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These flaming cocktails illustrate that a distilled beverage may be

ignited. The term ethanol is derived from ether from aithein "to

burn, shine".[1]

Alcoholic beverageFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An alcoholic beverage is a drink containingthe psychoactive drug ethyl alcohol (ethanol)and small quantities of other alcohols.Alcoholic beverages are divided into threegeneral classes for taxation and regulation ofproduction: beers, wines, and spirits (ordistilled beverage). They are legally consumedin most countries with over 100 countrieshaving laws regulating their production, sale,

and consumption.[2] In particular, such lawsspecify the minimum age at which a personmay legally buy or drink them. This minimumage varies between 16 and 25 years,depending upon the country and the type of

drink. Most nations set the age at 18 years.[2]

The production and consumption of alcoholoccurs in most cultures of the world, from

hunter-gatherer peoples to nation-states.[3][4]

Alcoholic beverages are often an importantpart of social events in these cultures.

Contents

1 Alcoholic beverages

1.1 Distilled beverage

1.2 Fermented beverages

1.3 Fortified beverages2 Standards

2.1 Alcohol concentration2.2 Standard drinks

2.3 Serving sizes

3 Alcohol consumption

3.1 History

3.2 Applications

3.3 Alcohol consumption by country

4 Alcohol and health

5 Alcohol laws

6 See also

7 References8 External links

Alcoholic beverages

See also: Template:Alcoholic beverages and List of alcoholic beverages

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An old whiskey still.

Rectified spirit made by Polmos.

The interior of a liquor store in the

United States that sells alcoholic

beverages

Distilled beverage

See also: Distilled beverage

A distilled beverage, spirit, or liquor is an alcoholic beverage producedby distilling (i.e., concentrating by distillation) ethanol produced by means of

fermenting grain, fruit, or vegetables.[5] The term hard liquor is used inNorth America to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones(implicitly weaker). Vodka, gin, baijiu, tequila, whisky, brandy, and soju areexamples of distilled beverages. Undistilled fermented beverages includebeer, wine, and cider. Freeze distillation concentrates ethanol along withmethanol and fusel alcohols (fermentation by-products partially removed bydistillation) in applejack.

Rectified spirit

See also: Rectified spirit

A rectified spirit, rectified alcohol, or neutral spirit is highlyconcentrated ethanol which has been purified by means of repeateddistillation, a process that is called rectification. It typically contains 95%alcohol by volume. Rectified spirits are used in mixed drinks, in theproduction of liqueurs, for medicinal purposes, and as a household solvent.In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as its solvent.

Neutral grain spirit

See also: Neutral grain spirit

Neutral grain spirit (also called pure grain alcohol (PGA) or grain neutralspirit (GNS)) is a clear, colorless, flammable liquid that has been distilledfrom a grain-based mash to a very high level of ethanol content. The termneutral refers to the spirit's lacking the flavor that would have been present ifthe mash ingredients were distilled to a lower level of alcoholic purity, andalso lacking any flavoring added to it after distillation (as is done, for example, with gin). Other kinds of spirits, such aswhisky, are distilled to a lower alcohol percentage in order to preserve the flavor of the mash.

Fermented beverages

Beer and wine are produced by fermentation of sugar- or starch-containingplant material. Beverages produced by fermentation followed by distillationhave a higher alcohol content and are known as liquor or spirits.

Chemical composition

Alcohols

Main article: Alcohol

Alcohol is a general term for any organic compound in which a hydroxylgroup (-O H) is bound to a carbon atom, which in turn may be bound toother carbon atoms. Alcohols other than ethanol are found in tracequantities in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol is the active ingredient in alcoholic

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beverages and is produced by fermentation.

Congeners

See also: congener (alcohol), wine chemistry, and hangover

Congeners are biologically active chemicals (chemicals which exert an effect on the body or brain) found in

fermenation ethanol in trace quantities. Bourbon has a higher congener concentration than vodka.[6] It has been

suggested that some of these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover.[7] Congeners include:

Furfural

Furfural is a congener that inhibits yeast metabolism. It may be added to alcoholic beverages during the fermentation

stage. Although it occurs in many foods and flavorants, furfural is toxic with an LD50 of 65 mg/kg (oral, rat).[8]

Tannins

Tannins are congeners found in wine. Tannins contain powerful antioxidants such as polyphenols.

Fusel alcohol

Main article: Fusel alcohol

Fusel alcohols, also sometimes called fusel oils, or potato oil in Europe, are a mixture of several alcohols (chiefly 2-

methyl-1-butanol) produced as a by-product of ethanol fermentation.[9]

The term fusel is German for "bad liquor".[10]

Fusel alcohols may contain up to 50 different components, where the chief constituents are isobutanol (2-methyl-1-

propanol), propanol, and above all, the pair of isoamylalkohols: 2-methyl-1-butanol and 3-methyl-1-butanol.[11] [12]

Occurrence of flavor compounds and some other compounds in alcoholic beverages for beer, wine, and spirits, are

listed in hundreds in a document.[13] Methanol is a toxic alcohol also found in trace quantities.

Excessive concentrations of these fractions may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as "spicy", "hot", or "solvent-like". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), andtraditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of fusel alcohols as part of their flavor

profile. In other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of fusel alcohols is considered a fault.[14]

Beverages by fermentation ingredients

The names of some alcoholic beverages are determined by their base material.

Beer: In general, a beverage fermented from a grain mash will be called a beer. Beer is made from barley or a

blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the beverage is a spirit.Wine and brandy are usually made from grapes but when they are made from another kind of fruit, they are

distinguished as fruit wine or fruit brandy. The kind of fruit must be specified, such as "cherry brandy" or "plumwine."

Whiskey (or whisky) is made from grain or a blend of several grains. The type of whiskey (scotch, rye,bourbon, or corn) is determined by the primary grain.

Vodka: Vodka is distilled from fermented grain. It is highly distilled so that it will contain less of the flavor of itsbase material. Gin is a similar distillate but it is flavored by juniper berries and sometimes by other herbs as well.

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Applejack is sometimes made by means of freeze distillation.Cider: In the United States and Canada, cider often means unfermented apple juice (sometimes called sweetcider), and fermented apple juice is called hard cider. In the United Kingdom and Australia, cider refers to thealcoholic beverage.

Grains Name of fermented beverage Name of distilled beverage

barley beer, ale, barley wineScotch whisky, Irish whiskey, shōchū (mugijōchū)(Japan)

rye rye beer, kvass rye whiskey, vodka (Poland), Korn (Germany)

corn chicha, corn beer, tesguino Bourbon whiskey; and vodka (rarely)

sorghum

burukutu (Nigeria), pito (Ghana), merisa

(southern Sudan), bilibili (Chad, Central AfricanRepublic, Cameroon)

maotai, gaoliang, certain other types of baijiu (China).

wheat wheat beerhorilka (Ukraine), vodka, wheat whisky, weizenkorn(Germany)

rice

beer, brem (Bali), huangjiu and choujiu (China),Ruou gao (Vietnam), sake (Japan), sonti

(India), makgeolli (Korea), tuak (BorneoIsland), thwon (Nepal)

aila (Nepal), rice baijiu (China), shōchū (komejōchū)

and awamori (Japan), soju (Korea)

milletmillet beer (Sub-Saharan Africa), tongba

(Nepal, Tibet), boza (the Balkans, Turkey)

buckwheat shōchū (sobajōchū) (Japan)

Fruit juice Name of fermented beverage Name of distilled beverage

juice of

grapes,wine

brandy, Cognac (France), Vermouth, Armagnac

(France), Branntwein (Germany), pisco (Peru, Chile),(Grozdova) Rakia (The Balkans, Turkey), singani

(Bolivia), Arak (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan),törkölypálinka (Hungary)

juice of

applescider (U.S.: "hard cider"), Apfelwein applejack (or apple brandy), calvados, cider

juice ofpears

perry, or pear cider; poiré (France)

Poire Williams, pear brandy, Eau-de-vie (France),

pálinka (Hungary), Krushova rakia / Krushevitsa(Bulgaria)

juice ofplums

plum wineslivovitz, țuică, umeshu, pálinka, Slivova rakia /Slivovitsa (Bulgaria)

juice of

apricotsKaisieva rakia (Bulgaria)

juice of

pineapplestepache (Mexico), Pineapple Wine (Hawaii)

junipers borovička (Slovakia)

bananas or

plantains

Chuoi hot (Vietnam), urgwagwa (Uganda,Rwanda), mbege (with millet malt; Tanzania),

kasikisi (with sorghum malt; DemocraticRepublic of the Congo)

gouqi gouqi jiu (China) gouqi jiu (China)

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coconut Toddy (Sri Lanka, India) arrack, lambanog (Sri Lanka, India, Philippines)

ginger with

sugar,ginger with

raisins

ginger ale, ginger beer, ginger wine

Myrica

rubrayangmei jiu (China) yangmei jiu (China)

pomace pomace wine

Raki/Ouzo/Pastis/Sambuca(Turkey/Greece/France/Italy), tsipouro/tsikoudia

(Greece), grappa (Italy), Trester (Germany), marc(France), orujo (Spain), zivania (Cyprus), aguardente

(Portugal), tescovină (Romania), Arak (Iraq)

Vegetables Name of fermented beverage Name of distilled beverage

cassava

Cauim and tiquira (Brazil), kasiri (Sub-SaharanAfrica), masato (Peruvian Amazonia chicha),

parakari (Guyana), nihamanchi (South America)aka nijimanche (Ecuador and Peru), sakurá

(Brazil, Surinam)

juice ofginger root

ginger beer (Botswana)

potato potato beerhorilka (Ukraine), vodka (Poland and Germany),akvavit (Scandinavia), poitín (poteen) (Ireland)

sweetpotato

shōchū (imojōchū) (Japan), soju (Korea)

juice of

sugarcane,or molasses

basi, betsa-betsa (regional)rum (Caribbean), pinga or cachaça (Brasil),

aguardiente, guaro

juice ofagave

pulque tequila, mezcal, raicilla

Otheringredients

Name of fermented beverage Name of distilled beverage

sap of palmcoyol wine (Central America), tembo (Sub-Saharan Africa), toddy (Indian subcontinent)

sap of

Arengapinnata,

Coconut,Borassus

flabellifer

Tuak (Indonesia) Arrack

honey mead, horilka (Ukraine), tej (Ethiopia) distilled mead (mead brandy or honey brandy)

milk kumis, kefir, blaand arkhi (Mongolia)

sugar kilju and mead or sima (Finland)shōchū (kokutō shōchū): made from brown sugar(Japan)

Flavoring

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Alcohol is a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This attribute facilitates the use offlavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic beverages, especially distilled beverages. Flavors may be naturallypresent in the beverage’s base material. Beer and wine may be flavored before fermentation. Spirits may be flavoredbefore, during, or after distillation.

Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually Americanor French oak.

A few brands of spirits have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.

Tax regulated classes

Beer

Main article: Beer

Beer is one of the world's oldest[3][15] and most widely consumed[4] alcoholic beverages, and the third most popular

drink overall after water and tea.[16] It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches which are mainlyderived from cereal grains — most commonly malted barley although wheat, maize (corn), and rice are also used.

Alcoholic beverages that are distilled after fermentation, or are fermented from non-cereal sources (such as grapes orhoney), or are fermented from unmalted cereal grain are not classified as beer.

The two main types of beer are lager and ale. Ale is further classified into varieties such as pale ale, stout, and brownale, whereas different types of lager include black lager, pilsener, and bock.

Most beer is flavored with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative. Other flavorings, such as fruitsor herbs, may also be used.

The alcoholic strength of beer is usually 4–6% alcohol by volume (ABV), but it may be less than 2% or greater than

25%. Beers having an ABV of 60% (120 proof)[citation needed] have been produced by freezing brewed beer andremoving water in the form of ice, a process referred to as "ice distilling".

Beer is part of the drinking culture of various nations and has acquired social traditions such as beer festivals, pubgames, and pub crawling (sometimes known as bar hopping).

The basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. The beer-brewing industry is global inscope, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and thousands of smaller producers, which range fromregional breweries to microbreweries.

Wine

Main article: Wine

Wine is produced from grapes, and from fruits such as plums, cherries, or apples. Wine involves a longer fermentationprocess than beer and also a long aging process (months or years), resulting in an alcohol content of 9–16% ABV.Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation.

Fortified wine is wine (such as port or sherry), to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added.

Spirits

Main article: Distilled beverage

Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic beverages that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits.[17]

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A glass of port, a fortified wine.

Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic beverages that have an alcohol content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits.[17]

Spirits are produced by the distillation of a fermented base product. Distilling concentrates the alcohol and eliminatessome of the congeners. For the most common distilled beverages, such as whiskey and vodka, the alcohol content isaround 40%.

Spirits can be added to wines to create fortified wines, such as port and sherry.

Distilled alcoholic beverages were first recorded in Europe in the mid-12th century. By the early 14th century, they

had spread throughout the European continent.[18] They also spread eastward from Europe, mainly due to the

Mongols, and began to be seen in China no later than the 14th century.[citation needed]

Paracelsus gave alcohol its modern name, which is derived from an Arabic word that means “finely divided” (areference to distillation).

Fortified beverages

Fortified wine

See also: Fortified wine

Fortified wine is wine with an added distilled beverage (usually brandy).[19]

Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits areproduced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is simply wine that hashad a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have beendeveloped, including Port, Sherry, Madeira, Marsala, Commandaria wine

and the aromatized wine Vermouth.[20]

Mixed drinks

See also: Mixed drinks

Mixed drinks include alcoholic mixed drinks (cocktails, beer cocktails, flaming beverages, fortified wines, mixed drinkshooters and drink shots, wine cocktails) and non-alcoholic mixed drinks (including punches).

Blending and caffeinated alcoholic drinks may also be called mixed drinks.

Ready to drink

See also: Ready to drink

Alcopops

Standards

Alcohol concentration

Main articles: Alcohol by volume and alcohol proof

The concentration of alcohol in a beverage is usually stated as the percentage of alcohol by volume (ABV) or asproof. In the United States, proof is twice the percentage of alcohol by volume at 60 degrees Fahrenheit (e.g. 80proof = 40% ABV). Degrees proof were formerly used in the United Kingdom, where 100 degrees proof wasequivalent to 57.1% ABV. Historically, this was the most dilute spirit that would sustain the combustion of gunpowder.

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A "standard drink" does not

necessarily reflect a typical

serving size, such as seen here

Ordinary distillation cannot produce alcohol of more than 95.6% ABV (191.2 proof) because at that point alcohol isan azeotrope with water. A spirit which contains a very high level of alcohol and does not contain any addedflavoring is commonly called a neutral spirit. Generally, any distilled alcoholic beverage of 170 proof or higher is

considered to be a neutral spirit.[21]

Most yeasts cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18%, so that is the practical limitfor the strength of fermented beverages such as wine, beer, and sake. However, some strains of yeast have been

developed that can reproduce in solutions of up to 25% ABV.[citation needed]

Alcohol-free beverage definition controversy

The term alcohol-free (e.g. alcohol-free beer) is often used to describe a product that contains 0% ABV; As such, it ispermitted by Islam, and they are also popular in countries that enforce alcohol prohibition, such as Saudi Arabia,Kuwait and Iran.

However, alcohol is legal in most countries of the world where alcohol culture also is prevalent. Laws vary in countrieswhen beverages must indicate the strength but also what they define as alcohol-free; Experts calling the label

“misleading” and a threat to recovering alcoholics.[22]

In the EU the labeling of beverages containing more than 1.2% by volume of alcohol must indicate the actual alcoholic

strength by volume, i.e. showing the word "alcohol" or the abbreviation "alc." followed by the symbol "% vol."[23]

Most of the alcohol-free drinks sold in Sweden’s state-run liquor store monopoly Systembolaget actually contain

alcohol, with experts calling the label “misleading” and a threat to recovering alcoholics.[22] Systembolaget define

alcohol-free as a drink that contains a maximum of 0.5 percent alcohol by volume.[24] Interestingly, the drug policy ofSweden is based on zero tolerance.

Standard drinks

Main articles: Standard drink#Pure alcohol measure, Alcohol equivalence, and Unit of alcohol

A standard drink is a notional drink that contains a specified amount of purealcohol. The standard drink is used in many countries to quantify alcohol intake. Itis usually expressed as a measure of beer, wine, or spirits. One standard drinkalways contains the same amount of alcohol regardless of serving size or the typeof alcoholic beverage.

The standard drink varies significantly from country to country. For example, it is7.62 ml (6 grams) of alcohol in Austria, but in Japan it is 25 ml (19.75 grams).

In the United Kingdom, there is a system of units of alcohol which serves as aguideline for alcohol consumption. A single unit of alcohol is defined as 10 ml.The number of units present in a typical drink is printed on bottles. The system isintended as an aid to people who are regulating the amount of alcohol they drink;it is not used to determine serving sizes.

In the United States, the standard drink contains 0.6 US fluid ounces (18 ml) ofalcohol. This is approximately the amount of alcohol in a 12-US-fluid-ounce (350 ml) glass of beer, a 5-US-fluid-ounce (150 ml) glass of wine, or a 1.5-US-fluid-ounce (44 ml) glass of a 40% ABV (80 proof) spirit.

Serving sizes

See also: Shot glass#Sizes

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In the United Kingdom, serving size in licensed premises is regulated under the Weights and Measures Act (1985).

Spirits (gin, whisky, rum, and vodka) are sold in 25 ml or 35 ml quantities or multiples thereof.[25] Beer is typicallyserved in pints (568 ml), but is also served in half-pints or third-pints.

In Ireland, the serving size of spirits is 35.5 ml or 71 ml. Beer is usually served in pints or half-pints ("glasses"). In theNetherlands and Belgium, standard servings are 250 and 500 ml for pilsner; 300 and 330 ml for ales.

The shape of a glass can have a significant effect on how much one pours. A Cornell University study of students and

bartenders' pouring showed both groups pour more into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender glasses.[26] Aimingto pour one shot of alcohol (1.5 ounces or 44.3 ml), students on average poured 45.5 ml & 59.6 ml (30% more)respectively into the tall and short glasses. The bartenders scored similarly, on average pouring 20.5% more into theshort glasses. More experienced bartenders were more accurate, pouring 10.3% less alcohol than less experiencedbartenders. Practice reduced the tendency of both groups to over pour for tall, slender glasses but not for short, wideglasses. These misperceptions are attributed to two perceptual biases: (1) Estimating that tall, slender glasses havemore volume than shorter, wider glasses; and (2) Over focusing on the height of the liquid and disregarding the width.

Alcohol consumption

History

Main articles: History of alcoholic beverages and drinking culture

Alcoholic beverages have been drunk by people around the world since ancient times. Reasons that have beenproposed for drinking them include:

They are part of a people's standard diet

They are drunk for medical reasons

For their relaxant effects

For their euphoric effectsFor recreational purposes

For artistic inspiration

For their putative aphrodisiac effects

Archaeological record

Chemical analysis of traces absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the neolithic village of Jiahu in Henanprovince in northern China has revealed that a mixed fermented beverage made from rice, honey, and fruit was beingproduced as early as 9,000 years ago. This is approximately the time when barley beer and grape wine werebeginning to be made in the Middle East.

Recipes have been found on clay tablets and art in Mesopotamia that show people using straws to drink beer fromlarge vats and pots.

The Hindu ayurvedic texts describe both the beneficial effects of alcoholic beverages and the consequences ofintoxication and alcoholic diseases.

The medicinal use of alcohol was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dating from about 2100 BC. The HebrewBible recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery(Proverbs 31:6-7).

Wine was consumed in Classical Greece at breakfast or at symposia, and in the 1st century BC it was part of the dietof most Roman citizens. Both the Greeks and the Romans generally drank diluted wine (the strength varying from 1part wine and 1 part water, to 1 part wine and 4 parts water).

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In Europe during the Middle Ages, beer, often of very low strength, was an everyday drink for all classes and ages ofpeople. A document from that time mentions nuns having an allowance of six pints of ale each day. Cider and pomacewine were also widely available; grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes.

By the time the Europeans reached the Americas in the 15th century, several native civilizations had developedalcoholic beverages. According to a post-conquest Aztec document, consumption of the local "wine" (pulque) wasgenerally restricted to religious ceremonies but was freely allowed to those who were older than 70 years.

The natives of South America produced a beer-like beverage from cassava or maize, which had to be chewed beforefermentation in order to turn the starch into sugar. (Beverages of this kind are known today as cauim or chicha.) Thischewing technique was also used in ancient Japan to make sake from rice and other starchy crops.

Applications

In many countries, people drink alcoholic beverages at lunch and dinner. Studies have found that when food is eaten

before drinking alcohol, alcohol absorption is reduced[27] and the rate at which alcohol is eliminated from the blood isincreased. The mechanism for the faster alcohol elimination appears to be unrelated to the type of food. The likely

mechanism is food-induced increases in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and liver blood flow.[27]

At times and places of poor public sanitation (such as Medieval Europe), the consumption of alcoholic drinks was away of avoiding water-borne diseases such as cholera. Small beer and faux wine, in particular, were used for thispurpose. Although alcohol kills bacteria, its low concentration in these beverages would have had only a limited effect.More important was that the boiling of water (required for the brewing of beer) and the growth of yeast (required forfermentation of beer and wine) would tend to kill dangerous microorganisms. The alcohol content of these beveragesallowed them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling. For this reason,they were commonly kept aboard sailing vessels as an important (or even the sole) source of hydration for the crew,especially during the long voyages of the early modern period.

In cold climates, potent alcoholic beverages such as vodka are popularly seen as a way to “warm up” the body,possibly because alcohol is a quickly absorbed source of food energy and because it dilates peripheral blood vessels(peripherovascular dilation). This is a misconception because the “warmth” is actually caused by a transfer of heatfrom the body’s core to its extremities, where it is quickly lost to the environment. However, the perception alone maybe welcomed when only comfort, rather than hypothermia, is a concern.

Alcohol consumption by country

Main article: List of countries by alcohol consumption

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A row of alcoholic beverages – in this

case, spirits – in a bar

2004 data of alcohol consumption per capita (age 15 or older), per year, by country, in liters of pure alcohol.[28]

Alcohol and health

Main pages: Template:Psychoactive substance use andTemplate:Alcohol and health

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication anddehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolismof the liver and brain and alcoholism (addiction to alcohol).

Alcohol laws

Main article: Alcohol laws

Alcohol laws are laws in relation to the manufacture, use, influence and sale of ethanol or alcoholic beverages thatcontains ethanol. Alcohol laws often seek to reduce the availability of alcoholic beverages, often with the statedpurpose of reducing the health and social side effect of their consumption. This can take the form of age limits foralcohol consumption, and distribution only in licensed stores or in monopoly stores. Often, this is combined with someform of alcohol taxation.

See also

Chinese alcoholic beveragesAlcohol and Drugs History Society

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives Cooking with alcoholLiquor store

Drinking establishmentsMoonshine

References

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2. ̂a b "Minimum Age Limits Worldwide" (http://icap.org/table/Worldwide) . International Center for Alcohol Policies.http://icap.org/table/Worldwide. Retrieved 2009-09-20.

3. ̂a b Arnold, John P (2005). Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning ofBrewing Science and Technology. Cleveland, Ohio: Reprint Edition by BeerBooks. ISBN 0-9662084-1-2.

4. ̂a b "Volume of World Beer Production" (http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production) . EuropeanBeer Guide. Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20061028165040/http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm)from the original on 28 October 2006. http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production. Retrieved 2006-10-17.

5. ^ "Distilled spirit/distilled liquor" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit) . Britannica.com.http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

6. ^ "Avoid hangover with white spirits" (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-10/drinks-corner/28373462_1_congeners-hangover-alcoholic-beverages) . timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 2013-01-10.http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-10/drinks-corner/28373462_1_congeners-hangover-alcoholic-beverages. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

7. ^ Whisky hangover 'worse than vodka, a study suggests' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8416431.stm) , BBCNews. Accessed 2009-12-19

8. ^ "ChemIDplus Advanced" (http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/) . Chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov.http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

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10. ^ Hazelwood, Lucie A.; Daran, Jean-Marc; van Maris, Antonius J. A.; Pronk, Jack T.; Dickinson, J. Richard (2008)."The Ehrlich pathway for fusel alcohol production: a century of research on Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolism"

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External links

Alcohol, Health-EU Portal (http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/my_lifestyle/alcohol/index_en.htm)BBC Headroom: Drinking too much? (http://www.bbc.co.uk/headroom/emotional_health/alcohol.shtml)International Center for Alcohol Policies — Website (http://www.icap.org/)

International Center for Alcohol Policies — List of Tables (http://www.icap.org/table)National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism - What Is a Standard Drink?(http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/Practitioner/pocketguide/pocket_guide2.htm)

Most Widely Consumed Alcoholic Beverages (http://todaynewsgazette.com/most-widely-consumed-alcoholic-beverages/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcoholic_beverage&oldid=542140731"Categories: Alcoholic beverages Fermented beverages Alcohol Alcohol abuse Drug culture

IARC Group 1 carcinogens

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