale, fought scores of battles, established an empire which stretched from Greece to India. He was worshipped as a god by many of his subjects and became known as Great. What drove him to do all these great accomplishments was his insatiable desire for power. Even before his ascension to the throne, Alexander grew up in an environment where power was everything needed to survive. When he became King, not only did he inherit his fathers military and political power, but his ambition as well.Alexander the great conquered from Macedonia all the way to about modern India in a short period of time.He spread Greek/Hellenistic culture all over the empire which impacted law, government, that kind of thing for a very long time.He intergrated more Asian/Persian ideas into his military and empire. He was very open minded towards integration of other cultures and races, although some of reasons may have been more political than ideological.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Internet sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great http://www.roebuckclasses.com/101/Lectures/ancient/alexander/10.htm http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/AncientMacedonia/AlexandertheGreat.html http://www.notablebiographies.com/A-An/Alexander-the-Great.html http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/14224/Alexander-the-Great http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/alexanderdeath.htm http://voices.yahoo.com/alexander-greats-murder-cleitus-black-11463.html?cat=37 http://www.historytoday.com/james-romm/who-killed-alexander-great http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/alexander/study.html http://www.123helpme.com/search.asp?text=Alexander+Great

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