Alchemy 2005 : How to Transmutate Silver or Lead Metal into Created 10KT Gold Coins ?

by Brother Daniel Izzo

" Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone ( maybe a radioactive stone ? lead + neutron bombardment into gold ) of any degree, but that is another matter altogether. The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs "----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Facts on Lead Metal and its Transmutation into Gold

(1) Lead metal has 82 protons & electrons and contains Gold in it already.

Lead is the ONLY METAL that can be the STANDARD WEIGHT as 10kt Gold ( that is semi safe to use )

(2) Lead metal will transmutate into Gold when bombarded with a source of neutrons.

(3) It is alleged that Lead naturally transmutes into Gold over millions of years within a vein of quartz chrystals and the piezo electric effect interaction,like coal into diamonds.

(4) Certain compounds when added to lead metal , will turn lead into golden color, see " yellow lead " " naples yellow " ( a gold color ) and see the golden lead chrystal, " Vanadinite ."

(5) Being the only metal suitable as the Standard Weight as 10kt gold, lead can be easily transmuted into $100 US Created Gold Coins for the US Mint and its $100 Created Gold certificates and if a layer of real 10kt gold covers the created gold coin, it will be safe for people to handle.

(6) Lead is decayed uranium.

needs a Modern Alchemist please let me know,

" Therefore buy of me gold refined in the fire " God rev 3:18 Because Money Ends Suffering.

May God Bless YouYours FaithfullyRev Daniel Izzo BA/ MS science researcher inventor512 Onondaga AveSyracuse, NY 13207

1-315-472-5088

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Refining Assaying (Au), chemical element, a dense, lustrous, yellow precious metal of Group Ib, Period 6, of the periodic table. Gold has several qualities that have made it exceptionally valuable throughout history. It is attractive in color and brightness, durable to the point of virtual indestructibility, highly malleable, and usually found in nature in a comparatively pure form. The history of gold is unequaled by that of any other metal because of its value in the minds of men from earliest times.

Gold is one of the heaviest of all metals. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is also soft and the most malleable and ductile of metals; an ounce (28 g) can be beaten out to 187 square feet (about 17 square m) in extremely thin sheets called gold leaf. Note that mining industry standards refer to troy ounces (1 troy ounce = 31.12035g).

Because gold is visually pleasing and workable and does not tarnish or corrode, it was one of the first metals to attract human attention. Examples of elaborate gold

workmanship, many in nearly perfect condition, survive from ancient Egyptian, Minoan, Assyrian, and Etruscan artisans, and gold has continued to be a highly favored material out of which to craft jewelry and other decorative objects.

Owing to its unique qualities, gold has been the one material that is universally accepted in exchange for goods and services. In the form of coins or bullion, gold has occasionally played a major role as a high-denomination currency, although silver has generally been the standard medium of payments in the world's trading systems. Gold began to serve as backing for paper-currency systems when they became widespread in the 19th century, and from the 1870s until World War I the gold standard was the basis for the world's currencies. Although gold's official role in the international monetary system had come to an end by the 1970s, the metal remains a highly regarded reserve asset, and approximately 45 percent of all the world's gold is held by governments and central banks for this purpose. Gold is still accepted by all nations as a medium of international payment.

Gold is widespread in low concentrations in all igneous rocks. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is estimated at about 0.005 parts per million. It occurs mostly in the native state, remaining chemically uncombined except with tellurium, selenium, and possibly bismuth. The element's only naturally occurring isotope is gold-197. Gold often occurs in association with copper and lead deposits, and, though the quantity present is often extremely small, it is readily recovered as a byproduct in the refining of those base metals. Large masses of gold-bearing rock rich enough to be called ores are unusual. Two types of deposits containing significant amounts of gold are known: hydrothermal veins, where it is associated with quartz and pyrite (fool's gold); and placer deposits, both consolidated and unconsolidated, that are derived from the weathering of gold-bearing rocks.

The origin of enriched veins is not fully known, but it is believed that the gold was carried up from great depths with other minerals, at least in partial solid solution, and later precipitated. The gold in rocks usually occurs as invisible disseminated grains, more rarely as flakes large enough to be seen, and even more rarely as masses or veinlets. Crystals about 2.5 cm (1 inch) or more across have been found in California. Masses, some on the order of 90 kg (200 pounds), have been reported from Australia.

Alluvial deposits of gold found in or along streams were the principal sources of the metal for ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Other deposits were found in Lydia (now in Turkey) and the lands of the Aegean and in Persia (now Iran), India, China, and other lands. During the Middle Ages the chief sources of gold in Europe were the mines of Saxony and Austria. The era of gold production that followed the Spanish discovery of the Americas in the 1490s was probably the greatest the world had witnessed to that time. The exploitation of mines by slave labor and the looting of Indian palaces, temples, and graves in Central and South America resulted in an unprecedented influx of gold that literally unbalanced the economic structure of Europe. From Christopher Columbus' discovery of the New World in 1492 to 1600,

more than 225,000 kg (8,000,000 ounces) of gold, or 35 percent of world production, came from South America. The New World's mines--especially those in Colombia--continued into the 17th and 18th centuries to account for 61 and 80 percent, respectively, of world production; 1,350,000 kg (48,000,000 ounces) were mined in the 18th century.

Because pure gold is too soft to resist prolonged handling, it is usually alloyed with other metals to increase its hardness for use in jewelry, goldware, or coinage. Most gold used in jewelry is alloyed with silver, copper, and a little zinc to produce various shades of yellow gold or with nickel, copper, and zinc to produce white gold. The color of these gold alloys goes from yellow to white as the proportion of silver in them increases; more than 70 percent silver results in alloys that are white. Alloys of gold with silver or copper are used to make gold coins and goldware, and alloys with platinum or palladium are also used in jewelry. The content of gold alloys is expressed in 24ths, called karats; a 12-karat gold alloy is 50 percent gold, and 24-karat gold is pure.

Because of its high electrical conductivity (71 percent that of copper) and inertness, the largest industrial use of gold is in the electric and electronics industry for plating contacts, terminals, printed circuits, and semiconductor systems. Thin films of gold that reflect up to 98 percent of incident infrared radiation have been employed on satellites to control temperature and on space-suit visors to afford protection. Used in a similar way on the windows of large office buildings, gold reduces the air-conditioning requirement and adds to the beauty. Gold has also long been used for fillings and other repairs to teeth.

The characteristic oxidation states of gold are +1 (aurous compounds) and +3 (auric compounds). Gold is more easily displaced from solution by reduction than any other metal; even platinum will reduce Au3+ ions to metallic gold.

Among the relatively few gold compounds of practical importance are gold(I) chloride, AuCl; gold(III) chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl3; and chlorauric acid, HAuCl4. All three are involved in the electrolytic refining of gold. Potassium cyanoaurate, K[Au(CN)2], is the basis for most gold-plating baths (the solution employed when gold is plated). The soluble salt sodium aurichloride, NaAuCl42H2O, is used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Several organic compounds of gold have industrial applications. For example, gold mercaptides, which are obtained from sulfurized terpenes, are dissolved in certain organic solutions and used for decorating china and glass articles.

atomic number 79 atomic weight 196.967 melting point 1,063º C (1,945º F) boiling point 2,966º C (5,371º F) specific gravity 19.3 (20º C) valence 1, 3 electronic config. 2-8-18-32-18-1

Refining

Gold extracted by amalgamation or cyanidation contains a variety of impurities, including zinc, copper, silver, and iron. Two methods are commonly employed for purification: the Miller process and the Wohlwill process. The Miller process is based on the fact that virtually all the impurities present in gold combine with gaseous chlorine more readily than gold does at temperatures equal to or greater than the melting point of gold. The impure gold is therefore melted and gaseous chlorine is blown into the resulting liquid. The impurities form chloride compounds that separate into a layer on the surface of the molten gold.

The Miller process is rapid and simple, but it produces gold of only about 99.5 percent purity. The Wohlwill process increases purity to about 99.99 percent by electrolysis. In this process, a casting of impure gold is lowered into an electrolyte solution of hydrochloric acid and gold chloride. Under the influence of an electric current, the casting functions as a positively charged electrode, or anode. The anode dissolves, and the impurities either pass into solution or report to the bottom of the electrorefining tank as an insoluble slime. The gold migrates under the influence of the electric field to a negatively charged electrode called the cathode, where it is restored to a highly pure metallic state.

Although the Wohlwill process produces gold of high purity, it requires the producer to keep on hand a substantial inventory of gold (mainly for the electrolyte), and this is very costly. Processes based on direct chemical purification and recovery from solution as elemental gold can greatly speed gold processing and virtually eliminate expensive in-process inventories.

Assaying

Fire assay is considered the most reliable method for accurately determining the content of gold, silver, and platinum-group metals (except osmium and ruthenium) in ores or concentrates. This process involves melting a gold-bearing sample in a clay crucible with a mixture of fluxes (such as silica and borax), lead oxide (called litharge), and a reducing agent (frequently flour). The fluxes lower the melting point of the oxidic materials, allowing them to fuse, and the molten litharge is reduced by the flour to extremely fine drops of lead dispersed throughout the charge. The drops of lead dissolve the gold, silver, and platinum-group metals, then coalesce and gradually descend through the sample to form a metallic layer at the bottom of the crucible. After cooling, the lead "button" is separated from the slag layer and heated under oxidizing conditions to oxidize and eliminate the lead. The shiny metallic bead that is left contains the precious metals. The bead is boiled in nitric acid to dissolve the silver (a process called parting), and the gold residue is weighed. If platinum metals are present, they will alter the appearance of the bead, and their concentration can sometimes be determined by use of an arc spectrograph.

In the jewelry industry, gold content is specified by karat. Pure gold is designated 24 karats; therefore, each karat is equal to 4.167 percent gold content, so that, for example, 18 karats equals 18 4.167, or 75 percent gold. "Fineness" refers to parts per thousand of gold in an alloy; e.g., three-nines fine would correspond to gold of 99.9 percent purity.

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GOLDEN YELLOW LEAD PAINT

/ nae pulls yel • low /Naples yellow 1. Overview 2. Historyof use 3. Making thepigment 4. Technicaldetails Brief description of Naples yellow: One of the oldest synthetic pigments with very good hiding power and good chemical stability.

Names for Naples yellow: Pronounciation: nae pulls yel • low Alternative names: Lead antimonate yellow Non-English names: German French Italian Neapelgelb, Bleiantimonat jaune d'antimoine giallo di Napoli Chemical name: Lead(II)-antimonate

A painted swatch of Naples yellow:

Source of Naples yellow: Natural mineral:

bindheimite identical with the mineral bindheimite (at Mineralogy Database)

Other yellows (intro) - - cadmium yellow - chrome yellow - Cobalt yellow - Indian yellow lead tin yellow - Lemon yellow - Naples yellow - Orpiment - Orpiment - Yellow ochre ------------------------------------------------------------- Main Menu Log In Message Board Event List

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Wulfenite

Red Cloud Mine, Silver District, Trigo Mts, La Paz Co., Arizona, USA

© 2003 John H. Betts Show Locs (554) Wulfenite Gallery Formula: PbMoO 4 System: Tetragonal Colour: Typically orange-yellow, ... Lustre: Sub-Vitreous,Resinous Hardness: 2½ - 3

Name: Named after Austrian mineralogist, F. X. Wulfen (1728-1805) Typically found as thin tabular crystals with a bright orange-red to yellow-orange color, usually on the small side - less than 1.0 cm in size. Classification of Wulfenite

IMA status: Approved Validity of Species: A valid mineral species Strunz ID: 6/G.01-30

6 : Sulphates, Chromates, MolybdatesG : Molybdates [MoO4]2- and wolframates [WO4]2-01 : Scheelite - Wulfenite series, (Powellite - Raspite) Dana ID: 48.1.3.1 Hey's CIM Ref.: 27.3.3 mindat.org URL: http://www.mindat.org/min-4322.htmlPlease feel free to link to this page. Type Occurrence of Wulfenite

Type Locality: Sankt Joannis von Nepomuceni mine, Annaberg, Lower Austria, Austria Year of Discovery: 1845 Physical Properties of Wulfenite

Lustre: Sub-Vitreous,Resinous Diapheny: Translucent Colour: Typically orange-yellow, yellow, reddish-orange, rarely grey, brown, and even black. Streak: White Hardness (Mohs') 2½ - 3 Hardness Data: Measured Tenacity: Brittle Cleavage: Distinct/GoodDistinct on {011}; indistinct on {001}, {013}. Fracture: Irregular/Uneven,Sub-Conchoidal Density (measured): 6.7 - 7 g/cm3 Density (calculated): 6.815 g/cm3 Crystallography of Wulfenite

Crystal System: Tetragonal Class (H-M): 4/m - Dipyramidal Space Group: I41/a Cell Parameters: a = 5.435, c = 12.11 Ratio: a:c = 1 : 2.228 Morphology: Commonly thin tabular, square, {001}, may have a flat, vicinal, pyramid truncating or replacing {001}; more rarely pseudo-octahedral; and very rarely either cubic or short prismatic pyramidal. Twinning: Twins on [001], common but rarely seen due to the typical {001} morphology. X-Ray Powder Diffraction Data for Wulfenite

X-Ray Data: 4.961(10)3.25(10)3.03(20)2.72(20)2.02(20)1.921(10)1.787(10)1.653(20) Optical Data of Wulfenite

Type: Uniaxial (-) RI values n?=2.402 ne=2.304 n=2.353 (average)

Maximum Birefriengence: d=0.098 Surface Relief: Very High Relationship of Wulfenite to other Species

Associates: Mimetite Calcite Hemimorphite Cerussite Duftite Quartz Barite Psilomelane Pyromorphite Aragonite Related Minerals (Strunz Grouping): 6/G.01-10 Powellite CaMoO 4 6/G.01-20 Scheelite CaWO 4 6/G.01-40 Stolzite PbWO 4 6/G.01-50 Raspite PbWO 4 6/G.01-60 Koechlinite Bi 2 MoO 6 6/G.01-70 Russellite Bi 2 WO 6

Chemical Properties of Wulfenite

Formula: PbMoO 4 Elements: Mo, O, Pb Common Impurities: W,Ca,V,As,Cr,W,Ti Other Names for Wulfenite

Synonyms: Carinthit Carinthita Carinthite Gelbbleierz Lead molybdate Melinose Molybdän Bleispath Molybdänbleierz Molybdänbleirz Wulfenit Wulfenita Yellow Lead Ore Varieties: Calcian Wulfenite Chillagite Chromian Wulfenite References for Wulfenite

Dana's New Mineralogy, 8th Edition (1997) by Gaines, et.al., p. 999. Internet Links for Wulfenite

Search Engines: Look for Wulfenite on Google Look for Wulfenite images on Google Mineral Databases: Look for Wulfenite on Webmineral Look for Wulfenite on Athena Mineralogy

Mineral Dealers: Purchase text-link adverts with pay-per-click online here very soon! Others: Mining & Geology Jobs

Minerals: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z or find: Localities: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z or find: Photos: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Copyright © Jolyon Ralph 1993-2003. Site Map. Locality, mineral & photograph data are the copyright of the individuals who submitted them. Further information contact the webmaster. Site hosted & developed by Mysterious Ways (More websites) Table of yellow pigmentsComparison of yellow pigments Magyar English név vegyület name compound empirical formula brillantsárga brillinant yellow anilinsárga p-amino-benzol aniline yellow p-amino-benzol alizarinsárga trioxi-benzofenon alizarin yellow trioxi-benzophenone kénsárga brimstone yellow cinksárga, horganysárga zink-kromát zinc chromate primer zinc chromate ZnCrO3 antimonokker, szenarmonit antimony ochre, cervantite (Sb2O)4.H2Sb2O5 lipcsi sárga, párizsi sárga, királysárga, citromsárga Cologne yellow, chromium yellow krómokker chrome ochre antimonsárga bázisos ólomantimonát antimony yellow basic lead-antimonate tropeolin gold yellow flavantrén indanthrene yellow indigósárga indigo yellow flaviánsav naphtol yellow urániumsárga uranium yellow baritsárga, citromsárga, sárga ultramarin bárium-kromát barium yellow, baryta yellow, lemon chrome barium.chromate BaCrO4 berberin, jamaicin berberine, huangbo [C20H18NO4]+ kadmiumsárga kadmium-szulfid cadmium yellow, greenockite cadmium-sulfide CdS krómsárga ólom-kromát chrome yellow lead(II)-chromate(IV) PbCrO4 krómsárga ólomoxid-kromát chrome yellow deep lead(II)-chromate-oxide PbCrO4.PbO

narancsos krómsárga ólomoxid-kromát chrome yellow-orange lead(II)-chromate-oxide PbCrO4.PbO indiai sárga kálium-kobalt-nitrit cobalt yellow potassium-cobalt-nitrite K3[Co(NO2)6].nH2O indiai sárga euxantsav magnéziumsója indian yellow, euxenit magnesium salt of the euxanthic acid MgC19H16O11.5H2O gamboge gamboge-sav gamboge gamboge acids C38H44O8, C29H36O6 kalcium kromát kalcium-kromát yellow ultramarine calcium-chromate CaCrO4 ón-ólom sárga ólom-sztannát lead tin yellow lead(II)-stannate PbSnO4 ón-ólom sárga sziliciumos ólom-sztannát lead tin yellow silicon substituted lead(II)-stannate PbSn..SixO3 Mars sárga szintetikus vas-hidroxid Mars yellow synthetic iron(III)hydroxide Fe(OH)3 nápolyi sárga ólom-antimonát Naples yellow lead(II)-antimonate Pb2Sb2O7 ólomglét ólom-oxid massicot orthothrombic lead(II)-oxide PbO auripigment arzén-szulfid orpiment arsenic(III)-sulfide As4S3 pararealgár arzén-monoszulfid pararealgar arsenic(II)-monosulfide As3S3 sáfrány crocetin, karotenoid dikarboxilsav saffron caroteoid-dicarboxylic acid C20H24O4 stronciumsárga stroncium-kromát strontium yellow strontium-chromate SrCrO4 aranyokker, földsárga, tuzvasérc kova, agyag, aluminiumszilikát yellow ochre, goethite clay, silica Fe2O3.H2O.Al2(SiO3)3 cinksárga cink-kromát zinc yellow zinc-chromate ZnCrO4 kvercitron quercitron (Quercus tinctoria)

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Vanadinite Mineral Data Pronunciation Guide

Worldwide Minerals for the Discerning CollectorOffering Specimens from Thumbnail to Museum Size

General Vanadinite Information Chemical Formula: Pb5(VO4)3Cl Composition: Molecular Weight = 1,416.27 gm Vanadium 10.79 % V 19.26 % V2O5 Lead 73.15 % Pb 78.80 % PbO Chlorine 2.50 % Cl 2.50 % Cl - % Cl -0.56 % -O=Cl2 Oxygen 13.56 % O ______ ______ 100.00 % 100.00 % = TOTAL OXIDE Empirical Formula: Pb5(VO4)3Cl IMA Status: Valid Species (Pre-IMA)

Locality: Link to MinDat.org Location Data. Name Origin: Named for its vanadium content. Synonym: Endlichite(As) ICSD 203074 PDF 43-1461 Vanadinite Image Images: Vanadinite, Mibladen, Midelt, Morocco. 3 x 2.5 cm. Photo by Francesc Fabre / Fabre Minerals Vanadinite Crystallography Axial Ratios: a:c = 1:0.71077 Cell Dimensions: a = 10.331, c = 7.343, Z = 2; V = 678.72 Den(Calc)= 6.93 Crystal System: Hexagonal - DipyramidalH-M Symbol (6/m) Space Group: P 63/m X Ray Diffraction: By Intensity(I/Io): 2.988(1), 3.068(0.85), 3.384(0.6), Forms: MouseDbl Clk - Start-Stop RotationRMB - Cycle Display ModesDrag1 - Manipulate CrystalDrag2 - ResizeKeyboardS - StereoI - Indicies<space> - Start-Stop RotationF - Fit to ScreenM - MenuHelp on Above Forms: [ 0 1 0] [ 0 0 1]

Warning: this large pop-up is very compute intensive and may not work well with some computers. Physical Properties of Vanadinite Cleavage: None Color: Brown, Brownish yellow, Brown red, Colorless, Yellow. Density: 6.8 - 7.1, Average = 6.94 Diaphaniety: Subtranslucent to opaque Fracture: Brittle - Conchoidal - Very brittle fracture producing small, conchoidal fragments.

Habits: Globular - Spherical, or nearly so, rounded forms (e.g. wavellite)., Prismatic - Crystals Shaped like Slender Prisms (e.g. tourmaline)., Nodular - Tuberose forms having irregular prot uberances over the surface. Hardness: 3.5-4 - Copper Penny-Fluorite Luminescence: None. Luster: Adamantine Streak: brownish yellow Optical Properties of Vanadinite Dichroism (e): none. Dichroism (w): none. Gladstone-Dale: CI meas= -0.117 (Poor) - where the CI = (1-KPDmeas/KC)CI calc= -0.12 (Poor) - where the CI = (1-KPDcalc/KC)KPDcalc= 0.1996,KPDmeas= 0.199,KC= 0.1782 Optical Data: Uniaxial (-), e=2.35, w=2.416, bire=0.0660. Vanadinite Classification Dana Class: 41.8.4.3 (41)Anhydrous Phosphates, etc. Containing Hydroxyl or Halogen (41.8)where (A)5 (XO4)3 Zq (41.8.4)Dana Group 41.8.4.1 Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m 41.8.4.2 Mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m 41.8.4.3 Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m Strunz Class: VII/B.39-170 VII - Phosphates, Arsenates and Vanadates VII/B - Waterfree phosphates with unfamiliar anions F, Cl, O, OH. cations of medium and big size: Mg, Cu, Zn, and Ca, Na, K, Ba, Pb VII/B.39 - Apatite - Pyromorphite group VII/B.39-10 Fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-20 Chlorapatite Ca5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-30 Hydroxylapatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH) P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-40 Carbonate-hydroxylapatite Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH) P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-50 Carbonate-fluorapatite Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-60 Svabite Ca5(AsO4)3F P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-70 Turneaureite Ca5[(As,P)O4]3Cl P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-80 Johnbaumite Ca5(AsO4)3(OH) P 63/m,P 63 Hex VII/B.39-90 Fermorite (Ca,Sr)5(AsO4,PO4)3(OH) P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-95 Fluorcaphite! (Ca,Sr,Ce,Na)5(PO4)3F P 63 6 VII/B.39-100 Strontium-apatite (Sr,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH) P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-110 Belovite-(Ce)* (Sr,Ce,Na,Ca)5(PO4)3(OH) P 3 3 VII/B.39-115 Belovite-(La)! (Sr,La,Ce,Ca)5(PO4)3(F,OH) P 3 3 VII/B.39-120 Alforsite Ba5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-130 Morelandite (Ba,Ca,Pb)5(AsO4,PO4)3Cl P 63/m,P 63 Hex VII/B.39-140 Hedyphane Ca2Pb3(AsO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-150 Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m

VII/B.39-160 Mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m VII/B.39-165 Clinomimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl P 21/b 2/m VII/B.39-170 Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl P 63/m 6/m Other Vanadinite Information References: NAME( Duda&Rejl90) PHYS. PROP.(Enc. of Minerals,2nd ed.,1990) OPTIC PROP.(Mason68) See Also: Links to other databases for Vanadinite :1 - Applied Mineralogy 2 -Athena 3 - Crocoite.com Mineral Locations 4 - EUROmin Project 5 - Glendale Community College 6 -Google Images 7 -MinDAT 8 -MinMax(Deutsch) 9 -MinMax(English) 10 - Mineral and Gemstone Kingdom 11 -The Mineral Gallery 12 - WWW-MINCRYST 13 -theimage 14 -École des Mines de Paris Search for Vanadinite using: [ALTAVISTA] [AOL] [All-The-Web] [GO.COM] [GOOGLE] [Ixquick] [LookSmart] [MAMMA] [MSN.COM] [Netscape] [YAHOO]

Visit our Advertisers for Vanadinite :John Betts Fine MineralsDakota Matrix MineralsDale Minerals InternationalEdwards MineralsExcalibur Mineral CompanyExceptional MineralsFabre MineralsMineral of the Month ClubTrinity Mineral Co. - Rare MineralsDan Weinrich Fine MineralsWright's Rock Shop

Ask about Vanadinite here :Mindat.org's Discussion GroupsRockhounds Discussion Group on Yahoo GroupsAsk-A-Mineralogist from the Mineralogical Society of America

Print or Cut-and-Paste your Vanadinite Specimen Label here :

Vanadinite

Pb5(VO4)3Cl Dana No: 41.8.4.3 Strunz No: VII/B.39-170 Locality:

Notes:

-------------------------------------------------------------- GOLDEN YELLOW LEAD METAL/MINERAL CRYSTAL Vanadinite Composition: Pb5(VO4)3Cl --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Minerals | By_Name | By_Class | By_Groupings | Search | Properties | Sulfates

GOLDEN YELLOW LEAD METAL/MINERAL CRYSTAL

THE MINERAL WULFENITEChemistry: PbMoO4, Lead Molybdate Class: Sulfates Uses: A minor ore of molybdenum and as mineral specimens. Specimens Wulfenite is a nice collection type mineral and is popular as such. Its strong colors, nice luster and one-of-a-kind crystal habits attract the attention of many collectors around the world. Wulfenite is an enigma in terms of its symmetry. There are conflicting results of various symmetry tests and this usually does not happen. It is either a symmetry of 4 or 4/m. The difference is the disputed existence of a mirror plane perpendicular to the four fold axis. If the mirror exists, then the crystals should have a top that is a mirror image of its bottom. Although most crystals don't show it clearly, the bottom pyramidal faces slant at a different angle from the top pyramidal faces. This demonstrates the symmetry of just 4. However, other tests of its symmetry show a 4/m symmetry. This symmetrical oddity only adds to wulfenite's interest among serious collectors.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:Color is red, orange, yellow, silver and white. Luster is vitreous. Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent. Crystal System is tetragonal; 4/m or 4 Crystal Habits include very thin square or octahedral pinacoidal plates with pyramidal faces truncating just the edges of the crystal. At times the pyramids become prominant and psuedo-dipyramidal crystal habits are seen, sometimes because of twinning. Prismatic faces are also seen and can make psuedo-cubic crystals. Also encrusting and cavernous aggregates due to intergrowth of crystal plates. Cleavage is perfect in one direction. Fracture is conchoidal. Hardness is 3.

Specific Gravity is approximately 6.8 (very heavy for translucent minerals) Streak is white. Associated Minerals are mimetite, limonite, smithsonite, vanadinite and galena. Other Characteristics: index of refraction is 2.28-2.40 (very high, but typical of lead minerals). Notable Occurances include Morocco; Tsumeb, Nambia; Mexico and Arizona and New Mexico, USA. Best Field Indicators are crystal habit, color, density and luster.

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Adept Alchemy by Robert A. Nelson

Part II ~ Chapter 1

Transmutations of Silver

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Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone of any degree, but that is another matter altogether. The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs ("Puffers", an old French alchemical label for deluded fools who pump their bellows in vain) to wise up, get a life, and do something more worthwhile, profitable, and less dangerous. Employing the methods developed by Francois Jollivet-Castelot, however, there is every chance of success, albeit at great risk due to the use of arsenic.

It has been argued by some purists that transmutations such as these are not alchemy at all, but rather "hyper-chemistry" or "archymy". Mayhap so, but I choose to include these factoids in this collection.

Most of the 19th and 20th century experimenters in this genre used a variety of "wet" techniques (refluxing with nitric acid, etc.), or "dry" transmutations with alloys in the furnace. Dr. Stephen Emmens used high-pressure hammering (500 tons/sq. in.) of silver at low temperature, followed by fluxing, granulation, more hammering, treatment with "modified nitric acid", and refining.

(1) T. Tiffereau (2) R. Hunter (3) A. Waite (4) Fulcanelli (5) F. Jollivet-Castelot (6) S. Emmens (7) C. Lea (8) References

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(1) Theodore Tiffereau ~

Between 1854-55, Theodore Tiffereau submitted six memoirs to the French Academie des Sciences concerning transmutations of silver to gold. He published a compilation of the papers ( Les Metaux sont des Corps Composes ) in 1855.(25-27)

Tiffereau conducted his experiments at considerable expense while supporting himself making daguerotypes in Mexico. Tiffereau claimed that Mexican silver possesses peculiar qualities that lend to its augmentation as gold (Dr. Emmens also used Mexican silver in his work). While he claimed success in principle, he made no capital gains. Tiffereau demonstrated his process at the French Mint in Paris before the assayer M. Levol, but the results were unsatisfactory.

Tiffereau attempted many modifications of his techniques, and claimed that certain experimental conditions influence the transmutation of silver to gold:

1) Pure silver filings were used, sometimes mixed with pure copper filings (Ag 9:1 Cu) and traces of zinc, iron, alumina and silica;

2) Trace amounts of gold catalyze the reaction;

3) The silver was refluxed with concentrated nitric acid, hyponitrous acid, and nitrogen protozide or deuteroxide;

4) Concentrated sulfuric acid was used at times;

5) The acids were exposed to sunlight to "solarize" them. Tiffereau complained that the French sun was not so effective as the Mexican;

6) Halides and sulfur in the presence of oxides of nitrogen improved the reaction, and so did ozone;

7) Prolonged reaction time increased yields.

Tiffereau attributed the production of gold in the earth to the action of the "microbe of gold". This was confirmed in the 1980s by the discovery that placer gold nuggets form around a nucleus of bacillus cereus.

The following experiment is typical of Tiffereau's general methods:

"After having exposed, over two days, pure nitric acid to the action of solar rays, I added pure silver filings with pure copper filings in the proportions of the alloy of money (9:1). A lively reaction manifested, accompanied with a very abundant deposit of intact filings agglomerated in a mass.

"The disengagement of nitrous gas continued without interruption, and I left the liquid as is over twelve days. I noted that the aggregate deposit was augmented sensibly in volume. I then added a little water to the dissolution in which the product had precipitated, and again abandoned the liquid to rest five days. During this time, new vapors unceasingly disengaged.

"The five days having passed, I raised the liquid just to ebullition, which I maintained until the nitrous vapors ceased disengagement, after which I evaporated it to dryness.

"The matter obtained from the dessication is dry, dull, blackish-green; it did not offer an appearance of crystallization...

"Placing the matter again in pure nitric acid and boiling six hours, I saw the matter become clear green without ceasing to aggregate in small masses. I added a new quantity of pure concentrated nitric acid and boiled it anew; it is then that I finally saw the disaggregated matter take the brilliance of natural gold...

[The third test in this series] "presented an extraordinary phenomenon to be noted: the quantity of the alloy that I used experienced a transformation entirely to pure gold."

Carey Lea suggested that Tiffereau and other experimenters had merely prepared a gold-colored form of allotropic silver.

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(2) R. M. Hunter ~

In 1908, Sir Henry Baskerville made mention of a contemporary claim to the production of artificial gold:

"Among the many communications reaching the writer, one is of more than passing interest. Mr. R.M. Hunter, of Philadelphia, has written concerning 'synthetic gold' as follows:

"I have so perfected the process that in my judgment, based on my actual experience, gold may be manufactured at enormous profit, and to this end I have designed a plant to be erected in Philadelphia and am at this moment negotiating for $500,000 capital for its erection. I realize that the public and most scientific men are adverse to the belief in the possibility of such an enterprise, but I know what I am doing and can afford to allow public sentiment to follow its own course.

"Enclosed with the letter was an affirmative affadavit. On request, Mr. Hunter promptly forwarded me samples of silver in which the gold is 'growing' and some 'grown-up' gold, said to have been produced by his secret process. I have not made analyses of the samples." (5)

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(3) Arthur E. Waite ~

The eminent occultist Arthur E. Waite wrote A Collection of Alchymical Processes which includes a segment entitled "Silver Transmuted Into Gold By The Action Of Light":

"In the focus of a Burning-Glass, 12 inches in diameter, place a glass Flask, 2 inches in diameter, containing Nitric Acid, diluted with its own volume of water:

"Pour into the Nitric Acid, alternately, small quantities of a Solution of Nitrate of Silver and of Muriatic acid, the object being to cause the Chloride of Silver to form a minutely divided state, so as to produce a milky fluid, into the interior of which the

brilliant convergent cone may pass, and the currents generated in the Flask by the Heat may so drift all the Chloride through the Light.

"The Chloride, if otherwise exposed to the Sun, merely blackens on the surface, the interior parts undergoing no change: This difficulty, therefore, has to be avoided. The Burning-Glass promptly brings on a decomposition of the salt, evolving, on the one hand, Chlorine, and disengaging a metal on the other. Supposing the experiment to last two or three entire hours, the effect will then be equal to a continuous midday sun of some 72 hours. The Metal becomes disengaged very well. But what is it? It cannot be silver, since Nitric acid has no action on it. It burnishes in an Agate Mortar, but its reflection is not like that of silver, for it is yellowish, like that of Gold.

"The Light must therefore have so transmuted the original silver as to enable it to exist in the presence of Nitric Acid." ( 28)

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(4) Fulcanelli ~

The renowned master Fulcanelli published this transmutation of silver in Les Demeures Philosophales:

"The simplest alchemic procedure consists in utilizing the effect of violent reactions --- those of acids on the bases --- to provoke in the midst of the effervesence the reunion of pure parts, their new arrangement being irreducible. In this manner, starting from a metal close to gold --- preferably silver --- it is possible to produce a small quantity of the precious metal. Here is, in this order of research, an elementary operation whose success we guarantee, providing the instructions are carefully followed.

"Empty into a glass retort, tall and tubular, one-third of its capacity in pure nitric acid. Adapt to the receiver an escape tube and arrange the apparatus in a sand bath.

"Gently heat the apparatus short of reaching the boiling point for the acid (83o C). Turn off the fire, open the tube, and introduce a small portion of virgin silver, or of cupel, free from gold traces. When the emission of peroxide of azote has stopped and when the effervesence has quieted, let drop into the liquor a second portion of pure silver. Repeat introducing metal, with no hurry, until the boiling and issuing of red vapors manifest little energy, which is indicative of the property of saturation. Add nothing more. Let it rest for half an hour, then cautiously decant your clear solution into a beaker while it is still warm. You will find a thin deposit in the form of black sand. Wash this with lukewarm water, and let it fall into a small porcelain capsule. You will recognize by making the assays that the precipitate is insoluble in

hydrochloric acid, just as it also is in nitric acid. Aqua regia will dissolve it and yields a magnificent yellow solution, exactly like gold trichloride. Use distilled water to dilute this liquor; precipitate from a zinc blade. An amorphous powder will be obtained, very fine, matte, of reddish brown coloration, identical to that given by natural gold reduced in the same manner. Wash well and dessicate this pulvurent precipitate. By compression on a sheet of glass or marble, it will give you a brilliant, coherent lamina with a beautiful yellow sheen by reflection, green by transparence, having the look and superficial characteristics of the purest gold.

"To increase with a new quantity this miniscule deposit, you may repeat the operation as many times as you please. In this case, take up again the clear solution of silver nitrate diluted from the first washing water; reduce the metal with zinc or copper. Decant this silver into a powder and use it for your second dissolution." (14)

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(5) Francois Jollivet-Castelot ~

Francois Jollivet-Castelot was the Secretary General (and later President) of the Alchemical Society of France (founded in 1896). He also edited the Society's journal L'Hyperchemie, and served as a special delegate of the Supreme Council of Martinists. He authored several books and articles on alchemy and "hyperchemistry", a system of non-occult chemical methods of transmutation. (17-20)

Jollivet-Castelot began experimenting with transmutations of silver in 1908. In 1920, he published La Fabrication Chimique de L'Or to report his successes using both "wet" and "dry" methods of transmutation:

"By means of catalytic action I have succeeded in manufacturing gold chemically by acting on silver with arsenic and antimony sulfides, tellurium, and tin.

"This process gives a very high yield which has already been confirmed by several chemists, in particular by Mr. Ballandras, Chemical Engineer of Lyons, and Mr. Outon, Chemical Engineer of Buenos Aires...

"The object of the present leaflet is to enable chemists to repeat and check my experiments in their turn...

"I made a mixture composed of 3 gr of chemically pure silver and 1 gr of chemically pure orpiment and placed it in 36o nitric acid for several months cold and then brought it to ebullition. The liquid was kept at the boiling point for several days. A small quantity of the material became detached at this moment and formed a pulvurent black deposit. When no further action took place, I decanted off the

solution and collected the insoluble residue. This residue was attacked by aqua regia at the boiling point until it was almost completely dissolved; the liquor when decanted and filtered was analyzed and gave all the characteristic reactions for gold.... [December 1925]

"I acted on 22 gr of chemically pure silver ... and on 3.5 gr of chemically pure orpiment... The mixture was heated to about 1600o C In a metal smelting furnace for about three quarters of an hour. The residue obtained was again melted with the addition of orpiment. After having hammered for half an hour and remelted with the addition of small quantities of orpiment every ten minutes, it was withdrawn.

"After cooling and the addition of chemically pure antimony sulfide, it was again put back into the furnace, small quantities of orpiment being thrown in every five minutes. The residue obtained had a dark metallic tint. After hammering it became slightly golden.

"The residue dissolved in chemically pure 36o nitric acid first cold and then hot, gave an abundant pulvurent deposit. This deposit after being washed and treated with ammonia to dissolve the arsenic and antimony salts was completely dissolved in aqua regia. The liquor then being chlorinated and filtered was subjected to the reagents of platinum and gold. Mr. Andre Vandenberghe who was acting as preparator for this experiment, had thought that in accordance with the law of the evolution of matter, the transmutation of bodies into gold should be preceded or accompanied by their transmutation into platinum...

"The reactions of gold were quite characteristic; the reactions of platinum also seemed to reveal its presence.

"The quantity of gold obtained in this experiment was about one gramme.

"I submit the hypothesis that the arsenic acts as a catalyst and the sulfur as a ferment in this transmutation." (December 1925; Douai, France)...

"As a sequel to my previous work on the artificial synthesis of gold, I have introduced tin into these new tests as it is also often associated with gold in Nature. The following is a description of this new process, thanks to which the percentage of gold obtained destroys all the objections that are raised with regard to impurities.

"I made an intimate mixture of 6 gr of chemically pure silver... 2 gr of antimony sulfide, 1 gr of orpiment, and one gr of tin... I then added the usual fluxes and then heated the whole in a crucible in the furnace to about 1100o C for about one hour, twice adding a small quantity of SbS.

"The residue obtained was treated for a long time in 36o nitric acid, first cold and then at the boiling point; the insoluble residue was next washed with distilled water,

treated with ammonia, washed again and finally treated for a long time with boiling aqua regia.

"The liquor when filtered and subjected to the reagents of gold showed the presence of this metal in the form of abundant deposits which may be estimated at 0.05 gr in all, which is very high considering the 6 gr of silver employed. The deposits when collected and dried had a yellow green metallic color and possessed all the characteristics of gold...

"The addition of tin to the other bodies has certainly facilitated the reactions of the gold and increased the yield of this metal which can be manufactured artificially by my process, i.e., by synthesis and in measurable quantities.

"It would be very easy to show that, given the respective prices of gold and of the other substances that are used in my process to produce it, a profit could be obtained if the process were worked industrially, all the more so as the greater part of the silver employed can be recovered at each test..

"I believe I now hold the key to the regular and even industrial manufacture of gold.

"But the industrial question is voluntarily put aside from my thoughts, for my only object is the search for pure scientific truth."

In a correspondence to Jollivet-Castelot, Mr. Ballandras reported on "How I Succeeded In Making Gold According To The Process of Mr. Jollivet-Castelot: Dosage of gold obtained by the second method":

"From a mixture of 10 gr silver, 3 gr of tin, 3 gr of arsenic sulfide, and 3 gr of antimony sulfide, the residue which had been obtained was crushed as much as possible and subjected to a treatment of pure chloric acid like in the first method. However, in order to completely eliminate the silver and the tin employed, I scrupled to begin again the indicated treatments, that is as much to say that the powder which was obtained having been subdued first to the action of azotic acid, then washed with distilled water, then subdued to the action of chloric acid, then washed with distilled water, then once more washed with distilled water, and these different operations were begun once again with another portion of pure chloric acid... The insoluble residue was subdued to the prolonged action of aqua regia...

"It must be noted that this thing happened during the ebullition. The washed residue contained the slighter part of gold; this thing would be found dissolved in the last liquor which I obtained.

"After 18 hours of digestion at about 25o, I subdued the mixture to ebullition during 3 hours. After refrigeration, I filtered on glass wool and I looked if parts were not

drawn along in suspense. I found nothing. Then, I decided to proceed to a circumstantial analysis of the liquor which I obtained...

"The quantity of gold which was obtained was 0.476 gr for 10 gr of silver employed, or 0.0476 gr of gold per gram of silver."

Jollivet-Castelot read this memorandum to the Academie Royal des Sciences (Belgium) on June 6, 1926:

"A Recent Experiment In Transmutation --- All my research work on transmutation since 1908 has started from the fact that gold is found in nature associated with antimony and arsenic sulfides as well as with tellurium, which is considered as a mineralizer of gold. I therefore considered that it was logical to introduce tellurium into the artificial combination of silver and arsenic and antimony sulfides that I make...

"I prepared a mixture composed of 6 gr of silver, 1 gr of native orpiment free of gold, 1 gr of antimony sulfide and 2 gr of tellurium... I added pure silica to the usual fluxes. This mixture was heated in the furnace in the usual way for one hour at about 1100o C. The residue obtained was of a blackish-grey color with violet reflections. It weighed 6.42 grams.

"When subjected to the action of nitric acid, the residue was attacked with difficulty and greenish metallic particles become detached. The solution was then decanted and a greenish-yellow residue remained which was kept at the boiling point of nitric acid for several hours. After decanting off the liquor once again, the residue, which had not changed, was washed, treated with ammonia and then subjected to the action of boiling aqua regia in which it was entirely dissolved after boiling for several hours.

"[The solution was chlorinated and subjected to the reagents of gold with positive results, although] a certain amount of gold was certainly lost in this test just as in all my previous tests, for it is known that arsenic, antimony, and tellurium entrain gold in their fusion and their volatilization.

"In order to obviate this disadvantage, I had thought of making the vapors of arsenic acid and antimony sulfides and of tellurium act on the silver in fusion in a closed vessel by means of a special device...

"I consider it certain that if the vapors were allowed to bubble through the melted silver, a much higher yield of gold would be obtained than that I have obtained hitherto by an imperfect and too rapid contact of the bodies in presence, while it is undoubtedly necessary to make them react on one another in the vapor state in a closed vessel."

Mr. Louis Outon, a pharmaceutical chemist in Buenos Aires, reported to Jollivet-Castelot in a letter (July 26, 1927):

"Dear Sir... I have repeated the experiments... in my laboratory and am amazed at the results. For the moment, it is only the scientific side which interests me, since the cost of the gold obtained is often greater than the value of the metal..."

Mr. A. Ballandras also replicated the experiments and reported the results:

"I will not conceal the fact that I have often heard ironical remarks aboutprocesses by which he succeeded in manufacturing gold. I determined to check his tests with the greatest possible accuracy...

"In a new quartz crucible, I placed 15 gr silver, 6 gr arsenic sulfide, 6 gr antimony sulfide. The crucible was heated at a temperature of 500o C and then for one hour and a half at 1100o C. At this moment the mass was fairly liquid... The crucible was then allowed to cool down. The reddish-brown residue obtained weighed exactly 23.742 gr, or a loss of 3.258 grams.

"I allowed this residue to cool in pure nitric acid in which the greater part was dissolved fairly easily. After prolonged boiling the liquor was filtered on a new glass wool. The resultant liquor was very clear and absolutely free of any particles.

"The glass wool was then macerated in aqua regia rich in hydrochloric; after 18 hours maceration, the whole was boiled for 3 hours. I again filtered on glass wool in order to separate any traces of the filter from the liquor... Any gold that might have been obtained would necessarily be found in the last liquor... It was of importance to prove its existence qualitatively at least.

"For this purpose, I tried the various standard reagents, the results being the following: 1) Oxalic acid: flakey precipitate; 2) Iron sulfate: glossy metallic black; 3) Tin chloride: peach pink precipitate; 4) Formol: rather light bluish coloration; 5) Sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate: light coloration after boiling; 6) Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide: yellowish coloration, cloudy.

"These reactions are sufficiently characteristic and clearly prove the existence in the last liquor of a metal which, even if it is not gold, must nevertheless be placed very close to the latter... the metal obtained and gold must be perfectly isotopic.

"I have repeated this test several times and I have observed: 1) That the production of gold is a function of the rapidity with which the necessary heat is obtained; 2) That it is also a function of the degree of tightness of the crucible. A crucible that is closed as tightly as possible gives better results; 3) That the amount of gold obtained was not always uniform; some of the tests were absolutely sterile and I inferred that this was due to some defect in the mounting.

"I think there must be a certain temperature that should not be exceeded and that the external conditions of pressure and electricity must be of considerable importance."

In another experiment, Ballandras used silver (10 gr), tin (3 gr), orpiment (3 gr), and antimony sulfide (3 gr):

"After having operated as previously, I obtained a quantity of gold corresponding to 0.05 gr per gram of silver employed... This I consider to be a highly interesting result."

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(6) Dr. Stephen Emmens ~

Early in 1897, the British chemist Stephen H. Emmens, then residing in New York, announced the discovery of a new element which fills the "vacant space existing in the sub-group of Group I", and which he thought to be the intermediate matter from which silver and gold are formed. Dr. Emmens said:

"Our claim is that the element in question is therefore neither silver nor gold, but which may, by our new physical methods, be converted into gold." (14)

In 1897, Dr. Emmens' Argentaurum Laboratory on Staten Island produced over 660 ounces of gold from silver and sold it to the U.S. Assay Office. He revealed a few historical and technical details of his transmutation process in his book, Argentaurum Papers #1: Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation:

"Our work, which converts silver into gold, had its origin in the course of certain investigations which I undertook for the purpose of preparing chemically pure nickel... in 1892. In attempting to prepare these pure metals [nickel and iron], a certain product was obtained which seemed to differ from anything recorded in the textbooks. The same product was subsequently found when the investigation was extended to the case of metallic cobalt... The phenomena observed afforded indications of the existence of some substance common to the whole of the elements in what is known as Series 4 of Group 8 of the classification of Chemical Elements... It appeared to us almost self-evident that if we were right in supposing a common substance to be present in any single series of elements, the same would hold good for each group.

"And as Group I of the classification contains the precious metals --- gold and silver ~ it was obvious that our time and attention should be directed to these metals rather than to any other...

"Our starting point, so far as silver and gold were concerned, was afforded by the remarkable discoveries of Mr. Carey Lea with regard to [colloidal silver]... It was found that... this subdivision of metallic silver was attended by very considerable changes in the physical properties of the substance...By certain physical methods and by the aid of a certain apparatus, we succeeded in bringing about a further subdivision of the silver. We were not surprised to find that the substance obtained differed so far from ordinary silver that it could no longer be regarded as the same elementary substance. It seemed to require a new name and a new chemical symbol. Inasmuch, therefore, as our theory was that this substance was common to both gold and silver, and in reality was the raw material out of which both gold and silver were constructed by the hand of nature, we named the substance Argentaurum...

"The next step was to ascertain whether this substance could be so treated as to be grouped into molecules of greater density than those of silver... We found that... Argentaurum can be aggregated into molecules having a density considerably superior to that of ordinary gold molecules. Whether we are right as to this or not, the condensed Argentaurum presents the appearance and is endowed with the properties of ordinary metallic gold...

"We do not consume any chemicals and other costly materials in our process; what we use is mainly energy in some of its various forms, such as heat, electricity, magnetism, gravity, cohesion, chemical affinity, x-rays and the like... Our chief source of expense is the time required for bringing about the desired molecular changes... One ounce of silver will produce three-quarters of an ounce of gold..." (6)

Herbert Fyfe reported that Dr. Emmens' process comprised five stages: 1) mechanical treatment; 2) fluxing and granulation; 3) mechanical treatment; 4) treatment with a "modified nitric acid", and 5) refining. Dr. Emmens said:

"I regard the mechanical treatment as the causa causans. The fluxing and granulation serve, I think, merely to render the molecular aggregate susceptible of displacement and rearrangement." (15)

The mechanical treatment was accomplished by means of Dr. Emmens' "Force Engine", which exerted pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures. Step 4, using "modified nitric acid", contradicts the statement made elsewhere, that "we do not consume any chemicals... in our process." (4, 7-12, 15, 16, 23)

Dr. Emmens included a sample of Argentaurum and these instructions in a letter (21 May 1897) to Sir William Crookes:

"Take a Mexican dollar and dispose it in an apparatus which will prevent expansion or flow. Then subject it to heavy, rapid, and continuous beating under conditions of cold such as to prevent even a temporary rise of temperature when the blows are

struck. Test the material from hour to hour, and at length you will find more than the trace (less than one part in 10,000) of gold which the dollar originally contained."

Sir Crookes was unable to replicate the experiment to his satisfaction. He reported:

"A specimen of Argentaurum sent me by Dr. Emmens has been examined with the spectrograph. It consists of gold with a fair proportion of silver and a little copper. No lines belonging to any other known elements, and no unknown lines, were detected."

This analysis resembles that of ordinary bullion gold, which contains silver and copper to make it harder and more fusible than pure gold.

In a rejoinder, Dr. Emmens noted:

"I have received a letter from a very eminent Fellow of the Royal Society informing me that he has performed the crucial experiment suggested in my letter of May 21, 1897, to Sir William Crookes. The gold contained in the Mexican dollar after 40 hours of intense cold and continuous hammering was found to be 20.9% more than the quantity of gold contained in the same dollar before the test."

In 1898, Emmens floated the Argentaurum Company, a syndicate which promised that for one ounce of silver (then worth about 50 cents) entrusted with payment of $4.50 per ounce for conversion costs, the investor would be repaid with 3/5 ounce of gold (then worth about $11). Dr. Emmens' application for a patent on his process was refused, however, so production never began, since he would not have been able to protect his methods from unscrupulous competitors. (24, 29, 30)

Dr. Emmens was issued several U.S. Patents for inventions; at least two of them may be related to his process: #501,996 (25 July 1893), Electrolytic bath; and #501,997 (25 July 1893), Apparatus for Electrolytic Extraction of Metals. Dr. Emmens' Force Engine produced hammering pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures. These effects can be achieved by a variety of modern methods.

Semantic ambiguities in Dr. Emmens' writings confuse the understanding of the process. At times, Argentaurum refers to a new element, or to the gold produced from it, or to Lea's intermediate allotropic silver.

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(7) Carey Lea ~

Carey Lea discovered the preparation of so-called "allotropic" and "intermediate" silver in 1889 while he was studying reductions of silver nitrate. "Allotropic" is a

misnomer, however. In 1925, Dr. Richard Zsigmondy, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Göttingen, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his study of Lea's "allotropic" silver under the ultramicrosope. Dr. Zsigmondy found that such silver actually was a monoatomic colloid of ordinary silver, not another isotope.

Lea determined that silver occurs in "allotropic", "intermediate", and ordinary forms. Ordinary silver is protean in nature. The aqueous solutions are colloidal monoatoms, and give perfectly clear solutions. The several forms of "allotropic" silver (a-Ag) dry with their particles in optical contact with each other, thus forming continuous films that are beautifully colored, perfect mirrors. Strong acids and pressure will convert a-Ag to the normal form. There are three forms of a-Ag, and all are unstable. (21, 22)

There is also a very stable "intermediate form" of silver (i-Ag) which is easy to prepare. It occurs as bright gold-yellow or green crystals with a metallic luster. Treatment with a very dilute solution of ferric chloride will enhance the appearance of its foliar structure, interpenetrating with plant-like ramifications, or fine acicular crystals up to 1 inch long.

Intermediate silver is hard, tough, and unaffected by pressure. It is nearly as indifferent to oxidizing and chlorizing agents as is normal silver. Intermediate silver can be formed from the allotropic varieties by light, heat, or chemical action. The simplest preparation is as follows:

"It has long been known that golden-yellow specks would occasionally show themselves in silver solutions, but could not be obtained at will and the quantity thus appearing was infinitesimal. Probably this phenomenon has often led to a supposition that silver might be transmuted into gold. This yellow product, however, is only an allotropic form of silver, but it has all the color and brilliancy of gold, a fact which was apparent even in the minute specks hitherto obtained...

"It is a little curious that its permanency seems to depend entirely on details in the mode of preparation. I have found many ways of obtaining it, but in a few months the specimens preserved changed spontaneously, to normal silver... The normal silver produced in this way is exquisitely beautiful. It has a pure and perfect white color like the finest frosted jewelers' silver, almost in fact exceeding the jeweler's best products. I found, however, one process by which a quite permanent result could be obtained... the following proportions give good results:

"Two mixtures are required: No. 1 containing 200 cc of a 10% solution of silver nitrate, 200 cc of 20% solution of Rochelle Salt [Sodium potassium tartrate] and 800 cc of distilled water. No. 2, containing 107 cc of a 30% solution of ferrous sulfate, 200 cc of a 20% solution of Rochelle salt and 800 cc of distilled water. The second solution (which must be mixed immediately before using only) is poured into the first with constant stirring. A powder, at first glittering red, then changing back to black,

falls, which on the filter has a beautiful bronze appearance. After washing it should be removed whilst in a pasty condition and spread over watch glasses or flat basins and allowed to dry spontaneously. It will be seen that this is a reduction of silver nitrate by ferrous sulfate...

"Although the gold-colored silver (into which the nitrate used is wholly converted) is very permanent when dry, it is less so when wet. In washing, the filter must be kept always full of water; this is essential. It dries into lumps exactly resembling highly polished gold...

"If we coat a chemically clean glass plate with a film of gold-colored allotropic silver, let it dry, first in the air, then for an hour or two in a stove at 100o C, and then heat the middle of the plate carefully over a spirit lamp, we shall obtain with sufficient heat a circle of whitish gray with a bright, lustrous golden ring round it, somewhat lighter and brighter than the portion of the plate that has not been changed by heat. This ring consists of what I propose to call the "intermediate form"...

"With sulfuric acid diluted with four times its bulk of water and allowed to cool, an immersion of one or two seconds converts a film on glass or on pure paper wholly to the intermediate form...

"Its properties are better seen by using a film formed on pure paper, one end of which is heated over a spirit lamp to a temperature just below that at which paper scorches. The change is sudden and passes over the heated portion of the surface like a flash. Examining the changed part, we find:

1st. That it has changed from a deep gold to a bright yellow gold color.

2nd. When subjected to a shearing stress it does not whiten or change color in the slightest degree.

3rd. It is much harder, as is readily perceived in burnishing it.

4th. It no longer shows the color reaction with potassium ferricyanide and ferric chloride, changing only by a slight deepening of color.

"Of these characteristic changes the second is the most remarkable. The gold-colored silver in its original condition changes with singular facility to white silver; almost any touch, any friction, effects the conversion...

The intermediate form is distinguished from normal silver almost solely by its bright yellow color and its higher luster."

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(8) References ~

1. "A.A.E.": Nature 121 (# 3060), p. 981 (June 23, 1928) 2. "A.C.": Chimie et Industrie, (1927), Suppl. 18/19 (4). 3. Anonymous: Rev. Ind. Chimie Industrielle 37: 63 (1928) 4. Ridpath, J.C.: The Arena (Boston) 19(1): 139-140 (1898); "The Age of Gold" 5. Baskerville, C.: Popular Science Monthly 72 (1): 46-51 (1908); "Some Recent Transmutations" 6. Bolton, Henry C.: Chemical News 76: 61-62 (6 August 1897); "The Revival of Alchemy" 7. Emmens, Dr. Stephen H.: Chemical News 76: 117-118 (3 September 1897); The Engineering & Mining Journal 62 (10): 221, 222 (5 September 1896); "The Transmutation of Silver into Gold"; ibid., 62 (11): 243, 244 (12 Sept. 1896); “ Emmens’ Transmutation of Ag into Au”; ibid., 62 (14): 315, 316 (3 Oct. 1896); "The Transmutation of Ag into Au" 8. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Science 5 (112): 314, 315 (19 Feb. 1897); ibid., 5 (113): 343-344 (26 February 1897); "The Argentaurum Papers No. 1, Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation" 9. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Argentaurana ; G. Du Boistel (Bristol, 1899). 10. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Science 7 (168): 9, 386-389 (18 March 1898); "The Age of Gold -- A Rejoinder" 11. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Arcanae Naturae (Paris, 1897) 12. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Argentaurum Papers #1: Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation; Plain Citizen Publ. Co. (New York, 1896) 13. Fletcher. E. A.: Frank Leslie's Popular Magazine (March 1898) 14. Fulcanelli: Les Demeures Philosophales, vol. 1, p. 184-185, 189-200; J. Pauvert (Paris, 1964) 15. Fyfe, H. C.: Pearson's Magazine (March 1898) 16. Gaddis, V. H.: American Mercury 86: 65-69 (January 1958) 17. Jollivet-Castelot, Francois: Chimie et Alchimie; E. Noury (Paris 1928) 18. Jollivet-Castelot, Fr.: La Fabrication Chimique de L'Or (Douai, 1928) 19. Jollivet-Castelot, Fr.: L'Hyperchimie (Paris, 1896-1901) 20. Jollivet-Castelot, Fr.: La Synthese de L'Or; H. Daragon (Paris, 1909) 21. Lea, Carey: Amer. Sci. J. (Series 3) 37 (222): 476-491 (June 1889); ibid., 38 (223): 47-50 (July 1889); ibid., 38 (224): 129 (August 1889); Ibid., 38 (225): 237-241 (September 1889); ibid., 41 (243): 179-190 (March 1891); ibid., 42 (250): 312-317 (October 1891); ibid.,48 (148): 343 (October 1894); ibid., 51 (24): 259-267 (April 1891); ibid., 51 (246): 282-289 (April 1891). 22. Lea, C.: Zeit. Anorg. Allgem. Chem. 7: 340-341 (1894) 23. MacKenzie, J.: Spokane Mines & Electrician (17 February 1897) 24. Ord, W. E.: Knowledge 20: 285 (1 December 1897) 25. Tiffereau. Theodore: Les Metaux Sont Des Corps Composes; Vaugirard (Paris, 1855)

26. Tiffereau, T.: L'Or et le Transmutation des Metaux 27. Tiffereau, T.: Comptes Rendu Acad. Sci. Paris 38: 383, 792, 942 (854); ibid., 39: 374, 642-644, 743, 1205 (1854); ibid., 40: 1317 (1855); ibid., 41: 647 (1855); ibid., 123: 1097 (1896) 28. Waite, Arthur E.: A Collection of Alchymical Processes; S. Weiser (New York, 1987) 29. Woodward, Dr. R. S.: Science 5 (112): 343-344 (19 February 1897) 30. Young, C. A.: Science 5 (113): 343-344 (26 February 1897)

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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Alchemical substances

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Cadmia, which was also called Tuttia or Tutty, was probably zinc carbonate.Philosophers' Wool, or nix alba (white snow). Zinc oxide made by burning zinc in air. Called Zinc White and used as a pigment.White vitriol. Zinc Sulphate. Described by Basil Valentine. Made by lixiviating roasted zinc blende (zinc sulphide).Calamine. Zinc carbonate.

Corrosive sublimate. Mercuric chloride. first mentioned by Geber, who prepared it by subliming mercury, calcined green vitriol, common salt and nitre.Calomel. Mercurous chloride. Purgative, made by subliming a mixture of mercuric chloride and metallic mercury, triturated in a mortar. This was heated in a iron pot and the crust of calomel formed on the lid was ground to powder and boiled with water to remove the very poisonous mercuric chloride.Cinnabar. Mercuric sulphide.Turpeth mineral. A hydrolysed form of mercuric sulphate. Yellow crystalline powder, described by Basil Valentine.Mercurius praecipitatus. Red mercuric oxide. Described by Geber.

Cinnabar or Vermillion. Mercuric sulphide.

Mosaic gold. Golden-yellow glistening scales of crystalline stannic sulphide, made by heating a mixture of tin filings, sulphur and salammoniac.Tin salt. Hydrated stannous chloride.Spiritus fumans. Stannic chloride, discovered by Libavius in 1605, through distilling tin with corrosive sublimate.Butter of tin. Hydrated stannic chloride.

Galena. Plumbic sulphide. Chief ore of lead.Lead fume. Lead oxide obtained from the flues at lead smelters.Massicot. Yellow powder form of lead monoxide.Litharge. Reddish-yellow crystalline form of lead monoxide, formed by fusing and powdering massicot.Minium or Red Lead. Triplumbic tetroxide. Formed by roasting litharge in air. Scarlet crystalline powder.Naples yellow, or Cassel yellow. An oxychloride of lead, made by heating litharge with sal ammoniac.Chrome yellow. Lead chromate.Sugar of Lead. Lead acetate, Made by dissolving lead oxide in vinegar.White lead. Basic carbonate of lead. Used as a pigment.Venetian White. Mixture of equal parts of white lead and barium sulphate.Dutch White. Mixture of one part of white lead to three of barium sulphate.

Antimony. From latin 'antimonium' used by Constantinius Africanus (c. 1050) to refer to Stibnite.Glass of Antimony. Impure antimony tetroxide, obtained by roasting stibnite. Used as a yellow pigment for glass and porcelain.Butter of Antimony. White crystalline antimony trichloride. Made by Basil Valentine by distilling roasted stibnite with corrosive sublimate. Glauber later prepared it by dissolving stibnite in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and distilling.Powder of Algaroth. A white powder of antimonious oxychloride, made by by precipitation when a solution of butter of antimony in spirit of salt is poured into water.Stibnite. Antimony trisulphide. Grey mineral ore of antimony. Wismuth. Bismuth.Pearl white. Basic nitrate of bismuth, used by Lemery as a cosmetic.Chrome green. Chromic oxide.Chrome yellow. Lead chromate.Chrome red. Basic lead chromate.Chrome orange. Mixture of chrome yellow and chrome red.

Green Vitriol. Ferrous sulphate.Rouge, Crocus, Colcothar. Red varieties of ferric oxide are formed by burning green vitriol in air.

Marcasite. Mineral form of Iron disulphide. Oxidises in moist air to green vitriol.Pyrites. Mineral form of iron disulphide. Stable in air.Cobalt. Named by the copper miners of the Hartz Mountains after the evil spirits the 'kobolds' which gave a false copper ore.Zaffre. Impure cobalt arsenate, left after roasting cobalt ore.Nickel. Named by the copper miners of Westphalia the 'kupfer-nickel' or false copper.

Copper glance. Cuprous sulphide ore.Aes cyprium. Cyprian brass or copper.Cuprite. Red cuprous oxide ore.Blue vitriol or bluestone. Cupric sulphate.Verdigris. The green substance formed by the atmospheric weathering of copper. This is a complex basic carbonate of copper. In more recent times the term 'verdigris' is more correctly applied to copper acetate, made by the action of vinegar on copper.Resin of copper. Cuprous chloride. Made by Robert Boyle in 1664 by heating copper with corrosive sublimate.

Lunar caustic, lapis infernalis. Silver nitrate.Fulminating silver. Silver nitride, very explosive when dry. Made by dissolving silver oxide in ammonia.Horn silver, argentum cornu. A glass like ore of silver chloride.Luna cornea. The soft colourless tough mass of silver chloride, made by heating horn silver till it forms a dark yellow liquid and then cooling. Described by Oswald Croll in 1608.

Purple of Cassius. Made by Andreas Cassius in 1685 by precipitating a mixture of gold, stannous and stannic chlorides, with alkali. Used for colouring glass.Fulminating gold. Made by adding ammonia to the auric hydroxide formed by precipitation by potash from metallic gold dissolved in aqua regis. Highly explosive when dry.

Quicklime. Calcium oxide.Slaked lime. Calcium hydroxide.Chalk. Calcium carbonate.Gypsum. Calcium sulphate.

Natron. Native sodium carbonate.Soda ash. Sodium carbonate formed by burning plants growing on the sea shore.Caustic marine alkali. Caustic soda. Sodium hydroxide. Made by adding lime to natron.Common salt. Sodium chloride.Glauber's Salt. Sodium sulphate.

Wood-ash or potash. Potassium carbonate made from the ashes of burnt wood.

Caustic wood alkali. Caustic potash. Potassium hydroxide. Made by adding lime to potash.Liver of sulphur. Complex of polysulphides of potassium, made by fusing potash and sulphur.

Sal Ammoniac. Ammonium Chloride. Described by Geber.Sal volatile, Spirit of Hartshorn. Volatile alkali. Ammonium carbonate made from distilling bones, horns, etc.Caustic volatile alkali. Ammonium hydroxide.Nitrum flammans. Ammonium nitrate made by Glauber.

Brimstone (from German Brennstein 'burning stone'). Sulphur.Flowers of sulphur. light yellow crystalline powder, made by distilling sulphur.Thion hudor (Zosimus refers to this as the 'divine water' or 'the bile of the serpent'). A deep reddish-yellow liquid made by boiling flowers of sulphur with slaked lime.Milk of sulphur (lac sulphuris). White colloidal sulphur. Geber made this by adding an acid to thion hudor.Oil of Vitriol. Sulphuric acid made by distilling green vitriol.

Realgar. red ore of arsenic. Arsenic disulphide.Orpiment. Auri-pigmentum. Yellow ore of arsenic. Arsenic trisulphide.White arsenic. Arsenious oxide. Made from arsenical soot from the roasting ovens, purified by sublimation.Aqua tofani. Arsenious oxide. Extremely poisonous. Used by Paracelsus.King's Yellow. A mixture of orpiment with white arsenic. -------------------------------------------------------------

TRANSMUTATION RECIPES FOR MAKING GOLDThe National Security Agency is EXTREMELY hostile to the distribution of the below

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------COMMENTS ON TRANSMUTATION ARE BELOW THE RECIPES; also links which provide the images and an htm file that will help with visualization of the atom as it truly is. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------at the bottom is a letter from someone who followed instructions with a bit of creative ingenuity and had solid success. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Last modified January 4, 2003 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

RECIPE # 1************

It was Joe Champion who was, I believe, imprisoned for this process.************

Joe Champion4833 Woodmere Fairway E-1Scottsdale, Arizona 85251

(602)481-6249 (home)

Personal Profile:

SUMMARY OF DIRECTION

Research into the Field of Low Energy 1989 - PresentNuclear Transmutation

In 1989 I was fortunate to witness a phenomena which for all intents and purposes has been ruled by the established scientific community as an impossible event. In my observation of an experiment being performed by a non-scientific person, I observed what appeared to be the instant conversion of one element to another. This "conversion" occurred under conditions wherein the applied energies were lower than those normally considered possible.

Replication of this event under controlled conditions caused me to consider the fact that nuclear events could occur under two sets of conditions; the accepted norm of "high energy physics" and under a low energy nuclear exchange.

Since the initial introduction to this event, I have dedicated full time to the cause and potential effects of this discovery. In an attempt to fully comprehend my findings I have collaborated with institutions throughout the world to solidify my position and priority.

Work Experience;

Discovery Publishing 1992 - PresentWestboro, WisconsinPhoenix, Arizona

Performed functional testing of low energy nuclear transmutation reactions. Position includes interaction with academic, government and private research laboratories. Both domestic and international, to assimilate foundation data that low energy nuclear events do in fact occur in nature and are reproducible under controlled laboratory conditions. Information gathered was published in professional and public journals

Instituto TE.S.R.E.

Roberto A. Monti

LOW ENERGY TRANSMUTATIONS(cold fusions and cold fissions)

Introduction.

At the end of October 1988 I made a summary of the ideas about the structure of the atom which I developed since I was a student (1).

At the beginning of February 1989 a new model of the atom was completed, and in light of this new model, I reconstructed the Periodic Table of the Elements (2).

I have never had the possibility to make any experiment, but the experimental foundations of this model could be found, in my opinion, in the papers of Thomson, Parson, Lewis, Allen, Harkins, Kervran and Borghi (3).

Finally, at the beginning of 1991, I made a summary of my ideas about aether and matter in two papers (4), (5).

Since that time I was waiting for the occasion to make some experiments.

This occasion came to me in April 1992, through Prof. Bockris.The results of these experiments are the following:

***********

The final product of the ignition showed in crease of B (beta) radiation greater than twice the measured background.

The mixture before ignition contained less than 20 p.p.m. of gold.After the ignition, the mixture contained more than 400 p.p.m. of

gold.

Experiment 2.

Experiment 2 consisted in the ignition of the following mixture of chemicals:

Gold ore 100 g (Action Mining, 0.047 Oz./ton Au,0.14 Oz./ton Ag).

PbO 20 g (Johnson Matthey, 99.99%)

C 150 g (Johnson Matthey, 300 mesh, 99.5 %)

KNOs 450 g (Baker, 99.2 %)

S 30 g (Spectrum)

Hg2Cl2 20 g (Fisher, 99.8 %)

Fire assay Flux No ("o" is superscript) 486, Action Mining Services Inc.

The final product of the ignition showed the following results:

1) The total B (beta) radiation count was 2.2 -10^4 CPM and five different energy peaks were observed.

2) The mixture before ignition contained certainly less than 20 p.p.m. of gold

After the ignition, the mixture contained 1700 p.p., of gold.'em

Consiglio Nationale Delle RicherceInstituto TE.S.R.E.( Studio e Technologie delle Radiazioni Extraterrestri)Via De Castagnoli I 40129 BolognaTel 051-28 7011 Fax 229702 - telex 511250 CNR BO I

Roberto A. MontiCOLD FUSION AND COLD FISSION : EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE ALPHA-EXTENDED MODEL OF THE ATOM.

Summary.

Part I ; A new model of the atom.

On the basis of Thomson's, Parson's, Lewis, Allen's and Harkins' hypotheses a new model of the atom is advanced, characterized by the following features: 1) substantial asymmetry of the Coulomb electric and magnetic fields of electrons and protons: 2) existence of positions of stable electromagnetic equilibrium of electrons in the vicinity of nuclei; 3) the neutron is a particular "bond state" of the hydrogen atom; 4) the nuclei, whose dimensions are greater than supposed by Rutherford, are composite

structures of hydrogen atoms, of period 4 (Alpha-extended model); 5) Physical and chemical properties of each atom depend on the various, possible, isomeric configurations.

In the light of this new model, the Periodic Table of the Elements has been reconstructed.

Part II : Experimental evidence for the Alpha-extended model.

The genesis of the elements and the Slpha-extended model of the atom are shown by means of: 1) neutron synthesis, starting from a cold plasma of protons and electrons; 2) the synthesis of deuterium, Tritium, Helium-3 and Helium-4, starting from the hydrogen, ultra cold neutrons and thermal neutrons; 3) the production an decay of Helium-B; 4) the production and decay of the nuclei from 11 a (alpha?) to 18 a (alpha?) ; 5) "cold fusion" of Iron-56 ; 6) cold fission; 7) carbon isomeric configurations (allotropic forms); 8) cold fusion in metal lattices; 9) biological cold fusions and cold fissions (weak energy transmutations); 10) the distribution of the scattered radiation.

Reference.

(1) R.A. Monti. A brief history of the atom, cold fusion and cold fission. Proceedings of the international Conference: "What Physics for the next century?" Ischia, Italy, 29 Ray-I June 1991

RECIPE # 3

In response to many questions about this:

The Quartz Geode is what should be used instead of the ceramicmortar when using the procedure followed in Recipe #1, avoidingthe absorption of the Arsenic and the diminishment of results.

The electrodes inserted into the mixture are copper coated or copper.

No sources for parts and equipment are available, you will have to checklocally.

There IS a device that will plug into house current and give the specifiedelectrical input in DC. That device costs $250.00.

The process can take up to five hours. Be meticulous and precise inmeasurements. Keep exact records. Do not try this to get rich. You mayget into deep trouble.

Small things can frustrate immediate success. Be cautious and patient.

This can result in explosions. The vapors are also dangerous.

......... zeropoint

items needed

1. 1/4 oz. silver shavings 99% pure2. 3 oz. sulfur powder (pharmaceutical grade)3. 10 oz. Cinnabar with no TRACES of gold (also known as a mineral, Mercuric Sulfide, Hgs)- powder it4. 1 quartz geode 5. 4 12 volt car batteries6. 2 lead (Pb - the element) copper electrodes

place all shavings and powder into Quartz Geode, connect car batteries to equal 48 volts at 3 amp per minute, place leads into powder in Quartz Geode. Wait 25 minutes

produces 1.75 ounces of gold

don't get greedy, do exactly as stated

larger amounts at one time will produce radioactive gold, you can repeat the procedure to make more gold. Wear mask!!!!!!!! and gloves!!!!

"got this off the net" ====> source is traced to: http://www.geocities.com/Area51/9357/ <<== at this site, go to the link for "tribute" .... You will find that the cinnabarwhich Is WILDLY variable in price, from less than $200 to $900/oz, can be substituted with one ounze of mercury. ***If you go into the "tribute" section you will find another link to where the original handwritten copy is found. *** Do not hesitate to call the webmaster by phone to consult on this or to give information such as sources for cheap materials. Also, the quartz geode with LARGE crystals may be superior.

A frequently asked question is about the electrodes. These should be LEAD on the outside with copper feeds to the battery or the rheostat. Don't talk too much about what you are doing. USA is expected to go down the toilet beginning summer 1999, then, there will be too muchchaos for much policing, and you can be more public, if money is worthanything.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------A FOURTH PROCESS/RECIPE from France! --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

This site will eventually and soon include the explanations for how these effects are possible. It is very simple but depends on the visualization of the ACTUAL shape of the atoms involved and how they interact. This information is dispersed throughout the page and will be pathed to this first link dealing with transmutation.

It was an ancient Arabic text which caused the infamous quest to make gold from base metals. The text described the testing of a preparation of medicine, "if when flame is applied to the powder, the powder turns to gold, the medicine is ready and should be taken." This science depends on the facts articulated in the new science of ORMES. The formation of ORMES as described in the link to David Hudson's site. The means of determining the nature of the shape of the atom and of its substructure is esoteric in nature, Kundalini.

The results of many overunity inventors end up in being piles of dust... the metal device turns to powder on the lab bench, as is described in japanese.htm. It is this powder that is the key. It is possible to make ORMES that when ingested do heal. Subsequent eating of certain of these preparations render the person a spirit who may spend millions of years in the state of the ethereal and require special fixation to be able to materialize. It is suggested that various diabolical practises are merely rituals intended to give purchase to the material world to persons who very long ago ate such preparations but cannot orient to our state without contrivances by fools who engage is certain practises. The ability to manipulate matter and circumstances in this manner, scalar physics and, with respect to transmutation itself, frank CORRECT chemistry/physics, is that "magic" which the Holy Bible says will disappear, e.g., be forgotten. The keeping of this science from the public is designed to allow maximum shock value when it is implemented.

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Paranormal Observations Of ORMES Atomic structure This link is defunct in its original location and is provided with images that show the atomic structure and substructure as visualized by the unusual means described in this large htm file. The images will be hooked up to the htm by April 2, 1998. And otherwise placed in this paragraph. The viewing of the images and the understanding of what they show will explain the simplicity of transmutation. bar.gif, dumbell.gif, dumbval.gif, subhelix.gif, rebal.gif. ftp/ pictures/ subdirectory. Gold atom in rest state, dumbval shows gold in high-pin state. Flanges at ends are valence attachment points which, in high spin state allow for Cooper Pairing of the atom with itself or another atom. subhelix.gif shows substructure of the atom itself. bar.gif shows another one of the several types of atomic configuration for another element.

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BACK TO MAIN PAGE, You can SUBSCRIBE TO ELECTRIFYING TIMES MAGAZINE by mail at: Electrifying Times Magazine

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------http://www2.murray.net.au/users/egel/VISIT THIS SITE FOR MORE OVERUNITY DEVICES AND GOOD GRAPHICS. Member of the Internet Link Exchange

LE FastCounter

Contact information Fourth Millenniumzap@dnai.comP.O. Box 154Berkeley, CA 94701-0154(510) 841-4819

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From: "Fourth Millennium" Subject: PERSONAL SUCCESS WITH GOLD MANUFACTUREYou are welcome, Very welcome. Do be discrete about this. USA itself is using this process to help to fund SDI (star wars). Their colleagues don't like for the cat to be out of the bag. later. zeropoint From: xxxx Subject: Feedback from Web site/gold

Hi to all at ZAP

I am writing to say THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU THANK YOU..

I have just completed the successful transmutation of gold as given by the recipe on your site. This is the one involving the use of silver, mercury & sulpher.

I was very skeptical that this could possibly work, but since I had on hand some .999% pure silver in coins,( Liberty Silver 1 oz ) I was able to proceed with only the minor expense of purchasing the sulfur and Cinnabar (mercury). I was also concerned with the possible fumes from the reaction and so arranged an extractor fan to suck out fumes via a 6in chimney flue using a discarded computor cooling fan. this worked well and no problems were experienced with dangerous fumes. Another concern was the regulating of the current to 3 amps a min, this is a non scientific term as current flow is not measured in time but in instantaneous amperage, well in any event we set up a Rheostat to limit current to 3amps as the flow rate. using a dashboard lamp dimmer from a wrecked truck and a multimeter to show the current.

The whole thing sure looked weird in the shed, but WOW the results say it all... I am astonished that this kind of information is available, and even more amazed that it WORKS.

I have several more coins to file down to powder, that's the hard part, I didn't want to use a grindstone for fear of contamination of the formula with stone particles, maybe I will give it a go as it seems a lot of the mixture is dross in any event, and I am sure a few micrograms of stone will be absorbed as part of it, after it cools and hardens.

Once again THANK YOU, I am now sure I will be able to produce about 50 oz gold with the remaining silver I have on hand and then we will see what to do next.

You may be interested to know that here in xxxxxxxxxx a person who finds gold as in prospecting, does not have to pay tax on it, it is redeemable for cash at the xxxxxxxxxxxx, some 120 miles from where I live, when I have finished the 50 oz

I will pour it all into one bar and take it up there, the estimated value is $12500:00 xx, so you can see why I am so happy. thanks again...

Contact Information Fourth Millenniumzap.dnai@rcn.com

(510) 761-4602toes show picture is fake

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In-House Counter

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Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, 1887-1943 . Alchemy: Ancient and Modern Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library

| Table of Contents for this work <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/RedAlch.html> |

| All on-line databases <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/uvaonline.html> | Etext Center Homepage <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/> |

Chapter 7CHAPTER VII

MODERN ALCHEMY§ 85. "Modern Alchemy".

Correctly speaking, there is no such thing as "Modern Alchemy"; not that Mysticism is dead, or that men no longer seek to apply the principles of Mysticism to

phenomena on the physical plane, but they do so after another manner from that of the alchemists. A new science, however, is born amongst us, closely related on the

one hand to Chemistry, on the other to Physics, but dealing with changes more profound and reactions more deeply seated than are dealt with by either of these; a

science as yet without a name, unless it be the not altogether satisfactory one of "Radioactivity." It is this science, or, perhaps we should say, a certain aspect of it, to which we refer (it may be fantastically) by the expression "Modern Alchemy": the

aptness of the title we hope to make plain in the course of the present chapter.

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§ 86. X-Ray's and Becquerel rays.As is commonly known, what are called X-rays are produced when an electric

discharge is passed through a high-vacuum tube. It has been shown that these rays are a series of irregular pulses in the ether, which are set up when the kathode particles

strike the walls of the glass vacuum

-118-

tube,<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> and it was found that more powerful effects can be produced by inserting a disc of platinum in the path of the kathode particles. It was M. Becquerel who first discovered that there are substances which naturally emit radiations similar to X-rays. He found that uranium compounds affected a photographic plate from which they were carefully screened, and he also showed that these uranium radiations, or "Becquerel rays," resemble X-rays in other particulars. It was already known that certain substances fluoresce (emit light) in the dark after having been exposed to sunlight, and it was thought at first that the above phenomenon exhibited by uranium salts was of a like nature, since certain uranium salts are fluorescent; but M. Becquerel found that uranium salts which had never been exposed to sunlight were still capable of affecting a photographic plate, and that this remarkable property was possessed by all uranium salts, whether fluorescent or not. This phenomenon is known as "radioactivity," and bodies which exhibit it are said to be "radioactive." Schmidt found that thorium compounds possess a similar property, and Professor Rutherford showed that thorium compounds evolved also something resembling a gas. He called this an "emanation."

§ 87. The Discovery of Radium.Mme. Curie<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> determined the radioactivity of many

uranium and thorium compounds, and found that there was a proportion between the radioactivity

-119-

of such compounds and the quantity of uranium or thorium in them, with the remarkable exception of certain natural ores, which had a radioactivity much in excess of the normal, and, indeed, in certain cases, much greater than pure uranium. In order to throw some light on this matter, Mme. Curie prepared one of these ores by a chemical process and found that it possessed a normal radioactivity. The only logical conclusion to be drawn from these facts was that the ores in question must contain some unknown, highly radioactive substance, and the Curies were able, after very considerable labour, to extract from pitchblende (the ore with the greatest radioactivity) minute quantities of the salts of two new elements -- which they named "Polonium" and "Radium" respectively -- both of which were extremely radioactive. M. Debierne has obtained a third radioactive substance from pitchblende, which he has called "actinium."

§ 88. Chemical Properties of Radium.Radium is an element resembling calcium, strontium, and barium in chemical

properties; its atomic weight was determined by Mme. Curie, and found to be about 225, according to her first experiments; a redetermination gave a slightly higher

value, which has been confirmed by a further investigation carried out by Sir T. E. Thorpe. <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> Radium gives a

-120-

characteristic spectrum, and is intensely radioactive. It should be noted that up to the middle of the year 1910 the element radium itself had not been prepared; in all the experiments carried out radium salts were employed (i.e., certain compounds of radium with other elements), generally radium chloride and radium bromide. In that year, however, Mme. Curie, in conjunction with M. Debierne, obtained the free metal. It is described as a white, shining metal resembling the other alkaline earth metals. It reacts very violently with water, chars paper with which it is allowed to come in contact, and blackens in the air, probably owing to the formation of a nitride. It fuses at 700o C., and is more volatile than barium.<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1>

§ 89. The Radioactivity of Radium.

Radium salts give off three distinct sorts of rays, referred to by the Greek letters

, ,

. The -rays have been shown to consist of of electrically charged (positive) particles, with a mass approximately equal to that of four hydrogen atoms; they are slightly deviated

by a magnetic field, and do not possess great penetrative power. The

-rays are similar to the kathode rays, and consist of (negative) electrons; they are strongly deviated by a magnetic field, in a

direction opposite to that in which the -particles are deviated, and possess medium penetrative power, passing for the most

part through a thin sheet of metal. The -rays resemble X-rays; they possess

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great penetrative power, and are not deviated by a magnetic field. The difference in the effect of the magnetic field on these rays, and the difference in their penetrative power, led to their detection and allows of their separate examination. Radium salts emit also an emanation, which tends to become occluded in the solid salt, but can be conveniently liberated by dissolving the salt in water, or by heating it. The emanation exhibits the characteristic properties of a gas, it obeys Boyle's Law (i.e., its volume varies inversely with its pressure), and it can be condensed to a liquid at low temperatures; its density as determined by the diffusion method is about 100. Attempts to prepare chemical compounds of the emanation have failed, and in this respect it resembles the rare gases of the atmosphere -- helium, neon, argon, krypton,

and xenon -- whence it is probable that its molecules are monatomic, so that a density of 100 would give its atomic weight as 200.<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> As can be seen from the table on pp. 106, 107, an atomic weight of about 220 corresponds to a position in the column containing the rare gases in the periodic system. That the emanation actually has an atomic weight of these dimensions was confirmed by further experiments carried out by the late Sir William Ramsay and Dr. R. W. Gray.<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> These chemists determined the density of the emanation by actually weighing minute quantities of known volume of the substance, sealed up in small capillary tubes, a specially sensitive

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balance being employed. Values for the density varying from 108 to 113½, corresponding to values for the atomic weight varying from 216 to 227, were thereby: obtained. Sir William Ramsay, therefore, considered that there could no longer be any doubt that the emanation was one of the elements of the group of chemically inert gases. He proposed to call it Niton, and, for reasons which we shall note later, considered that in all probability it had an atomic weight of about 222½.

§ 90. The Disintegration of the Radium Atom.Radium salts possess another very remarkable property, namely, that of continuously

emitting light and heat. It seemed, at first, that here was a startling contradiction to the law of the conservation of energy, but the whole mystery becomes comparatively clear in terms of the corpuscular or the electronic theory of matter. The radium-atom is a system of a large number (see § 81) of corpuscles or electrons, and contains in

virtue of their motion an enormous amount of energy. But it is known from Chemistry that atomic systems (i.e., molecules) which contain very much energy are unstable and liable to explode. The same law holds good on the more interior plane -- the radium-atom is liable to, and actually does, explode. And the result? Energy is set free, and manifests itself partly as heat and light. Some free electrons are shot off (the

-rays), which, striking the undecomposed particles of salt, give rise to pulses in the ether (the

-rays),<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/

modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> just as the kathode particles give rise to X-rays when they

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strike the walls of the vacuum tube or a platinum disc placed in their path. The

and -rays do not, however, result immediately from the exploding radium-atoms, the initial

products being the emanation and one -particle from each radium-atom destroyed.

§ 91. Induced Radioactivity.Radium salts have the property of causing surrounding objects to become temporally radioactive. This "induced radioactivity," as it may be called, is found to be due to the

emanation, which is itself radioactive (it emits -rays only), and is decomposed into minute traces of solid radioactive deposits. By examining the rate of decay of the activity of the deposit, it has been found that it is undergoing a series of sub-atomic changes, the products being termed Radium A, B,

C, &c. It has been proved that all the and

-rays emitted by radium salts are really due to certain of these secondary products. Radium F is thought to be identical with

Polonium (§ 87). Another product is also obtained by these decompositions, with which we shall deal later (§ 94).

§ 92. Properties of Uranium and Thorium.Uranium and thorium differ in one important respect from radium, inasmuch as the

first product of the decomposition of the uranium and thorium atoms is in both cases solid. Sir William Crookes<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> was able to separate from uranium salts by chemical means a small quantity of an intensely radioactive substance, which he

called Uranium X, the residual uranium having lost most of its activity; and M.

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Becquerel, on repeating the experiment, found that the activity of the residual uranium was slowly regained, whilst that of the uranium X decayed. This is most simply explained by the theory that uranium first changes into uranium X. It has been suggested that radium may be the final product of the breaking up of the uranium-atom; at any rate, it is quite certain that radium must be evolved in some way, as otherwise there would be none in existence -- it would all have decomposed. This suggestion has been experimentally confirmed, the growth of radium in large quantities of a solution of purified uranyl nitrate having been observed. Uranium gives no emanation. Thorium probably gives at least three solid products -- Meso-thorium, Radio-thorium, and Thorium X, the last of which yields an emanation resembling that obtained from radium, but not identical with it.

§ 93. The Radium Emanation.We must now more fully consider the radium emanation -- a substance with more

astounding properties than even the radium compounds themselves. By distilling off the emanation from some radium bromide, and measuring the quantities of heat given

off by the emanation and the radium salt respectively, Professors Rutherford and Barnes <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> proved that nearly three-fourths of the total amount of heat given out by a radium salt comes from the minute quantity of

emanation that it contains. The amount of energy liberated as heat during the decay of the emanation is enormous; one cubic centimetre liberates about four

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million times as much heat as is obtained by the combustion of an equal volume of hydrogen. Undoubtedly this must indicate some profound change, and one may well ask, What is the ultimate product of the decomposition of the emanation?

§ 94. The Production of Helium from Radium.It had been observed already that the radioactive minerals on heating give off Helium -- a gaseous element, characterised by a particular yellow line in its spectrum -- and it seemed not unlikely that helium might be the ultimate decomposition product of the

emanation. A research to settle this point was undertaken by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Soddy,10 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> and a preliminary experiment having confirmed the above speculation, they carried out further very careful experiments. "The maximum amount of the emanation obtained from 50 milligrams of radium

bromide was conveyed by means of oxygen into a U-tube cooled in liquid air, and the latter was then extracted by the pump." The spectrum was observed; it "was

apparently a new one, probably that of the emanation itself.... After standing from July 17 to 21 the helium spectrum appeared, and the characteristic lines were

observed." Sir William Ramsay performed a further experiment with a similar result, in which the radium salt had been first of all heated in a vacuum for some time,

proving that the helium obtained could not have been occluded in it; though the fact that the helium spectrum did not immediately appear, in itself

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proves this point. Sir William Ramsay's results were confirmed by further careful experiments by Sir James Dewar and other chemists. It was suggested, therefore, that

the -particle consists of an electrically charged helium-atom, and not only is this view in agreement with the value of the mass of this particle as determined experimentally, but it has been completely demonstrated by Professor Rutherford and Mr. Royds. These chemists performed an experiment in which the emanation from about one-seventh of a gramme of radium was enclosed in a thin-walled tube, through the walls of which the

-particles could pass, but which were impervious to gases. This tube was surrounded by an outer jacket, which was evacuated. After a time the presence of helium in the space between the inner tube and the outer jacket was observed spectroscopically. 11 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> Now, the emanation-atom results from

the radium-atom by the expulsion of one -particle; and since this latter consists of an electrically charged helium-atom, it follows that the emanation must have an atomic weight of 226-4, i.e., 222. This value is in agreement with Sir William Ramsay's determination of the density of the emanation. We may represent the degradation of the radium-atom, therefore, by the following scheme: --

<http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/public/RedAlch/RedAl126.jpg>

<http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/public/RedAlch/RedAl126.jpg>

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§ 95. Nature of this Change.Here, then, for the first time in the history of Chemistry, we have the undoubted

formation of one chemical element from another, for, leaving out of the question the nature of the emanation, there can be no doubt that radium is a chemical element. This is a point which must be insisted upon, for it has been suggested that radium

may be a compound of helium with some unknown element; or, perhaps, a compound of helium with lead, since it has been shown that lead is probably one of the end

products of the decomposition of radium. The following considerations, however, show this view to be altogether untenable: (i.) All attempts to prepare compounds of helium with other elements have failed. (ii.) Radium possesses all the properties of a

chemical element; it has a characteristic spectrum, and falls in that column in the

Periodic Table with those elements which it resembles as to its chemical properties. (iii.) The quantity of heat liberated on the decomposition of the emanation is, as we

have already indicated, out of all proportion to that obtained even in the most violent chemical reactions; and (iv.) one very important fact has been observed, namely, that

the rate of decay of the emanation is unaffected by even extreme changes of temperature, whereas chemical actions are always affected in rate by changes of

temperature. It will also be advisable, perhaps, to indicate some of the differences between helium and the emanation. The latter is a heavy gas, condensable to a liquid

by liquid air (recently it has been solidified12 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1>); whereas helium

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is the lightest of all known gases with the exception of hydrogen and has been liquefied only by the most persistent effort. 13 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> The emanation, moreover, is

radioactive, giving off -particles, whereas helium does not possess this property.

§ 96. Is this Change a true Transmutation?It has been pointed out, however, that (in a sense) this change (viz., of emanation into

helium) is not quite what has been meant by the a expression "transmutation of the elements"; for the reason that it is a spontaneous change; no effort of ours can bring it

about or cause it to cease.14 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/

parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> But the fact of the change does go to prove that the chemical elements are not the discrete units of matter that they were supposed to be. And since it appears that all matter is radioactive, although (save in

these exceptional cases) in a very slight degree, 15 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> we here have evidence of a process of

evolution at work among the chemical elements. The chemical elements are not permanent; they are all undergoing change; and the common elements merely mark those points where the rate of the evolutionary process is at its slowest. (See also §§

78 and 83.) Thus, the essential truth in the old alchemistic doctrine of the growth of metals is vindicated, for the metals do grow in the womb of Nature, although the

process may be far

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slower than appears to have been imagined by certain of the alchemists,16 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> and although gold may not be the end product. As writes Professor Sir W. Tilden: " . . . It appears that modern ideas as to the genesis of the elements, and hence of all matter, stand in strong contrast with those which chiefly prevailed among experimental philosophers from the time of Newton, and seem to reflect in an altered form the speculative views of the ancients." " . . . It seems probable," he adds, "that the chemical elements, and hence all material substances of which the earth, the sea, the air, and the host of heavenly bodies are all composed, resulted from a change, corresponding to condensation, in something of which we have no direct and intimate knowledge. Some have imagined this primal essence of all things to be identical with the ether of space. As yet we know nothing with certainty, but it is thought that by means of the spectroscope some stages of the operation may be seen in progress in the nebulæ and stars...."17 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> We have

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next to consider whether there is any experimental evidence showing it to be possible (using the phraseology of the alchemists) for man to assist in Nature's work.

§ 97. The Production of Neon from Emanation.As we have already indicated above (§ 93), the radium emanation contains a vast

store of potential energy, and it was with the idea of utilising this energy for bringing about chemical changes that Sir William Ramsay18 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?

id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> undertook a research on the chemical

action of this substance -- a research with the most surprising and the most interesting results, for the energy contained within the radium emanation appeared to behave like

a veritable Philosopher's Stone. The first experiments were carried out on distilled water. It had already been observed that the emanation decomposes water into its

gaseous elements, oxygen and hydrogen, and that the latter is always produced in excess. These results were confirmed and the presence of hydrogen peroxide was

detected, explaining the formation of an excess of hydrogen; it was also shown that the emanation brings about the reverse change to some extent, causing oxygen end hydrogen to unite with the production of water, until a position of equilibrium is

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attained. On examining spectroscopically the gas obtained by the action of the emanation on water, after the removal of the ordinary gases, a most surprising result was observed -- the gas showed a brilliant spectrum of neon, accompanied with some faint helium lines. A more careful experiment was carried out later by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Cameron, in which a silica bulb was employed instead of glass. The spectrum of the residual gas after removing ordinary gases was successfully photographed, and a large number of the neon lines identified; helium was also present. The presence of neon could not be explained, in Ramsay's opinion, by leakage of air into the apparatus, as the percentage of neon in the air is not sufficiently high, whereas this suggestion might be put forward in the case of argon. Moreover, the neon could not have come from the aluminium of the electrodes (in which it might be thought to have been occluded), as the sparking tube had been used and tested before the experiment was carried out. The authors conclude: "We must regard the transformation of emanation into neon, in presence of water, as indisputably proved, and, if a transmutation be defined as a transformation brought about at will, by change of conditions, then this is the first case of transmutation of which conclusive evidence is put forward." 19 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> However, Professor Rutherford and Mr. Royds have been unable to confirm this result. They describe 20 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> attempts to obtain neon by the action of emanation

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on water. Out of five experiments no neon was obtained, save in one case in which a small air leak was discovered; and, since the authors find that very minute quantities of this gas are sufficient to give a clearly visible spectrum, they conclude that Ramsay's positive results are due, after all, to leakage of air into the apparatus. But if this is the true explanation of Ramsay's results, it is difficult to understand why, in the

case of the experiment with a solution of a copper salt described below, the presence of neon was not detected, for, if due to leakage, the proportions of the rare gases present should presumably have been the same in all the experiments. Further research seems necessary conclusively to settle the question.

§ 98. Ramsay's Experiments on Copper.The fact that an excess of hydrogen was produced when water was decomposed by the emanation suggested to Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Cameron that if a solution

of a metallic salt was employed in place of pure water, the free metal might be obtained. These "modern alchemists," therefore, proceeded to investigate the action

of radium emanation on solutions of copper and lead salts, and again apparently effected transmutations. They found on removing the copper from a solution of a

copper-salt which had been subjected to the action of the emanation, and spectroscopically examining the residue, that a considerable quantity of sodium was present, together with traces of lithium; and the gas evolved in the case of a solution of copper nitrate contained, along with much nitric oxide and a little nitrogen, argon

(which was detected spectroscopically), but no helium. It certainly seemed like a dual transformation of

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copper into lithium and sodium, and emanation into argon. They also observed that apparently carbon dioxide is continually evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate (see below, § 100). It is worth while noticing that helium, neon and argon occur in the same column in the Periodic Table with emanation; lithium and sodium with copper, and carbon with thorium; in each case the elements produced being of lighter atomic weight than those decomposed.21 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> The authors make the following

suggestions: "(1) That helium and the -particle are not identical; (2) that helium results from the `degradation' of the large molecule

of emanation by its bombardment with -particles; (3) that this `degradation,' when the emanation is alone or mixed with oxygen and hydrogen, results in the lowest member of the inactive series, namely, helium; (4) that if particles of greater mass than hydrogen or oxygen are associated

with the emanation, namely, liquid water, then the `degradation' of the emanation is less complete, and neon is produced; (5) that when molecules of still greater weight and complexity are present, as is the case when the emanation is dissolved in a solution of copper sulphate, the product of `degradation' of the emanation is argon. We are inclined to believe too [they say] that (6) the copper also is involved in this process of degradation, and is reduced to the lowest term of its series, namely, lithium; and at the same time, inasmuch as the weight of the residue of alkali, produced when copper nitrate is present, is double that obtained from the blank experiment, or from water alone, the supposition is not excluded that the

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chief product of the `degradation' of copper is sodium." 22 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1>

§ 99. Further Experiments on Radium and Copper.A little later Madame Curie and Mademoiselle Gleditsch 23

<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/

parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> repeated Cameron and Ramsay's experiments on copper salts, using, however, platinum apparatus. They failed to

detect lithium after the action of the emanation, and think that Cameron and Ramsay's results may be due to the glass vessels employed. Dr. Perman24

<http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/

parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> has investigated the direct action of the emanation on copper and gold, and has failed to detect any trace of lithium. The

transmutation of copper into lithium, therefore, must be regarded as unproved, but further research is necessary before any conclusive statements can be made on the

subject.

§ 100. Ramsay's Experiments on Thorium and allied Metals.In his presidential address to the Chemical Society, March 25, 1909, after having

brought forward some exceedingly interesting arguments for the possibility of transmutation, Sir William Ramsay described some experiments which he had carried

out on

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thorium and allied elements.25 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> It was found, as we have already stated (§ 98), that, apparently, carbon-dioxide was continually evolved from an acid solution of thorium nitrate, precautions being taken that the gas was not produced from the grease on the stopcock employed, and it also appeared that carbon-dioxide was produced by the action of radium emanation on thorium nitrate. The action of radium emanation on compounds (not containing carbon) of other members of the carbon group, namely, silicon, zirconium and lead, was then investigated; in the cases of zirconium nitrate and hydrofluosilicic acid, carbon-dioxide was obtained; but in the case of lead chlorate the amount of carbon dioxide was quite insignificant. Curiously enough, the perchlorate of bismuth, a metal which belongs to the nitrogen group of elements, also yielded carbon-dioxide when acted on by emanation. Sir William Ramsay concludes his discussion of these experiments as follows: "Such are the facts. No one is better aware than I how insufficient the proof is. Many other experiments must be made before it can confidently be asserted that certain elements, when exposed to `concentrated energy,' undergo degradation into carbon." Some such confirmatory experiments were carried out by Sir William Ramsay and Mr. Francis L Usher, and they also described an experiment with a compound of titanium. Their results confirm Sir William Ramsay's former experiments. Carbon-dioxide was obtained in appreciable quantities by the action of emanation on compounds

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of silicon, titanium, zirconium and thorium. In the case of lead, the amount of carbon dioxide obtained was inappreciable. 26 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1>

§ 101. The Possibility of Making GoldIt does not seem unlikely that if it is possible to "degrade" elements, it may be

possible to build them up. It has been suggested that it might be possible to obtain, in this way, gold from silver, since these two elements occur in the same column in the

Periodic Table; but the suggestion still awaits experimental confirmation. The question arises, What would be the result if gold could be cheaply produced? That

gold is a metal admirably adapted for many purposes, for which its scarcity prevents its use, must be admitted. But the financial chaos which would follow if it were to be

cheaply obtained surpasses the ordinary imagination. It is a theme that ought to appeal to a novelist of exceptional imaginative power. However, we need not fear these results, for not only is radium extremely rare, far dearer than gold, and on

account of its instability will never be obtained in large quantities, but, judging from the above-described experiments, if, indeed, the radium emanation is the true

Philosopher's Stone, the quantity of gold that may be hoped for by its aid is extremely small.

§ 102. The Significance of "Allotropy."A very suggestive argument for the transmutation of the metals was put forward by Professor Henry M. Howe, LL.D., in a paper entitled "Allotropy or Transmutation?"

read before the British Association (Section B), Sheffield Meeting, 1910.

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Certain substances are known which, although differing in their physical properties very markedly, behave chemically as if they were one and the same element, giving rise to the same series of compounds. Such substances, of which we may mention diamond, graphite and charcoal (e.g., lampblack) -- all of which are known chemically as "carbon" -- or, to take another example, yellow phosphorus (a yellow, waxy, highly inflammable solid) and red phosphorus (a difficultly-inflammable, dark red substance, probably possessing a minutely crystalline structure), are, moreover, convertible one into the other.27 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> It has been customary to refer to such substances as different forms or allotropic modifications of the same element, and not to regard them as being different elements. As Professor Howe says, "If after defining `elements' as substances hitherto indivisible, and different elements as those which differ in at least some one property, and after asserting that the elements cannot be transmuted into each other, we are confronted with the change from diamond into lampblack, and with the facts, first, that each is clearly

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indivisible hitherto and hence an element, and, second, that they differ in every property, we try to escape in a circle by saying that they are not different elements because they do change into each other. In short, we limit the name `element' to indivisible substances which cannot be transmuted into each other, and we define those which do transmute as ipso facto one element, and then we say that the elements cannot be transmuted. Is not this very like saying that, if you call a calf's tail a leg, then a calf has five legs? And if it is just to reply that calling a tail a leg does not make it a leg, is it not equally just to reply that calling two transmutable elements one element does not make them so? "Is it philosophical to point to the fact that two such transmutable elements yield but a single line of derivatives as proof that they are one element? Is not this rather proof of the readiness, indeed irresistibleness, of their transmutation? Does not this simply

mean that the derivativeless element, whenever it enters into combination, inevitably transmutes into its mate which has derivatives?28 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> According to the atomic theory the differences between what are termed "allotropic modifications" are generally ascribed to differences in the number and arrangement of the atoms constituting the molecules of such "modifications," and not to any differences in the atoms themselves. But we cannot argue that two such "allotropic modifications" or elements which are transmutable into one another

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are one and the same element, because they possess the same atomic weight, and different elements are distinguished by different atomic weights; for the reason that, in the determination of atomic weights, derivatives of such bodies are employed; hence, the value obtained is the atomic weight of the element which forms derivatives, from which that of its derivativeless mate may differ considerably for all we know to the contrary, if we do, indeed, regard the atomic weights of the elements as having any meaning beyond expressing the inertia-ratios in which they combine one with another. If we wish to distinguish between two such "allotropic modifications" apart from any theoretical views concerning the nature and constitution of matter, we can say that such "modifications" are different because equal weights of them contain, or are equivalent to, different quantities of energy,29 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> since the change of one "form" to another takes place only with the evolution or absorption (as the case may be) of heat. 30 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> But, according to modern views regarding the nature of matter, this is the sole fundamental

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difference between two different elements -- such are different because equal weights of them contain or are equivalent to different quantities of energy. The so-called "allotropic modifications of an element," therefore, are just as much different elements as any other different elements, and the change from one "modification" to another is a true transmutation of the elements; the only distinction being that what

are called "allotropic modifications of the same element" differ only slightly in respect of the energy they contain, and hence are comparatively easy to convert one into the other. whereas different elements (so called) differ very greatly from one another in this respect, whence it is to be concluded that the transmutation of one such element into another will only be attained by the utilisation of energy in a very highly concentrated form, such as is evolved simultaneously with the spontaneous decomposition of the radium emanation.

§ 103. Conclusion.We have shown that modern science indicates the essential truth of alchemistic

doctrine, and our task is ended. Writing in 1904, Sir William Ramsay said: "If these hypotheses [concerning the possibility of causing the atoms of ordinary elements to absorb energy] are just, then the transmutations of the elements no longer appears an idle dream. The philosopher's stone will have been discovered, and it is not beyond

the bounds of possibility that it may lead to that other goal of the philosophers of the dark ages -- the elixir vitæ. For the action of living cells is also dependent on the

nature and direction of the energy which they contain; and who can say that it will be

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impossible to control their action, when the means of imparting and controlling energy shall have been investigated?" 31 <http://wyllie.lib.virginia.edu:8086/perl/toccer-new?id=RedAlch.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=7&division=div1> Whatever may be the final verdict concerning his own experiments, those of Sir Ernest Rutherford, referred to in the Preface to the present edition, demonstrate the fact of transmutation; and it is worth noticing how many of the alchemists' obscure descriptions of their Magistery well apply to that marvellous something which we call Energy, the true "First Matter" of the Universe. And of the other problem, the Elixir Vitæ, who knows?

1. They must not be confused with the greenish-yellow phosphorescence which is also produced: the X-rays are invisible.

2. See Madame SKLODOWSKA CURIE'S Radio-active Substances (2nd ed., 1904).

3. See Sir T. E. THORPE: "On the Atomic Weight of Radium" (Bakerian Lecture for 1907. Delivered before the Royal Society, June 20, 1907), Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. lxxx. pp. 298 et seq.; reprinted in The Chemical News, vol. xcvii. pp. 229 et seq. (May 15, 1908).

4. Madame P. CURIE and M. A. DEBIERNE: "Sur le radium métallique," Comptes

Rendus heldomadaires des Séances l'Academie des Sciences, vol. cli. (1910), pp. 523-525. (For an English translation of this paper see The Chemical News, vol. cii. p. 175.)

5. This follows from Avogadro's Hypothesis, see § 76.

6. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY and Dr. R. W. GRAY: "La densité de l'émanation du radium," Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences, vol. cvi. (1910), pp. 126 et seq.

7. This view regarding the -rays is not, however, universally accepted, some scientists regarding them as consisting of a stream of particles moving with very high velocities.

8. Sir WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S.: "Radio-activity of Uranium," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. lxvi. (1900), pp. 409 et seq.

9. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and H. T. BARNES, D.Sc.: "Heating Effect of the Radium Emanation," Philosophical Magazine [6], vol. vii. (1904), pp. 202 et seq.

10. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY and FREDERICK SODDY: "Experiments in Radioactivity and the Production of Helium from Radium," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. lxxii. (1903), pp. 204 et seq.

11. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and T. ROYDS, M.Sc.: "The Nature of the

-particle from Radio-active Substances," Philosophical Magazine [6], vol. xvii. (1909), pp. 281 et seq.

12. By Ramsay. See Proceedings of the Chemical Society, vol. xxv. (1909), pp. 82 and 83.

13. By Professor Onnes. See Chemical News, vol. xcviii. p. 37 (July 24, 1908).

14. See Professor H. C. JONES: The Electrical Nature of Matter and Radioactivity (1906), pp. 125 -- 126.

15. It has been definitely proved, for example, that the common element potassium is

radioactive, though very feebly so (it emits -rays). It is also interesting to note that many common substances emit corpuscles at high temperatures.

16. Says Peter Bonus, however, " . . . we know that the generation of metals occupies thousands of years . . . in Nature's workshop . . ." (see The New Pearl of Great Price, Mr. A. E. Waite's translation, p. 55), and certain others of the alchemists expressed a similar view.

17. Sir WILLIAM A. TILDEN: The Elements: Speculations as to their Nature and Origin (1910), pp. 108, 109, 133 and 134. With regard to Sir William Tilden's remarks, it is very interesting to note that Swedenborg (who was born when Newton was between forty and fifty years old) not only differed from that great philosopher on those very points on which modern scientific philosophy is at variance with Newton, but, as is now recognised by scientific men, anticipated many modern discoveries and scientific theories. It would be a most interesting task to set forth the agreement existing between Swedenborg's theories and the latest products of scientific thought concerning the nature of the physical universe. Such, however, would lie without the confines of the present work.

18. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "The Chemical Action of the Radium Emanation. Pt. I., Action on Distilled Water," Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xci. (1907), pp. 931 et seq. ALEXANDER T. CAMERON and Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY, ibid. "Pt. II., On Solutions containing Copper, and Lead, and on Water," ibid. pp. 1593 et seq. "Pt. III., On Water and Certain Gases," ibid. vol. xciii. (1908), pp. 966 et seq. "Pt. IV., On Water," ibid. pp. 992 et seq.

19. Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xciii. (1908), p. 997.

20. E. RUTHERFORD, F.R.S., and T. ROYDS, M.Sc.: "The Action of Radium Emanation on Water," Philosophical Magazine [6], vol. xvi. (1908), pp. 812 et seq.

21. See pp. 106, 107.

22. Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xci. (1907), pp. 1605-1606. More recent

experiments, however, proved that the -particle does consist of an electrically charged helium-atom, and this view was latterly

accepted by Sir William Ramsay, so that the above suggestions must be modified in accordance therewith. (See § 94.)

23. Madame CURIE and Mademoiselle GLEDITSCH: "Action de 'émanation du radium sur les solutions des sels de cuivre," Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires de Séances de l'Acadimie des Sciences, vol. cxlvii. (1908), pp. 345 et seq. (For an English translation of this paper, see The Chemical News, vol. xcviii. pp. 157 and 158.)

24. EDGAR PHILIP PERMAN: "The Direct Action of Radium on Copper and Gold," Proceedings of the Chemical Society, vol. xxiv. (1908), p. 214.

25. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Elements and Electrons," Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xcv. (1909), pp. 624 et seq.

26. For a brief account in English of these later experiments see The Chemical News, vol. c. p. 209 (October 29, 1909).

27. Diamond is transformed into graphite when heated by a powerful electric current between carbon poles, and both diamond and graphite can be indirectly converted into charcoal. The artificial production of the diamond, however, is a more difficult process; but the late Professor Moissan succeeded in effecting it, so far as very small diamonds are concerned, by dissolving charcoal in molten iron or silver and allowing it to crystallise from the solution under high pressure. Graphite was also obtained. Red phosphorus is produced from yellow phosphorus by heating the latter in absence of air. The temperature 240-250o C. is the most suitable; at higher temperatures the reverse change sets in, red phosphorus being converted into yellow phosphorus.

28. Professor HENRY M. HOWE, LL.D.: "Allotropy or Transmutation." (See The Chemical News, vol. cii. pp. 153 and 154, September 23, 1910.)

29. For a defence of the view that chemical substances may be regarded as energy-complexes, and that this view is equally as valid as the older notion of a chemical substance as an inertia-complex, i.e., as something made up entirely of different units or atoms each characterised by the possession of a definite and constant weight at a fixed point on the earth's surface, see an article by the present writer, entitled "The Claims of Thermochemistry," Knowledge and Scientific News, vol. vii. (New Series), pp. 227 et seq. (July, 1910).

30. In some cases the heat change accompanying the transformation of an element into an "allotropic modication"{sic} can be measured directly. More frequently, however, it is calculated as the difference between the quantities of heat obtained when the two "forms" are converted into one and the same compound.

31. Sir WILLIAM RAMSAY: "Radium and its Products," Harper's Magazine

(December 1904), vol. xlix. (European Edition), p. 57.

THE END.

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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Adept Alchemy by Robert A. Nelson. Part II. Chapter 5. The Transmutation of Lead to Mercury.Back to Adept alchemy contents.

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Chapter 5

The Transmutation of Lead to Mercury

(1) A. Smits & A. Karssen ~ (2) References

(1) A. Smits & A. Karssen

In 1924, Prof. Arthur Smits and Dr. A. Karssen (Univ. of Amsterdam) published reports of their alleged transmutation of lead into mercury and thallium. Their work was inspired by that of Prof. Miethe, who claimed to have transformed mercury into gold in a modified Jaenicke mercury ultraviolet lamp. (4, 5)

The lamp was constructed of lead quartz. Two legs (A, B), ending in narrow tubes, contain two steel electrodes cemented with sealing wax. The electrodes were inserted in two small removable copper water coolers (G, H). Pure liquid lead was poured into storage vessel C, after which the open end was sealed off. The lead was kept liquid at 350o C by an electric furnace around C. Tube D contained capillary F and terminated in stopcock K, which was connected to a mercury diffusion pump (Fig. 5.1).

When a high vacuum was attained, vessel C was further heated with a Bunsen burner to dissociate all the oxide and gases. Stopcock K was then closed and disconnected from the pump. The apparatus was tilted so the liquid lead ran into the two legs (A, B) of the lamp. The legs of the lamp were heated to redness to drive off the gases from the electrodes, and the lamp was evacuated again. Then copper water coolers were placed around the legs, and the lamp was ready to use. At the end of the experiment, the liquid lead was returned to vessel C, which was continuously heated. The lead was specially prepared and purified by the firm of Kahlbaum of Berlin to prevent every contamination, especially mercury.

The experiment was monitored with a quartz spectroscope. After a current of 30-35 amperes/8 volts was passed through the system for 6 hours, a few mercury lines began to appear in the spectrum. After 10 hours, the entire series of lines of mercury, plus those of thallium, were apparent in the visible and ultraviolet spectrum.

In 1926, Smits and Karssen reported further developments of their experimental protocol. The lamp was redesigned, and the mercury diffusion pump was replaced by a mechanical pump to eliminate the possibility of contamination from that source. The use of a mercury manometer was avoided by employing a glass spring manometer. All the equipment was examined spectroscopically to make certain it was free from mercury and thallium. They described their method as follows:

After filling the storage vessel, the lamp and the lead were heated in high vacuum to redness. The lead oxide being dissociated, the liquid lead was as brilliant as mercury. Then the lead was brought into the lamp, and after ignition the spectrum was observed at 25 V/36 A, by a Hilger quartz-spectrograph. Further, the spectrum of a quartz mercury lamp was observed, and also the scale in such a way that, to facilitate comparison, the different spectra were adjacent. Thus we obtained the spectrum of the lead in its initial state. After that we burned the lamp at 40 A/80 V for 10 hours. After having done this the lead was poured into the storage vessel to obtain thorough mixing; the lead was then brought into the lamp again, and after ignition the spectrum was observed at 25 V/36 A. The result was that, whilst initially the lead spectrum showed only very weakly the mercury line 2536 in the ultra-violet, after 10 hours' burning the strongest mercury lines had appeared in the visible as well as in the ultra-violet part of the spectrum, and also the most characteristic thallium line, indicating a transmutation of lead into mercury and thallium.

Since our experiments showed that a high current density is very favourable to this transformation, we used currents up to 60 A, but that seemed to be dangerous, because only by intensive air cooling could melting of the quartz-lamp be prevented.

We thought it better, therefore, to change our method a little, by applying not a continuous electrical current but sparks of high current densities... While the lamp was kept oscillating by a mechanical arrangement... a current of high-density [60-100

A] was breaking and making... This method was very successful... After 9-1/4 hours' sparking all mercury lines, even the very weak ones, were present...

This, however, does not yet prove the transmutation to be strong, as it is known that a relatively strong quantity of mercury can cause the spectrum of another element to disappear. But at all events our spectra show in a very convincing way the transmutation of lead into mercury...

The researchers also conducted experiments with a nitrogen atmosphere at various pressures and a liquid dielectric (carbon disulfide) with 100 kv/2 milliamperes for 12 hours. The mercury was chemically detected as the iodide. Similar results were obtained with 160 kv/10-20 milliamps. In six such experiments, 0.1-0.2 mg of mercury was recovered. The researchers suspected that the CS2 had contained a trace of some organic mercury compound. Positive results were still obtained, however, even after it had been thoroughly purified.

Smits offered this explanation for the transmutations:

In the case of the transmutation of lead into mercury, the inactive isotopes having the atomic weights 206, 208 and 210, we may assume, for example, that the isotope 206 suffers a transmutation giving an isotope of mercury:

Pb - a = Hg

201 - 4 = 202

82 - 2 = 80

But we may also assume that the other isotopes 208 and 210 undergo a transmutation. In that case we obtain:

Pb - 2a - 2q = Hg

208 - 4 = 202

82 - 2 = 80, and:

Pb - 2a - 2q = Hg

208 - 8 = 200

82 - 4 + 2 = 80

In the case of the transmutation of lead into thallium we can assume, for example, the following process:

Pb - a - q = Tl

208 - 4 = 204

82 - 2 + 1 = 81

We see that of the different transmutation possibilities, [the first] is most simple. Moreover, I suspected this process could be expected first, as lead is the end-product of the spontaneous radioactive transformations... The best method of learning the nature of the transmutation is to examine spectroscopically whether the process is accompanied by the formation of helium or hydrogen, and to determine the atomic weights of the heavier products...

While using the old quartz-lead lamp, negative results were obtained only if the current strength was lower than 15 amperes, but now, with our new lamps... spectroscopically negative results were found even using 60 amperes. The lamp showed distinctly different properties in burning and sparking. This proves that the phenomena taking place in the quartz-lead lamp depend on influences unknown until now, so that transmutation in the quartz-lead lamp is not so easy to reproduce as we expected. (2)

In 1926, A.C. Davies and Frank Horton reported that they had been unsuccessful in their attempts to replicate the Smits-Karssen experiments. They offered these speculations:

In the case of the transmutation of lead (82) into mercury (80), the change may occur either by the intermediate production of thallium by one of the processes already suggested [viz, "the entry of an electron into, or by the removal of a proton from, the nucleus of the mercury atom."], and the subsequent conversion of the thallium into mercury by a second similar process, or it can occur as a one-stage change by the ejection from the lead nucleus of either one doubly charged positive particle (presumably an a -particle) or two singly charged positive particles (presumably protons) simultaneously. If the process occurs by the intermediate production of thallium, one would expect to find evidence of a relatively large amount of thallium compared with the amount of mercury produced. Prof. Smits does not seem to have found such an effect, for he records stronger evidence of the production of mercury than of the production of thallium...

When atoms are bombarded by electrons, it is possible that in a few instances an electron penetrates within the K shell of extra-nuclear electrons, though it is certainly surprising that this is possible in the circumstances of these experiments. When such

a penetration does occur, the electron will be attracted towards the nucleus and may possibly be absorbed by it. Even so, in some cases the absorption of an electron by the nucleus may render the latter unstable and disruption may occur with the ejection of a proton and an electron, either separately or together, in which case the final chemical state of the disturbed atom will be the same as if the electron had been absorbed by the nucleus and a stable condition attained.

For some unknown reason, these explorations were not continued, and the issue disappeared from the scientific literature after 1928. This line of research remains open to exploration, since the questions it raised remain unanswered to this day.

(2) References

1. Anonymous: Science-Supplement 62 (1602): 14 (11 Sept. 1925); ibid., 63 (1623): 10 (5 Feb. 1926).

2. Davies, A.C., & Horton, Frank: Nature 117 (2935): 152 (30 Jan. 1926).

3. Nature 117 (2952): 758-760 (29 May 1926).

4. Smits, A., & Karssen, A.: Scientific American 133 (4): 230, 231 (Oct. 1925); ibid., 134 (2): 80, 81 (Feb. 1926).

5. Smits, A.: Nature 114 (2869): 609, 610 (25 Oct. 1924); ibid., 117 (1931): 13-15 (2 Jan. 1926); ibid., 117 (1948): 620 (1 May 1926).

6. Thomassen, L.: Nature 119 (3005): 813 (4 June 1927).

***

* -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------" Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone of any degree, but that is another matter altogether. The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs "

A Few Words From Our Forefather

In a life filled with many accomplishments, Ben Franklin gained notoreity for, among other things, "discovering" electricity and helping to write the U.S. Constitution. But as if those things were not enough, he also took time out during his busy life to predict, Nostradamus-style, the future practice of cryonic suspension.

Sort of.

In the letter below, to his friend and fellow scientist Jacques Dubourg, he says several things that now seem almost eerily prescient. More than anything, his words convey a general optimism about science and its value, and a desire to be around in the far future to see how it all turns out. Today's cryonicists generally find more than a little to symapthize with in these thoughts.

Too bad that, as he feared, the science of his age was "too little advanced" to afford him the opportunity for more life. There is no doubt that having him around today would be a tremendous boon to historians and the curiousity-filled public. Of course, having Ben Franklin alive today would have beend an even bigger boon to Ben Franklin himself, historical figure or not.

"A hundred years hence," will people be saying the same thing about you? Ruminating your passing? Wondering how you would have liked the way the world turned out? Unlike poor Ben, you have at least one option for avoiding that. Will you?

* * *

London, April 1773.

To Jacques Dubourg.

Your observations on the causes of death, and the experiments which you propose for recalling to life those who appear to be killed by lightning, demonstrate equally your sagacity and your humanity. It appears that the doctrine of life and death in general is yet but little understood...

I wish it were possible... to invent a method of embalming drowned persons, in such a manner that they might be recalled to life at any period, however distant; for having a very ardent desire to see and observe the state of America a hundred years hence, I should prefer to an ordinary death, being immersed with a few friends in a cask of Madeira, until that time, then to be recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country! But... in all probability, we live in a century too little advanced, and too near the infancy of science, to see such an art brought in our time to its perfection...

I am, etc.

- B. FRANKLIN.

[From Mr. Franklin, A Selection from His Personal Letters, by L. W. Labaree and W. J. Bell, Jr. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956), pp. 27-29.]

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THE SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION OF THINGS ( 1860 ) very rare

poor copy scan

Edited by R.E Peterson 1860J. B Lippincott & Co Philadelphia 1860

this is believed to be the first publishing since 1860

Tomas Edison certainly read this book and later used its knowledge to invent devices by 1875

I,PETERSON

FAMILIAI~ SCI~NCE;

OR T~K

S()IE~TIFIC EXPL.ANATIO~Op

COMMO~ ~llING~.

R. E. P]]~TERSON,MEM3NR OP THE ACAnEMV OF NATITRAL SCI~XO~8, PR!LADELPH!£

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At a meeting ofthe floard of Educatico of the Ittouhi; ~ehlie ~hooii held flee, 2, laCi, the fuituwilIg tesetutico ~ve~ tttoeledResateed, Th~i '4 Petercue's Familiar Sciente," be adopted as a tegl seek fur utS in the Public aehoots.W. a. DILTANGIIAM, -C~trls~ts efc~. om &hocZ Beeia

t~t,,t,t, 9. L. itoLeitet, See'y.

Entored according to '.,' Act cf OIIugre~e, to the year 1~tl by ~O~ETh 41;.

-~ t~e Clock's Ci't~ Os II"))" C44tttt of the Laslera th~tncic--f i'~itta2yt'~utl.4

F~P~E~ACE.I.A part of the f~ollewin,e work '5 lco'a the pen of the Re~ Or. Brewer, of Innity 11411, Cambri'- 'go; al so, Head ~'1astef of King's C&Aege ~ch~ol, Igorwiob-in union with I'~ing'it ('ollege, London. It cOni4Ii)5 mud' useful, as well a prac tical scientific knowledge, in -t very popnlar and entertainingkim,wait not only sn nian~ ~ 0 uts Un itt d to the Anterican pupil, -.The work, however, as it erianated fiom the ~nghsh press,

but was eAtremely deh~'~iit in its arran~ement Ihe L'ditor has endeavored to r~m~ ly ibes defects, by making many4 additions, q5 ~ cli a-s by t~i-t ~4c those ilarts which wero -pm'ely applicable to Gicat britain, and adapting the whole to our own country As to the orron emial, be ~els con-fident it will be the 'c~~v - I f--'I~ ,~o the acquirement of

the great u'~ie'tii~ efu -4 1 i ~ ~~bodied ii the wor'g,and also of clas~~~ yin- in '10 ioi'id of the pupil the different I-branches of ~ 1iich it 14 t'4 No science is mere generally interesting than that which ~xplains tIes COinitlon phenomena of life. ~ see that salt md snow i.e boili wldto, a mS red, leaveS green, and the violet a deep puiplc 1)1.-' b~w few persons ever ask the rca-- - son why ~ e knou that a flute prodtices a ineesical sound, and a cracI-ed hell a ducordaut one-that fire is hot, ice cold, and a candL' luininous th '1 n ater boils when subjected to heat, and Ire~zes fi'om cold but when a child looks up into our face and ask u~ why '-how many times is it silenced with a frown or called very foolish for asking such sillyqnestionsp This book intended for the use of faneilies and itchoola, ~plains about t~ 0 thousand of tliese questions, and is wi-it-ten in language so pl~n as to be nngu~tood by all. Care has been taleen howeveir, in the endeavor, to render it intelligible to the yenPog, to avoid that childish simplicity which ~ight be un~ccep~-~~de to tl4ose of riper years.A verji foil Index is app ecided to the work, to facilitate thi pupil's researches.

-4 Dr Brew~'c PrefaceIi

5

I

I

IIV PrtE~ACE.

[n the Preface to tL I' aglish edition, already mentioned~ there iS an anocd~~e related, which is so appropriate, that it ~ her given i~ fullA rcin~rkal Ic m~t~ nec came before the author a few inon lbs since, of the s~a~ mont made in the earl~ part of thi~ Pr'~~c. Tbe coiicer~e~'0ii was ahont siuoke~why it wal hleck, and not wilife Ii o the Ijiso dust oflime. A little child ivbo icjs pro~ent asked, ~~by is the kettle so black with11cr p i~ ~ l.~werod, ~11ecanso it has been on the fir ' But ' (nr~el the chilil) what is the good of its being bI~cJ 2' ~[~lie ~ontlein~n replicd, ~ilIy child-you ask very fool ~h qoostions sit down and hold your tongue.'Inforinqtion of that de~cription is just what childi.~n love to am ~n'4 wbnt rn~ny older persons. who are even tolerably U LI lL)r~nLd ic'~ i~L ~i~1I)etCnt to give.1110 idim~ trusts his book may prove all intoresting and usoini companion to both old and young, either in the fatnily ~i.cle, or in the school-room.tn-cIty-five t~'o~eC~'1 ce~~ies ci the ~ngIish edition of the above work WOrO sold in L~idnn in loss than two years.

Puiaxit,reprn~, Apau~, 1851.

The following is extracted from a letter received by the Ilditor, from the Rev. Dr. Brewer:

Itoarar E. ?ETi:R50x ~5Q.i)cAR Sic I have i.e 'red the American editIon of my'~~ui~e to Is Cill'1~ ~ ~ n' hi~ it very handsoniolypUntel nit' I ~ esteem it an honorto give my full co~so~~e I ssiiig my approbatio~Df your edjuon of in) ~ ~inili li Science and I thank you foi the kindness In havino' sent me a copyDeas ~i'

Yours truly,E.G. BR~WELHELE'S, IsLE or Jansar, 3d Dec. 1851.

m m ____

F

1<CONTENTS.

PART 1.-HEAT.DAILCIEIP I ~ - - . - .See 1 iSo -Ca the PC~trCC2 ~oorre of heat. 7

u II E 2 c ire . -9

See 1 1 lrrrr~c~ty prodaerj I friction. . 0') ~ - 12

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S ch',n~~ . . . 1974 1 1 tt~ot heat . . . 110 2 ~o,lt' to~~ . . . . 111 2 ] ; . . 121 4 Vi . e . 131

113

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a IV. MEra~~irAL ~~TWN. . . . . .161

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151

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Sec. 1. Ilodificotjocc of eloude. · 2562. Dew. · 2693. R~o'I. ~',ow. IlotI. · 274

4 .11L~, F0 F£Ost.- · 258cc IV,~~cE. - · 259

· 413PART YI.-OPTICS.C·I- A?. 1,-Littur.- . . · · · 427II- Sec. 1. The eye the eeat of vision. · ·412

2. DeceptionS of vtctou. · · · 4iccc PI.--HFcOACTIOY. - . · . -.- 1,1cc itt.-UPeLocT,oe. - · - · . 472" IV.-coLoII. - · · · · · , 477PART VII.-SOU~~CHAP I -~TRANSM'SStON Or. SOuND. · · · 415Sec. 1. ITusjeal counds. · · · · . 4165. Eehs. · · · .- · 490MItacELLANEGUS. . · . · · m

PART I.-H1~AT.

CHAP. 1.-THE SUN.

IKO ~1ON 1.-TIlE SUN TIlE PEIPIARY SOURCE OF RE&~

1.

Q. WI ~at is ~o~?A. The sensation of warm~h.e2

Q. What is the pn~ncip~ source of heat?A. The Su~ is an ine£ha~fible source of hea~.3.

Q. Does the hea~ of the ~ possess any different propeihes from art fi cial heat ?A. The heat of the Sun ~asses readily tlirol~h glass, whereas this property is possessed by artificial heat in a very small degree.4.Q. L sun-shine detrimental to coinbusLion?A. It is; the reason is not certainly7

8ThE SUN.kncwn; hut fires are never so bright wheu thc~ nm shines on them. It is generaTly~posed some chem~al e~ect is produced r~r)f~~n the ~ in contact with the fire which rn~~cc(es the progress of combustion.

5ECTiO~ iI~--cALoETC.

5.

Q. How is the 5 ~ )i? of heat produced?A. When we to~ ~ ~ substance hotter ~han ourselves, a sv~; ~e ~i~v~sii)le streani flou~~ from the hotter sn1)~£ance and produces on our nerves the sensation of warmth.

6.

Q. WIiat is that "sn~tle invisi&le stream called, which flows from the hotter su~ stance?A. CALORIc. Co'lorJc, therefore is the agent, which produc~s the sensation of warmth; but HFAT is the sensatica itself.

Q. Is caloric eqtiaUy distributed over the globe?A No; at the eqitc~to the average tempe.

A

ICALORIO. 9

~ture is 82~o, while at the potes it is believed to be about 130 below Zero.Average ~ that iv, tica mean or medium tempemture.

Z~ao," the point irom which a thermometer ig gradeated~it .i~ew freseing.

CHAP. 11.-ELECTRICITY, THE SECOND SOURCE OF HEAT.

SECTION 1.-ELECTRICITY PRODUCED BY FRICTION.

8.

Q. Was electricity kndwu to the ancLents?A. Yes; they knew that when amber (the Greek word of which is r~~I,.roop -electron,) is rubbed5 it acquires the property of attrac~ iog other bodies.

9.

Q. Why is electricity excited by fr~c(~o~?A. J~1ectricity, ~ heat, exists in all matter; but it is often in a latent state; friction dis~urb8 it, and brings it into active peration.~ is hidden concealed. -

10.Q. When you rub a piece of p~er with Tndian r~~bber, why does it adhere to the t~ ble?

J2 ELECTRICITY.

·~hi~ makes her feel as if she were co~ered with cobwebs.16.

Q. Why does the cat keep rnbb;ng herself?A. ~eeause her hair will not lie smooth, but has a perpetual tendency to become ruffled:~o the cat keeps rubbing her coat and ears, to smooth the hair down, and brush away the feeling of cobwebs.

Q. Does eleetneity present a;ny appearance by ~hich it can be known?A. No; electricity like beat, is in itself ~nvisible; though often accompanied by both light and heat.18Q. Is electricity accompanied with any Odor.A. Yes; near a large electrical machine ~n ~ood action, there is always a peculiar odor, resembling sulphur and phosp~orus, this odor is called "Ozo~E."

:9.Q has this peculiar odor called "Ozone" been observed in thunder storms?A. Yes; sometimes the~sulphurous odor prevfiils, and sometimes the phosplloric.

LIGHTNING. Is

20.

-Q- Why are there differen~ coior~ in the Aurora Borealis, such as white, yellow, red aiid I)urple?A. Because the electric ~uid passes through~air of different densit~es. The most rai~fi~d air produces a white light; the most d?y air, red; and the most damp produces yellow streaks.

SECTION 11.-LIGHTNING.

21.t~. What is lightning?A. Lightning is accumulated electricity ~ charged from the clouds.Like that from a "Leyden Jar."

22.

Q. What produces electricity in the clou~s?A. lst.-The evaporation~from the earth's

2nd.-The chem~c~ changes whieh take place on the earth's ~ ; and3rd.-Cun~nts of air of uu~ual temperatitre, which excite electricity by frictio~~, as~ they come in coutacf~ with each other.2a'

ILIGHTNING. Is

¼;

I'20.

Q. Wily are there different col0T6 in the Aurora Borealis, such as white, yellow, i~d Rild purple?A. Because the electric fluid passea through air of different densitzes. The most rar~ed air produces a white light; the most y air, red; and the most damp producea yellow streaks.

SECTION 11.-LIGHTNING.

2L

~. What is lightning?A. Lightning is accumulated electricity ~ charged from the clouds.Like tbat from a ~' Leyden jar."

22.

Q. What produces electricity in the clouds?A. 1st.-~T~e evaporation £rom the e~rth'i

2nd.-The chem~c~ changes which take ~ace on tbe earth's surface~; 5nd3rd.-Currents of air of unequal tempera{~ire, which excite electricity by frictio~, aa they come in contaci with each other.2

p-~-i14~WITY.

23.Q. What causes the discharge of an eleo. tric cloud?A. ~~hen a cloud, overcharged with ele~ tnc fluid, 'pproaches ano flier which is a~ dercharge(7, the fluid rushes from the former into the latter, till both contain the same quantity.

There are t~vo d~frereat kinde of T'.ertr?ei~y~one Vi~re~u~, rT(~ toe ctIIei ~eti'i~~ut : fliore ~r~qure~tiy e.'~~led P~~itive a~id ~Q0'qt~Ve E~e~i rily.

24

Q. i~ there any other cau~e of Lightntng besides flie one iu~t mentioned?A. Yes ; some ~ ~ mount~ins, trees, ~nd sfe~les, wi~ d1 ch~rge the li{+tl~~.ng from a cloud floatin~ ne~r; ~d s~eti'nes electric fluid rushes ottt of the earth into the r]oU~s.

25.

Q. 'low hi il are the hghtniv g clouds trom th~ eart]i?A ~ometimes they Ire ~evated fo~r or five ~ ~ hi oh; end sometimes~ac~u~1v touch the co~ I, ~ itli one of their ed~cs ; hi~t they ~ie rer~ly dischar~ed in astorm, when they are more fli an seven hun~i~d yan]s above the surface of the eai~h

ILIGHTNING. 15

Q how hiol are 2tt0 clouds ge2terally?A. In a fine Uc/ji, the clouds are often four orflve miles abowe our ilew'ts; but the average height of the clouds is from one and a half to two miles.27.

$ Q. ~iy is lightning sometimes forked?A. Because the lig'ntnin g-clond is at a greatdistance; 4+the rendante of tfre az~ is so great, tT$L&t the electrical cuiwentisdiverted into a ~ coare.22

Q. How does the ro44ance of the air make til3 lib taing zig-zag?A. As the Jighti~ing condenses the air in the inn nec' cite ad\-ance of its path, it flies from side to side, in order to pass where there is the least resistance.29.Q. Why are there sometimes two fla~1iei of for~4 li~litning at the same moment?A. Becanse (in very severe storms) the fln~ will diwide into two or more parts) each of whiuli will assume the zig-zag form.30.Q. Why is the flash sometimes quite ~traight?L

[11F.

10 EIJ~cThIclTY.

A. Because tile ~igh~ing-cloud is n~ar~rth; aud, as tile fl~sh meets with very little resistance, it is not diverted; (in other words) tile flash is straight.31.

Q. What is 8heet lightning?A. Either - tile reflection of di~ltant ftash~ -not distinctly visible, or beneath the ilorizon; or else several fla~hes intermingled.

32.

Q. What o~er form does lightning oceasionally assume?A. Sometimes tile flash is globu~~; which is tile most dangerous form of iigiltiiing.

33.

Q. Why is a. flash of lightning generally followed by pouring rain?A. Tile flash produces a change in tile physical condition of the air, renderin~ it unable to ilQld SQ much water in sohition a~ it could before; in consc-qu~l'ce of which, a part is given off in heavy ra~n.34.

Q. Why is a flash of lightning generally ~Ilowed by a gust of wind?A Because t}~e physical condition of the air

MGIITNING. 17

is disturbed by tile pass~~;e of the ligllti)]flg, and wind is tile result ci this disturbance.3Q. Wily is there n~ thunder to what is ~alled summ£~r lightnin~'?A. Becansc the Iigiltuing~cIoucls are so J~r distant, that the sound of the thunder is lost before it reaches tile ear.36.

Q. When lightning flashes from the earth ~o tile clouds, what i~ the flash ca1l~d?

A. It is popularly called the "return~~ ~roke;" because the earth (being overcharged with electric fluid,) returns the surplus quantity to the clouds.

Q. Why is lightning more common in ~mmer and in autumn than in spring and winter?A. Because the heat of summer and autumn produces great evaporation; and the ~onversion- of water into vapor always developes electricity.38

Q. Why is a tree sometimes scor~hcd by lightning, as if it had bean set on fire?A. The electric flu~d scorches by its own positive heat, just the same as fire would.9*IU'

18 ELEOTRICITY.

Q. When does hghtning pa~s :ro;n th~ £arth to the clouds?A. When tile clouds are in a "negative" 't~te of electricity.40.

Q. When does lightning pass f~rn the clouds to tile earth?A. When tile ~OU~L are in a "pQ5itive'~ ~ate of electricity.42.

Q. What is meant by the clouds be~g in a "positive state of electricity?"A. When the cloud~ cont(~in more cicc~'ic fluid than they generaMy do, they are said to be in a "positive state oi~ ~ectricity."42.

Q. What is meant by the ~ouds ba~g in a "negative state of electricity?'.'A. When the clouds contain le&e e~ctric fluid than they gencr~y 10; thoy ~ tO be in a "negative sta~e of c¼a~rlcity.~'

Q Does the fla~h proceed from a n~oti~'~ or positive body?A. Always from apo.~itke body tl4~t i~ froni one over-charged with cTe~ti~iQ fll~drDANGER ~()M UGHTh~JNG19

A

I.- Dangerffom Lightni~g.

Q. Why does lightning sometimes kill men ~d beasts?A. Because, when the electric current passes through a man or beast, it produce8 ~, violent an action upon the nerves, that it destroys life45.

Q. W?~en is a perso~ struck dead by ligil~ m~g?A. Only when his bQty forms a part of the l~htning's path; that is, when tlie eTc otric fluid ~in its way to tlie earth) actually passes through his ~ody.4,-.Q. Why are persons sometimes maimed by lightning?A. Because the electric fluid produces an action upon the nerves sufficient to injure them, but not to destroy ii£e.47

Q. Lightning sometimes assumesthe am p~crance of balls of fire which ~all to tile ear~h, what are they?N. Masses of c~l0sive gas formed in the air; they generally move more slo~y than ligilt~g.

20 ELECTRIOITY.

48.

Q. Why are these balls of Ave so very dangerous?A. Because when they fall tliey exploci~e like a cannon; and occasion much mischief.49-.Q. Do these balls of fire ever run along ihe gr~und?A.- Yes; sometimes they run a considerable dist~mce along #~iO ground, and e~1~ode in a mass.At other hmes they split into numerous-~maller bails; each of which explodes in a similar manner.~3.Q - What mischief do these balls of fire produce?A. Tiley set fire to houses and bains, and kill all cattle and human beings which happen to be in their course.51.

Q. What places are most d~ngerous during a thunder storm?A. It is very dangerous to be near a tree, or lofty building; and also to be near a river, or any running wa~er.52~

Q. Why is it - dangerous to be near a-

tDANGER ~ROM LIGHTNING. 21

tree or lofty building, during a thunder st9rIn?A. Because a tall pointed object (like q tree or spire) will frequently d~~harge a lightning-cloud; and if any one were stand mg near, tile lightning might diverge froni the tree, and pass through tile finids of the human body.

Q. How can a tree or ~re discharge a lightning-cloud?A. A Ug1itning-~ e'i ~ (~~9flt;~g over a loin) may be too j~r oPI to bc'> ~ 1~y it3 but as a tree or spue Vi oni l shorten this di~;tance, it might no longei be too far off to be discharged.F~)r e~~m~!o I~ lightaing-e~oud -~ere 750 yard above the earth, it woa[d bo too i~er off to 1)0 doohotoot p-but trot or pitt 50 yaro high ~vtpt~pi taqko the tippud t~n1y 151 ~Pr~PO pif a touduttor; ja toreeqttttot of~~itij ttt dood would he iflutOfltiy ]io~htrgrd.

54.aQ. ~'hy is it d~ngero~e to b~ near a deep river, or any other running water during a thunder storm?A. Becaus~ running water is a good co~~ duc§~r; and lightning always takes in it~ course the Jtest coniNctor~.~5.

Q. Wiky is it dange~~ sfor a ~ to·ear water in a thunde; otorni?

IELECTRIcITY.

A Because tile height of a m~in ~ay be ~ufficient to discil~ge a ~oud; ~id (if there ~Vere 110 t~A'er obj~ct nigil) t}ie lightning nught make tile man its conductor to tile ~vatcr

56.Q- Wil~ is it dan~~ovs to rin~during a tilunder stoini? chureli hells

A. Por tViO ~ I ]st. Beonse the~5tCCj)'(' ~Il~ydi~ch~IU~~emerely from its hc~ ilt and2n~.-As tile swrnging of tile bells puts tile air in~motio~, it diminisiles its resistance to tile electric fluid.

579. Wily is it unsaQ~ to run or drive ~ luring a tilunder storm?

A. ~ecause it produces a current of qir; and, as ilir in motion affords less re&i~tance to the flasil, it is a better conductor tilan ot, in a state of rest.

9. Whpt ~ ris of a d~:~lling are most dangerou~ dui4ng a tilunder storm?A. Tile flre-~ace, esj)eci~y if the fire be J.i~]ite'.]; tile attics and tile cei{ar. J~ is ~Jso Iniprudaut to sit close by tile walls; to rin~

-I

DANGER FROM LIGuTNING. 28

the bell, or to bar the shutters d~'ng a tiluiider storm.59.

Q. Why is it dangerous to sit before a fir~ during a thunder storm?A. Because the heated air and soot are conductors of lightning; especially when connected with such excellent conductors as the stove, grate, 'or fire-irons.

-. - 4 - - -~ -60-. -~ - - -

Q. Why are attics and cellars more dangerous in a thunder storm, than the middle story of a house?A. Because lightning sometimes passes from the clouds to tile earth, and somehines --from ~e earth to the clouds; in either case the middle story would be the safest place.61.

Q. Why is it dange-rous to lean against a wqli during a thunder storm?A. Becanse tile elec~'c fl'uid -~ill sometililes ~ -a wall; and, (as a man is a bett~ con~uc~~~or< than a wall,) woul4 leave the wnll and run down the~inan.62.

Q, Why is it dangerous to r~-ng a ~uring a thunder storm?

I24 ELECTRICITY.

A Bell-wire is an ercellent conductor, and a person were to touch the bell handle the electric fluid, passing down tile wire might run through ilis hand and injure it63

Q Why is it dangerous to bar a shutte? during a thunder storm?A. Because the iron shutter-bar is an ercellent conductor; and tile electric fluid might run from tile bar through the person touching it, and injure him.64.

Wli<~~y is it daflgeroft~ to b~ in a cr6wd during a thunder storm?A. For two reasons: Because a mass of people forms a better conducto~r than an individual; and2nd.-Because tile vapor arising from a crowd increases its conducting power.65:Q. Why is the da~ger increased by the vapor which rises from a crowd?A. Because vapor is a conductor; and t~ more conductors there are, the greater the danger will be.66.

Q. Why is a theatre dangerous during a thunder storm?

UI¼

DANGER FROM LIGIITNING. 25

I

IA. Because the crowd, and great '~apor arisilig from so many living bodies, render it ~n excellent conductor of lightning.67.

Q. ~Y11y is a flock of sheep, herd of cattle, ~tc., in greater danger than a smaller nuin

A. lst.-Because each animal is a cond'~ctor of lightning, and tile conducting po~er of the flock or herd, is increased by its numbers; and2nd.-The very vapor arising from the Qock or herd increases its conducting power aud its danger.68.

Q. If a person be abroad in a thunder storm, what place is the safrst?A. Any place about twenty or thirty feet froIn a tall tree, building, or stream of water.69.

Q. Why would it be safe to stand twenty or thirty feet from a tall tree, during a tiunider storm?A. Because the lightning would aiway~ eti~ose the tall tree as a conductor and we should not be sufficiently near the tree, fo! the hghtning to diverge from it to us.3

[IELECTRICITY.

70.

Q. If a person be in a carriage in a ~il~ni der storm, in what way can he travel most ~afely?A. He should not lean against tile car riage, but sit upright, without touching any of the four sides.71

Q. Why should not a person lean against tile carriage in a storm?A. Because tile electric finia migilt run down the sides of the carriage; and (if a person were leaning against them) would make a choice of him fo? a conductor, and perhaps destroy life.72.

Q. If a person be in a house during a thunder storm, what place is safest?A. Any room in the middle story. Tile centre of the room is the best; especially if you place yourself on a mattrass, bed, or hearth-rug.73.

Q. Why is tile middle story of a hous8 ~afest in a thunder storm?A. Because the fitdd (if it struck the house at all) would be diffused among the ~~everal conductors of the upper part of i:heI

1)ANGER FROM LlGIITNINU.

house, before it reaciled tile middle story in consequence of which its force would be weakened.74.

Q. Why is the middle of a room more safi ~ian any otiler part of it in a ~iunder ~torm?A. Because tile lightning (if it should strike the room at all,) would come down the chimney or walls of the room; and, therefore, tile further distant from these, the better.75.

Q. Why is a mattrass, bed, or hearth-rug, a good security against injury from lightning?A. Because tiley are all non-conductors; and, as lightning always makes choice of tile best conductors, it would not choose f6r its path such things as these.76

Q. What is tile safest thing a person can do to avoid injury from lightning?N. ile should draw his bedstead into the middle of his room, commit himself to the care of God, and go to bed; remembenug that our Lord has said, "The very hairs of your head are all numbered."No greot danger flee,! really to be apprehended from lightning, it you ivoid taking your position near tall trees, spires, or other elevated nljeeltJ

f28ELECTRICITY.

77-Q. Is it better to be wet or dry during a tilLmder storm?A. To be wet; if a person be in the open field, tile best tiling be can do, is to stand about twenty feet from some tree, and get co?nplete/y drenched to the skin.78.

Q. ~Yh'y is it better to be wet than dry?A. Because wet clothes form a better con ductor tilan the fluids of our body; and tilerefore, li~itning would pass down our wet clothes, without touching our body at all.

ll.~LigAtning Conductor.

79.

Q. Wbat is a lightoing conductor?A. A metal rod fixed in the eartil, runring up tile whole ileigilt of a building, and rising in a point above it.80.

Q. w.~at metal is best for tius purpose? A Copper makes tile best conductor.81.

Q. WIiy is copper better than iron? A. lst.-Because copper is a better conductor than iron;1

'ILIG1iT~ING CONI)UCTOll~5. 29

2nd. -It is not so easily fused or incited; andII3rd.-It is not so readily injured byweather.82.

Q ~Vhat is tile u~e of a lightning conductor?A. As metal is a most excellent contiuctor, lightning (which makes choice of tile best conductors) will run down a metal rod, rather than tile walls of tile building.F.83.

Q. Why should lightning-conductors be pointed9A. Because points conduct electricity ~way silently and imperceptibly; but knobs produce an explosion which would endanger the building.P(dete empty the clouds of electricity, acting at a much greater dittanec than h.toha; thnt a Leyden jar of cosuiderable eluc may be safcly and tilcatly discharged, Ity holdi'tg the poist ofa needle an inch or ttvo off.~lsdre of erase, care of corn, aitd othcr pointed objects serve to cmpt7 the clouds of their electricity.

64.

Q. How far will the beneficial influencea lightning-conductor extend?

A. It will protect a space all round, four times the length of that part of the roil which riecs vY)oi~e the littilding.3-

ELECTRICfl~.

85.

Q. Give inc an exam~e?A. If tile rod rise two feet above tile jionse, it will protect tile building for (at least) eight feet all round.86.

Q. How can lightning-conductors be pvcductive of harm?A. If tile rod be broken by weather or ticcident, tile electric fluid (being obstructed in its path) will damage the building.87.

Q. Is there any other evil to be apprehended from a lightning-rod?A. Yes; if tile rod be not large enough to conduct tile whole current to tile eartil, the lightning will fuse the metal, and injure the building.68.

Q. Why are boughs of trees broken off by lightning?A. Because the mechanical force of tile ligbti)illg is very great; and, as tile boughs of a tree are imperfect conductors, they will often be broken off by this force.89.Q. Wily is an electric shock felt m~si al the elbow joint?

UGHTIING CONDUCi~R5. 31

A. Because the path of. the fluid is obItrileted by the joint; an4 the shock (f.elt at the elbow) is caused by tlie fluid leaping from one bone to another.90.

Q. Is not air a conductor of lightning?A. No; dry air is not a conductor o~ lightning.

91.

Q. Why does lightning part file air through which it passes? it does not part a rod of iron.A. As iron is a conductor, it allows the fluid to pass freely thi~ugh it; but air (being a non~conductor,) resists its passage.92

Q. Wilv is an oak stru~~ by lightning more frequently than any other tree?A. Because the grain of the oak, being closer than that of any other tree of tile same bulk, renders it a better conductor.~t jesald thst tite sap ofthe oak rontaiss a larce qaastitvo~i~aa in 500-lion, which impregitat~ the wood and bark, thus inoreasing its eonduclir~ ~ower.93.

Q Does lightning go through the inszele or down the outside of a tree?A. It runs down the outside of a tice, but passes through the tns~e of a ma)'.

32ELECTRICITY

94.Q. Why does lightning pass down the outside 0£ a tree?A. Because it always makes choice of the best conducto;~; and tile outside of a tree L5 a better conductor than the inside.

95.

Q. Why does lightning pass through the ~side of a man?A. Because tile fluids of the human body made a better conductor than the skin; therefore, lightning passes through a man, and not down his skin.

96.

Q. Why would tile lightning run through a man touching a bell ilandTe?

A. Because tile human body is a better conductor than tile wall, which is between tile bell handle and the floor; and as ligil~ fling always chooses tile best conductor fo~ its path, it would (in this case) pass tlirough tile nian.97.

Q. WIiy is a mass of bodies a better condt~ctor than a single body?

A. ~ach living body is a condudor of ~kdricity; and in a connected mass of ~tc.liP

EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING 33

~onductors, is more likely to be struck than CL single individual.98.

Q. Why would lightning fly from a tree or spire into a man standing near?

A. Because tile electric fluid (c~ed lig~~ ning) aiways chooses for its p.'.~h tile o~~Z canductors; and, if tile iluman fluids proved the better conductor, it would pass through the man standing near tile tree, rather than down tile tree itself.There ~voaTd he no d~s~er if he ~pire were made of eteral; bceaut~metal i~ a better eoodoeto? than the human fluids.

IIl.-~ffec's of Lightning.99.

Q. What are fulgu rites?A. Hollow tubes produced in sandy soils by tile action of lightning.100.

Q. How does lightning producefulgurites?A. When it enters the earth, it fuses, (that is, melts) the flinty matter of tile soiJ into a vitreous (or ~assy) substance, cal~d ~ fu!gu rite.101.

Q. Wity is the bark of a tree often rippe~ quite off by a fla~ of lightiung?

ELECTRIcITY.

A. Because the latent heat of tile tret (being very rapidly developed by the electric fll~id) forces away tile bark in its im petuosity to escape.Ssme part of this is prohsbly due to the simple earchaniral tsrre of the tghtr.irg.

102.

Q. How does lightning sometimes knock down houses and churches?A. Tile steeple, or chimney is first struck; the lightning then darts to the iron bars and cramps employed in tile building; and (as it darts from bar to bar) shatters to atoms the bricks and stones which oppose its progress.103.

Q. Can you tell me how St. Bride's church, (London,) was nearly destroyed by lightning, about one ilmidred years ago?

A. The lightning first struck the meta1.. vane, and ran down the rod; it thell darted to the iron cramps, employed to snppor~ tbe building; and (as it flew from bar ii~ bar) smashed the stones of the church, which lay between.104.

Q. Why did the lightning fly about from place to ~ace?

EFFECT~ OF LIGHTNING. 35

A. Because it always takes in its course the b~st condudors; and will fly both right ind left, in order to reach tilem.

105.

Q. Why does hghtning turn milk sour?A. Lightning causes the gases of the air (through which it passes) to combine, and thua produces a poison, called nitric acid; some small portion of which, mixing witli the milk, turns it sour.N. B. Sometimes the mere heat of the air, doriug the storm, turns milk Sour.

106.

Q. What is the difference between combining and mixing?A. When different ingredients are mingled together without undergoing any chemical change, tiley are said to be mixed; but when tile natural properties of each are altered by the union, then those ingredients are said to be combined.107.

Q Give me an example?A. Different colored sands (shaken together in a bottle) will mir, but not com

* Tee sir is composed of two gasee, called oxycen and nitrogen, tegether htxt not remhierd. Oxygen cesthin~d with nitr'~grn, prodttcei lYe deadly poirons, viz -nitross oxide, nitric oxide, hyponitrous seid, sitrous achI, sad nitric arid, according to the proportion of earh gss Is Its SSsseiesti(mr

36 ELECTRICITY.

bine; but water poured on quick~lime, will combine with the lime and not mix with it.108.

Q. Why are different grains of sand sail.' 0 be mixed when they are shaken toge flier? A Because (though nlingled together, ~lie property of each grain remains t.7ie saine ~ it was before.109.

Q. Wily il water, poured on l]me, said to combine with it?A. Because the properties of each are altered by the mixture; the lime alters the cliaracter of the water, and the water that of flie lime.110.

Q. Do oxygen and nitrogen cotn~ine, or only mix together in atmospheric air?A. They only mix together, as grains of stind would do, when shaken in a bottle. When oxygen and nitrogen combine, they do not constitute air, but acid poisons.111.

Q. Why does lightning turn beer sour al(hough contained in a close cask?A. Because if beer be new and the pro-~ss of fermentah.~ incomplete, lightning so acc~!erate the process, as to turn ~)C

EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING

~~gar into acetic acid at once, without pass mg through the intermediate state of a/co ~ol.112.

Q. Whv is not old beer and strong porter ~a~e sour by lightning?

A. Because the fermentation is more co~~ete; and, therefore, is less affected by electrical influence.113.

Q. Why is metal sometimes fase~ by lightning?A. Because the dimension 0£ the rnet~ is too small to afford a path for the electric current.114.

Q. Why does lightning purify the air?A. For two reasons;1st. Becau.~e the electric fluid producesnitric acid', in its passage through the air; and2nd. Be~ause the agitation of the storm stirs up the air.Tite titric ecid " ic prodeced hy the ce,litnagdon of inme portions ofthe o~ygcu and titrogen of the air.

115.

Q. flow dods the production of nitric icid purify the air?4

ELECTRICiTY.

A. Nitric acid acts very powerfully i~ d~ ~roying the exhalations, which arise froni ~itrid vegetable and animal matters.

116.

Q. Does not lightning sometimes affect the character of iron and steel?A. Yes; bars of iron and steel are some-times rendered magnetic by lightning.117.

Q. Give mc an instance of the magnetic effects of lightning?A. Sometimes it will reverse the needle of the magnet, and sometimes destroy its magnetism altogether.118.

Q. What is meant by the magnetic needle being reversed?

A. That 1)art of the needle which ought to point toward the north, is made to point toward the south; and that part which onght to point south, is made to point t~ ward the north.

SECTION I~I.-THUND~R.

119.

Q. What is thunder?A. The noise made by the concussion oi

rTHUNDER.

~he air when it closes again, after it has been parted by the ligh~ng flash.A part of hO noiee icowing to certain ~'~aical aed cittc,drtal chai,eei p~ fhtced ii the air hy the electric fluid.

120.

Q. Why is thunder sometimes one vast ~rash?A. Because the lightning-cloud is near thia !~rth; and as all the vibrations of the air, (on which sonnd depends) reach the ear at the same moment, they seem like one vast sound.121

Q. Why is the peal sometimes an irregular broken roar?A. Because the lightning-cloud is at a great distance; and as some of the vibrations of the air have much further to travel than others, they reach the ear at different times, and produce a continuous sound.122.

Q. Which vibranons will be soones~ I~eard?A. Those produced in the lowest portions (If ilie air.123.

Q. Why will those vibrations be heard first, which are made last?A. Because the flash (which produces the

40 ELECTRICITY.

Bound) is aimost instantaneous, but s~lnd tal\es a ~io1e second of time to travel three hundred and eighty yards.124.

Q. If a thunder-cioud were ~e ~ious~fl(~ niu~ hundred yards oft; how long would tile peal last?A. Five seconds; we sho~d first hear the Vil)rati()ns produced in ~hose portIons of the air contiguons to the earth ; then those more remote; and it would be i~ve seconds before those ~ibrations could reach us, which were made in the immediate vicinity of the cloud.380115=19r0A popular method of trileg how far off a atorm ia, is thi~The momeat you ccc he tla~h pat yiboc satid up' It your puI~-e, Itt C, 01.111 httw molly time it heat hefore y. a hear the the ader if it Ircat Six t'ulottit aIr, tl~e Itumo is otic mile off; i£t~velvc puloanaoa, it is two Io~lCs off, aad ~t 00.

125

Q. Why is thunder sometimes like a deep growl?A. Because the storm is far distant, and the sound of the thunder indistinct.126.

Q. Is not the sound of thunder afferte~ by local circumstances?A. Yes; the flatter ~e country ~ie more '~nbroken the peal. A~~iuntains break the pe~ and make it harsh and in'eguh~.V

TIIUXDER. 41

127.

Q ~Yhat is the cause of rolling /hunder?A. The vibrations of air (having differen~ lengths to travel) reach the ear at successive il~tervals.The reverhcrati~~ (or echo) tamongtt the tuasaive cloud, contrihutee in ~ILe mea,ure t~ thia effect.

:28.

Q. Do thunder-bolts ever drop from the clouds?

A. No; the notion of thunder-bolts arises either f'rom the glo~ular form which lightmng s~metimes assumes; or else from the gaseous fire-balls, which sometimes fall from ~he clouds.Sec queetioo 46.

129.

Q. Why is the thunder often several moments ~fter the flash?A. Because it has a long distance to travel. Lightning travcis nearly a million times faster than thunder; if; therefore, the thunder has a great distance to come, it will not reach the earth, till a consider~~ble time after the flash.130.

Q. Can we not tell the distance of a thunder-cloud, by observing the interval whieb elapses between the flash and flie peal?4*

42 ELECTRICITY.

A. Yes ; the flash is instanfaneous,* bul thunder will t~re a whole second of time tc travel three huudred and eighty yards Ilence, if the flash be five secoud~ he~ore the thunder~ the cloud is nineteen hundI~etl )~ttt~l5 off.L e 380 ~5=l90I yarda.

131.

Q. Why does a tAzinder-storm generaily follow very dry weather?A. Because dry air (being a non-conductor) will not rehe~~e the clouds of their electricity; so the fluid accumulates, till the clouds are discharged in a storm.1312.

Q. Why does a thunder-storm rarely succeed wet weather?A. Because moist air or flillin rain (being a Conductor,) carries down the electric fluid gradually and silently to the earth.133.

Q. What kind of weatlier gener~y precedes a thunder-storm?A. It is generally preceded by hot weatiler.*The ~peed of lightuleg S ~o great. that it would go tour huedred rod

tighty timea round the earth ii' one mieut.~; wl,rre~~, thuader woull g~imrcrly thirteen utile, Ir the Mute Bp~e of ntueY.

EXPANSIO~.

CHAP. III.-CHEMTCAL ACTION~ TilETHIRD CHIEF SOURCE OF HEAT.134.

Q- What is meant by chemical action l)eIlig flie source of heat?A. Many things, when their chemical con~titution is changed, (either by the ab~traction of some of their gases, or by tie (2ombination of others not before united) evolve heat, while the change is going on.

IECTION 1.-EXPANSION.

135.

Q. What effect has heat upon substances generally?A. It expands them, or enlarges their dimensions.

1.-Expansion of Liquids and Gases.

136.

Q. Does heat expand air?A. Yes; if a bladder (partiaUy ~ed witb air) be tied up at tile nCci(, and laid befi,a-e the fire, the air will expand till the lilad~!cr bursts.137.

Q. Why wUl the air swell if the Madder be laid before the fire?.

44 C~EM [CAL ACTIO~ -

A. Because the heat of flie fire will drive the particles of air apart from each other, and cause them to occupy more room than they did before.138.

Q. Does heat expand everything else be. ~ides air and water?

A. Yes; every thing (that man is acquainted with) is expanded by heat.139.

Q. Why do unslit chestnuts crack with a loud noise when roasted?A. Because they contain a great deal of air which is expanded by the heat of the fire; and not being able to escape, bursts violently through the thick rind, slitting it, and making a great noise.140.

Q. What occasions the loud crack or report which we hear?A. 1st~~The sudden bursting of the shel~ makes a report, in the same way as a piece of wood or glass would do, if snapped in two; und2nd.~The escape of hot air from the ~iestnut makes a report also; in the san~e way as gunpowder, when it escapes from a

E

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS AND GASES. 45

141.

Q. Why does the sudden burst~ng of the or snapping of a piece of wood, m~~ea report?A. Because a violent jerk is given to ~e air, when the attraction of cohesion ]5 ti) IlS suddenly overcome. This jerk produces rapid undulations in the air, which (strik~g upon the ear) give th~ ~~ram a sensation of sound.142.

Q. Why does the escape of air froin the chestnut, or the explosion of gunpowder, pro duce a report?A. Because the sudden expansion o~ the imprisoned air produces a parti)LI vacuum the report is caused by the rushing of fresh air to fill up this vacuum.143.Q. If a chestnut be slit, it will not crack; why is this?

A. Because the heated air of the ~estuitt can then freely escape through the slit in lie rind.144.

Q. ~Yh'y does an app!e s~it and ~ ~)out when roasted?A. Because it contains a vast q~~tity of

CHEMICAL ACTION-

air, which (being expanded by the heat ~ the fire) bursts through the peel, carrying th~ aice of the apple along with it.145

Q. Does an apple contain more air in pro' portion than a chestnut?A. Yes, much more. There is as much condensed air in a common apple, as would fill a space forty-eight times as large as the apple itseif.14G.

Q. How can all this air be stowed in an apple?A. The inside of an apple consists of little cells (like a honey-comb,) each of which contains a portion of air.147.

Q. When an apple is roasted, why is one part made soft, while all the rest remains hard?A. Because the air in those cells next the fire is expanded, and flies out; the cell~ ai'~ broke??, ~d their juices mixed together; so flie apple coliapses(from loss of air and jitice,) and feels soft in those parts.148.

Q. What is meant by the '~ ap~e cot laps.in

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS AND GASES. 47

A. It means that the plumpness gives way, and the apple becomes flabby arid shriveled.149

Q. Why do sparks of fire start (wi~i a crackling noise) from pieces of wood laid upon afire?A. Because the air (expanded by the heat) forces its way through the pores of the wood; and carries along with it the coverin~ of the pore, which resisted its passage.150.

Q. What is meant by the "pores of the wood?"A. Very small holes in the wood, through which the sap circulates.151.

Q. What are the sparks. of fire which burst from the wood?A. Very small pieces of wood made red hot, and separated from the. log by the force of the air, when it bursts from its confinement152.

Q. Why does light porous wo6d make more snapping than any other kind?A.. Because the pores are very large, and ~ontaiu more air than woo~ of a c/c~~i groin.

48 CIIE~IICAL ACTION.

153.

Q. Why does gree~a wood make less snape piug than dry?A. Bc~cause the pores being filled witb sap, contain very little air.154.

Q. Why 4oes dry wood make more snap ping than green?A. Because the stip is dried up, and the pores are filled with air instead.155

Q. Wily does dry wood burn more easily than green or wet wood?A. Because the pores of dry wood are ~lcd with air which supports combustion; but flic pores of green or wet wood are filled with rnoistl~re, which extingnishes flame.156.

Q. Why does moistz~re extinguish flame?A. Ist.~ecause it prevents tile hydrogen of the fuel from mixing with the oxygen of the air, to form car~onic acid gas; and

2nd.-Because heat is perpetually carried off, by the formation of the sap or mois ture into steam.157.

Q. Why do stones snap and fly about when ~eated in the fire?Ip-1

48 CHEMICAL ACTION.I153.

Q. Why does green wood make less snap. ph?~~ tl1~ (ir/I?A. Because the pores being filled with Sal), eont~~in verj~ /1(1/c air.154.

Q. ~iy (loes drJ? wool m~~e more snap~')ing tI~an ~ ?A. Bee~ii~se the sap is driel np, and the pores aic fiNed wit~i air in~te~d.155

Q. Wfiy does dr1, wood ~urn more eas~y tTian Oreen or wet ~oo(1?A. Beeau~e ~1e pores of dry wood are flied with air wjiie}i supports Comhust]on ~t ~1C ~)ores of green or wet wood are filled ~vith 'noist)(re, which extin~iishes flame.

Q. ~)y (loes moisture eyti7)~vish flame ?A. 1st.~ecause it pre\~~ts the h~~drogen of the fuel fro~n ~iN1n,r with the OY/I(ren of the air, to fi)nu ear/1'ooie arid sas ; and2n4l.~Becanse heat is per~)etually carrie~ off; by the forniat~on of the sap or mois ture into steam.157.

Q. why do stones snap and fly about when ~eated in the fire?44(r _

EXPANSION OF LIQUII)5 AND OASES. 49

A. Because the close texture of the stone prevents the hot air from escaping; in con-sequence of which, it bursts forth with great violence, tearing the stone to atoms, and ~)rciflg the fragments into the room.~~rohabty some part of this effect is due to the setting free of the~ r~~taLlizatiea

158.

Q. When bottled ale or porter is set befbre a fire, why is the cork forced out sometimes?A. Because the carbonic acid of the liquor expands by the heat, and drives out the cork.Garhonie acid gas is a componod of carbon and oxygen

159.

Q. Why does ale or porter froth more after it has been set before the fire?A. Because the heat of the fire sets free the carbonic acid of the liquor; which is entangled as it rises through the liquor, and produces bubbles or froth.160.

Q. When a boy makes a balloon, ana sets firo to the cotton or sponge (which has been steeped in spirits of wine,) why is the balloon inflated?A. Because the air of the balloon is ex5

50 CHEMICAL ACTION.

panded by the flame, till every crumple i~ inflated and made smooth.161.

Q. Why does the balloon rise after it h£is been inflated by the expanded air?A. Because the same quantity of air 1~ expanded to three or four times its original volume; and made so much lighter, that eveii when all the paper, wire, and cotton are added, it is still lighter than common air.162.

Q. Why dQes smoke rush up a chimney?A. Because the heat of the fire expands the air in the chimney; which (being thus made lighter than the air around) rises up the chimney, and carries the smoke in its current.163.

Q. Why will a long chimney smoke, unless the fire be pretty fierce?A. Because the heat of the fire will not ~e sufficient to rarify all the air in the chim

164.

Q. Why will the chimney smoke. unles~ the fire be fierce enough to heat all the air in the chimney flue?

IEXPANSION OF LI~U1D5 AND OASES.51

A. Because the cold air (condensed in ~he upper part of the flue) will sink from its own weight; and sweep the ascending smoke back into the room.165

Q. What is the use of a cowl upon a chimney-pot?A. It acts as a screen, to prevent the wind from blowing into the chimney.166.

Q. What harm would the wind do if it were to blow into a chimney?A. lst.-It would prevent the smoke from getting out; and2nd.-The cold air (introduced into the chimney by the wind) would fall down the flue, and drive the smoke with it into the room.167.

Q. ilow are houses and other buildings heated with hot air?A. The fire is kindled in a grate or stove which is erected in the cellar. This fire heats the air in contact with it in tI)e air chamber, as it is called-and as heated air always ascends, it is forced up into the dif~ ferent apartments of the building.

52 CHEMICAL ACTION.

168.

Q. What is an air chamber?A. It is an enclosure around the grate 0! sLove, with openings below to admit the cold air from the cellar to rush in to sup-ply ~ie place of the heated air which ascends into the rooms above. ~ometimes the air chamber is supplied with cold air by pipes, which conduct the cold air outside of the house into the air chamber.

169.

Q. Why are the bricks and flag stones of our pavements frequently loosened after a frost?A. Because the moisture beneath them, expanded dunug the frost, and raised the bricks and flag-stones from their beds; but afterward, the moisture thawed and condensed again, leaving the bricks and stone~ loose.170.

Q. In I~n~and, it is customary to plaec a cup in an inverted position, into a fruit pie; why is this done?

A. Its principal use is to hold the crust up, and prevent it from sinking, when the cooked frtiit gives way under it.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS AND OASLS. 63

171.

Q. Does not the cup prevent the fruit of the pie from boili~g over?A. No-it will rather tend to make it boil over, as there will be less room in the dish.172.

Q. Explain this.A. When the pie is put into the oven the air in the cup will begin to expand, and drive every particle of juice from under it; in c~isequence of which, the pie-dish will have a cup-full less room to hold its fruit in, than if the cup were taken out.173.

Q. If the juice is driven out of the cup, why is the cup always full of juice when the pie is cut up?A. Because as soon as the pie is taken out of the oven, the air in the cup begins to condense again, and occupy a smaller space, and, as the cup is no longer full of air, juice rushes in to occupy the void.174.

Q. Why does juice rush into the cup when the cup is not full of air?A. Because the external air presses upon ~4e s'irfa~ of the juice, which rushes unob

CHEMICAL ACTION.

~ructed into the cup; as mercury ri~e~ thrc'ugh the tube of a barometer.N. T3. Sieee the juice of tie pie rune into the cup. us soon 55 It is teket Out of the uven tIe cup peve.ts the 3uiee fuun hei'~g upul SteT tI~e Crssst ~hes the pie je Curried utout fu~m place to plaeC,' aittough it does n~ ~revcut the fruit frum huilitig over.

I I.-Expa~~ioit of Metats.175.

Q. What metal is distinguished from ~I others by its fluidity at ordinary telnperatures?A. Mercury or quicksilver.176.

Q. Does mercury like other metals ex pand by heat?A. It readily expands or contracts with every variation of temperature.177.

Q. For what philosophical instruments i~ mercury generally used?

A. Its regular expansion and contraction by every increase or diminution of temperature, renders it preferable to all other liq~ds for filling the tubes of barometers and ~hermometers178.

Q Why does the mercury of ~ the.rm~ mete~ rise in hot weather?

EXPA\~~SiON O~ METALS.55A. Because heat expa~ds the metal, which ~beiug increased in bulk) occupies a largef fipace; and, consequently, rises higher rn the tube.179.

Q. Why is a glass broken when hof wa1~r is poured into it?-A. Because the inside of the glass is expanded by the hot water, and not the out-side; so the glass snaps, ila consequence of this unequal expansion.180.

Q. Why is not the outside of the glas~ expanded by the hot water as well as the inside?A. Because glass is a bad conductor of ~eat, and breaks before the heat of the inner surface is conducted to the outside.181.

Q. Why does a glass snap because the inner surface is hotter than the outer?A. Because the inner surface is expanded and not the outer; in consequence of which, an opposing force is created, which break~ the glass.182

Q. Why is a china cup broken if 1~t wa icr be poured into it?

56 CHEMICAL ACTION.

A Because it is a bad conductor; and, a~ ~ie inner surface expands from the heat, (and not the outer,) an opposing force i~ ~reated, which breaks the cup.183.

Q. if a bar of metal be accurately mea~tired when cold; and afterwards heated very hot, will its dimensions have increased?A. Yes; all metals expand by beat; and a bar of iron when hot will measure more than when it was cold.184.

Q. Will the iron contract in size on cooling, after it has been heated?A. Yes; it will return to its former dimensions on getting cold again.185.

Q. Why do most persons dip their razoi in hot water before shaving with it?A. Because the heat of the water expands the edge; by that means renderingmore fine and sha~.186.

Q. Why does a cooper heat his hoops re~ lot when he puts them on a tub?A ~st.-As iron expands by r1~eat, tb~ hoops wUl be large- when they are r~d ~i~t;

EXPANSION OF METALS. 57

LI' consequence of which, they will fit on Lhe tub more easily; and2nd -As iron contracts by cold, the hoop~ will shrink as they cool down, and girt the tub with a tighter grasp.187.

Q. Why does a wheelwright make the tire re~ hot which he fixes on a wheel?A. lst.-That it may fit on more easily; and2nd.-That it may girt the wheel mor~ tightly.186.Q. Why will the wheelwright's tire fit the whee~ more easily, for being made re~ hot?A. Because it will be expanded by the heat; and (being larger) will go on the wheel more easily.189.

Q. Why will the tire which has beenon hot, girt the wheel more firmly?A. Because it will shrink when it coo1~ down; and, therefore, girt the wheel with a tighter grasp.190.

Q. Why does a stove make a c'.~wkl'iog ~ise when a fire is very hot?

58 CHEMICAL ACTION

A. Because it expands from the heat; anci ~ie parts of the stove ru~bing against each other, or driving against the bricks, prod uco q crackling noise.191.

Q Why does a stove make a similar crackltng noise when a large fire is put out?A. Because it contracts again, when the fire is removed; in consequence of which, the parts rub against each other again, and the bricks are again disturbed.192.

Q. Why does the plaster roulfd a stove crack and fall away?A. Because (when the fire is lighted) the iron work expands more than the bnck-work and plaster, and pushes them away; but (when the fire is put out) the metal shrinks again, and leaves the "setting" behind.

The ~' setting ' la a technical word for the plaeter, etr., in stumediata roufart with the stove.The~e qoe~~ions apply more particularly to what is called a ~ Frankliz ~ove ~~they may be seen it' many of our farm housm.

193.

Q. Why does the plaster fall away?A. As a chink is left (between the "se~ ting" and the stove,) the plaster will The. ~uently fall away from its own weight.

EXPANSION OF METALVS. 59

194<

Q. WIiat other cause contributes to brzn~lie plaster down?A. As the heat of the fire varies, the szze of the iron stove varies also; and this swdU ing and contracting keep up such a constan~ disturbance about the plaster, that it cracks and falls off, leaving the fire-place very unsightly.195.

Q. If the boiler or kettle attached to a ldtchen range, be filled with cold water sometime after the fire has been lighted, it Will be very lIely to crack or burst. Why is this?A. Because the heat of the fire has caused the metal of which the boiler is composed to erpand; but the cold water very suddenly contracts again those parts with which it comes in contact; and as one part is larger than the other, the boiler cracks or bursts.

196.a

Q When the stopper of a decanter or smelling-bottle sticks, why will a cloth wrung out of hot water, and wrapped around the neck of the bottle, loosen the stopper?A. Because the hot cloth heats tbe neckI

60CHEMICAL ACTION.of the bottle, causing it to expand, and con sequently loosens the stopper.197.

Q. Why does the stopper of a decanter stid~ fast if it be put in damp?

A. If the stopper be damp, it fits the decanter air-tight; and if the decanter was last used in a heated room, as soon as the hot air enclosed in the inside has been condensed by the cold, the we¼Ait of the external air will be sufficient to press the stopper down, and make it stick fast.198.

Q. Why does the stopper of a smelling-bottle very often stick fast?A. Because the contents of a smelling-bottle are very volatile, and leave the neck of the botUe, and the stopper, damp.~ the emelling-huttle wan last need in a hot room, a seon the hot altsea volatIle e~ence, Inelde the bottle, have been co',densed by the cold.,weight of the external air will he sufficient to preet the e,opper dc and make it elick.

§ ~ii.- Ventilation.199.

Q. What is ventilation?A. The renewal of fresh air-a con hnual §hange of air.

\¼VENTILATION.

200.61Q. Is the air in a room in perpetual mo~ tion as the air abroad is?A. Yes; there are always two urrent~ of .qfr in the room we occupy; one of hot tiir Ilowing out of the room, and another of cold air fiow~ig into the room.201.

Q. flow do you know that there are these two currents of air in every occupied room?

A. If I hold a lighted candle near the Crevice at the top of the door, the flame will be blown outward (towards the hall;) but if I hold the candle at the bottom of the door, the flame will be blown inwards (into the room.)N B. Thie is not the ease if a flee be in the room. When a fire i~ lighted, an inward current is drawn through all the crevices.

202.

Q. Why would the flame be blown ou~wards (towards the hall,) if a candle be held at the top of the door?A. Because the air 6f the room being heated, and consequently rarifled, ascends, and (floating about the upper part of the room) some of it escapes through the crev~ce at the top of the door, producing a current of air outwards (into the hall.)6

62 CIIEMICAL ACTi()N.

203

Q. Why would the flame be blown ~ wards (into the room,) if the candle be held at the bottom of the door?A. Because a partial vacuum is made at the bottom of the room, as soon as the warm air of the room has ascended to the ceiling, or made its escape from the room; and cold air from the hall rushes under the door, to supply the void.204.

Q. What is meant by a "partial vacuum being made at the bottom of the room?"A. A vacuum means a place from which the air has been taken; and a partial vacuum" means a place from which a part of the air has been taken away.

Thus, when the air near the floor ascends to the ceiling, a partial vacunin is made near the floor.205.

Q. And how is the vacuum filled up again?A. It is filled up by colder air, wlhich rushes (under the duor, and through the ~L~indow crevices) into the roo~.20G.

Q, Give me an illustration?A If I dip a pail into a pond and fill it with water, a hole (or vaenula) is made in

VENTILAI ION. 33

~he pond as ~ig as the pail; but Lhe m9fl~ent ~ draw the pail out, the hole is filled up by the water around.207.

Q. Show how this illustration applies?A. Th~ heated air, which ascends from the ~ttom of a room, 15 as much taken away as the water in the pail; and (as the void was instantly supplied by other water tn the pond) so the void of air is supplied by the air around.203.

Q. Why is a room (even without a fire) generally warmer than the open air?A. Because the air in a room is not sul)ject to much chan~e and soon becomes of the same temperature as our skin, when it no longer feels cold.209.

Q. Why do we generally feel colder ou~ of-doors than in-doors?A. Because the air (which surrounds us'; ;s always changing; and as fast as one p0]' hon of air has become warmer by contact with our body, another colder portion surrounds us, to absorb more heat.210.

Q. Why is there a strong draught through the keyhole of a door?

'4

64 cIl~HCAL ACTION.

A. Because the air in the room we occupy is warmer than the air in the h~l; there-fore, the air from the hall rushes through t~e keyhole into the room, and causes a draught211.

Q. Why is there a strong draught und~~ the door, and through the crevice on each ~ide?A. Because cold air rushes from the hall, to supply the void in the room, caused by the escape of warm air up the chimney, etc.212.

Q. Why is there always a draught through the window crevices?A. Because flie external air (being colder than the air of the room we occupy) rushes through the window crevices to supply the deficiency, caused by the escape of warm up the chimney, etc.213

Q. If you open the lower sash of a wmdow, there is more draught than if you open the upper sash. Explain the reason of this?A. If the lower sash be open, cold externalair will rush freely into the room and cause~ great draught inwards; but if the upper~ be open, the heated air of the room willIii-

VLNTILATION. 65

oztt, and (of course) there will be less draught inwards.214.

Q. By which means is a room better i'entilated-By opening the upper or the lower

eAL. A room is better ventilated by Opening the upper sash; because the hot vitiated air ~which always ascends toward the ceiling) ~an escape more easily.215.

Q. 1))y which means is a hot room more quickl) cooled-By opening the upper or the lower sash ?A. A hot room is cooled more quickly by opening the lower sash; because the c~d air can enter more freely at the lower part of the room, than at the upper.216.

Q. Which is the hottest place in a church~ i~apel, or theatre?A. The gallery.217.

Q. Why is the gallery of all public places kotter thim the lower parts of the building?A. Beca~~e the heated air of the building ascends; and all. the cold air (which cai~ en ter through the doors and wiladows) keep.? to the floor, till it has become heated6*

UICII~IIC2~L ACTION.

218.

Q. Why is the gallery of a chuT ch or the. atre h~~tter than the aisle or pit?A. Because the hot air ascends from the bottom to the top of the building; while cold a~r flows to the bottom from the doors and windows.219.

Q. How are mines ventilated?A. The mine is furnished with two shafts or flues. These flues are so arranged; that air forced down one, shall traverse the whole extent of the mine before it escapes by the ~her. By keeping up a fire in one of these shafts, the air is rarfied or expanded within, causing an ascending current, carrying with it all the noxious gases, and rendering the air pure.220.

Q. What effect is produced upon air by rar~faction?A. It is made lighter and ascends thr)ug~ colder strata; as a cork (put at the bottom of a basin of water) rises to the surface.221.

Q. Prove that rarifled air ascends?A. When a boy sets fire to the cotton or 8p()nge of his balloon, the flame heats th~

VLNTILATION. 67

air; which becomes so light, that it ascends, aiid carries the balloon with it.222

Q. Wiy should stoves be fixed as neai the floor of a room as possible?A. In order that the air in the loiter pw~ ~f the room may be heated by the fire.223.

Q. Would not the air in the lower part of a room be heated equally well if the stoves were more elevated?A. No; the heat of a fire has very little effect upon the air below the level of the grate; and therefore, every grate should be as near the floor as possible.224.

Q. Our feet are very frequently cold when we sit close by a good fire; Explain the reason of this?A. As the fire consumes the air which passes over it, cold air nishes through the crevices of the doors and windows, along the floor of the room, to supply the deficiency; and these currents of cold air, rushing con. ~antly over our feet, deprive them of theji warmth.225

Q. What is smoke?

68 GIIEMIC~~ ACTiON.

A. Small particles of carbon, separated by combustion from the fuel, but not consumed.22G.

Q. Why does smoke ascend the chimney ~.

A. Because the air of the room (when it passes over the fire) becomes lighter for being heated; (being thus made lighter) ascends the chimney, carrying the smoke with it.227.

Q. Why do smoke and steam cz;rl as they ascend?A. Because they are forced round and round by the ascending and descending currents of air.228.

Q. Why do some chimneys smoke?A. Because fresh air is not admitted into a room as fast as it is consumed by the fire; in consequence of which a current of air rushes ~own the chimney to supply the deficiency, driving the smoke along with it.

VI 229.

Q. Why cannot air be supplied as fast as it is consumed by the fire?A. Curtains round the windows, sand bags at the threshold of the doors, and all 'uch contrivances keep out the dr~~nght.

11

VENTILATiON. 69

230.

Q Why will the air come down the L:himney?A. Because it can get into the room i~' no other way, if the doors and windows ~e a]l made air-tight.231.

Q. What is the best remedy in such 8 case?A. The speediest remedy is to open flie door or window; but by far the best remedy, is to carry a sma~ tube from the hearth into the external air.232.

Q. Why is that the best remedy?

A. Because the fire will be plentifully supplied with air by the tube; the doors and windows may all remain air-tight; and we may enjoy a warm fire-side, without the inconvenience of draughts of air and cold feet.233.

Q. Why is a chimney raised s~ ~igh above the roof?A. That it may not smoke; as all fimnels do which are too short234.I Q. ~Yhat is meant by the j?~nncl or fl~.

of a chimney?

70 CHEMICAL ACTION.

A. That part of a chimney through ~bicL ~he smoke passes.235.

Q. Why does a chimney smoke if thefun~zel be very short?A. Because the draught of a short flue is too slack to carry the smoke up the chimney.236.

Q. Why is the draught of a short flue more slack than that of a long one?

A. lst.-Because the fire is always dull and sluggish if the c~imney be too short:2nd.-Becanse the smoke rolls out of the chimney before it has acquired its full velocity; and,3d.-Becanse the wind, rain, and air~ have more influence over a short funnel than over a long one.237.

Q. Why is the fire always dull and sluggish, if the chimney flue be very short?A. Because flie draught is bad; and, as the rarifled sJr passes very tardily up the chimney-fresh air flows as tardily toward the fire, to supply it with oxygen.238.

Q. Why does not smoke acquire its full ~wlority in a ~hort fimnel?

VENTILATION. 71

A. Because the higher smoke ascends, (provided, the fire be clear and hot and the flue be unobstructed) the faster it goes~; if; therefore, a funnel be very short, the smoke never acquires its full velocity.

239.

Q. Does the draught of a chimney depend on the speed of the smoke through the flue?A. Yes. The more quickly hot air flies up the chimney, the more quickly cold air will rush toward the fire to supply the place; and therefore, the longer the flue, the greater the draught.240.

Q. Why are the chimneys of manufacto ries made so very long?A. To increase the intensity of the fire.241.

Q. Why is the intensity of a fire increased by !engthening the flue?A. Because the draught being greater, more fu~el is consumed in the same time; and, of course, the intensit~ of the heat is proportionally greater.242.

Q. If a short chimney cannot be length

ElK

I72CHEMICAL ACTION.II ened, what is the best remedy to prevent

smoking?A. To contract the opening of the chimney contiguous to the stove.243.

Q. Why will a smaller opening in that part of the chimney near the fire prevent ~moking?A. Because the air will be compelled to nearer the fire; and (being more heated'

pass Iwill rise through the chimney more rapidly; this increase of heat will, therefore, compensate for the shortness of the flue.244.

Q. Why will a room be full of smoke if there be two fires in it?A. Because the fiercer fire will exhaust the most air; and draw from the smaller one, to supply its demand.245.

Q. Why will a chimney smoke if there be a fire in two rooms communicating with each other?A. Because (whenever the door between the two rooms is opened) air w]ll rush from the chimney of the inferior fire to supply the other; and both rooms will be filled with ~moke.

jV

IVENTILATION. 73

24G.

Q. What is the best remed~ in this case?A. Let a tube be carried from the hearth &~f each fire into thQ external air; and then ea~ fire will be so well supplied, that liel ther will need to borrow fr~n the other.247.

Q. Why do vestry chim~~eys so often smoke?A. Because the wind (striking against the steeple) is reflected back, and, rushing down the vestry chimney, forces the smoke ~nto the room.248.

Q. Why does a house in a valley very. often smoke?A. Because the wind (striking against the surrounding hills) bounds back again upon the chimney, and destroys its draught.

249.

Q. What is the common remedy in this case?A. To fix a oowl on the chimney top to turn like a weather-cock, and present its back to the wind.250.

Q. Why will not a cowl always prevent a chimney smoking?7

76 CHEMICAL ACTION.

A. Because the opening of the chimney place is so very large, that lunch of the ail which goes up the chimney, has never passed near enough to the fire to become heated; and this cold air (mixing with the hot) so reduces the temperature of the air in the ~nmney, that it ascends very slowly and the draught is destroyed.259

Q. Why does a chimney smoke if the draught be slack?

A. Because the current of air up the chimney is not powerful enough to buoy up the smoke through the flue.260.

Q. If the opening of a chimney be too ~arge what remedy can be applied?A. The chimney-place must be contracted.261.

Q. Why will contracting the chimney-place prevent its smoking?A. Because the air will then pass nearer the fire; and (being more heated) will fly faster up the chimney.262.

Q. Why do almost all chimneys smoke in gusty weather?A. Because the column of smoke is sud

VENTILATION. 77

denly chilled by the wind, and (being unable to ascend) rushes back into the room.263.

Q. What is the use of a chimney-pot?A. It serves to increase the draught when the opening of a chimney is too large.264.

Q. How does a chimney-pot increase flie draught of a chimney?A. As the same quantity of hot air has to escape through a smaller opening, it must pass through more quickly.265.

Q. Why do blowerg, when placed before d' grate, tend to kindle the fire?A. Because the air (by passing through the fire) is made mnch hotter, and ascends the chimney more rapidly.266.

Q. Why is a fire better supplied with oxygen while the blower is before it?A. Because the blower increases the draught; and the faster flie hot air flies up ~he chimney, the faster will cold air rush towards the fire, to supply it with oxygen267.

Q. ~Yhy does a parlor often smcll di~ agreeably of' soot in s'im~or time ?

78 CHEMICAL ACTION.

A. Because flie air in the (~'~imney (beitig colder ~an the ~ur in the 12'(~~lor) descends ii~to the room, and leaves a di:~:;reeable smell of so~t behind.268.

Q. ~Vhy does a poker lai~~ uc, 0551 a dulI~rE. ~vive it?A. For two reasons: I .~t.-~Because the poker concentrates the heat, ai~d therefore incre~~es it; and2nd.-Air is arrested in the narrow aperture between the poker and the coals, and a draught created.269.

Q. Why are fires placed on the floor of ~ room, and iiot towards the ceiling?A. Because heated air always ascends. If, therefore, the fire were not near the floor, the air of the lower part of the room would never be heated by the fire at all.270.

Q. If you take a poker out of the fire, and hold the hot end downwards, why is the hand!e intensely hot?A. Because the hot end of the poker heats Ihe qir around it; and this hot air (in its ascent) scorches the poker and the han (1 whi~'II h~ds it.

CONI)UCTION OF Il~AT. 79

271.

Q. How should a red hot poker be carried, ~ as not to burn our fingers?A. With the hot end upwards; for then ~he air (heated by the poker) would not p~~s over our hand and scorch it.

SECTION II.~ONDUCTION OF HEAT.

272.

Q. What is meant by conduction of heat?A. Heat communicated from one body to another by actual contact.

i.-Cond~ctors of Heae273.

Q. Why do some things feel colder than others?A. Principally because they are better I OILluctors; and draw off heat from our body much faster.274

Q. What are the best conductors of heat?A. Dense, solid bodies, such as metal and stone.275.

Q. Which metals are the most rapid ~o'iductors o~heat?

*

IEl

80 CHEMICAL ACTION.

A. The best conductors of heat ar~;' gold; 2, silver; 3, copper:The next best are 4, platinum; 5, iron; 6, zinc; 7, tin. Lead is a very ioferior con ~ucter to any of the preceding metals.276.

Q. What are the worst conductors of heat?A All light and porous bodies; such as hair, fur, wool, charcoal, and so on.Two ,f the worse eondartrrs kuown are hare's fur asd elder down ;-ih~ two lIext Worst are heaver's fur ard raw silk -thee' wond esd iun~~ blaek ;~tben cotton and fine lint ;~then ehsreoa~, wood ashes, &C

277

Q. Why does a piece of wood (blazing at one end) not feel hot at the other?A. Because wood is so bad a conductor, that heat does not traverse freeJy through it; hence, ~io~gh one end of a stick be blaz~ the other end may be quite cold.278.~

Q. Why does hot metal feel more intensely icarm than hot wool?A. Because metaT gives out a much greater quantity of heat in the same space of lime; and the influx of heat is, consequently, more perceptible.279.

Q. Why does money in our pocket fe ~1 Very hot when we stand !')efore a fii~e?I

CONDUCTORS OF IJEAT.81A. Bcca~LsC metal is an excellent conduc~or, and becomes rapidly heated. For the ~me reason, it becomes rapidly cold, whenever it comes in contact with a body ~ than itself.

280.

Q. Why does a poker (resting on a fe~ der) feel colder than the hearth-rug, which ji further off the fire?A. Because the poker is an excellent conductor, and draws heat from the hand much more rapidly than the woolen hearth-rug. which is a very bad conductor: though bcth, therefore, are equally warm, the poker seems to be the colder.281.

Q. Why does an iron pump-handle feel in-tensely cold in winter?A. Because it is an excellent conductor, and draws off the heat of our hand so rapidly, that the sudden loss produces a sen~ation of intense coldness.

I 282.Q. Is the iron handle of the pump really colder than the wooden pump itself?A. No; every inanimate substance (ex posed to the same temperature) possesse~ in re~ity the same degree of heat.

I

I82 CHEMICAL ACTIO~.

283.

Q. Why does the iron handle seem bO in uch colder than the wooden pump?A. Merely because the iron is a better :o~ dactor; and, therefore, draws off the heatour hand more rapidly than wood loes284.

Q. Why does a stone or marble hearti? feel to the feet colder than a carpet or hearth-rug?A. Because stone and marble are good conductors; but woolen carpets and bearth~rugs are very bad conductors.285.

Q. How does the stone hearth make our feet cold?A. As soon as the hearth-stone has absorbed a portion of heat from onr foot, it instantly disposes of it, and calls for a fi ~upply; till the hearth-stone. has Uccome of the same temperature as the foot placcd ~pon ii286.

Q. Do not also the woo~n carpet and ~earth-rug conduct heat from the h~an body?A. Yes; but being very bad condnctors~ they convey the heat away so slowly, that ~he loss is scarcely perceptible.

CONDUCTORS OF HEAT. 83

287.

Q. Is the cold hearth-stone in reality of the same temperature as the warm carpet?A. Yes; every thing in the room is really of one temperature; but some things feel colder than others, because they are better conductors.288.

Q. ilow long will the hearth-stone feel cold to the feet resting on it?A. Till the fret and the hearth-stone are both of the same temperature; and then the sensation of cold in the hearth-stone will go off.289.

Q. Why would not the hearth-stone feel cold, when it is of the same temperature as our fret?A. Because the heat would no longer rush out of our feet into the hearth-stone, in ~wder to produce equilibrium.290.

Q ~Yliy does the hearth-stone (when the tn~ C- is lighted) feel hotter than the hearth

A. Because the hearth-stone is an excellent conductor, and parts with its heat verj' reaJily; but ~ie woo1T~i ~hearth-rug (beingI,

I84 CHEMICAL ACTIO~.

a bad conductor) parts with its heat very reluctantly.29t

Q. Why does partin~ with heat rapidl!1 make the hearth-stone feel warm?A. Because the rapid influx of heat raise~ ~e temperature of our body so suddenfy, ~at we cannot help perceiving the increase.

292.

Q. Why does the non-conducting power of the hearth-rug prevent its feeling so hot as it really is?A. Because it parts with its heat so slowly and gradually, that we scarcely perceive its transmission into our feet.293.

Q. Why are cooking vessels often furnished with wooden handles?A. Because wood is not a good conductor, like metal; and, therefore, wooden handles prevent the heat of the vessel from rushing into our hands, to burn them.294.

~Q. Why is the handle of a metal tea-pot made of wood?A. Because wood is a bad conductor; therefore, the heat of the boiling water is not so

CONDUCTORS OF HEAT. 85

quickly conveyed to our -hand~ by a wooden handle, as by one made of metal.295.

Q. Why would a metal handle burn the ~~md of the tea-maker?A Because metal is an excellent conductor; therefore, the heat of boiling water woubi rush so quickly into the metal handle, tbat it would burn our hand.296.

Q Prove that a metal handle would be hotter than a wooden one.A. If we touch that portion of the metal, into which the wooden handle is fixed,. we shall find that the wooden handle feels cold, bu~ the metal inL".'isely hot.297.

Q. When we plunge our hands into a basin of water, why does it produce a sensation of cold?

A. Because water is a better conductor than air; and, as it draws off the heat from our hands more rapidly, it feels colder.298.

Q. Why does the conducting power of water make it feel colder than air?A. Because it abstracts heat from our h and~ ~ rapidly, that we feel its loss; but the air8

86 CIIEMICAL ACTION.

abstracts heat so very slowly, that 5 gradu~ los~ is hardly perceptible.299.

Q. Is water a good conductor of heat?A. No; no liquid is a good conductor f beat; but yet water is a much better c~n ductor than air.300.

Q. Why is water a better conductor of heat than air?A. Because it is less subtile; and the conducting power of any substance depends upon its solidit~ or the closeness of its par~icles.301.

Q. ilow do you know that water is not a good conductor of heat?A. Because it may be made to boil at it~ surface, without imparting sufficient lie at to m~lt ice a quarter of an inch below the surface.302.

Q. Why are not liquids good conductors of heat?A. Because the heat (which should be transmitted) produces evaporation, and flie~ ~ in the vapor.303.

Q. Why are hot bricks (wrappcd [n cloth)

CONDUCTORS Ol IIEAT S-

employed in cold weather to keep the feLt warm?A Because bricks are bad conduc~rs of ~eat, and cloth or flannel still worse; in conseqnence of which, a hot brick (wrapped in ~ai~nel) will retain its heat a very long time.304.

Q. Is air a good conductor?A. No; air is a very bad conductor; and is heated (like water) by convection.305.

Q. How is a room warmed by a stove?~. The air nearest the fire is made hot first and rises; cold air then descends, is heated, and ascends in like manner; and this interchange goes on till all the air of' the room is warmed.306.

Q. If air be a bad conducto~ of heat, why should we not feel as warm without clothing, as when we are wrapped in wool and fur?A. Because the air (which is cooler th~n our body) is never at rest; and ever~ fresh particle of air draws off a fresh portion of heat.307.

Q. Why are woolens and furs Ilse(1 foT clothing in cold weather?

88B

mCHEMICAL AC~ ION.A. Because they are very bad conduc(or~ of heat; and, therefore, prevent ~he warmth of the br dy from being drawn off by the ~alr.

308.

Q. Do not woolens and flIrs act~al1y i~;~ I~art heat to the body?A. No; they merely prevent the heat of the body from escaping.309.

Q. Where would the heat escape to, if the body were not wrapped in wool or fur?

A. The heat of the body wonld fly off into the air; for the cold air (coming in contact with our body) would gradually draw away its heat, till it was as cold as theair itself.310

Q. What then is the principal use of cloth·~g in winter time?A. lst.-To prevent the animal heat from escaping too freely; and2nd.-To protect the body from the external air (or wind,) which would carry ~way its heat too rapidly.311

Q Why ~re beasts covered with fur, hai? ~ wool?

CONDUCT~5 O~ nEAT. 89

A. Because fur, hair and wool, are very~ conductors of heat; and (as dumb anim~ds cannot be clad, hke human beings) God has given them a robe of hair or wool, to keep them warm.312.Q Why are ~irds covered with down or fratbers?A. Because down and feathers are very bad conductors of heat; and (as birds cannot be clad, like human beings) God has given them ~ robe of feathers, to keep them warm.313

Q. Why are wool, fur, hair and feathers, s~ich slow conductors of heat?A. Because a great quantity of air lurks entangled between the fibres; and air is a very bad conductor of heat.The ~varmeet clothing is that which fits the hody rather losnezg; beean~ teore hot nc wit be confined by a moderately mess garment than by one which fiti the body tightly.

314.

Q. Why is moderately loose clothing warm~ than that which fits tightly?A. Because air is a bad conductor; and tbe qn mtity of air confined between our bodies and ~othing-prevents;1.~..- -The heat of our bodies from escap i??g; andS *

1U

I90 CIIEMICAL ACTION

2nd.-The external air from coming i~to contact with our bodie~. But if our cloth ing is sufficiently loose to admit of a free circulation of air, we shall feel cold; and 3n the contrary if it fits very tightly it impedes tiLe free circulation of the blood and we feel cold.315.

Q. Does,iiot the bad conducting power of air enable persons to judge whether an egg be new or stale?A. Yes; touch the larger end of the shell with your tongue; if it feels warm, the egg is stale , if not, it is new-laid.316.

Q. Why will the shell of a stale egg fe~ warm to the tongue?A. Because the thick end of an egg contains a small quantity of air (between the shell and the white;) when the egg is stale the white shrinks, and the confined air accordingly expands.317.

Q. Why do we feel colder in windy wea~er than in a calm day?A. Because the particles of air pass over tw more rapidly; and every fresh particle t~kes from us some portion of heat.ii

ICONDUCTORS O~ flEAT. 91

318.Q. Show the wisdom of God in makin~ the air a bad conductor?

A. If air were a good onductor '~like iroil ~nd stone) heat would be drawn S( rapidlj? fn m our body, that we should be chilled ~o death. Similar evils \vould be felt ~so ~y all +he animal and vegetable world.319.

Q. Why are rooms much warmer, for })e~ ing furnished with double doors and t'~indows?A. Because air is a bad conductor; And the air confined between the double d~)or~ and windows, opposes both the escape of warm air out of the room, and of cold aii into the room.320.

Q. Why is a room warmer when the window curtains are drawn or the shutters shut?A. Because air is a bad conductor; ~nd the air confined between the curtains or shutters and the window, opposes both the escape of warm air out of the room, and of cold air into it.321.

Q. Why does a linen shirt feel colder (han i cotton one?

I92 CIIEMICAL ACTION.

A. Because linen is a much better ~iidut. tor than cotton; and, therefore, (as soon as it touches the bodv) it draws away the heat more rapidly, and ~roduces a greater sensation of cold.322.

Q. Why is the face cooled by wiping the t~m~es with a flue cambric handkerchief?A Because the fine fibres of the cam~wic have a strong capillary attraction for moisture, and are excellent conductors of heat~. in consequence of which, the moisture and heat are abstracted from the face by the cam~ bric, and a ~ensation of coolness produced.Capillary attesetiun," i. C. thc atteactien ef a thread cc its ic. Ths wick ~f a eandle is Wet with grease, because tite melted tallow runs up the Cotton from eapulary attraction.

323.

Q. Why would not a cotton handkerchief do as well?

A. Becan~e the coarse fibres of cotton have very little capillary attraction, and are very bad conductors; in consequence of which, the heat of the face would be in~reased (rather than diminished) by the u~ of a cotton handkerchief.324.Q. Is the earth a good conductor of heat?A. No; the earth is a very bad coriduc ~or of heat.

CONDUCTORS OF IIE~T.

325.93'Q. Why is the earth a bad conductor of beat?A. Because ]'Ls particles are not continu ous; and the power of conducting heat le pends upon the continuity of matter.326.

Q. Why is the earth- (below the surface) warmer in winter than the surface itself?A. Because the earth is a bad conductor of heat; and, therefore, (although the ground be frozen,) the frost never penetxates more than a few inches below the surface.327.

Q. Why is the earth (below the surface) cooler in summer than the surface itself?A. Because the earth is a bad conductor of heat; and, therefore, (although the sur face be scorched with the burning sun,) the intense heat cannot penetrate to the iof the plants and trees328.

Q. Show the wisdom of God in making ~ earth a bad conductor?A. If the heat and cold could penetrate the rarth (as freely as the heat of a fire p~ietrates iron,) the springs would be dried up

I94 CHEMICAL ACTION.

in summer, and frozen in winter; and all vegetation would perish.329.

Q. Why does the Bible say, that God giveth snow like wool?"A. Because snow (beilig a very bad comductor of heat) protects vegetables and seeds from the frost and cold.330.

Q. How does the non-conducting power of snow protect vegetables from the frost and cold?A. It prevents the heat of the earth from being drawn off by the cold air which rests upon it.331.

Q. Why is water from a spring always cool, even in summer?A. Because the earth is so bad a conductor, that the burning rays of the sun can penetrate only a few inches below the surface; in consequence of which, the springs of wo ter are not affected by the heat of summer332.

Q. Why is it cool under a shady tree in a tiot ~mmer's day?A. lst.-Because the overhanging foliage screens off the rays of the sun;

CONDUCTORS or hEAT. (j5

the rays of the sun are warded off; the air (beneath the tree) is not heated by the reflection of the earth; and3rd.-The leaves of the trees, being no~ conductors, allow no heat to penetrate them333.

Q. Why do persons use paper or woolen ~ettle-holders?A. Because paper and woolen are both very bad conductors of heat; in consequence of which, the heat of the kettle does not readily pass through them to the hand.334.Q. Does the heat of the boiling kettle never get through the woolen or paper kettle-holder?A. Yes; but though the kettle-holder became as hot as the kettle itself, it would never feel so hot.335.Q. Why would not the kettle-holder fe6l dO hot as the kettle, when both are of the s~ime temperature?

A. Because it is a very bad conductor, and disposes of its heat too slowly to be perfeptible; but metal (being all excelle~~t c~'dlICtOr) disposes of its heat so qu~kly, that the sudden intlllx is painful.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ANOTHER EARLY SCIENCE ENECYLOPEDIA WORK THAT THOMAS EDISON MOST LIKELY READ ALSO WAS

THE SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS ( 1859 )

BY DAVID WELLS A.M

NEW YORK 1859

IVSON & PHINNEY

THIS IS BELIEVED TO BE THE FIRST RE PUBLISHING SINCE 1859 IN PART

POOR BOOK SCAN

4SCI]~NCi~ OF CO~~~ON TIIINGS;A

FAMILIAR EXPL~ATJO~

O~ THE

FIRST PRINCIPLES OF PhYSICAL SCIENCEe

FON

SCHCOL8, FA~~JLIE8, AND YOUN~ &TUDENT8. N

~~uzttat~~ ~ n~m2r~~z ~

NYDAVID A. WELLS, A.M.

NEW YORK:IVISON & PIIINNEY, 48 & 50 WALKER ST.CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGCS & Co., ~9 & 41 LAKE ST.CINCINNATI: NOORI, WIGITAC~ KRYI & GO. IT. lOUIS NNITII & WOODS.PHThADIILPI[IA; SOWER, NARNIS & GO. NUFFALO: PHINNEY & Co.NEWBONG: T. S. qUACEENBUSIL

1 85 9.I I

11.I

Ent~md ~CCoTdiDg to Aet Of CoDgrIIs, iD the yo~ ~ by

J~TSON & P1JIN~~.Y,

the (~eI~'8 Office of the listrict Cett,4 of tbe United ctitee foc tile Southern I)~rict Of~eW Yoc~

F½PREFACE.

Tn~ design of the present volume is to furnish for the use of schools and young persons, an elementary text-book on the first principles of science. For this purpose, the ~ system of question and answer, which for certain ~asses

of pupils and for familiar instruction has proved e~nently popular, has been followed. The advantages of this

system are -first, that it atfords a most simple mid easy--method of communicating useful and practical informa~ - -tion -second, the quesi~)n excites a feeling of c~urio~ty in the mind of the young studcnt, which serves to fix the subject~matter more strongly in the memory -and thirdly, the form of question and answer imparts truth t~ the mind, in a logical sequence of cause and efect, and by showing how consequents in scieuces are deduced from antecedents, unconsciously trains and familiarizes the pupil to think and -reason according to the true spirit of inductive philosophy.-It is believed that the questions in the present volume -are simple, practical, and expressed in the plainest language that the subject allows. ~~ngravings have also been used-- to illustrate more clearly the most important topics t~eated

of.As this work has been designed exciusivelyas an elementary book, the more abstruse and difiic~u~epartments 9fJ

f4ICIC

Ii

Ivi PRHFACE.

physical science have been passed over, or briefly noticed; such as the theory and npplication ofilie nacehanical powers, the polarization of light, crystallography, &O Those who arc desirous of possessing a more complcte and claborate work, arranged in the form of quostion and alisNyer,-cinbracing the whole subjects of Natural Philosophy, organic and Inorgame Chemistry, the npplications of science to the Indnstrial Arts, ()cology, &C~~ are referred to a work by the author of the present volume, entitled " Wells's Familiar Science" and to "Wells's Natural Philosophy," in both of which special reference is made to the application of the principles of physical science to the useful arts and necessities of every-day life.In the preparation of the "Science of Common Things" especial care has been taken to render the facts and principles given, full, complete, and accurate, and in strict conformity with the very latest results and reseaa'ches ofmod era science.

Nzw Yoaz, May, 1857.p

eCC SC'CONTENTS.

PART L

~~NN LAWS AEn puopaxrirs or ~ntrrait. PAQ~4 L 'lhat we linow of MattorC and 'low we

Know It 8II. Attraction 11III. Weight 19IV. Motion 22

PART IL

APPLrCAaON or THE LAWS AND PROPEEHES or MATTER

TO THE ARTS.L How we apply Power 31

IL Strength of Maten'~ls 36III. Application of Materials for Arcbitecturai and Structural

Purposes 38IV. Principles of Areliltecture 41

PART IlL

THE LAWS ANn PHENOMENA or FLULDaL Water in Motion and at Best 49IL Specife Grarity 62 IlL Capillary Attraction 65IV. The General Properties of Gaseous and Aeriforni Bodies 67IV. The Atmosphere 69VI. Atmospherical Phenomena 74

VIL The Pump and Barometer 97VIII. Pocubsxitios of Clienates 104

Ui'br CONTENTS.

PART IV.

SOUND.I. Origin and Transmission of Sound 114IL Vocal and Musical Sounds 120III. Reflection of Sounds 124lb

PART V.

HEAT.

I. Nature and Origin of HeatIL The Sun a Source of HeatIII. Other Sources of Heat besides the ~unIV. How Heat is CommunicatedV. ~rn Phenomena of DewVt Reflection, Absorptiori, and Transmission of HeatVIL Effects of Heat

PART Vt· 129· 133

· . 136· 143

· . 162· 171

170

VENTILATION AND WARMING, COMSUSTION, RESPIRATION,AND NUTRITION.

L Warmilig and Ventilation 204IL Combustiori 220'IL Respiration and Nutrition 233

PART VIL

LIGHT, AND now WE SEE.

I Nature and Laws of LightIL Structure of the Eye and tile Phenomena of Vision

PART VIII.

ELECTRI~TT, GALVANISM, HAGNETISH, AND ELECTE~

PIAGNETISM.241262

I. Electricity . 275II. Galvanism · 289IlL Magnetism 295IV. Electro-Magnetism 299

PART IX.rAMILIAR CHEMISThY. 302

.1

aSCIENO1~ OF COMMON THINGS.

S

PART I.

LAWS AXD P~OPERTIES OF MATTER.

CHAPTER I.

WHAT WE KNOW OF MATTEE, ~D 'lOW WE XNOW Ir.1 Whet is ?flItt~?

We apply the term matter to any substance Which affects our senscs.2 How do we kaow that eapth~g exists?

Because our 8CCflSOS give us evidence of the fact-8 Whet are the eeooOO?

They are thc instruments, or means, by Which the mind is enabled to know that matter exists aud 1)05-sesses certain ~roperties.

4 rnw onolay se~w aw there?fi~~e; hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and feeling.5 Woold a ~erooa deorivect of aP seolatiop, he coaseisas of any oneteria~ existence SHe Would ~ot; for all knowledge of the material world is derived through the medium of the sen~es.8 Il the i~oreosioa treasmitted to the oniat hy each organ of seowation, Slifereat?It is; each organ of sense is ada1)ted to receive a particular influence of matter; and is designed to con-

4 SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.Properties ot matter ImpenetralsOity.

vey to the mind immediate notice of sorac peculiar action. This is the more noticeable, when we consider that, however delicate its structure~ each organ of sense is wholly insensible to every iniluence except that to which it is especially adapted; thus, the eye is never affected by so~~d, nor the ear by lhg~~.7 What is meant ~ the term hoty 5.

Any distinct portion of zioi~er perceived by the senses.~ What do we mean, when we rpeah of the ~ro~e"~es or qaahties of a hody 5.

The power8 belonging to the body, which are capable of exciting in our mmd certain sensations.9 What ow the generat properties of matter?

The principal qualities of matter nrc MAGNITUDE or EXTENSION, IMPE~ETRAIiILITY, DrvISIBILITY, POHOSITY, INEEFIA, DENSITY, ELASTICITY, DUCTILITY, and MALLEABILITY.

10 What is maguitade?

The property of Occupying 8J)~ee. It is impossible to conceive of a portion of matter 50 minute as to have no magnitude.11 What do we mean ~y the term size of a ~dp S

The quantity of ~pace a body occupies.iti, What is the surface of a tody?

The e~ern~~ Z~m,its of its magnitude.18 What is the area of a tody?

The quantity of 8it#~ce.14 What is impenetratibty?

That quality of matter Which precludes the possibility of two bodies occupying the e~cie eptece ~ ate ewiac time. ~lien bodies are said to be impenetrable, it is therefore meant, that one cannot pass through another without displacing some, or all, of the component parts of tliat other.Thera arc many instancas of apparent ponetration; but in all thcec, tho paSts of the body which seam to be penetrated are~nly displaced. Thus, if a needle he plunged into a vessel of water, nil tha water which proVionsly illiad tha space into which the needlo enters, will be displaced; and the level of the water will rise in tile vessel to the samebeight as it

ICIx~CE OF COMMON TnING~. 5Divisibility 0£ mOtter. Atom~. rartieles.

Would by pouring in so m~th more water as would fill tbe spaco occupied by the needle.15 Why will water, or asy other titaid, poured into a fuaae~ closely iaserted in the soteuth 0£ a lotte, or decanter, ran ewer the sides?Recause the air liliing the bottle, and having no means pf escape, prevents the fluid from entering the bottle; but if the funnel be lifted from the neck of the bottle a little, so as to afford the air an opportunity to escape, the Water wfll then floW into the bottle in an uninterrupted stream.1~ WJtot is the figurs of a body?Itsfo~im or s~ape, as expressed by its boundaries or terminating extremities.17 What is meant by the divisibility of matter IJt5 property, or capability of being divided.18 Is matter copahis of bring divided iato separate portiens infimlely or SOithoot hntit ISo far as We are able to perceive With our senses, all matter is capable of being divided into separate portions Without limit; yet the recent investigations of chemistry have proved beyond a doubt, that ~ere is a point beyond which matter iS 110 longer divisible. Such a portion of matter as cannot be divided we call an atom.19 What then is an atom of ulater IA pdrtlWe so mi~te, as to admit of no division. Atoms are conceived to be the hrst principles or component parts of all bodies.~he extent to wliiab matter eon ha divided and yet be perceived by tbe senses, is wonderhil.An onnee of gold may be divided into ibur hundred and thirty-two thousand million parts Each of these parts will retain all ibe obarsaters and qualities wbieh era found in

tilo lsrgest wasses of metal. It rntaias its solidity, texture, and color; it resists the same agentS, and ent~ Si to eombination with the same suhstences.it

~O What is a parhelo of matter I

The tei'm partide Is also nsed to express elatell corn-eoneietpzrts of matter, but is generaily applied to those whichare ~ot too rnsnute to be discovered by observation.1*

S6ilC~NCE or COMMON TIIINGS. ?orss ofa body. Compressibility. Density.21 What are the pares of a toda?

Xo two particles of matter are supposed to be in ~ctu,al contact with each other; and the openings, or interstitial spaces between these particles, are calied por08.22 What is the reason that a soon ge, a piece of wood or metah can ~ preessere, be made to ocesepit a swmtlor space than it did originatty 5

Because the particles of which the sponge, the piece of wood or metal, are composed, are by pressure brought more closely together, diminishing at the same time the pores and the space the body occupies.28 What then is compressibility S

That quality of matter in virtue of which a body alloWs its volume or size to be dIminielAec', without aiminishing the nnmb~ of atoms or material particles of which it consists.24 What reason hare toe for ~pposing that no two partictes of matter are in absolnte contact S

Because all known bodies, whatever may be their nature, are capable of having their dimensions reduced~ without diminishing the amount of matter contained in them; hence the space by which the volume may be diminished must, before diminution, consist of~ore8.25 What is &~ity?

The proportion of the quantity of matter in a body to its ma~nitude. Thus, if of two substances one contains in a given space twice as much matter as the other, it is said to be twice cii de~e.2~ What cennecion is there between the density of a hody and its porosit~ S

A body will be more or kss dense according as its p articles are near to or remote from each other; and hence it is evident that the grett~er' the density the le8e' the porosity, and the gre~~r the porosity the 1e88 the density.

27 Wh~ do we call load heavy, and feathers hght 7

Because the amount of matter contained in a quantity of lead occupying a given space is much greater than in a quantity of teathers capable of occupying the

5CnsNCE or COMMON TuINGS.riltratlon. Soopping of wood.

'1same space. Tile original particles of matter which make up the composition of lead and feathers are also different, and in the lead are arranged in Inucil nearer connexion with each other tilan in tile feathers.Neuton conjectured that if the aarth were so compressod as to be absolutely without pores, its dimensions might not exceed a cubic inch.

28 }mw is water or any other liqaid made pars ~y filteriag through paper, clot~ a layer of sand, rock, &C S

The process of filtration depends on the presence of pores in the substance used as a filter, of such a magnitude as to allow a~parsage to the liquid, but to ~fise it to those impurities from which it is to be disengaged.29 Why is not the suistauce suitaule for the filtration of one liguid sleePy adapted for the filtration of all liluids I

Because the magnitude of tke pores in different sub-stances ~d of the impurities in liquids is different; and no substance can be separated from a liquid by filtration, except one whose particles are larger than those of the liquid.80 Why do ls~ltes rise to the sarf~ when e piece of sugar, wool, or chalk is pl~ ~nler water?

Because the ~ previously existing in the pores be-comes displaced by the water, and rises to the surface as bubbles.81 What occasions the snapping of wood or cool when held upon thefire?

Because the air or liquid contained in the pores becories ex;[)anded by heat, and bursts the covering in which it 15 confined.82 What are the searks of fire whtch larst from the weed?

Yery small pieces of wood made re(1 ~ and separated from the log by the force # ~I~e air when it bursts from its confinement.88 Why does light, poroas wood make more snappiog thou any other ksnd?

Because the pores are very large, and contain inoro air than wo~d of a clo8er grain.84 Why does grece wood make less suappieg than dry?

Because the pores, being filled with 8a~, contain veryair.

8 scruiec~ or' COMMON THINGS.Elasticity. 5~ids. Liqhidi. Geses.

85 ih7~y does dry ~r~od make were sno])~~iog Gao greso I

Because the sap is (7ief vp, and the pores are fillcd with air instead.88 Why does dry wood larn more easily than green or wet evoed l

Because the pores of dry wood are wi1~ air, which supports combushon; but the pores of green or wet wood are filled with mo~8c'ure, which extinguishes flaisie.87 When is a ledy said to be elaslic I

When, on being compressed by the agency of a mechanical power, it is capable of resi~iag its former dimensions with a certain force when relieved from the operation of the ferce which has compressed it. This property is called eias~oi~y.II88 Into how many classes nocy all nataral lodies he divided I

All the bodies we meet with on the earth may be divided into ~hree great classes; viz. 807;(7s, lt~s4c's, and ](a8£ott8 or a(~~~O)~i)i bodies.89 What is a solid I

A solid is a body whose particles of matter arc so close or dense that- they resi's~ the impression or penetration of other bodies. itence the parts of solid bodies are not movaNe or easily displaced like those of liqulds.40 What is a liquidl

A liquid is a substance which, like water, manifests immcdiately to the touch but a very feeble resistance; but quite sufflcieut, however, to indicate its presence, even when in a state of repose. A liquid cannot be grasped between the fingers like a solid body; neither can it be collected permanently in a heap, or made to assnine any partic~ar figure except that of the vessel in wiuch it is inclosed.41 What is a gaseone or aeriform lodo I

A gaseous or aeriform body is an elastic, and generally an invisilile, filihi, which, like tile air surroandin g us, affords no evidence of its presence to the sense ot touch, when in repose, Gaseous or aeriform bodies may be confined in vessels, from wiience they exclude

scir~cE o~ co~nt6N THINGS. 9Plestic bodies. Ine~tia.

liquids or other bodies, thus demonstrating their CXi8~ ence, though invisible, and also their t.otpenetrtl~ilily.42 J0 what particular respect does a gas differ froen a liquid S

A liquid, like water, oil, spirit, &c., can be made to flow down an inclined plane, but a gas cannot.43 Why is it defl cult to walk against a high wind S

Because the particles of the ah, although invisible, press against us violently in a direction Opposite to that in which we are proceeding.-44 When is a subetance send to he plastic S

When it possesses intermediate properties between ~ solid and a fluid. Pitdi is an ex~ple of a plastic body: it presents the appearance of a solid, but will be found to be continually changing its form by the movement of its particles, when left free to move.45 When a sponge is placed in water, that liquid appears to penetrateit. Does the water really enter the solid j)nrticles of Ihe opoo~ S

It does not; it only enters the ~)ores or vacant spaces between the particles.48 When we plunge the hand iota a mais of ouo,l, do ne pn~etrate the sand S

We do not; we only c7i~l~ee the particles.47 What is icertia S

~Iatter is iticapable of spontaneous change; and the term tner~~ (or ~iactivt~) signlties ~e total aba, ence of power in matter to change its state. A body endued with inertia cannot of itselt; and independent of all external influences, commence to move from a state of rest; neither can it, when moving, arrest its own progress and become qrncscent.4ei When a carriage is in n~otioo, dra~rn ~ hor~co, uhy ic the same exertion of pwver io the horoes T((]Oir~d to Otuj) it, as uould he arcessarg to lack it, ef it were at reot I

Because the force required to destroy motion in one direction is eq~al to that reqmred to produce as rn~cA qno~on in (he eo~o8t(e di~~ec(ton.4~ If a lody is incaputh ly itself of choogiug its state, why uill sot a loll fired from a ceanou coutiane to enoce on for cuer S

Ohiefly on account of tIle resistance of the ~ir or1*

10~DSN~E O~ COMMO~ TttINO5 niontrationo of lnevtta. }sardnees.

mediwn through which it passe~, and the a~iYlciiott of ~ ett~/~.50 Jf a corrio9e railroad-car, or loot, mering with speed, to oudd~oly slspped or rrtordLd from any cooso, why are th~ poosenyors, or the hagyage curriod, procloitatel from thoir places ha the direnhan of the motion IBecause, by reason of their ~lip?~~, they perlc~ere hi the motion which they shared in common with tile body that transported them, and are not deprived of that motion by tile same cause.Si Why ~till a persoc, leaning front a carriage in rapid motion, foll ha tOo dirsrhaa ha O;~?i Ic Iho c.arc~oyo is ocahang at the atnotont his feet 'n~et thearoenha IBecause his bo~y, on quitting the velijele, relaint by its t~er~a the motion witich it has in common with it. When be reaches ~ie ground, this motion is destroyed by the resistance of the ground to the feet, but is retamed in the upper and heavier part of ~e body ; so that the same effect is produced ar tf ~tefec~ 1~aa b£~t~

52 When tOo sali~ of a noyc mo fr~t spread to roroc.c'o the force or in?pcdso of the whad, why does not the vowel ar~nic.e har foil speed ha once I

Because it requires a little time for the ttn11&7~ii~y fo~~e to overcome ~e rne~t% of the ~nciis of ~ie ~ip, or its dioposition to r~ain at rest.SS TVOy, when the soils are takea ic, does the vosool cootiuno to strove for a co'wkleeatle time tBecame the tner~a of I~e tnaoe is opposed to a ~ange of state, and the vessel will coatintie to move ~til the resistance of the water overcomes tile opposition.54 ~hy is a man stonclin9 carelessly in the store of a loot hello to full into the water leO in d, whoa the liot legins to more?

Bee~se hisfie~ are pulled forward while the tt~r~ia q~ li ii ~oJy keeps it in the same position, and, there--fore, behind its support. For a sinillar reason, when the boat stops, the man is liable to fall forward.55 Upon mOot does the hardness of a hotly depend?

Not, as is often supposed, upon the ~ett8iIy of a body, bitt upon the foree wi~} which the atoms hold their places in some particular arracgement. Gold ispF _ ISCIENCE OF COMMON TfllNG5.

Iinoetility Malleability.Attesetion.

much more dense than the diamond, yet the metol is soft, while the diamond is the hardest body in nature.~8 When is a hody said to be ductile ~

When it is capable of being dra~c~ tn~ 'Wire. Jil ductile substances the atoms seem to have no more fixed relation of position than in a liquid, but yet they cohere very strongly.57 When is a lody said to be mallealle 5.

When it is capable of being hammered or rolled into thin plates. Bodies that are malleable are not always ductile. Lead and tin may be hammered out iulo very thi~ plates, hut it is difficult, or impossible, to draw out these metals into fine wire.

CIIAPTER II.

ATTRACTION.

58 What is attraction?

It is the force manifested by the mutual approeteA or cokesiosa of bodies.59 Is odl matter su15ect to the power of attracttsn?

All matter is under the influence of attraction in some of its forms. Every particle of matter attracts every other particle, and is in turn itself attracted.eo What is r~idsn?

It is the force manifest in the movement of bodies from each other. Thus, if a piece of glass, having been briskly nibbed with a silk . handkerchi~uch successively two feathers, these feathers, if brought togeflier, will move asunder.81 What is cohesive attcactiou?

It is the force which Ao~ toge~Aer the atoms of

1o~ 5CIEN~E OF ~OMMON THINGS.

Adhesion. Examples of cohesbo.

bodies. Cohesion acts only between particics of matter of the same kind, and at distances which are hot measurable, or, as tlicy are tcrined, ~~senitbls (fA~rnce8.82 Athut is adlensioc I

Adlicsion is attraction between particles of matter of different kinds acting at immeasnrably small distances only, and uniting the dissimilar particles into ODe mass.83 Why he mortar mod to fastea Irneks together I

~ocanse the adlicsive attractioa between the particles of the brick and the particles of mortar is so strong, that they ~ite to form one solid mass.84 Why is a tar of iron stronger thac a Icr of wood of the same Size?

~ecanse the cohesion existing between the particles of iroa is ~rea~~ than that existing between the particles of wood.85 Why ore the particles of a ly aid osore easily separated thou those of a solid I

~ecanse tllc cohcsive attraction wlilch binds together the particles of a liquid is much less strong tliaa ~iat whi~i binds together the particles of a solid.88 Why ~rill a small ro~dh carefully laid aoeu the surface of water flout?~ccause its weight is not sufficient~to overcome ~ie cohesion of 4ie particles of water constituting the stir-face; comequently, it cannot pass t]irough th~n and sink.67 Jf you drop waler aud ioudaoum fl-am the same aessel why will sixty drops of the scaler fill the saeae measure as one hundred drops of Zaudauum I

The cohesion between the particles of the two liquids is different, being greatest in the water. Consequently, the number of particles which will adhere togetber to consti tate a drop of water is gi~cater than in the edrop of laudanuin.88 Why is the proscreptiou of quediclue hy droos mS ausafe method?

Because not only do drops of fluid from the same vessel, and often of the same fluid from different vesy

jI'SCIENCE OF COMMON T~G5.

Attraction of gravitation. uu~rations of gravi~tion.13sels, differ in size, but also drops of the same fluid, to the extent of a third, from different parts of the Tip of the same vessel.89 Why is it diffeult to pour water from a vered which has not a profreliny lip t

Because, in consequence of the attraction between the water and the sides of the vesseT, the fluid has a tendency to run down along the inclined outside of the vessel, and not at once to fall perpendicularly.70 What is the attraction of gravitation I

We apply the term ~c~gravity,~~ or the "attraction ~f gravitation ," to that tendency which every particle of matter in the universe has to approach all other matter. T~rrestr~al gra~t~a~iot~ is the attraction of a body towards the centre of the earth.71 Ia what respect does the attractiou of goovitaliori differ from all ether ottructive forces I

Becans& it is the eommo~ ~roperty ~ edi 6ocl~8; since everything to which we can attach the idea of materiality is aflected more or less by gravitation.72 Why does an apph hooseuedfrooo the tree foil to the yroond I

Because the oar~~ atlraot8 or ~PolW8 ~ to itself.78 ~iuce all hodles are attracted towards the ear~ how does it happen that all smoke and some other fornes of matter disolay the contraryphenonienen of ascending from it IBecause the 8rnoka i8 ~qAlrr ~7t~n ~tle air, 6uUe for ~ and floats upon it. It is unable to advance, however, in the most minute degree, without displacing or thrusting downward portions of the atmosphere equal to its own bulk.74 Why does a cork pressed beneath the water rise and float on the surface I

Because the cor~ is ligAter ~Aan~ a~ e~ua~ 6~l~ of water, and is pressed up and sustained by it in the sam~anner that the particles of smoke are sustaiaed by the particles of air.75 Why does a lolloon rise in the air r

Becanse it is filled with a ~as which is lighter, bulk. for bulk, than the air.

14 SCIENCE OF COMMON ThTNG~All bodies attract each other. Feather and the earth.

78 How long will smoke continue toftool clove the surface of the earth?

lintil its ~ilrtic7e8, uuitiu~, 6eco~rte heavi~r thiri~ the air, when they descend in the form of small flakes of Soot.77 Why do luIlles in a cup of tea range round the sides of the cup?

Because the cup atteocte them.78 Why do all the little lulIles tend towards the large ones?

Because the large bubbles (being the superior masses) attract them.79 Why do the lollles of a cup of tea follow a tea-spoon?

Because the tea-spoon attraete them.80 Do all ladies attract each other equally?

They attract each other with forces proportioned to their masses.81 A frather falls to the ground ly the influence of the earth's attraction. as all lodies attract each other, does the feather attract or draw up theearth in any dsgree towards itself?

It ~oes, 'With a force prcicortiooe~ to its mass; but

as the mass of the earth is infinitely greater than the feather, the influence of the feather is infinitely smaH, and we ~e~unable ~ pereelve it82 What would he the consequence f~ the feather seel seat attract the earth?

If an~ portio~ of the earth, however small, faild~ to attract another portion, and not be itself attracted, the aris of the e~rth woul~ ~e immediatel~ ohasiged, involving an alteration of climate, and the place of the ocean in its bed.83 Why is it moredaugerare to fall from a lofty eleratlan than from a law one?

As the attraction of the earth varies inversely with the square of the distance, the force with which a falling body will strike the ground will increase in proportion to the height from which it has fallen.84 In what direction does a lady, when not supported; endeav~o fall?

In a line drawn from its centre of gravity towards the centre of the earth.85 Is the altraclion of the earth the same at all distenres front ils sue-face or centre?7--

SCIENCE OF COMMON ~G5.15 Centre o~ ~aVity. r~~itiou In w~ich a bod~ cau mot

~T0; the attraction of the earth for a body varics'Wt't~ tAo squ~~ of ;t8 (1i8t~ccofeo)~ the centre.88 How can this be illustrated?

In the following manner :~if the earth attracts a body with a certain force at the distance of o~e rn~e, it will attract with fou~ times tAo force ot Act/f a mile, mne ti~8 tAo force ott on~tAiret of a mile, and so on in like prc~OrtiOn. On the contrary, it will attract with but onefoui~Aqf tAo force. at two miles, onse~intA of tAo fosce at

tA~ee rniles, oaorsixteentA of tAo force at fo~~ miles, and so on as the distance increases.~7 What do we meau hy the centre of gravity?

That foint in a body about which, if supported, the whole body will balance itself.88 When you hulauce a rod a stick or any oUter body upon Uteftuger, eshero is the centre of yraeity of the Stick or lody?

It is the point upon which the body will remain at rest, or upon which it is balanced.89 In what poe itise only can S lody rest~

Ouly when its centre of gi~aoity is ~pportcd; and until this is accomplished the body will move, and continue to do so, until it settles into a position in wijich the centre of gravity cannot sink lower.90 Why do~ a person carr~ing a w~iyht upon his lack stoop forward?

In order to ~bring the centre of gravity of his body and the load ~ver his feet.

AIn

16 SCIENCE OF COMMON TIJIN6S. centre of gravity ja wan and animab.

If ho carried tiro load in tire petition of A, lip. 1, be wonki foil back-wards, us the db.ecti~n of tire centre of gravity would foil beyond Ills beets; to l)nng tho centre of gTavity over ~is feet, lie assumes the position indicoted by B, lip. 2.

91 Whea a ps~sea carries a load noons his head, why is it necessary to stand perfectly upright IEl order that the centre of gravity may be over feet.9~ Why does a person iu rising from a chair heriel forward I

When a person is sitting, the centre of gravity is supported by the scat; in an erect position, the centre of gravity is stipported by tile fcet; therefore, before rising it is necessary to change the centre of gravity, and by bending forward we transfer it from the chair to a point over the feet.98 l~y does a quadruped never raise leth feet en the same side simuh taneouslysBecause, if it did, the centre of gravity would be unsupported, and the animal would fall over.

94 Why is a turtle placed ou its lack uculle to move?

Because the centre of gravity of the turtle is, tn tAis ~osttion, ~t tAt lots~t ~otnt, and the animal is unable to change it; thorefore it is obliged to remain at rest.95 Why is it more diffcult to overthrete a lady having a lrourl lace than oce resting upon a nurrew lasis?

Because a body cannot fall over, so long as a line directed from the centre of. gravity vertically towards the surface upon which the body rests, falls within the figure formed by the base of the body in question.

II~

~g 3'mlFg 4

SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.Stability efbuildiiigs. Ceutre of gravity iu walking.

Ilence, the broafer ~Ae 6am of cc boily, a~e more secttre7y t~ 'WtU i(ancc.Thus, in Hg. 8, thu line directed vertically from the centro of gruvity, n, falls within the base of the body, und it remains stonding; but in Hg. 4 a similar line falls without the base, und the body consequently cannot be maintained in on uprigbt posnion, urid mnst ta..ll

96 Hew long will a wall or toteer clued securely S

So long as the perpendicular line drawn through its centre of gravity falis within its base.

The celebrated leaning tower of Pis~ 315 feet high, whiab inclines 12 feet from a perfectly upright position, is an example of this principle. For iu~OnCO, the line in

Hg. 5, falling from the top of the tower to the ground, and pass-lug through the centre of gravity, falls within the base, and the tower stands securely. If; however; an attempt bad been maele to build the tower a li~ tie higher, ao ~ the ~erpendictalar line pasetag through the cenfre of gravity would have ftdlen beyond the base, the structure could no longer have supported itseif~

97 What is the aelvautage of turning out the toes when we walk

It increases the brecc~~A of ~Ae baste supporting the body, and enables us to stand more securely.98 Why do very fat people throw hack their heed and shoulders when they walk~

In order that they may effectually keep the centre of gravity of the body over the base formed by the soles of the feet.

99 ~rt canust a man, standing with his heela close to a perpenclisulur v~ Innel over sufficiently to pick up any oltect that lies hefore him on the iromel, without fatling 5

Because the wall prevents him from throwing part of his body backward, to counierb~itce tAs Aecc~ ast~ a~ that must project forward.

5CIE~CE OF COMMON THINOS.aope-dsuoiog How we ~es~u to walk.

100 What is the reaaou that pecacor walkiny acn~in-arus shake aud jostle each other, aulens they make the mecements of their feet to cenrespouc, as sold~cs do in ~aacchi~g S

Whcn we walk at a moderate rate, the centre of gravity comes alternately over the right and over the left foot. The body advances, therefore, in aline; and unless two persons walking together keep step, the waving motion of the two fails to coincide.101 Where would the centre of ga-avity be in a wheel made entirely of wood and of a umforus thickuess S

El the centre.10~ Where would the centre of granity be ul a part of the rim of the same wheel were made of iron S

It would be changed to some point a8itle from the centie of the wheel.

103 In what does the art of lalancing or walkiny upon a rope consistS

In keeping the centre of gravity in a line over the base upon which the body rests.104 What is the lose upon which the huousa lody rests or is supported S

The t~ofce~ and the se~ce included between them.105 Why is it a very eafficult thing for children to learn to walks

LI consequence of the natural upright position of the human body, it is constantly necessary to employ some exertion to keep our balance, or to prevent ourselves from falling, when we place one foot before the other. Children, after they acquire strength to stand, ~re obliged to acquire this knowledge of preserving the balance by experience. When the art is once acquired, the necessary actions are performed involuntarily.ioe Why do young Quadrupedo learn to walk much sooner than children S

Because a body is tottering in proportion to its great altit~,1e and norrow ~ee. A child has a body thus constituted, and learns to walk but slowly because of this difficulty, (perhaps in ten or twelve months,) while the young of quadrupeds, having a ~os(1 ~nppor~i~yare able to stand and move about almost immediately.107 Are all t~e limbe of a ~ tree acraugael in such a manner, that the

SCIENCE OF COMMON TfflN~5.How trees grow. Weight.

line directed from the centre of gravity is caused to fall within the luse of the iceel

~a~re cacses the various limbs to shoot out and grow from the sides with as much exactness, in respect to keeping the centre of gravity within the base, as though they had bcQn all arranged artiflci~y. 1~ach limb grows, in respect to all the others, in such a manner as to preserve a due balance between the whole.

CHAPTER III.

wEmHr.

108 ~~isweight?

Weight ~ the measure of the attraction of gravitation, or, in Qther words, it is the ineciiure of force with which a body is attracted by the earth. El an ordinar~ sense it 1Aequanti~ of ~w~r cen~ine~ in oi ~ody, cii ciicer~iited~hl~Ae6alaiice.109 To what is the weight of a hocly proportional I

The ~ of ~ ~ is always proportional to the q~ti~ of rna~r contained in it.

110 Why will a hall of leod weigh more than a hall of cotton of the ,ame size l

Because the quantity of matter contained in the ball of lead is mnch greater than the quantity of matter contained in the ball of cotton. The attraction of gravitation being proportioned to the quantity of matter, it follows that the lead ball will be drawn towards the earth with a greater force (i. e. ~ill weigA ngore) than the ball of cotton.111 A man of moderate weight upon the surface of the earth would-gh two ions of tramelorted to the surface of the sun: why would he weighmore ~

20ScIENCE OF COMMON THINOS.body wetrb~ the u,e~st. 5y~stems ufweigbts.

~ccnuse tite attractive force of the sun, on account of its greater magnitude, far exceeds the attractive force of ~te earth.lltl Why icill a inuse of iron weigh lea~ oo the top of a high mounbia thon ul the bed of the ow I

~eeause tile attractiQil of gravitation is less at the top of the mountain than at the level surface of the t(~rntho;f ~ ~i~ereasin~ as the attracdecreases, accov~~ny totAc sq~(£re8 of tAn (1Ata~cne.A bail of iron, weighing n tienusand pounds at thu level of the sea, would ho percoived to have lost two pounds of its weight if taken to tho top of a mountain fien? miles high, a spring balanca being ilsud.

11~ Where will a hedy weigh the most on the surface of the earth I

At the poles of the earth, for at these points the attractive power is greatest.It must ha remembered that thu. ourtb is not a perfoot sphere, but flattoeuuuatrd0at~u poles; consequently, thu polos of tliu earth are nearer thu

traction (i. e. thu centre of the earth) than any other point on its surface.

114 Where will a lody weigh the leust oc the eoi~lh's sm/ace?

At the eqv~tor, for there the attractive power is less; the surface at this point being the moist distant from the earth.115 What would le the weight of a lody carried to the centre of the earth I

It would have 110 weight; for the attraction of gravitation acting equally in every direction, no effect would be produced; and the body would be fixed as if sustained by a number of magnetic points.116 What two systems of weights are employed in the United htates aid Great Rritaiul

Troy weight and ntVOir~H4Ojs wei~it.117 What is T?'oy weight used/or, and from wheuce does it derive its name I

Troy weight is used for weighing gold and silver. It derives its name from the ancient designation of London, Troy l'~ova itt, or from Troyne, in France, where it was first adopted in Europe. It has existed in England from the tiine of Edward the Confessor.I

¼

I

I.

is motionterm to the~n mo~&~; no~

ob~erver arethethat in

~1d be~n~ r>~er orIda

Be~cauntto make ~II

Iflf +

\\e.

inotion of foot is a

~ich arrests the mo~ ~t'w do~ not

i~ 11011I

$1I')rt 0118.~-e.

th~ · laed In ~ck i'i a

IAJite~;IITh· douot 1of ~t~ ~

S~1

+Llu', Vt t'~~1~ the ~ or ~de. In tn~~ C Athe agency of the weiglit of tao wate r.I

I,

I4-0of the n~ateri21, ~~pph.ed to it.

~ee t6 the appli~___ a~

ItheI

III-

for the~ich have the pro~er~ of ~ coAeri~ wi~ ~ lx)di~ to wA~

is principallY pt~?e Llilestone rock, ordinary Inp.d of ~arbonate of iiiii~,

4rive

~e obtainqit. instaufly swells a.at Ie~gth fallsThi5. is denoinrnateQ --

Why does suer

~ +~e ~ELtioa tile..

I_______________-~ -. V--

-p

was held

to pieces wae~I1I

I

which cont u~ toi~ ~

s~~ing ~ me

tw.,~nowII

N

II1

"moN fliNGs.TL GtGothfc

*45

having to rise a steeper

rolan arch?

receive the fr8t

SM,,,ider ad a certain

Or

lome, Said UOrsnMtan·, derived· to these the Romans added two tLo ~ and Con~po&ite.Au'sas +htt of

atwet er.: portico oi the

*38 NU four thousand feet long.

ki ecuw, &&, use4 ent; also tosome distance,

tiw Or&r olarchitectt&n originate?~ of Enr~. After the noirtut empire, it was introduced to the Greek and Roman manner of seems particularly adapted to railbtierr-aoeo/thc Qbthwar~P

'8,with greater h£gAt tAan I-A in witk prqftwe onaan- ~iMly dedtetion of the leavES and flowers of

aA

46 80Th~C~ OF COMM~ON THINGS.~ad taste In architecture. C~umne. Capit~~

~73 What is said to have heen the model of the aisle of a aothw ~ ctrel?

A group of ~Z trce8, meeting at the top with inter-woven branches.274 Ought acehitecture to be cons~eel as afins or a seefet art?

As a uteful ~It is dagradi~ng the fine &ts to make them entirely subservient ~ utaity. It is out of taste to make a statue ot Apollo hold a cen~1~lina painting stand as a fireboard. Our houses are for use, and t~rt is thatuforo one of the useful arts. In building, we should p150 the inside first, and then the outside to cover it.275 Whp is it bad taste to construct a dtielling.honse in the fi~ ofGrecian tentple?

Beeau~ a Grecian temple was intended for extoi'a~ W~i-8Aip, not as a habitatioa~~ a placie of meeting.276 Had the Colts, wha pts~d Rome, anpthing to do nuth the ineention of Gothis ~rchitecture I

No; the name was introduced about two hundred years ago as a term of reproach, to stigmatize the edifices of the Middle Ages, which departed from the purity of the antique modelL277 W~

978 Whatisccp~~

The l~wer par~ or ~ase of the colum~; a continued base; on wbic~ a range of c~umns is e~ected, is called a ~979 Whatistiebese~~coitmn?

The totteerpwrt, where it is distinct from the shaft.280 WhatIstheahafl~The mi~d~ er longest part of the column.981 Whetisthe~£?

Theypper or oraa~~to~ part resting on the shaft.The height of a column is measured in dianaeters of the column its~f, always taken at the base.

282 What is the plinth I I

This term is applied to the lower part of tAepe~a~al U or to any square projecting basis, such as those at the'IJ

SoIENcE o~ co~o~~ THIN~. ' 471

- 1~ntab1atn?& Arcbitrsve. Fn~eze.

m of WaliR, and under the base of columns. The ~art of the pedest~ being called the pliuth, thewill be termed the die,- and the upper ~ (&ee~ 13.)

· Cornice.

... .Arcbltmye.

· . Ba'...Corn1~

... Die. ... .Pun~P.t

{~g ~

e ~orizon~l co~~uou' ~ which rest& upon ~p of a row of columns.W~t ~ the arohi~ave ~ ~or p~~of the entablature. Wha* is thefrieze?I

48 - &nibzeE or COMKON TH~~5.bu~brnty of building material& iet~t of the atm~bere on roc~.

The ~ of the entablature.28e Whet zs the co·atce?

The ~pe prqjecting por~ of the entaUature. (For iZlhte~rarnio,tor of~ase dt~re~~ ~ 8cs~. 13.)~87 In setechag a stoat for arehitecturetyu~osw, hew mag we ~ el~ toferm an eeintoa r~ecting its cturabitit~ aatt oermaatate?

By visiting the locellity from whence it was obtained, wemayjudge from the ~ which have been lon~ ~osedto~ke we~~er if the rock is liable to yield to anuo8pAertO ~fluences, and the couditions under which it does so.For example, if the rock be a grani~ ahd it he veiy oneven and rough, it may be inferred that it is not very durshie; that the tsldspa; which formE one of its eon ponent parts, is more resdiiy decemposed by the action of moistura -i- tiost thaa the ~ which is another ingredient; and therefore that it is very tznsaitable for building purposea Moreover, if it possesses an iron-brown or rnsty appearance, it may he set down as highiy perishable, owing to the attraction which this metsi baa for oxygen, causing the rock to increase in bulk, and so disinaegrate."

~ Wha are the ~cntstse~ ermed freestonen, dt odapted for the erternetportio~ Of ev~osed buiZd~ngs ~

Be~anse they moidily absorb ~ois~re; and in countries where frosts occur, the frswiiitg of the water in the wet surface ~o~~tinuaily~ ~ the ext~·na1 portions, and thus, in time, ~l oynainental work upon the stone will be defaced or destroyed.2~9 Whe co some soecoes of reck become har~ when tethen fre,n the quarvg and exposed to the at~~here?

This quality, in s~me species of stone, arises from the fact that the ~ce~r contained in it, when fdrming part 6f the natural rock, evoporates, and the stone, becoming dryer, beeomesMr~r.~9O Wh~ eto seene atones, ~ hard when firet qtwrrte~ ~ceane ~ and/ertt topaecs, when ~eeed to the atmoseheree

Because they contain clezy or alv~i~a in such a state as to readily abeorb qnoietetoe from the atmosphere; and thi~~ugh the agency of the moisture the par~~e5 lo~ ~·bci~ oo~&~oa and fall apart.I

~I~il~ns. 49

Water ta m~Uon and at ~

In.~A OF FLUIDS.

~; oil, molasses, etc.; arid into air; carbonic acid gas, oxygen, and

of aseos, w~h

and phen~ andI

- a, ~g ~ of ~isnos ~ of gisis, a~ other at£bs~nn, rasanbZing

a to t~at dep~tment ~fr~ites those phen~ pressure, or motiongaseous oodies.

OHAPTER I.

WA~ ~ K~O~ AND AT m~T.~ or an~ other flusd is ~ isML oordd'ton as its

water at rest is always perfectly leveL

50 SGfl~GE OF COMMON ~HINGS.Yelodtv of rivera How we make an aquednet

~95 Wh~ is the surface of afivit at rest aiways tovet?

Because the particles are equally a~iraotetl teseas ~Ae eae~A by grav~ty, and are all equally and _ movable among themselves.~96 How sbght a oeoirntp is sifflcimt to give a running motton to water?TAree ~v~e to a ~ile iri a smooth, straight gives a velocity of about three miles per hour. nver Ganges, at a distance of 1800 miles from its mouth, is only 800 feet above the level of the sea. ~97 om what eri?wipte are we euabkd to condurt water sinder grotm~ tlroigh isregvk~ tubes?that water¾#iii.always ries to d's

or v~els oo~sta~catl~ wi~ eack ~

4 If we connect together a 'y series of vesse~ no matter/7 bow various their shapes aid

capacitie~ so that ~that it wiil rise to the San

_____rise ~om the mainA B mto them, we shall Srupon pouring water into orlev the vessel&

Th~ed6pendence 6r ~ill ~rra~e ni ants fbr co g water in aquedv nndar ground upon the principle, that water m oiosed tubes or ye rises to a unitorni leve~ is deafly shown m Ag 15 ~ a, a, repri the water-level of a pond or reservoir upon elevatod ground. Iroxi~ pond a line of pipe is laid, passing over a bridge or viaduct at ~

ra

under a river at C. The fountains, at b, ~ show the stream ~ to it~ level in the pond, a, at two points of very different elevstio~

296 In what ~art of a river dow the waterfow most r~?

Li~the mie~ of the dVream, at the 8urfaoe. On the'4

IIIJ

I- -

··ENC~ Ol GOMMON TKING8. 51 Row water coflec~ in w6[~IS.

velocity is diminished by the ~t the buik~, bars, etc.

'~w~or~~als, nnti~ an imper~. Here the wat~r ~ some point whereto t~e surf~ ace in

14) toend b rrocI; waterp&oolating~m~agh the gravel would re&~h the impervious ~ along whioh it would run im~ ~

5-

: first, on account of ~ and ~ ~ of rock, which act M natural drains;~AeIL le~~3~he water, as a country, intochann~in an o-dina~ weU~

erdb weil consists of an emcavatiom continued or layer of elay or ~ ie reac~ that saturated with water. They are notby springs, but mere y by the ~ wa~r which exists within the circuit into a cavity.w~ and springs faa ofeetimee in d~ weather?

y are supplied by ths ~~falli?~g ~ rcolates from the surface of the earth.

52 80~(~E OF ('OMMON T~GS. Artesian we~

808 What is an Artesian ws~?

Water is sometimes obtained by bortng into ~ errtk with a species of auger, until a veih or sheet of water is found, which rises to the surface through the cylindrical excavation. Such excavations are called Artesian wells, because the method was first invented and employed at Artois, in France.804 How do poe ~ for the water rising to the sarface in A~ sian, and sometimes in ordinarp wehs?

Strata which are pe~viou~ frequently alternate with others which are ~ so; or may form a boidn, the area of which is partially filled with clay, through which water cannot pass; in such a case it is obvious that th~ bed of sand ~nesit the~y, fed by the rain which descends o'i the uncovered margin of the basin, must form a reservoir where the water will gradually accumulate beneath the central layer of clay, through which it caunot escape. If the bed of clay be pen~ frated by natural or artificial means, the water must necessarlly rise to the surface, and may even be thrown up iu ajet to an altitude which will depend on the ~vel ofthe fluid in the sitbterranean reservoir. a

&

Thus, if a ssndy Stratum, aa (~. 17), acting as a Iliter, Oecopies an Inclined positiou. between two other strata impervious to w~t, Such as clay, the water being absorbed by the supericial parts ofthe strata, as at a a (which may he of very~t extent), will penetrate through its whole depth, and, tinding no ~ below on account of the basin.like form of the stratum, or from its testing at the lower termination upon a aompact roci', wlil accumulate. The porous strata, therethre, becomes a reservoir to a greater or less extent, and if; by boring through the super. incumbeDt mass, we form an opening into the stratum, as at b, the waterI

I

5CIE~E OF CO'fMO~ TII~G5. 58Xffaot of desinaga opon ~rings. Pre~~ure of water.

will rise in it, and flow over in a jet proportionat to the height o~ the water accumniated in the stratum from whence it flow~

805 What generat effect does the cativatan. and drainage of a coent~~ have n~ the springs?

In a well cultivated and improved conutry the springs are comparatively few in number and not constant. While the face of a country is rough, the rain-water remains long among its inequalities, slowly sinking into the earth to feed the springs, or slowly run-fling away from bogs and marshes towards the rivere; but in a well drained, eountry the water ~ quickly, often producing dangerous floods.aoe How is the ~}ressare of water exerted?

Fqnally in all directions.807 Does water, centainet in a vesse', press with as great force against the sides and tap as against the botton 5

The pressure, in all directions, is the same~08 What is the resnit f a corked e,ap~tottti be hevered into the oceanfor a considorabis ~th SThe cork is g~~eral1y forced inwards at ~ given depth, no matter in what direction the mouth of the bottle may happen to point.809 if the cork is fastened inemoeabZ~ into the botte, what wit be the effect?The bottle will be crnshed inwards by the pressure before it reaches a depth of sixty fee~810 When a sk~ fOen~s in shaiow water, the arec~ on breaking topieces, generatig comesto the surfieco and is cast t£pon the shore; bat when asitpsinheiaver~dopwater, it never rises: whpisthis?The proasure of very ~ water forces the water into the pores 0/ ~ wood, and makes itso heavy that no part of the wreck is enabled to rise again.811 ~ poe sink a cor~ so tep that it wit not rise to the surface again?*At a ~ ~ the water forced by p'esetttr~ into the pore~ of the cork rendera ~ heavy at it ot rise.81~ What is the pressure of water enpressed in ~ibene?

Th~ presanre of water at any depth, whether on the*

I8CTh:N·CE OF COMMON TH~~e.

What ts water?What i~ hard water?sides ~of a vessel or on its bottom, or on any body immersed in it, is nearly one pound on the square inch for every two feet of depth.818 Whattowater?

Water is a ~ com~osed of ouyg~ and kyd~ogo~ in the proportion of cig t parts of oxygen to one part of hydrogen.814 Whg is waterficid?

Because its ~ar~cle8 are kept separate by latent heat; when a ce~ain qnantity of this latent heat is driven out, ~water becomes solid, and is called ice.By increasing its iniant hea~ the particles of water are again iubdi~ded into ~ sease.

815 ~hp is spring water g~ahg catted hard water?"Becanse it is laden with fo~ig~ m~atr8, and will not readily dissolve substances immersed in it.81E What ~ spring or welt water genear~ hard?

When it filters through tlie earth, it becomes impregnated with sul~iate of lime, carbonate of lime, carbonic acid, magnesia, and many other impurities, from the e~t~ oad ~i~rotls with which it comes in contact.817 What is the cease qf mineral springs?

When water trickles through the ground, it &e'80lvte' some of the substances with which it comes in contact; if these substances arc retained in solution, the water will partake of their mineral character.818 When is a mineral water caled a c~~eni PWhen it contains t~, in some form, dissolved in it.819 Mineral springs er~ in alt paris qf cor conn~r~~: what is the natare of the surstanres caaiained in them?

The great majority of them are only e~preg~~e~ wi~ teon, 8alt, or ~ Some few, however, contain many different su~~ces, as the mineral waters of Saratoga.820 Whp are springs containing iron in lwrg8 qnanteties teneficiatto ',.~ invalids?

Because the iron contained in the water acts as a

~, ,85SCIENCE or COMMON ~

?nrity ot water,. Mr in water. Do mhes breatha air?

to~~; that is, it strengthens and invigorates the system.821 What qeantitp of mine-at matter is gene-~ rontairee? in e,,.parative~ pure natarat waters?

Any water which contains Isas ~ of solid mineral matter in a gallon, is considered as ~m~arr~se' ely pt&re. Some natural waters are known so pure that they contain only ~th of a grain of mineral matter to the gallon, but such instances are very rare.Waters obtained from diff~rent snurees m&7 be -d ~ corn parative puntyas ~llows:

Rain water must be considered M the purest narural water, o~eoisliy that which tails in districts remote from towns or habitations; then comes river water; nex~ the water of lakes and pends; next, spring waters; and then the waters of mineral springs. Succeeding these, ere the waters of great arms of the ocean into which immenSe rivers din aharge their volume~ as the water of the Black Sea, whicli is only brackish; then the waters of the ocean itself; then those of the Mediterranean and other inland seas; and last of all, the waters of those lakes which have uo outle~ as the Dead Se~ Caspian, Great Salt Lake of Utah, etc etc.

822 How maci ~ ~ w ~ oe~isst ~ ~ -water?

From Vweat~two Asaaolre~ to tat'e~ty-eigAt Au~dred

823 How maci solid matter is oontaiaed in a galtin of ~from the Dead Sea?

From elevea tAovsan~ to tweiaty~ t~a~ ~osa,s, or nearly one-fourth part of its weight.824 Does air exist in alt natar~ waters?

It does: ~sAes and otAer m~sne a~~mols are dependent on the air which water contains for their existence.825 Wtnid ahsoiate~ pure water art as a poison to afish?

The fish would dte of suffocation in such water.328 Where is the perest water to ~ foend as a nateratprodnrt?

The purest natural water that can be procured is obtained by melting fresAlyf~~ ~ or by reeeiv~ ing rain in clean vessels at a distance from houses.827 Whp isfiowing water not iab~ to ~erome S-.wII~ Because its cu~e~ts oor~ diti'ay 511

to Boa.

aSCI]~(3~ 0? COMMON ThING8.

Spr~g ~ter saerklc& Rain wata; wl,y ~

8~9 What mates waler inh~ and sparile?

The ote~ or g~ contained in it.829 W~ does soa~ water, espeeialt'y, 5ni1ie?Because soap makes water tenacious, and prevents the bubbles from bursting as sOofi as the are ormed.830 When ~ are ~hwa from a~sp~ whp do thep' ascend?

Because they are filled with the wa~ air of the lungs, wliich is llghter than cold air.881 Wh~ is water fresh ~em the wel~ or fonniain more sparkling and refreshing than the same water after it hat leen for some time espased to the air?

All spring and well waters contaiif~~ oar, and ewr~omw ~ di~~~~iyed ji' themThe ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ter, depends upon itstemper~ cold v~ diss~lving and retaining a larger quantity than ~rm Or tepM watere. When cold waters from springs or fountains are exposed to the air, they become elevated in temperature, and the gasas eontained in them escape, rendering the water flat and insipid. The principal agent in imparting a sparkle and freshness to watar is atmo~ ~heric air, and not carhonic acid, as is often supposed and taugh~ The ~uantity of carhonie acid present in ordinary spring w~ters is generally inconsiderallea

882 ~Because the ~ater eontaius 8al~ ~ter8, which deprive the water of a part of its solvent p(~wer.883 Whpisit d'~ttowash wilt soa~in salt water?

Because soap is i'e80lii61e ~ soo'e884 ~ does waier'aaan dirti' Jinen?

Because it dissolves the 8t~isae as it woald dissolve salt.885 Whi' does snap greaig increase the oh~singpoer of water?

Because many stains are of a greasy nature and the alkali of the soap has the power of ~ ~ ~ ~xiatters, and rendering them soluble in water.886 Wh~~rainwaterso~?

Because it is ~ot ~ with e~tAg and ~

887 Whi' is it more eaep to wash wah ~ water than with hard?Because soft water ~ites free1~~ with soap and dissolves it; in hard water the soap ]s either insoluble orw5CIE~~CE O~ COMMON ThINGS.5?!

Acuon of~ap on water.The ~ why ~t?

becomes decomposed. The solvent power of water increases aiso with its purity or softness.888 When we wash with soap in water what chanic~ astton tohes

The soap is resolved into a fa~y ~ and z~' al~i; the alkali dissolves most of the organic sub-stances which constitute the dirt which we wish to remove, and the greasy matter effects by its hibricity an easy washing away of the dissolved matter from other substances.889 Whg do wood ashes render hard water sofi?

Because they contain a powerful alkal~potash, which removes or neutralizes those impurities in the water which rendered it hard and unfit for washing.340 Whp does sngar ar sidt gice afanar to water?

Because the sugar or salt (being separated into ~ery ~ par~olee) ~ate about in t~ie water, and mixes with it intimately.841 WAV does ~. water dinotee sogar and s~ more r~ than codwater?Because the heat of the water assists its ~ ~ ftoa, and opens for the water a passage through the particles of the substance.842 Wh~ is the sea set?

The sea has undoubtedly derived all its salt and other soluble mineral substances byw~k~gs ~ ~Ae l~nd. The streams tbat have flowed into it for ages have been constantly adding to its quantity, until it has acquired its present condition.848 Wh~ is not rain water sa~ atthtgh most of it is esapestied from thesea?Because 8al~ will ~ ev~on'ate, and therefore when sea water is turned into vapor, its 8ul~ is left behind.844 Istheremoreortessofsattinesegspang, ricer, or~?

The saline condition of sea water is ~ exaggeration of that of all ordinary lakes, riv~, and springs; they all contain lm~6 Or ~8 of~, but their contents

--158~IENCE OF COMMON ThIN~.

Salt InkeL Effect of ~t in the ocean. Mlner~ epriog&

are continually changing and discharging themselves into the sea; therefore the salt does not accumulate.845 Is everg take into which rivers fow, and from which there is no ontet erc~t b', eeaparatio~; a satt take?

It is; and it is curious to observe that this condition disappears when an artificial outlet is provided for such waters.Such lakee are t~ Dead Se~ the Caspian, the Sea of Arad, and the Great S~t Lake of Utah, the ealiness of all of which exceeds that of the ocean.84~ What good on~oses does the i,resence of so maci sa~ in the ocean sabeerve?

It~e?sts ~~fr~e,,tpoieit of the water many degrees,~~by diminishing the dai~gerous facility with which fields of ice are formed in the polar regions; it also aids in preventing the c~~ptiosi of ~ water by the accumulation of animal and vegetable remains.847 What are the satatances extracted from the earth whi~ we find in sea water?

The most abundant substance is eom~on saU; next, certain cooabisia~ions of magnesia; then salts of lime, with small proportions of potauk, ~on, ~ and br~ mine.848 Are then substances found in most springeP

With the exception of iodine and bromine, they may be fo~d in small quantities in almost all soriregs and rivers.849 Are those sahetasces ~tch we c~ impurities in water of ang service to animaZ or vegeta~~ egetems?They give to water its fres~ness and soarklingprt1)e~es; pure distilled water is very disegreeable to drink; these substances are also generally beneficial to the Systems of plants and animals, and are absorbed by them with the water.850 Does water form part 0! the oo,npoeitton of most l)odies?It enters directly into the composition of nearly all ~stslliza~le bodies and most organi~ coo~oetnos.851 If the waters of the ocean were not agitated ~ winde, arrente, end ~het wotetd be the ejfrct?

SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.What are tides? Canse of tides. High and low tides.

.159The water would become stagnant.852 Wifl water contaminated with am'ma~ and vegetabti ~ under same circwrnatawee;wsJ%g" itself?

Water contaminated with animal and vegetable matter, if kept for some time, undergoes a ~ontaneoua pttrift~cation, losing its offensive odor and color, and depositmg more or less sediment. Water, for the su~ ply of ships, is well known to undergo this process of purification by fermentation; and the larger the qu{tntity of destructible matter suspended in it, the more complete and rapid is its purification.856 Whatisatide?

A tide is a waine of the whole ocean, which is elevated to a certain height, and then sinks, after the manner of a common wave.854 Whatistheoauseoftides?

The attraction of the san and moon upon the waters of the ocean. The moon being nearest to the earth, her attraction is six times greater than that of the sun. This attraction of the moon raises the waters of the ocean as they come under her influence by the motion of the earth on its axis.855 How many tides are there in a day?

Two in every limar day-a period of 24 hours 49 minutes.856 Wait tides are the lagheet?

The ~ng tides.857 Why are they higher than at other -~&?

Because ~e attn and moon are flien in such a position that they exert their influence together. For every five feet of height in tide prod'#by the moon, the influence of the sun adds one foot. ~858 What are map tides?Low tides.859 Why are map tides &n£'er than other wica?

Because then the sun and moon have su~ ositions that their attractive influence is q~~o8ed to eac£ other;

60 SCIE~~C~ OF COMMON T~G$.~de movemen~ Ebb and dow. Sea wave&

and for every six feet of the moon's tide, the opposite attraction of the sun takes away one foot.seo Dbw fast does the tide wave move?

The rate of movement of the tide wave dependi~ upon the nature and depth of the sea bottom. Witha depth of one fathom, its rate is e~A~ ~slrs pe~ ~oter; an~ with one hundred fathoms, e~hty in~lssp~ ~881 Does the height of the same tide varp in el~ereet ~haes?

The heigi~t of the tide in differeut places depends much on the co#y~cret~~ of the la~t~; the same tide may rise in one place three inches, and in another place thirty feet.882 At what~~doring the eta~ is it high water?

When the ritoon pesses tke nierid~n-that is, when it is nearly vertical over the place-the sea is elevated to the greatest extent, and it is~said to be high water.888 When is it low water?

When the moon is upon the itorzzon., or about six bours after high tide. As the moon passes the me]idian below the horizon, another elevation occurs, so that we have the ebb and flow 6f the tide twice every day.884 How mach later does the tital eh~ andfow oo6t£r each dog?

The thue becomes later every day by about ~<ty helf ~rt~es, which is the excess of a Innar dayabove a solar one: 28~ minutes of the former being equal to ~ minutes of the latter.885 What is the cause of ordinarV sea awees?

The wioid, ptessing unequally on the surface of the sea, depresses one part more than another~; evety depression causes a eorresponding elevation, and these undulations are called u'a~es.It must be remembered that waves have no other than a vertical mattesi~ i.e. up nud down. Any substance, aR a buoy, floating on a wave, is merely elevated and depressed alternately; it does n6t otherwise ohange its place.888 If waves are stationa~i, and only moee up and down, why do they Beem to advance towarets the shore?

This is an oonl~ deceptw~ When a corkscr~ is

SCIFNCE OF COMMON TuJNGS. 61Breakem. 5p~y or waves. suIi~

turned round, the thread appears to move forward; and the apparent onwar~ motion of the waves of the sea is a similar dehision.367 What is the cause of breakers?The interference of rock8 or rieieiis ban~ in the sea with the regul~ form of tlie wave, by which the outline or cnrve of the wave is broken.368 What comes the sprap of waves?The wv~ driving the eurfaoo of the water from the

aito~~rfetchti?ong~wave~ and scattering the small particles in869 What is the surf?When the shore nins out very shallow for a great extent, the breakem are distingijished by the name of

870 What do we ~now concerning the magnitude and velscitp of ocean waves?

On the Aflautic, during a storm, the waves rise to a height of about fort~~ivefeat above the hollow occupied by the ship; the t6tal distance between the crests of two large waves being 559 feet, which distance is passed bythe wave in about seventeen seconds of time.

871 With what vehuty is it estimated that saci ~ wanes as the atove descrihed travel?

At the rate of about tki~y-vwo ia~p~ ~r.Awave is ~ and notathing; the/or,n adyanoas, but not the 8n~stance of the wave~872 If aco~ at the erirenity of aptpe 1}e ~ cloeed while water as. rnnning termak, why is a noise and shock ~Because the fo~w~ol nwlion of the whole body of the water contained in the pipe being eiitt~tly osrre8~, and the momentnm of a Iiquid being as great as that of a solid, the water strikes the cock with as much force as if it were a bug bar of metal, or a rod of wood having the ~ame weig~~ and ~looivy as the water. Then, as a fluid presses equally in all directions, ~ leaden pipe of great length may be widened, Or even burst in the experimen~62Wby ~ floa~ and jion ~ in water.8dIENc~ OF COMMO~ TH~GS.

platinum and bydroge~PCRAPTEB II.SPECIFIC GRA~.

878 Whp does icefloat upon water?

Because it is ligAter than Water.874 Why does iran sink in water?

Because it is ke~vier than water.875 If we putapiece of ice in alcoho4 itainks; t'to8pstG~oI iron upon qutaketeer, itfows: why is this?

Becaune the i'e ~ Ae~ar than the alcohol, and the iroa it' light&r than the quicksilver.876 What do we mean, when we say that ice is Ighter than iron?

We mean that, taking egu~ bulke of each, the former weighs less than the latter; and when we say that qm.c~silver is heavier than water, we mean that, in e~ual volurne8, as a pint, for instance, the quicksilver has a greater weight than the water.877 W~ th ~ ~ graneti?It is the weigAt of a body compared with the weight of an equal bulk of water.878 ll~w does it dzfferfrom ordi~rp or atovItte weight?

In ab~olute weigkt no re~~ is paid to the ~olume or bu~ of substances. In sy ifie' weight, a given bulk or volume is compared with an equal volume or bulk of water.879 What~hasthe~~~ht?

Pura~d plati~, which is 22 times heavier than an equal bulk of water.

880 What sn~tance has the smallest spec~ weight?

Jfydroge~ g~, being O~OOOO8. lighter than an equal bulk of water.881 Why will an egg float in strcng ~ and not infresh water?

Because the solution of a solid in any liquid increases its ~auy, or its ~fto graviVy: the addition of salt

neSCIENCE OF COMMON ThINGS. 63Swimming in fresh smd nit water UnstiW~I swimme~

to the water, renders the specific gravity of the brine greater than that of fresh water, or of the egg.882 How do coche sometimes ascertain f thair brine le salt enoagh for;ickling?

They put an egg nato ~ b~ie. If the egg ~ the brine is ~ 8Vroag enosttgk; if the egg ~ate, it ~.888 Wh~ will an egg sinh, Cf the brine ~ not strong eneagh j~rpic~ Zing?Because an egg will be the ke~~ser; but if as much 8al~ be added as the water can dissolve,an egg will be lighter than the strong brine, and consequentiyfi6at on the surface.884 Wh~ is it more e~ to swim in the sea than in a river?Because the ~ gravi~y of salt water is grea~ than that of fresh; and, therefore, it bstoy8 up the swimmer better.885 Why do ~ascns SiCh in water when they are ~Zilfd swimmers?Because they struggle to keep their ~ ~water.886 ~hinhowthisis?

When otr head is thrown back boldly into the water, our mouth is kept above ~e 8nrfaoe, and we are able to breathe; but when the head is kept above tAe ~rof the water, the chin and mouth sink b~~k it,dthe swimmer is suffocated.This mny be ifiustrated thus:~ a picce of wood be of Such specific ~ravity that only two ~earo inther can float out of water, it is manifest, that if two other Inches are reised out, the two fmmer inches must be plunged in. The body (in floating) resembles this piece of wood~ If two square inches of ourface float out of the water, we Oan breathe; but if part of the l}aci and crown of the head are raised above the water, the lower part of the r~: will be depressed beneath it.

887 Why can qtad~pcds swim more easily than man?1. Because the frunk of quadrupeds is hgk~ than water, and this is the greater part of them; and

2. The po~~ of a beast (when swimmiug) is ~ral one.888 Why is it more dC~jbr a man to -sn t?aa~ a heast?1. Because his body is more he~vy in proportion thanthatofabea&t; and

64 SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.How tshes ssoend Bnd de~end in water. Life boa~ Cream on mllk~

2. The position and muscular action of a ;;~r~' (when swimming) differ greatly from his ordinary habits; but beasts swim in their ordinary position.889 Whp can fat neen swim more easily than spare men?

Because f~ is lig~ter than wate~; and the fattes' a maii is, the more buoyant will he be.890 i7~as arefishes dIe to ascend to the surface of water?

Fishes have an ai~blarlasr near the abdomen; when ~is blad~er is ~lled u'ith air, the fish increases in size and (being lighter) ascends through the water to its surface.891 How arefshes ahIe to dive in a minute to the lottom Of a stream?

They ~pel ~ir from~hcir a~b1adder; in consequence of which their ~ is di~~isketl, and they sink instantly.89~ Why does the iody of a drowned ~erson rise and foat u,on the surface several onys afier death S

Because, from the accumulation of gao within the body (caused by incipient putrefaction), the body becomes specifically lighter than water, and rises and floats upon the surface.898 Hew are lsfe.looispreventelfremsi~ng?

They contain in their sides air-tight ~ or filled with air, which by their buoyancy prer~t the boat from sinking even when it is filled widi water.894 The slaves of the West Indies have a ~lan of stealing reemfrom a cas~ It inserting the tong nech of ~ lo~te, fdll of water, throegh the leng. Hen' er' they ~d in this manner to obtain the reem?The 1~~is very much lighter than ~e ~; and as the ~ ~ater falls ont of the bottl~ in~ the cask, the lighter riem rises to take its place.895 Why does cream rise upon melk?

Because it is composed of particles of ~ or.fatty matter, which are lighter than the ~ particles of the milk.896 Why do stale eggsfoatt~po~~ water?

Because, by keeping, air is substituted for a portion of ~ of the egg, which escap~

IrSCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 65Iron ~blp& ~evemeat Of Stones in Water. Capillary sttr~tjen.

897 Why does not a vessel constructed of iron sink, as the iron is much heavier than the water I

Because the vessel is constructed in a coacave form, and is thus rendered buoyant. Every substance becomes h~hter in water, in Pr~Or~onto~e amosen~ of water d~laceol'. This is a law of nature: if it displaces less water than its weight in air, it sinks; if more, it floats. The ship, being concave, displaces a greater weight of water than the weight of the iron of which it is composed in the air.A thick piece of iron, weighing half sn ounce, loees in water nearly one-eighth of its weight; hut if it is haenmered cut into a plate or vessel, of such a size that it occupies eight times as much space as before, it then loses its whole weight in water, and will float, sinking just to the brim. ~ made twice as large, it will displace one ounce of water, consequently, twice its own weight; it will then sink to the middle, and can be loaded with half an ounce weight before sinking entirely.

898 Why are stones, graset, and sand so easily moved hy, waves and eurrente?

Because the moving water has only to overcome about kalf ~ wei;'A~ of the stone.899 Why can a sione whach, on land, regaires the strength of two men to hfi' it, he lgisd and cerreed in water ly one man?

Because the water Aol~e t£p ~e atone with a force equal to the weight of the volume of water it displaces.

OXAPTEB III.C~ILLARY ATInACTION.

400 Why does water melt salt?

Because very Ihinute particles of water insinuate themselves into the ~orea of the salt by ~ a~ lraetion, and force the crystals apart from each other.401 Why does water melt sugar?

Because very minute particles of w~ter insinuate

66 5CTh~~CE OF COMMON THINGS.Waterlog p~t& Getton Iamp-wie~ Blotting paper ab8orba ink.

themselves into the pores of the sugar by capillary a~~ac~on. ~d force the crystals apart from eacli o~ier.&402 What is copillary attractian 5

The power which very minute tubes possess of causing liquid to riee in them above it8 level."Capillary," from the Latin word, "cnpillaris" (like a hair); the tubes referred to are almost as fine and delicate as a hair. Water ascends thro~gh a lump of sugar or piece of sponge, by capillary attraction.N. B. The smaller the tube, the higher will the liquid~he attracted by it. ~. 18 illustrates the manner in whioh water will n~ in tubes of diffemELt dietena408 Why is vegetateon on the margin of a river more lururiant than in an ooenfiell?

Because the porous earth on the bank deawe up wate'r to the roots of the plants by eas'illary a~raction.404 Why do persons who water plants very often pour the water into the saucer, and not over the plants S

Because the water in the saucer is drawn up by the inould (thro~gh the hole at the bottom of the flower-pot), and is transferred to the stem and leaves of the i)Tant by capillary attraction.405 Why is cotton lest adopted for lamp-wicks?

Because the arrangement of the fibres of the cotton-wick is such, that the whole forins a ~undle of minute tu6es, in which the oil ascends and supplies the flame by carn~ attraction.408 Wh~ does llottingpapsr alserl ink?

The ink is drawn up between the minute ~/~bree of the paper by caoillary attraction.407 Why will not writing or sized paper ahearI ink?

Because the eizing, being a species of glue into whi cli writing papers are dipped,~up the litae intereticee or epaces between t~~oe,and in this way prevents all capillary attraction.408 Hew does a sponge absorb water?F

SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 67

Dre wood swele In water. Solntioo of Bnb8taflooL LiquidBand gwes.

The pores of the sponge constitute ~ litebes in which the water rises by capillary attract~n.409 Why does dry wced, immersed in water, swell?

Because the water enters ~heporas of wood by capillary attraction, and ~orces the parti~ ft~rther ~par~ from each other.410 Whp does sugar or salt give a favor to water?

Because the sugar or salt (beiug separated into ve~ ~ minute particles) ~ats about the water, and with it intimately.411 Why does hot water dissolve sugar and sale more readely than cold water?Because the heat of the water assists its solvent action, and openel for the water a passage through the particles of the substance.

CHAPTEIR Iv.THE GENERAL PROPERTIES OF AERIEORM OR GASEOUS

RODIES.

412 What is the osiference hetween a ligmd and a gas?

The distinction between liquids and those~more elastic fluids which we term air, gas, vapor, steam, etc., depends principally on heat an(1 pressurs. Thus, w~ ter, according to the addition or subtraction of heat, may exist as a solid, ice; as a liquid, water; or as a vapor, steam.41~ Under what pressare of the atmosohere is water converted into stecon?

Under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, water is converted into steam at 212 degrees, Fahrenheit's thermometer; if thia pressure is increased, it requiresF-

68 SC~NCa OF COMMON THINGS.Varieties of ~eous bodies. Oompesiuon of tbe atmosphere. Air porous.

a proportionably higher temperature; if this pressure is diminished, the amount of heat required is propor tionably less.414 How manv ~nis of aereferm or gaseous ~odies ecbt in nature?

Those whic19 under oommou oir~mstonce8 of tonend pres~re, are ~ways in a gaseous state,as common air; and those which become gases okiefty a~ ki;'~ ~ as steam, or vapor of water.415 Are 011 gases invneh''le or colarhess ~ atmospheric air?

Some gases possess color, but the greater number are colorless and invisible.416 Of what is atmospheric air consposed 7

Principally of two gases, o~g'~ and ~trogaa, mixed together in the following proportion: viz. one volume of oxygen to four of nitrogen.It must not be forgotten tnat the air contains small quantities of otlier gaseous substances also, as vapor qf water, carlonic aci~ and ammonia,

417 Do the particlas of which atmospheric air and ether gaseous bodies are composed, appear to have any cohesion ~etween themeelves?

The ultimate particles of which air and other gases are composed appear to be destitute of cohesion; hence air has a disposition not only to sink down and spread out laterally, like liquids when unconfined, but also to expand and rise upwards.418 Istheairperous?

Yes; in a v~ ks;'k do;i'reo.

419 Hee'dowe i,n,w' this fact?

Because air readily yields to pressure, and a great bulk of it may be forced to occupy a very small space.420 Is air also impenetrable?

Yes; beyond ~ ogrtaia limi~ it cannot be compressed.421 How m'ch bghter as'. steam than ordinary air?

Steam has but little more than heelf the wei;'~t of aimo~heric ai~; and hence it rises and floats in the air as a cork rises and floats in water.

5CIENCLC OF CO~MOX TUINGS.69~Vhat is the atmosphere?

CIIAPTE~why meiletains appear hine.

AT~O5PIIE~~.

422 What do we anderaland hy the atenesphere?

The thin transparent fluid which surrounds the earth to a Considerable height above its surface, and which, by its peculiar constitution, supports animal life by respiration, and is also necessary for the due exercise of the vegetable f~nctions.423 Is the atmosphere inenThie?

It is generally, but erroneously, so regardci T~ a~moip~ere iv yto~ i~vivible.424 How can you prove that the atenosphere is not invinhie?

Because when we look upwards into the firmament on a clear day, the space appears of a~ az~re or clear OOlor.This color beIon~ not to anjething which occupies the space in which the stars or other c~estiil objects nre placed, but to the mass of air through which tbe bodies are seen.425 Why do distant mou~eens appear hiete?

Xot because it is tiieir color, but because it is ~ color of t4e air ~Aroug~ wMcA ~ are veest.42~ Has air weight?

J~ ~ov; as well as lead, stone, or any other material substance.427 Hotv can this ~ renlt7y proved?

By weighing a vessel filled with air, and the same vessel after the air has been exhausted from it.428 Can the eristence of air he known hy the sense of touch or feeling~

It can; since it opposes reeieta~ee wAen aoie~ ~ and strikes with a fo~ce proportionate to the speed of its motion.429 Why do we always feet a hreeze on the deck of a ettaisloat in notion, even upon the catenest day 5

Because our bodies forcibl~ displace the air ~ we are carried tArou~A ~t.

4

SCIE~CR O~ COMMO~ THINGS.Heig~t of the atmo~phere~ weight of the atinosphere.

480 How are waves of the ocean produced

By the force of ~ke air i~ mo~io~, or wind strIking upon the surface of the water.481 Could a hird fly in a space devoid of air, even s! it could ertet without repO.etien9

It could ~o~; as the bird rises simply by the resie~ ance of the particles of air to the beating of its wings.482 How do we know that air is elastic?

Because a volume of compressed air, the pressure being removed, immediately restores itself to its original biilk.488 When is air said to he rarefied?

When a given quantity of air is caused to expand and occupy a greater space, it is said to be rarefied.When a part of the air inclosed in any vessel is withdrawn, titat which remains, expanding by its e]astic property, niways fills flie dimunsions of the vessel us complotokv as hofore. ~f nine4unths were withdrawn, thu remaining one-tenth would occupy the same space that the whole did formerly.

484 What is the height of the atniosphere alare the surface of the earth?

It is supposed to be about 45 milee; the zone or shell of air which surrounds the earth to the height of nearly 2~ miles from its surface, contains one-half of the atmosphere; and the remaining half being relieved of this superincumbent pressure, expands into another zone or belt Qf the thickness of 41 or 42 miles.~ome authorities suppose this last zone to havo a much greater area. 485 What is the weight of air compared with that of water?

Water is about 840 ~mee the weight of air, taken ~ulkfor bulk.48G What is the estimated weight of the whole atmosphere enveloping the glohe?

To the weight of a ~obe of lead aixty milee i~ dietme~er.48~ As air has weight, and as the mess of it eatenos at least 45 miles ahove the earth's surface, whet amount of pressure does it ezert 5

At the level 0/ tile ocean the atmosphere exerts a pressure of about 15 pounds for' every e~uare incil of eeies-faoi.

scurxcu or COMMON 'THINGS. '71Presure of air. vacuum.

438 Jf the cir were condeosed, so Os to occopy no wore space then the sane weight of water, to how great au elevatina clove the earth would it ectesel ~To an elevation of tltietyfourfee~.439 Iu what direction is the pressure of the atmaphere erertet I

Jt is the nature of a fluid to transmit pressure in eve~y direction e~ually; therefore the air presses ~pward8, downword~, laterally, and obli~uely, with the same force.440 How greet a pressure is e~erted hy the air ispen the ~ody of a wan or animal having a surface of 2000 square inches?~ot less than 30,000 po~n1si, or abut 15 ton&441 Why is not the individuel creshed heneath so enormous a lend I

Because the atmoepliere ~C88~8 c~ztally in all direetion8, and otir boelie8 are ~lled with liqtiid8 capable of sustaining pressure, or with air of the 8ame density as the external air; so that the erternal pressure is met and counteracted by the internal resistance.449 Whet seould lv the effect upon a man or animal if at once relieved of all atmeipheric pressure?All the blood and ~ids of the body would be fo~ed ly e~ansion to the suface, and Uie auimal wouid burst.448 What do ice wean ly a vecaumiA space de~oid of all matter; in general, we mean by a vacuum, a space devoid of air.444 Can a perfect vacuum ~ produced eriwicially?~o; but confined spaces may be deprived of air sufficiently for all experimental or practical purposes.445 Are Ciere any issstances of a vacuum in nature I

There is no reason for supposing that the spaces which exist between the van~s planets and other heavenly bodies, are occupied with any material substance.446 Is the eristence of air necessory te the production of sound I

It is; in a vacuum there can be no sound; and on the top of high mountains, where the air is greatly rarefied, as on Mont Blanc, the report of a pistol can hardly be heard.

5cIENC~ or COMMON THINOS.

How flies walk on the ceiling. How we breathe.

447 Why 55 ii often paiofsl and dcffico~ to treathe on a mountain-too?

Because, owing to the ex~eme rari~ of the air on the top of the mountain, a person, although expanding his chest as much as usual, really takes in only half as much air as he does when at the foot of the mountain.44~ If the lips te applied to the hack of the hand, and the treath drawn in so as to produce a partial vacuum in the mouth, why will the skin he drawn or sucked in 5~ot from any force resident in the lips or the mouth drawing the skin in, but from the fact that the usual external pressure of air is removed, and that the presisurefeosa u,it~i~ die 8kiTh is suffered to prevail.449 How is a tog enahled to left a stone lii means of the common sucker?

The sucker consists of a di8k of moi8tefleol lea~Jier, with a string by which it may be suspended with any weight attached to it. If its smooth moist surface be pressed so closely against flie flat side of a stone or other body that the air cannot enter between them, the weight of the atmosphere pressing upoa ~ie upper surface of the leather makes it adhere so strongiy, that a stone of weight proportioned to the extent of the disk of leather may be raised by lifting the string.450 How are flies end other small insecto enatled to walk on ceilings and surfaces presented downwards, or upon smooth panes of glass in an upright position?Their feet are formed in such a manner that they ad ots email air-pumpe or euckero, excluding the air between them and the surface with which they are in contact; and the atmospheric pressure keeps the animal in position.451 Why in treathing do we first draw in the treath, Os it is ter~wed?Because by so doing we make an enlargeol enace in t~e eAe8~, and the pree8ure of tke ex~rnttl ot~moeoAere forces the air in to fill it.The air entors the lungs, not because they draw it in, but by use weight of the atmosphere forcing it into an empty space.

45~ How is the air caused to escape from the lungs?Simply by means of its elaedci~; the lungs by

SOTEXCE Op coMMo~ TIIINGS.73

Wliy jug gurgles. Air in water5

mnscnlar action compress the air contained in them and give to it by compression a greater elasticity than the air without. By the excess of the elasticity it is propelled, and escapes by the mouth and nose.453 Why do~ a toitle or jag gurgle srhne houjet is freely poured from it.~

On account of the pr~88ure of t/~ a(mo8pheroforo~ng air into the interior of the bottle. hi 4ie first instance, the neck of the bottle is tilled with liquid, so as to stop the admission of air. When a part has flowed out, and an empty space is formed within the bottle, the atmospheric pressure forces in a bubble oj air through the liquid in the neck, which, by rushing suddenly hito the interior of the bottle, produces the sound.454 How long wilt a ~ottle continue to gargle?So lony a8 ~ke neck cOfl~flUC8 ~ be o~oke~ wi~~ liyui~ But as the contents of the bottle are discharged, the liquid, in flowing out, only partially fills the neck; and, while a stream passes out throngh the lower half of the neck, a stream of air passes in thr~igh the upper part. The flow being now continued and uninterrnpted, no sound takes place.455 Does air erist in woter?Water, and most liquids exposed to the air, abeorb ~ greater ar 1e88 q~an~ty, which is maintained in them by the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the surface.458 Why is holled woterfiot and insipid?Because the ayene~ of tt~e iteat e~e7t tI~ air which the water previously contained.457 Coold fishes and other marine onimale live in water deprived of Oir?

T~y ooul~ no~ as they breathe the air contained in the water.458 Why do ale, porter, and cider froth, and champagne sparkle when uncurked and poured into an open vessel?When these liquors are bottled, the air confined under the cork io oonclen8eo', and exerts upon the surface a preteure greater than that of the atmosphere.

5CIENCF OF COMMON THINOS.FrothIng of ale. Sparkling of champagne. Meteorology.

This has thc effect of llOl(lin g, ill colnbination with tile liquor, air or gas wilicli, under tile atmosphene pressure only, would escape. If any air or gas rise fi~om the liquor after being bottled, it causes a still greater condensation, and an increased pressure above its surface. When the cork is drawn from a bottle containing liquor of this kind, the air fixed in the liquid, beilig released fi~m the pressure of the air which was condensed under ~ie cork, instantly makes its escape, and, rising in bubbles, produces effervescence and froth.459 Why do hottin coutah~ing ale, cittec, porter, &c., frequcutly l)arol ~

It is the nature of these liquids to produce giel or atr in considerable quantities, tke diestto force of wh;c~ sometimes becomes greater than the cohesive strength of the particles of matter composing the bottle, wiucli then necessarily gives way, or bursts.450 Why does one kind of lionoc froa, and another kind only soackle?

Those uquors only whi~i are vtsc;cl, ~l~t~ntotie, or tkicic, frotA, because they retain the little bubbles of air as they rise; while a thin liquor, like champagne, suffers the bubbles to escape readily.

CHAPTER VI.ATMOSPIIFRIICAL PHENOMENA.

451 What designotion do coo gice to that deportment of scioucs which treats of the various phenomena of the alcnosphere?

~Ieteorology.462 rnco is the oir heated?

In two ways ; either by the rays of the sun passing through it, or by the heat communicated to it by the earth.

SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 75Air, bow boated ond cooled.Origin of wiod~

483 In what manner is the air heated hy the earth?The sun heats the ear~, and the ear~k heats the air ~istsng upO~ ~t; the air thus heated rises, and is succeeded by otker air, which is heated in a similar way, till the whole volume is warmed.484 How is the air made coid?The air resting on the earth is made cold by eoa~o~; this c6ld air makes the air above i~ cold; and cold cur-rents (or winds) cause the whole to mix together, until all becomes of one temperature.485 Whar effect is produced upon air hy coid?It is 00nde~sed or compacted into a smaller compass; in consequence of which i~ becomes Aeavier, and descends towards the ground.488 Prove rhar rho air is condensed ~y cohd.Lay a bladder half full of air before a fire, till it has become inflated; if it be now removed f~m the fire, the bladder will colloose again, because the air condenses into its former bulk.487 What effects has hear upon air?

'lent rareftes or makes it tighter; that is, a quantity of air heated will occupy more space than the same ~uantity which has been cooled.488 What is wind IWind is air pu~ in mo~s.on.489 Whar occasions those mocensents of the air which We ca~ wind?

The principal ca'ise is the variation of temperaturo produced by the alternation of day and night and the succession of the seasons.470 How can winds originate through variations of temperature?

When through the agency of the sun a particular portion of the earth's surface is heated to a greater degree than the remainder, the air resting upon it becomes rarefied dud ascends, while a current of cold air rushes in to supply the vacancy. Two currents, the one of warm air flowing out, and the other of cold ah flowing in, are thus continually produced; and to these

SCIENCE OF Co~Th~ON THINGS.

Wind alWSys blows. Effect of nOUntainS ~ wiods.

movements of the atmosphere we apply the designation of wtietl.471 ~oes the wind always Ilow I

Yes; there is always soma wo~o~ in the ah-; but the violence of the motion is pei~etually varying.47~ Does the rotation of the earth upon ite axis o~ect the motitn of the air I

Yes, in ~wo ways: 1. As the earth moves round its axis, the thin movable air is left somewhat bcAintl, and tiierefore seems (to a stationary object) to be blowing in the opposi~ direction to the earth's motion; and~. As the earth revolves, diffe~n~ portions of its surface are continually passing under the vertical rays of tAo sun.478 When are the rays of the sun called vertical rays I

When the sun is in a direct Zinc above any place, his ~ays are said to be "vertical" to that place.474 When the sun is vertical or nearly over head at any place, what time of day is it at thai place I

Noon.475 How does a change in the heat of air produce wind?The air always seeks to oreser~e ala eguil~uia; so ~ld air rushes into the void made by the ~ward curvent of warin air.

476 Why tees uct the wind always tlow one way, following the direction of the sun?

Because the direction of the wind is subject to perpetual interruption from Aills and valleys, deserts, seas, &C477 How can hille or mountains aifret or change the direction and course of the wind?

If a current of air, blowing from a particular direction, strike against the side of a mountain, it will necessanly be de~ctedfroin a straigAt line, and must either oscend the mountain, turn lack, or assume a lateral direction.47~ Why are those winds which ~low over large ctntinents or tracts Of land generally dry I

SCFENCE OF COMMON TH'N~S.

velocity ci wiod~.Force ci winds.

Because in their passage they ~1)8or~ very litac waler, as they do not blow over large oceans.479 Why do our handc and t~s chop inf~ty and windy weather IBecause the wind or frost absorbs the rnoA~nre from the surface of the skin; and t~i8 ae~on of u'sntl or fro8t proolnoes ec k~tl of ~ft~m~c£1~on Ol~ t~C skin.480 W~~ud the wind Ilow regulorly from east to west cf all olatructions were resnoced 5.Without doubt. It' the whole earth were covered with water, the winds would always fol~w ~8 8U~, and blow uniformly in one fzreetiom.481 ~o winds ever ~low regolorly IYes, in those parts of the world which present a l~rge suiface of water, as in tite Atlantic and PacIfic Oceans.48ta With whot velocity do win do move I£cer~ graIuat~n exists in the speed of winds, from the mildest zephyr to tlie most violent hurricane.483 With what velocity does a wind which is hardly perceptihle move?With a velocity of about oi?C ritile per /tottr, ~d with a perpendicular force on one s(1liare foot of 005 lbs. avoirdupois.484 Iv a gentle wind, what is the velocity and estiniated pressure?Fromfour toftve m~esper ~our, and a force of 079 to 1~3 lbs.*485 In a very Irish wind, whot is the velocity ond pressnre IFrom ~wen~y ~ ~wenty-}~ec ti~1es per itour; force 1~9 to 3~07 lbs.486 Whet is the velocity ondprwcnre of the wind in a storm?From ftf~y ~ t~ir~ tmt7es per hour, with a pressure of7 to 12' lbs.487 Jo a hurricane, who~ is the estinioted velocity and pressure I

From et~h~ ~o one httndre~ miles per hour, with a vary~g force of 31 to 50 lbs.

* jil tlioso ostimatos tlie prossura is computed per squnre foot in pounds uvoirdupois.4*

mSOIENOE OF COMMON THINGE.

Movements of clonds. Trade winds and tileir location.

488 Why do we sometimes see clonds ot one elevation moving in one direction, ond at another elecation, at the some time, others awnog in a contrary direction 5

Because tltfferen~ eltrrents of r1~ exist at dtj{erent ele~a~on8, moving in different directions, witli different velocities.In 1839, an English soronant, at tbo boigbt of 14,000 foot, encountorod a curront that born him along at tho rate of five miles por hour; hut, upon dooconding to the nititudo of 12,000 feet, be root with a contrary wind, blowing witis a velocity of eighty miles per hour.

489 How is the force of the soind ascertained SBy observing the arnonn~ of pre8sure ~at it exerts ~pon a given plane surface pe~pendiczilcir ~ jt8 own diree~ion.If the pressure plate acts fre~y upon spiral springs, ibe power of the wind is denoted by the extent of thoir compresslolt, and that weight will be a measnre of thair force, the same as in weighing by tho ordinary sprhig.halance.

490 Whet is en instromeni for mensaring the force of the wind called I

An Anetmome~r.491 Whet ore tlte constant winds whirls 110w over the Atlentic and Pacuic Oceans called SThey are called "~atle-w~~tl8."492 Why ore they called trade-winds?Because they are very cotivenient to nttv'1~~~r8 who have to cross the ocean, itiasmucil as they always blow in one ~irectton.498 In what direction do the toads-winds lhw S

That in the northern hemisphere blows from the north-east ; that ill tile southern h~nisphere from the south-east.494 Do trade-winds Ilow from the north-east end south-east all the veer round S

Yes, tm ~ open 8e~; that is in the Atlantic and Pact~c oceans, for about 250 each side of the equator.495 Where olo the trade-winds liow with unsform force and constancy?Jn matiy parts of ~ie Pacitic embraced within the region of tiie trade-winds, a vessel may 8~il for ot week without ~~ring t~e po~ltton of ci scii~ or rope.

SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.

Cause of sea breezes North and south wiod~ 490 Why does a sea Ireeze feel cool I

Because tile sun cannot make the surface of the 8d~ so hot as the laitd; therefoFe the air wiuch blows from the sea is cooler ~ ~ air of ~e lard.497 Why is there generally a fresh Ireeze from the sea during ~ summer and autumn mornings I

Because lard is igore hea~d by ~e 8UH than the 8~ is; and the land air becomes hotter than that over the sea; in consequence of which the cooler sea air glides inland to restore the equilibrium.498 Why are the west winds in the Atlantic States generally dry?

Because they come over large ~ac~ of land, and therefore absorb very ls~le water; and being thirsty, they Feadily imbibe moisture from the air and clouds and therefore bring dry w~at~er.499 Why is the north wind generally cold?

Because it comes from the polar regions, over mountains of snow and seas of ice.500 Why are norih winds generally dry I

Because they come from colder regions, and being warined by the heat of our climate, ab8orb inoistl£r~ from everything they touch; in consequence of which they are generally dry.501 Why are south winds generally warm?

Because they come over countries warmer than our own, where they are much heated.50~ Why are winds which Ilote over a vnst lody ofwater generally rainy P

Because they come laden with racer; ii, therefore, they meet with the least c~ill, some of the vapor is deposited as rain.503 Why is the,-e oftess an evening Ireeze during the summer months?

Because the earth radiates ~eat a~ sunset, and the air is rapidly cooled down by contact; this condensation causes a motion in tAc air, called the evening breeze.504 Why do south winds ofen Iring rain?

Because, coming from the torrid zone, they are much1

80 SCIENCE Ov COMMON mrl~~G5.Effect of tbe winds on am Weather. HurricaneL

hea~ed, and absorb ~'a~r very plents~illy as they pass over the ocean.505 Ilew does this account for the rainy character of south winds?As soon as they reach a cold climate they are aoi~ deitsed, and can no lo~gQr hold all their vapor in smpension; in consequence of which some of it is deposited as rain.508 Why are dry winds in the spring monthe desiralle and advanlageons for agricultural operations?

They dry t~e soti saturated with the moisture of winter, break ~ ~e keavy clods, and fit the land for the osed committed to it.507 Why is afine clear dan sometimes overcast in afew minutes?

Because some sudde~ oha~ge of ~~era~ura has condensed the vapor of the air ~ clouds.508 Why are cloods somctio?es dissinated very suddenly?Because some ~ wird (blowing over the clouds) it~b;bes Micir tnoistu<i'e, asid carries it off in invisible vapor.509 Why does wind su~etimes iring rain, and sonnetijoes fins sceather?

If the wind be colder ~ ~e clouds, it will condense their vapor into rasm; but if the wind ts warsaer ~ the douds, it will dtssdve them and cause them to disappear.510 What is a hurricane?

The hurricane is a re~narkalle storin w;nd, peculiar to certain portions of the world. It ras-cly takes its rise beyond the tropics, and it is the only storm to dread within the region of the trade-winds.511 How are hurricanes especially distingunshed from other kinds of tempests?By their extent, ~rress.sttlle power, and the ~dden changes that occur in the ds.rectson of the wind.512 Do any particular portions of the tropies appear to la especially Visited witil hurricanes IIn the northern hemisphere, the hurricane most freq~entiy occurs in the regions of the TWest Indies; in

SCIENCE OE COMMON ThI~G5. 81

what are burncaues~ Breadth and ve~ocity efhurrieaues.

the southern hemisphere, it occurs in the neighborhood of the ~ctur~~u8.513 flu the hurricanes occur at particular seasons?

The West Indian occur from Aug~e~ ~ Odober; the Mauritian from i~bru~ry ~o Aprzl.514 What have recent investigntiois shown the hurricanes to he?

~x~dn8~d slorme of wird, which revolve roun~ a~ cieje either upright or inclined to the horizon; while at the same time the body of the storm has a progredsvve smo~on over the surface of the ocean.515 Ilinstrate wore clearly the wanner in which a hurricone woves?

It is the nature of a hurricane to travel ro~~fl(l ~rd ~ound as well as forwar(l, mu~ as a corkscrew travels through a cork, only the circles are all ftyt, and described by a rotatory wind upon the surface of the water.513 In what direction would a ship revolving in the circles of a hurricane find the wind?

As the ship revolved, she would in turn find the wind blowing from every po~~ of ~e Comoad8.517 What is known concerning the distance travelled hy hurricanes?

The distance traversed by these terrible tempests is immense. The great gale of August, 1830, which occurred at St. Thomas on the 12th, reached the Banks of Xewtoundland on the 19th, having trave]led more than ~kree ~Aou8und ~au~e~l m~e8 'Th 8C~Cfl day~; the track of the Cuba hurricane of 1814 was but little infenor in length.518 What is known of their progressive and rotary velocity?

Their progressive velocity is from 8eve~ton to forty ~iles per hour; but distinct from the progre~e~ve velocity is the rotary, which increases from the exterior boundary to the centre of the storm, near which pohit the force of the tempest is greatest,.the wind sometimes blowing at the rate of o~e Aun~red mi7es per hour.519 How great is the trenclth of t~ hurricane?

The surface simultaneously swept by these tremendous whirlwinds is a vast circle varying from one hundre~ to five huntlre~ ~ilee in diameter.

82 SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.Toniadoes~esuse ci Eddies in water~

520 How great is the surface over which they prevail IMr. I~edfleld, of New York, has estimated the great Cuba hurricane of 1844 to have been not less than eig~~ ~undred mz7e8 in breadth, and the area over which it prevailed during its whole length was corn-puted to be ~wo militonfour Aun~red ~Aousard v~uare iniles-an extent of surface equal to two-thirds of that of all Furope.521 What curious fact have mariners noticed when in the centre or vortex of the horricmse IAn awful ca7o~ prevails, described as the lull of the tempest, in which it seems to have rested only to gather strength for greater efforts.522 Iv what respect does a tornado dsff'er from a hurricane I

Tornadoes may be regarded as hurricanes, differing chiefly in respect to their eon~nuanoe and eaten~523 How long do they usuagy inst IFrom ffton ~ seventy secords.

524 What is their extent?Their breadth varies from afew rods ~ several ~undred yards, and the length of their coui~se rarely exceeds twenty miles.525 What phenomena generally attend them?The tornado is generally preceded by a calm and sultry state qf tAe atmo~~ere, when suddenly the whirlwind appears, prostratiny everything before it. Tornadoes are usually accompanied with thunder and lightning, and sometimes showers of hail.526 What is supposed to he the origin of tornadoes?

They are supposed to be generally produced by the lateral action of an Opoossng wind, or the influence of a brisk gale upon a portion of the atmosphere in repose.527 How are the eddies or whiripoole produced sohich occur in water, and which in Oseir formation resemble some tornadoes?Fddies or whirlpools are most fre~iently formed in water when two streams flowing unequally meet. They may be seen at the junction of two brooks or rivers.

5c~NcE or COMMON TI-lINGS. 83watersponts. ~by winds teel cool. what are clouds I

528 How are toe whirlwinds which we ~egasntly see at the corners of streets in citios produced 5They are caused by a gui~ of u'iittl sweeping round a corner of a building, and striking the calm air beyond it.529 What is a waterspont SA waterspout is a u'~irlw;nel over ~e ciurface of water, and differs from a whirlwind on land in the fact that water ts subjec~ed to the action of the wind, iustead of objects on the surface of the earth.

580 Why choes wind generally fee~ co~ 5

Because a oonstona~e4an~~q surface comes in contact with our body to draw off its heat.581 What are the epicts of wind noticed in Ce Arctic regions 5Arctic explorers inform us that in those regions, when the thermometer ranges from 400 to 600 below zero, the cold of the external air is easily endurable, provided the air is calm and the irdivilual exercises freely; but if a wind arises at this temperature, the severity of the cold becomes too grea~ for Auma~ endurance.582 If the winds shonki cease to hiow over the ocean, what woold he the effect

The water would undoubtedly become s~gnan~ Tempests and hurricanes also exercise a beneficial effect by agitating and purifying the atmosphere, and sweeping from it the seeds of pestilence and contagion.588 What are clouds?Moisture evocorateci f~m ~ eart/~, and again partially cordenseil in the upper regions of the air.584 What is the dfference hetween a fog and a cloud SClouds and fogs differ only in one respect. ~lords are elevated above our Acads, but fogs come in contac~ witk Ike surface of Ike earlk.585 Why are clouds higher on a fine days

Because they are ligkler and more buoganl.588 Why are clouds ii~hter on afine day?

1. Because the vapor of the clouds is less condensed; nnd

84 SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.Wby cioude Seat in tbe air. ileigiat of cloude. Size of douSe.

~. The air ~8elf (on a line day) retains much of its vapor in an ~nv~~6le form.537 Why do clouds flout so readily in the air I

Pecanse they are composed of very viinu~ glo~ulei (called vesicles), which (being lighter than air) float like 8o~p-bu~ble8.5851 Are all clouds alike I

Xo; they vary greatly in denisty, Ae~k~, and color.589 What is Ihe chil cause of fog and clouds I

Dnring the daily process of evaporation from the surface of the earth, warm, A~mi7 eurren~i of air are continu~y ascending; the higher they ascend, the colder is the

atmosphere into which they enter; and, as they continue to rise, a point will at length be attained where, in union with the colder air, their original humidity can no longer be retained: a cloud will then appear, which increases in bnU~ with the upward progress of the current into colder regions.540 rnw do changes in the wind produce elomis I

If a cold curren~ of wind blows suddenly over any region, it condenses the invisible vapor of the air into cloud or r&n,· but if a ~(lrin eurren~ of wind blows over any region, it dis})erses the clouds by a~orbing ~eir vapor.541 What distance are the clouds f~~om the cm'th I

Some ~Itin, ligh~ clouds are elevated above the highest mountain4op ; some heavy ones touch the stee})les, trees, and even the earth; but the average height is between one and ~wo miles.Streaky, curling clouds, liko hair, are often fivo or six unilot high.

542 What is the size of the clouds I

Some clouds are many sqsiare miles in surface, and above a wile in ~iliekness,· while others are only afew yards or inches.548 How can persons ascertain the thickness of a cloud I

As the tops of high mountains are generally above the clouds, travellers may pass ~uits through them intoq

5CIL~NCE OF cOMMON TIJLNG5. 85Cause of tbe appearance ef clouda. Color of clouds.

a clear blue firmament, when the clouds will be seenle~~ecfMt (k~~rfce~

544 Why do clonds when not continuous over the whole susfoce of the sig apoeoriagg~d, rough, aod noerea 5.

The ray8 of ~/tC s~ln, falling upon different ~rfaces at different angles, mell ~ one set of elevations, and ere(t~ another set of depressions; the heat also which is liberated from below in the process of condensation, the currents of warm air escaping from the earth, and of cold air descending from above, all tend to keep the clouds in a state of agitation, upheaval, and depression. Undei their various influences the masses of vapor coulposiug the ~ouds are caused to assume all manner of grotesque and fanciful sli apes.545 What effect have winds on the sha~e of clonds 5

They sometimes ab8orb t~e~ en~irety; sometimes ~erease Micir vol~rne an~ deu8zty; and sometimes o~~flye ~ of ~keirparie.

548 imw can winds alsorh clouds altogether?

Tarm, dry winds will convert the substance of clouds into i~visible vapor, which they will carry away in their own cui'rent.547 How can winds increase the lath and density of clouds?

Col~ currents of wind will condense the invvsibla vapor of the air, and ~ i~ ~ ~e olou~s with which they come m contact.548 Why is not the color ofclonds always atd~ S

Because their size, deusity, and si(~~a1ion in i~egard to the sun are perpetually varying, so that sometunes OflO color is reflected and sometimes afio(her.549 Why do the clouds after sunset abut the western harizon often eshitit a leant fat cri~naon oppeora~we 5

Because the red rays, of which the sun's light is in part composed, are less refrangiNe ~an any of the other colors. In consequence of this, they are not bent out of their course so much as the blue and yellow rays, and are the last to disappear.For ~ same reaso~ ~riey are ~Ae frsl to aepear i~5

Tm86SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.

Itefrangibility of light.Ead ~eud~ at sunrise ~d sunset.

~ke mornIng w~en ~d 8Ilfl rI8e8, and impar~ to mornIng clouds red or crImson colors.

t

-&½¼¼~~

~ig. 19.

let us aupposo, ns in fig. 19, a my of light, proceeding from the sun, S, to outer the enrth's etmoophore at the point P. The red rays, which compose in part tho solar beam, boing the best refrangible, or the least doviated from their course, will reach the eye of a spectator at the point A; while the yellow and blue rays, being refracted to a greater degree, will reach the surface of the earth at the intermediate points B and a. 'They will, consequently, be quite invisible from the point A.

550 What is nteant ly leing lass refrangi~e 5"

Being less a6le ~ le len~. Blue and yellow rays are more easily bent below ~he horIzon through the action of the atmosphere, but red rays are not so much len~ down, and titerefore we see them later in the evening.551 What is the cense of a red sunset S

The vapor of the air not being ae~ally condeneed ~nto clouds, but only on the poin~ of' beIng condensed.In the same manner, if light be transmitted throngh steam mingled with air, and therefore on the verge of condensation, it assumes a deep orange or red color.

552 Why is a red and lowering sky at sunrise an indication of a wet day S

The red and lowering appearance of the morning sky, which indicates foul weather, probably depends upon such an excess of' vapor being present in the whole atmosphere that clouds are actually forming in ~heVtlCIFN~E OF COMMON TIIINGS.

San ness at tbe Indian nu~mer. u~hsn vapor tarsus clouds and togs.

(2 re](i0218, or upon the point 0£ condensation, which the rising sun cannot disperse.T{oneo our Lard's o1)sacvstimi-~ Jo ~o irloriling ya say, It will be foul woatlior to~dsy, for thu sky is rod nod lowonog." (Malt. xvi. 3.)

558 Which is tl~e most transparent, dry or moist air S

Air ~2w(7era(ety 22wI8~ is more transparent than very dry air.554 What is tne cause of tl~c ha~~ness of the atmosphere daring that portion of t/~e outorna known (m the Indian Suasmer 5

It is undoubtedly due to several causes; partially to an exce88lve drj~ne88 of the atmosphere, and, in some degree, to ~c fret'ol(nce o~ 52210ke in the air arising frorn burning forests. But it is also a fact, ascertained within a few years, that the constitution of the atmosphere is changed in the autumn, and ~iat solar light at that season has less chemical influence than at any other portion of the year.

555 Why dors the sun seen through afog appear reds

Because the red rays of light have a greater power to pass througii a ~~ick, ole~8e a~~no8p/tere than any of the other colored rays.sse Why does ropor someti?ocs farna iota clouds, and somedmes rest upon the earOs as mist orf)grThis depends on the ~soperel~ure of the air. When the surface of 1/te earlk is warmer Ikan Ike lower air, the vapor of the earth (being condensed by the chill air) becomes misl orfog. But ~len the lower aIr is warmer Ikan Ike carlA, the vapor rises lkrougk Ike aIr, and becomes cloud.557 Why do clouds often horer around nsonntaia praks, when the atmosphere eloewhere is cloar anefreefroos clouds S

It is caused by the wind impelling up the sides of the mountains the warm kumid aIr of Ike valleys, which in its ascent gradually becomes condensed by the cold, and its excess of moisture becomes visible, and appears as a cloud.558 Why are windosra at night often cowered with thick mis4 and the frames wet with standing wator?Because the temperature of the exlernal air always

88 SCIENCE or COMMON THINGS.Mi~ on wiodowi In,~sibIe per~piratioo~

~alls at sunset, and c~ll[8 the wi~(1ow-~(a88 with which it comes in contact559 How does this account for the mist and water on a window?

As the warm vapor of the room ~Yelteg tile col~ gla8d it is e~lYle(1 and confen8e(1 into m;8~ and the mist (collecting into drops) rolls dow~ tile window~rame in little streams of water.560 Does the glass of a window cool dwaa more rapidly than the air of the roaw isoif I

Yea; because the air is ~ warm l}~ f~ed and by the anIo~al ~ea~ of the people in the room; in consequence of which the ~r of a room suffers ~'ery lI~~e diminution of heat from the setting of the sun.561 Whence arises the vapor of a room?

The air of the room always contains vapor; vapor also arises fr~n the breath and insensible perspiration of the inmates, from cookiag and the evaporation of water.562 What is meant hy "the inse~illo perspiration r'

From every part of the human body an lIlSenSIble and InvIsIble perspiration issues all night and day, not only in the hot weather of summer, but also in the coldest days of winter.568 If the persoiration he lath insensille and invidhle~ how is it known ihat there is any such perspi~ation I

If you put your naked arm into a clean, tlry glass t~e, the perspiration will contlense on the glass like mist.564 Why is a tam Iler of cotd water made quite doll with mis~ when hrought mis a warns roona S

Because the Ao~ vacor of the room is con&nsetl upon the cold tumbler, with which it comes in contact, and changes its invisible and gaseous form into tliat of dew.565 Why does Ireathing on a glass make it quite dull I

Because the hot breath is eordeneetl by the cold glass, and therefore covers it with dew.566 Why are the walle of a house covered with damp iu a sudden thaw?

Because the walls (being thick) cannot c~ange their

5CIEN~E OF coMuoN TJIINGS.

Breath visible in cold weather Difference between mist and to

as fast as ~ie air; in consequence of whi~i they re1aI~ their col~ after the thaw has set in.587 How does 'retaining their cad" account for their heing so wet?

As the vapor of the warm air touches the cold walls, it is cbIY~d and confen8e(l into ~ater, which either ctieks to the walls or trickles down in little streams.568 Why is our ~reath visule io winter, and not in summer?

Because the inteuse cold condenses our breatlt into rit;lle vapo~ but in iumme~ the air is not cold enough to do so.569 Why are am' hair and the hrim of oor hat ofton covered with litIlo drops of p~a4a deto itt winter-time I

Because our hrcath is condensed ilS soon as it comes in contact wi~i ~ir cohi hair or hat, and hangs ~iere in little dew-drops.570 What are fogs?

Fogs are ~vAi~7e V~}2OT8 that float in the atmosj4ierc near the surfice of the earth.571 What is the cause offogs?

They originate in the eIIiO eott,ieg iti iot~thc union of a cool body of air wi~ one ~at is warm and Immid when ~te precipitation of nioistui-e is slight, fogs arc produced ; ~ien it is copious, rains are the result.572 What distinction is to ~e tnade hetween a snist and a fog?

~fli~ is generally cousidei-ed to be aftt~e tatti, while fog is vapor not sufficiently condensed to allow of its precipitation in drops.Tho term mist is' ~ea gonor~1y nynliod to vapors oan(1oo sod on nsarshes rirers, nod lakes, ~~hi1a ~sa anmo fog is afton nppliod to vapors candensod on land, ospocially if ttiaoo vapors nro ladon ~~itii eniako.

578 Why does not the fog tecosne dew?

Because the chill of the air is so ra~i(1 that vapor is condensed faiter than it cavi be d&poit(e(J, and covenn~ the earth in a fog) prevents any further raJia~o~~ea~ from the earth.574 When Ow earilt cats no loog~r radiate hestt upwards, does it con tinue to condense the vapor of the air?

Xo; the air (in contact with the earth) becomes

90 5C~NCE OF COMMON THINGS.when foga occur. When vapor forrn5 clouds and whoa fogs.

about equal in tonperaI~tre with tl~ surface of the ear~i itseU~; for which reason the fog is not con deJl8ed into dew, but remains fto~1ing above the ear~A as a thick cloud.575 This fog seems to rise higher and higher, and net remains quite as dsnse helow as at first: e~ploin the canoe of this 5The ah resting on the ear~~ is ~rst chilled, and e1~i7~ the air resting on I~ ; the air which touches this new layer of fog being alto condensed, layer is added to layer; and thus the fog seems to be rliting, when (iii fact) it is only deepea't~g.57e Why are there not fogs every night?Because the air will always hold in so~tion a certain quantity of vapor (which varies according to its temperature); and, when the air is not eaturated, it may be cooled without parting with its vapor.577 When do fogs occur at n~ht5

When the air is saturated wi4i vapor during the (lay. When this is the case, it deposits seine of its superabundant moisture in the form of dew or fog as soon as its capacity for holding vapor is lessened by the cold nIgA~.578 Why is there very ofien a fog over marshes and rivers at nighttime SBecause the air of marthes is almost always near sa~ura~on; and therefore ~ie least depression of (etapera(ure will compel it to relinquish some of its moist~rc in the form of dew or fog.579 Why does vapor sometimes form into clouds, and sometimes rest upon the earth as suist or fogs

~s depends on the (etttpera(tit~ of the air. When the sutf~ee of (he ear(h is warmer than (he air, the vapor of the earth (being condensed by the chill air) becomes qnA( or fog. But, when the aIr is warmer (ham (he earth, the vapor rI8e8 through the air, and becomes cloud.580 If cold air produces fog, why is it not foggy on a frostg morning?

1. Because less vapor is formed on a frosty day;

ScIEN~E OF ~OMMON THINGS. 91Wbat S rain? ~iy ~1s in dropS.

and 2. The vapor is frozen upon the gro?~nol before it can rise from tlie earth, and becomes ~oarfro8~581 Whatisrainl

11am is the vapor of the clouds or air aondense~ and precipitated to the earth.582 In what manner is the vapor of the air condsnsed so as to form rain S

When ~wo or more volume8 of humid air differing considerabTy in temperature uni~, the several portions in union are incapable of absorbing the same amount of moisture that each could retain if they had not united. The excess of moisture, if very great, is precipitated as rain ; if in slight amount, it appears as clouds, fogs, or mists.588 Upon what law does this condensation of vapor and formation of rain depends

Upon the law that the oap~cIty of the air for moI8~ ~re deorea8es in a greater ratio than the temperatiire.584 Why does rain fail in drops S

Because the vapory particles in their descent ~((rae~ eacA o~her; and those which are sufficiently near UUIld and form into drops.The size of the rain-drop is increased according to the rapidity with which tho vapors are condensed.585 Why does not the void of night always canse rain?

Because the air is not always near saturation; and unless this be the case, it will be able to hold its vapor in solution, even after it is condensed by the chilly niglit.58~ Why does a pessing cloud often drop rain?

Because the cloud (travelling about on the wind) comes into contact with gosne~hin~ ~Aa~ cAilli I~; and its vapor being condensed, ~all8 ~ ~e ear~ as raIn.587 Can the air a~orh nnoisture at all tensperatures, and retain it in an invisille state?

It can; and this power of the air is termed its c~a~ty of ab8~tion.

92 SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.What is snow?

Canoe of ~eet

588 How much moisture can a volume of air at 320 iv aSsort?

An amount equal to the Aunolre~ anol 8IX~d~ par~ of I~ OWn welgAt.589 How does the capacity of air for rnotsture incrense with the ternperature?

For every 27 additional degrees of heat, the quantity of moisture it can absorb at 320 is doubled. Thus a body of air at 320 F. absorbs the 160th part of its own weight; at 590 F. the 80th; at 860 F. the 40th; at 1130 F. the 20th part of its own moisture. It follows from this that, while the temperature advances in an arithmetical series, the capacity is accelerated in geometrical series.590 In whatsituations is the air eheogs saturated?

Over the ocean and upon the adjacen~ eoa8te.

591 Where is the alsolate liomidity of the afiaosphere the greatest?

In the trop~e, where the temperature of the air, and its conseq~ent Capacity for moisture, is the greatest.592 Whatissnow?

The condensed vapor of the air fi~zen and precipitated to the earth.598 What is the cause of snow?

When the air is n earTy saturated with vapor, ~d is acted on by a current of aiy below 1~e feeezlugpolnt, ~ome of the vapor is condensed, and frozen into snow.A few years ago, some fisherman (who ~iu~ered at Nova Zembla), after they had been shut up in a hut for several days, opened the window and the cold external air

rushing in, instantly condensed the air of the hut, and its vnpor fell on the floor in a shower of snow.

594 What is the canse of sleet?When flakes of snow (in their descent) pass through a bed of air above ~Ae freezlny polut, they partially melt, and fall to the earth as halfmeltcd snow, or sleet.595 How does snow prove teneficiad to the earth in the cold season?

It keeps the surface of the earth warin, protects vegetation to a considerable extent from the cold, and acts as afer~lizer.

5OIFNCE OF CO~fliON TUTNOS.93ivow sno,v keeI~~ Che earth warm.

59E loes snow keep the earth warm?

Yes, because it is a very bad eondue~r; in consequence of which, wliea the earth is covered with snow, its temperature very rarely descends below ~kefree~~ ~Ol'I~ even when the air is fifteen or twenty degrees colder.~ow is White.

597 Why is snow a lad conductor of heat and cold?Because air is confined among ~e crystals, and aI~ is a very bad conductor; when, therefore, the earth is covered with snow, it cannot throw off its heat by radiation.598 Why is there no sowe in sammer-tirne?

Because tlie /eea~ of 1/ce ~ adjacent to the earth melts it in its descent, and prevents it from reaching the surface of tlie earth.599 Why is snow white?Because it is formed of an infinite number of very minute crystals and prisms, whieli reflect all the colors of the rays of light from different points, and these colors, un'1In~ before tiley meet tlie eye, cause snow to appear white.TIto samo answer npphos to salt, loaf-sugur, etc.

eoo Undsr what cireconstanses does snowfall iu harge flakes, and when in small?

Th~ largest flakes are formed wlien the air abounds wilA va~o~ and the temperature is about 320 F. ; but as tlie moisture diminishes, and the cold increases, the snow becomes finer.eoi What is the snowflake composed of?~egItlar and 8yt~ine1PI'cal cry81a18, having a great diversity of forms.602 1)o we see the same crystalo in ice I

They exist in ice, but are so bletided together that 'their s~v~me1ry 18 lotI in the compact mass.~03 How muck more lulky is snow than water I

The bulk of recently-fallen snow is ton ot' twelve ~me~ ~~aler than that of the water obtaiued by melting it.-'5

94 ~CIENCE OF cOMMON THINGS.Eed aud green snow. wbat is bail i Meteorite,.

804 Does sno,o ever occur of any othcr appearance than white I

Ye8; in the Arctic regions and on some mountains it is red, and occasionally805 What is the canse of these appearances I

These singular hues are occasioned by little m~ro scoplo plan~, which germinate and live in the snow. They consist of little giobuics from ~ of an inch to ~ of an inch. Each globule is divided into seven or eight c~ls filled with a liquid, which gives a color to the snow, and is sometimes green and sometimes red.808 What is hail?

Raiu, which has passed in its descent ~rong~ some cold bed of air, and has been frozen into drops of ice.807 What makes ons led of air colder than another

It is frequently caused by e7ee~r;eity ii~eq~ally distri~~d in the air.808 How can electricity make air roW?

Air, whe~ elec~tfted, is expanded, and expotnelon produces cold.809 Why does hail fall generally in summer and autumn?

Because the air is more ~sg~ly dec~ifted in summer and autumn than in winter and spring; and the vapors in summer and autumn (being rarefied) ascond to more elevated regions, which are colder than those nearer the earth.810 Is the occurrence and formation of hail clearly understood?

It is ito~; much information exists uj~on the sub~ect, but no ~eo~ has yet been formed which sa~8fac~rIly accoeents for all the facts which have been observed.811 What are meteorites?

Meteorites are solId, lumIli 0118 bodles, which from time to time visit the earth, moving with immense velocity, and remaining visible but for a few moments. They are generally accompanied by a luminous train, and during their progress explosions are often heard.619 What is an aerolite?

The term aerolite is given to those stony masses of

94 ~CIENCE OF cOMMON THINGS.Eed aud green snow. wbat is bail i Meteorite,.

804 Does sno,o ever occur of any othcr appearance than white I

Ye8; in the Arctic regions and on some mountains it is red, and occasionally805 What is the canse of these appearances I

These singular hues are occasioned by little m~ro scoplo plan~, which germinate and live in the snow. They consist of little giobuics from ~ of an inch to ~ of an inch. Each globule is divided into seven or eight c~ls filled with a liquid, which gives a color to the snow, and is sometimes green and sometimes red.808 What is hail?

Raiu, which has passed in its descent ~rong~ some cold bed of air, and has been frozen into drops of ice.807 What makes ons led of air colder than another

It is frequently caused by e7ee~r;eity ii~eq~ally distri~~d in the air.808 How can electricity make air roW?

Air, whe~ elec~tfted, is expanded, and expotnelon produces cold.809 Why does hail fall generally in summer and autumn?

Because the air is more ~sg~ly dec~ifted in summer and autumn than in winter and spring; and the vapors in summer and autumn (being rarefied) ascond to more elevated regions, which are colder than those nearer the earth.810 Is the occurrence and formation of hail clearly understood?

It is ito~; much information exists uj~on the sub~ect, but no ~eo~ has yet been formed which sa~8fac~rIly accoeents for all the facts which have been observed.811 What are meteorites?

Meteorites are solId, lumIli 0118 bodles, which from time to time visit the earth, moving with immense velocity, and remaining visible but for a few moments. They are generally accompanied by a luminous train, and during their progress explosions are often heard.619 What is an aerolite?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

YOU MAY HAVE THOUGHT I WAS CRAZY WHEN I WROTE ABOUT SINKING THE US DEBT WITH THE $19 TRILLION DTC SEC GOV TRUST AS SIMPLE COLLATERAL UNDER USC TITLE 12 SEC 412

YES THERE IS A REAL SEC GOV $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TRUST ( I THINK IT IS NOW $22 TRILLION )

THAT IS A SOUND SAFE PLAN IF NOT FUNDS ARE CIRCULATED OTHER THAN DEBT PAYMENTS THE $19 TRILLION TREASURY DEBT TRUST WOULD BE FROZEN

MONEY AND VALUE ARE ABSOLUTELY NOT LIMITED TO GOLD OR SILVER

THAT IS DUMB THINKING GOING BACK TO THE LIMITED GOLD STANDARD

VALUE IS LIKE GOLD, IT IS WHERE YOU FIND IT

A UNITED STATES MOUNTAIN WITH A UNDERGROUND SILVER ORE MINE WITH TONS AND TONS OF SILVER...AND YES THERE ARE TONS AND TONS OF UNMINED SILVER MINES...4 PLUS MILES UNDERGROUND...ROBOTIC MINERS NEEDED HERE...COULD HAVE JUST AS MUCH VALUE AS FORT KNOX

I WAS RESEARCHING THIS GROUP WHILE RESEARCHING ONE OF MY IDEA PLANS TO LEGALLY SINKING THE UNITED STATES DEBT WITH THE

$19 TRILLION DOLLAR DTC SEC GOV TRUST AS SIMPLE COLLATERAL DRAWING RIGHTS UNDER USC TITLE 12 SEC 412

THE IDEA OPPOSED TO NESARA IS BELOW:

----------------------------------------------------------------------

The Unknown $19 Trillion Depository Trust Company Part of the SEC US Gov Trust

Simple Formula to Secure and Sink the National Debt:

USE

(1) USC Title 12 sec 412; Apllication for Notes Collateral Required:

Then

(2) USC TITLE 12 SEC § 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and nonmember banks or other depository institutions; charges

THEN

(3) DEPOSIT THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE FROM USC TITLE 12 SEC 412, 342, SECURED BY THE $19 TRILLION DEPOSITORY TRUST COMPANY AS SIMPLE COLLATERAL

THEN

(4) DEPOSIT SAID $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE; BUT IN TRUST ; ( NOTE NOT TO BE CIRCULATED ) WITH THE UNITED STATES TREASURY

THEN

(5) REMOVE THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATIONS FROM THE GENERAL FUNDOBLIGATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND SEPARATE THESE DEBT PAYMENTS FROM THE GENERAL FUND

THEN

(6) MAKE A PAYMENT PLAN TO SLOWLY PAY THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATION FROM THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TREASURY TRUST FROM NUMBER 3 ABOVE

WHEREAS THE ENTIRE UNITED STATES DEBT IS NOW SUNK, SECURED AND IN THE PROCESS OF PAYMENT THRU TREASURY TRUST FUND OF PART 3

WHEREAS FURTHER MONEY IS CREATED FROM THE TRANSMUATION OF SILVER METAL INTO CREATED 10KT GOLD COIN ( SPECIE ) AND SILVER ORE MINES ARE TREATED AS UNDER GROUND FORT KNOX SILVER HOLDING MINES AND UNITED STATES SILVER CERTIFICATES ARE ALSO ISSUED

THEREFORE MONEY IS PSYCHOLOGICAL, PEOPLE DO NOT WANT GOLD OR SILVER SPECIE OTHERWISE WE WOULD CARRY POUNDS OF THIS HEAVY METAL ON OUR BEINGS

BY BR DAN IZZO

PS I COULD USE SOME CHECKS TO BUY GOODS AND SERVICES...MY LAWFUL MONEY GOLD NOTES CAN'T BUY GOODS AND SERVICES...PLEASE ASK MAYBE THE NIGRERIAN BANKERS IF THEY'LL EXCHANGE GOLD ORE FOR MY US LAWFUL MONEY GOLD NOTES ( NOT )

BUT I STILL NEED A CLEARABLE CHECK TO LOBBY CONGRESS, WILL DEPOSIT US LAWFUL MONEY FOR THE SAME PAR FOR PAR

----------------------------------------------------------------------AMERICA HAS EXTRA TRILLIONS OF CAPITAL UNUSED

I SAY MORE THAN $50 TRILLION IN 2004 DOLLARS

THIS EMAIL MAYBE THE MAP TO LEGALLY SINK THE UNITED STATES DEBT WITHOUT CIRCULATING EXTRA MONEY

AND ALSO SECURING US GVERNMENT BONDS BUT IN TRUST

HOW TO LEGALLY SELF FUND THE US MILITARY AND MAYBE SINK THE NATIONAL DEBT

The Unknown $19 Trillion Depository Trust Company Part of the SEC US Gov Trust

Simple Formula to Secure and Sink the National Debt:

USE

(1) USC Title 12 sec 412; Apllication for Notes Collateral Required:

Then

(2) USC TITLE 12 SEC § 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and nonmember banks or other depository institutions; charges

THEN

(3) DEPOSIT THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE FROM USC TITLE 12 SEC 412, 342, SECURED BY THE $19 TRILLION DEPOSITORY TRUST COMPANY AS SIMPLE COLLATERAL

THEN

(4) DEPOSIT SAID $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE; BUT IN TRUST ; ( NOTE NOT TO BE CIRCULATED ) WITH THE UNITED STATES TREASURY

THEN

(5) REMOVE THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATIONS FROM THE GENERAL FUNDOBLIGATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND SEPARATE THESE DEBT PAYMENTS FROM THE GENERAL FUND

THEN

(6) MAKE A PAYMENT PLAN TO SLOWLY PAY THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATION FROM THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TREASURY TRUST FROM NUMBER 3 ABOVE

WHEREAS THE ENTIRE UNITED STATES DEBT IS NOW SUNK, SECURED AND IN THE PROCESS OF PAYMENT THRU TREASURY TRUST FUND OF PART 3

WHEREAS FURTHER MONEY IS CREATED FROM THE TRANSMUATION OF SILVER METAL INTO CREATED 10KT GOLD COIN ( SPECIE ) AND SILVER ORE MINES ARE TREATED AS UNDER GROUND FORT KNOX SILVER HOLDING MINES AND UNITED STATES SILVER CERTIFICATES ARE ALSO ISSUED

THEREFORE MONEY IS PSYCHOLOGICAL, PEOPLE DO NOT WANT GOLD OR SILVER SPECIE OTHERWISE WE WOULD CARRY POUNDS OF THIS HEAVY METAL ON OUR BEINGS

PEOPLE WANT PAPER MONEY WITH VALUE

BELOW IS A LETTER I MAILED TODAY TO THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE, 2 DAY PRIORITY

PLEASE WAIT TILL FRIDAY NOV 19TH 2004 TO CONTACT PENTAGON TREASURY FOR THE PAPERS OF THIS PLAN

BROTHER DANIEL IZZO

IF THE US MILITARY HOLDS A SILVER ORE MINE

AS COLLATERAL, BILLIONS IN NATIONAL BANK

US SILVER CERTIFICATES CAN BE ISSUED AND

SECURED BY THE SAME.

IDEA: (100s of good silver ore mine exist in the US, but are abandoned because of the cost of operations, perhaps those in prison are willing to volunteer to mine them in exchange of early release from prison. )

If you could legally sink the national debt

and have an extra $10 Trillion on deposit in the US

Treasury, would you ?

This Country's Debt is Artificial,

there is nothing natural about civilizations, and

money, it is all created by man.

If Congress wants to sink the US Debt, and

Deposit Money Notes into the US Treasury,

Congress has the legal power to make :

Application for Notes thru a Federal Reserve Agent.

If Congress used and exploited :

US Title 12 section 412

" Application for notes, collateral required "

it can use the $19 Trillion Depository Trust Company ( a gov trust )

as simple collateral and then Deposited

@$19 Trillion in Money Notes, into the US

Treasury, then it will sink the US Debt.

Money is psychological, we haven't

been on the gold standard since 1934.

Hopefully then a Kids School Allowance

program can be funded by Congress, providing

@ $20 a week to school children, as a reward and compensation, required under the 5th amendment of the Constitution and Just Compensation for Kids.

Money ends suffering;

Our Country is super rich,

America needs to exploit its true wealth and not

exploit its people thru taxes and let the

Government make its own tax

money and let the people keep there money and

use it to

benefit our Families and Lives.

May cosmic magnetic force & God Bless YouYours Faithfully

The Cryonic Life Insurance CompanyDept of General Resurrection

Br Daniel Izzo512 Onondaga AveSyracuse, NY 13207

----------------------------------------------------------------------PART 1 US CODE COLLECTION Collection home Search Donate TITLE 12 > CHAPTER 3 > SUBCHAPTER XII > § 412 Prev | Next

§ 412. Application for notes; collateral required

Release date: 2004-03-18

Any Federal Reserve bank may make application to the local Federal Reserve agent for such amount of the Federal Reserve notes hereinbefore provided for as it may require. Such application shall be accompanied with a tender to the local Federal Reserve agent of collateral in amount equal to the sum of the Federal Reserve notes thus applied for and issued pursuant to such application. The collateral security thus offered shall be notes, drafts, bills of exchange, or acceptances acquired under section 92, 342 to 348, 349 to 352, 361, 372, or 373 of this title, or bills of exchange endorsed by a member bank of any Federal Reserve district and purchased under the provisions of sections 348a and 353 to 359 of this title, or bankers’ acceptances purchased under the provisions of said sections 348a and 353 to 359 of this title, or gold certificates, or Special Drawing Right certificates, or any obligations which are direct obligations of, or are fully guaranteed as to principal and interest by, the United

States or any agency thereof, or assets that Federal Reserve banks may purchase or hold under sections 348a and 353 to 359 of this title. In no event shall such collateral security be less than the amount of Federal Reserve notes applied for. The Federal Reserve agent shall each day notify the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System of all issues and withdrawals of Federal Reserve notes to and by the Federal Reserve bank to which he is accredited. The said Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System may at any time call upon a Federal Reserve bank for additional security to protect the Federal Reserve notes issued to it. Collateral shall not be required for Federal Reserve notes which are held in the vaults of Federal Reserve banks.

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PART 2

US CODE COLLECTION Collection home Search Donate TITLE 12 > CHAPTER 3 > SUBCHAPTER IX > § 342 Prev | Next

§ 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and nonmember banks or other depository institutions; charges

Release date: 2004-03-18

Any Federal Reserve bank may receive from any of its member banks, or other depository institutions, and from the Unites States, deposits of current funds in lawful money, national-bank notes, Federal reserve notes, or checks, and drafts, payable upon presentation or other items, and also, for collection, maturing notes and bills; or, solely for purposes of exchange or of collection may receive from other Federal reserve banks deposits of current funds in lawful money, national-bank notes, or checks upon other Federal reserve banks, and checks and drafts, payable upon presentation within its district or other items, and maturing notes and bills payable

within its district; or, solely for the purposes of exchange or of collection, may receive from any nonmember bank or trust company or other depository institution deposits of current funds in lawful money, national-bank notes, Federal reserve notes, checks and drafts payable upon presentation or other items, or maturing notes and bills: Provided, Such nonmember bank or trust company or other depository institution maintains with the Federal Reserve bank of its district a balance in such amount as the Board determines taking into account items in transit, services provided by the Federal Reserve bank, and other factors as the Board may deem appropriate: Provided further, That nothing in this or any other section of this chapter shall be construed as prohibiting a member or nonmember bank or other depository institution from making reasonable charges, to be determined and regulated by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, but in no case to exceed 10 cents per $100 or fraction thereof, based on the total of checks and drafts presented at any one time, for collection or payment of checks and drafts and remission therefor by exchange or otherwise; but no such charges shall be made against the Federal reserve banks.

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Adept Alchemy by Robert A. Nelson

Part II ~ Chapter 1

Transmutations of Silver

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Gold can be manufactured from other elements by several methods. The penultimate means of transmutation is the Philosophers' Stone of any degree, but that is another matter altogether. The transmutation of silver to gold is perhaps the easiest -- or least difficult -- of such experiments. If nothing else, the attempt may serve to enlighten aspiring souffleurs ("Puffers", an old French alchemical label for deluded fools who pump their bellows in vain) to wise up, get a life, and do something more worthwhile, profitable, and less dangerous. Employing the methods developed by Francois Jollivet-Castelot, however, there is every chance of success, albeit at great risk due to the use of arsenic.

It has been argued by some purists that transmutations such as these are not alchemy at all, but rather "hyper-chemistry" or "archymy". Mayhap so, but I choose to include these factoids in this collection.

Most of the 19th and 20th century experimenters in this genre used a variety of "wet" techniques (refluxing with nitric acid, etc.), or "dry" transmutations with alloys in the furnace. Dr. Stephen Emmens used high-pressure hammering (500 tons/sq. in.) of silver at low temperature, followed by fluxing, granulation, more hammering, treatment with "modified nitric acid", and refining.

(1) T. Tiffereau (2) R. Hunter (3) A. Waite (4) Fulcanelli (5) F. Jollivet-Castelot (6) S. Emmens (7) C. Lea (8) References

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(1) Theodore Tiffereau ~

Between 1854-55, Theodore Tiffereau submitted six memoirs to the French Academie des Sciences concerning transmutations of silver to gold. He published a compilation of the papers ( Les Metaux sont des Corps Composes ) in 1855.(25-27)

Tiffereau conducted his experiments at considerable expense while supporting himself making daguerotypes in Mexico. Tiffereau claimed that Mexican silver possesses peculiar qualities that lend to its augmentation as gold (Dr. Emmens also used Mexican silver in his work). While he claimed success in principle, he made no capital gains. Tiffereau demonstrated his process at the French Mint in Paris before the assayer M. Levol, but the results were unsatisfactory.

Tiffereau attempted many modifications of his techniques, and claimed that certain experimental conditions influence the transmutation of silver to gold:

1) Pure silver filings were used, sometimes mixed with pure copper filings (Ag 9:1 Cu) and traces of zinc, iron, alumina and silica;

2) Trace amounts of gold catalyze the reaction;

3) The silver was refluxed with concentrated nitric acid, hyponitrous acid, and nitrogen protozide or deuteroxide;

4) Concentrated sulfuric acid was used at times;

5) The acids were exposed to sunlight to "solarize" them. Tiffereau complained that the French sun was not so effective as the Mexican;

6) Halides and sulfur in the presence of oxides of nitrogen improved the reaction, and so did ozone;

7) Prolonged reaction time increased yields.

Tiffereau attributed the production of gold in the earth to the action of the "microbe of gold". This was confirmed in the 1980s by the discovery that placer gold nuggets form around a nucleus of bacillus cereus.

The following experiment is typical of Tiffereau's general methods:

"After having exposed, over two days, pure nitric acid to the action of solar rays, I added pure silver filings with pure copper filings in the proportions of the alloy of money (9:1). A lively reaction manifested, accompanied with a very abundant deposit of intact filings agglomerated in a mass.

"The disengagement of nitrous gas continued without interruption, and I left the liquid as is over twelve days. I noted that the aggregate deposit was augmented

sensibly in volume. I then added a little water to the dissolution in which the product had precipitated, and again abandoned the liquid to rest five days. During this time, new vapors unceasingly disengaged.

"The five days having passed, I raised the liquid just to ebullition, which I maintained until the nitrous vapors ceased disengagement, after which I evaporated it to dryness.

"The matter obtained from the dessication is dry, dull, blackish-green; it did not offer an appearance of crystallization...

"Placing the matter again in pure nitric acid and boiling six hours, I saw the matter become clear green without ceasing to aggregate in small masses. I added a new quantity of pure concentrated nitric acid and boiled it anew; it is then that I finally saw the disaggregated matter take the brilliance of natural gold...

[The third test in this series] "presented an extraordinary phenomenon to be noted: the quantity of the alloy that I used experienced a transformation entirely to pure gold."

Carey Lea suggested that Tiffereau and other experimenters had merely prepared a gold-colored form of allotropic silver.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(2) R. M. Hunter ~

In 1908, Sir Henry Baskerville made mention of a contemporary claim to the production of artificial gold:

"Among the many communications reaching the writer, one is of more than passing interest. Mr. R.M. Hunter, of Philadelphia, has written concerning 'synthetic gold' as follows:

"I have so perfected the process that in my judgment, based on my actual experience, gold may be manufactured at enormous profit, and to this end I have designed a plant to be erected in Philadelphia and am at this moment negotiating for $500,000 capital for its erection. I realize that the public and most scientific men are adverse to the belief in the possibility of such an enterprise, but I know what I am doing and can afford to allow public sentiment to follow its own course.

"Enclosed with the letter was an affirmative affadavit. On request, Mr. Hunter promptly forwarded me samples of silver in which the gold is 'growing' and some 'grown-up' gold, said to have been produced by his secret process. I have not made analyses of the samples." (5)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(3) Arthur E. Waite ~

The eminent occultist Arthur E. Waite wrote A Collection of Alchymical Processes which includes a segment entitled "Silver Transmuted Into Gold By The Action Of Light":

"In the focus of a Burning-Glass, 12 inches in diameter, place a glass Flask, 2 inches in diameter, containing Nitric Acid, diluted with its own volume of water:

"Pour into the Nitric Acid, alternately, small quantities of a Solution of Nitrate of Silver and of Muriatic acid, the object being to cause the Chloride of Silver to form a minutely divided state, so as to produce a milky fluid, into the interior of which the brilliant convergent cone may pass, and the currents generated in the Flask by the Heat may so drift all the Chloride through the Light.

"The Chloride, if otherwise exposed to the Sun, merely blackens on the surface, the interior parts undergoing no change: This difficulty, therefore, has to be avoided. The Burning-Glass promptly brings on a decomposition of the salt, evolving, on the one hand, Chlorine, and disengaging a metal on the other. Supposing the experiment to last two or three entire hours, the effect will then be equal to a continuous midday sun of some 72 hours. The Metal becomes disengaged very well. But what is it? It cannot be silver, since Nitric acid has no action on it. It burnishes in an Agate Mortar, but its reflection is not like that of silver, for it is yellowish, like that of Gold.

"The Light must therefore have so transmuted the original silver as to enable it to exist in the presence of Nitric Acid." ( 28)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(4) Fulcanelli ~

The renowned master Fulcanelli published this transmutation of silver in Les Demeures Philosophales:

"The simplest alchemic procedure consists in utilizing the effect of violent reactions --- those of acids on the bases --- to provoke in the midst of the effervesence the reunion of pure parts, their new arrangement being irreducible. In this manner, starting from a metal close to gold --- preferably silver --- it is possible to produce a

small quantity of the precious metal. Here is, in this order of research, an elementary operation whose success we guarantee, providing the instructions are carefully followed.

"Empty into a glass retort, tall and tubular, one-third of its capacity in pure nitric acid. Adapt to the receiver an escape tube and arrange the apparatus in a sand bath.

"Gently heat the apparatus short of reaching the boiling point for the acid (83o C). Turn off the fire, open the tube, and introduce a small portion of virgin silver, or of cupel, free from gold traces. When the emission of peroxide of azote has stopped and when the effervesence has quieted, let drop into the liquor a second portion of pure silver. Repeat introducing metal, with no hurry, until the boiling and issuing of red vapors manifest little energy, which is indicative of the property of saturation. Add nothing more. Let it rest for half an hour, then cautiously decant your clear solution into a beaker while it is still warm. You will find a thin deposit in the form of black sand. Wash this with lukewarm water, and let it fall into a small porcelain capsule. You will recognize by making the assays that the precipitate is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, just as it also is in nitric acid. Aqua regia will dissolve it and yields a magnificent yellow solution, exactly like gold trichloride. Use distilled water to dilute this liquor; precipitate from a zinc blade. An amorphous powder will be obtained, very fine, matte, of reddish brown coloration, identical to that given by natural gold reduced in the same manner. Wash well and dessicate this pulvurent precipitate. By compression on a sheet of glass or marble, it will give you a brilliant, coherent lamina with a beautiful yellow sheen by reflection, green by transparence, having the look and superficial characteristics of the purest gold.

"To increase with a new quantity this miniscule deposit, you may repeat the operation as many times as you please. In this case, take up again the clear solution of silver nitrate diluted from the first washing water; reduce the metal with zinc or copper. Decant this silver into a powder and use it for your second dissolution." (14)

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(5) Francois Jollivet-Castelot ~

Francois Jollivet-Castelot was the Secretary General (and later President) of the Alchemical Society of France (founded in 1896). He also edited the Society's journal L'Hyperchemie, and served as a special delegate of the Supreme Council of Martinists. He authored several books and articles on alchemy and "hyperchemistry", a system of non-occult chemical methods of transmutation. (17-20)

Jollivet-Castelot began experimenting with transmutations of silver in 1908. In 1920, he published La Fabrication Chimique de L'Or to report his successes using both "wet" and "dry" methods of transmutation:

"By means of catalytic action I have succeeded in manufacturing gold chemically by acting on silver with arsenic and antimony sulfides, tellurium, and tin.

"This process gives a very high yield which has already been confirmed by several chemists, in particular by Mr. Ballandras, Chemical Engineer of Lyons, and Mr. Outon, Chemical Engineer of Buenos Aires...

"The object of the present leaflet is to enable chemists to repeat and check my experiments in their turn...

"I made a mixture composed of 3 gr of chemically pure silver and 1 gr of chemically pure orpiment and placed it in 36o nitric acid for several months cold and then brought it to ebullition. The liquid was kept at the boiling point for several days. A small quantity of the material became detached at this moment and formed a pulvurent black deposit. When no further action took place, I decanted off the solution and collected the insoluble residue. This residue was attacked by aqua regia at the boiling point until it was almost completely dissolved; the liquor when decanted and filtered was analyzed and gave all the characteristic reactions for gold.... [December 1925]

"I acted on 22 gr of chemically pure silver ... and on 3.5 gr of chemically pure orpiment... The mixture was heated to about 1600o C In a metal smelting furnace for about three quarters of an hour. The residue obtained was again melted with the addition of orpiment. After having hammered for half an hour and remelted with the addition of small quantities of orpiment every ten minutes, it was withdrawn.

"After cooling and the addition of chemically pure antimony sulfide, it was again put back into the furnace, small quantities of orpiment being thrown in every five minutes. The residue obtained had a dark metallic tint. After hammering it became slightly golden.

"The residue dissolved in chemically pure 36o nitric acid first cold and then hot, gave an abundant pulvurent deposit. This deposit after being washed and treated with ammonia to dissolve the arsenic and antimony salts was completely dissolved in aqua regia. The liquor then being chlorinated and filtered was subjected to the reagents of platinum and gold. Mr. Andre Vandenberghe who was acting as preparator for this experiment, had thought that in accordance with the law of the evolution of matter, the transmutation of bodies into gold should be preceded or accompanied by their transmutation into platinum...

"The reactions of gold were quite characteristic; the reactions of platinum also seemed to reveal its presence.

"The quantity of gold obtained in this experiment was about one gramme.

"I submit the hypothesis that the arsenic acts as a catalyst and the sulfur as a ferment in this transmutation." (December 1925; Douai, France)...

"As a sequel to my previous work on the artificial synthesis of gold, I have introduced tin into these new tests as it is also often associated with gold in Nature. The following is a description of this new process, thanks to which the percentage of gold obtained destroys all the objections that are raised with regard to impurities.

"I made an intimate mixture of 6 gr of chemically pure silver... 2 gr of antimony sulfide, 1 gr of orpiment, and one gr of tin... I then added the usual fluxes and then heated the whole in a crucible in the furnace to about 1100o C for about one hour, twice adding a small quantity of SbS.

"The residue obtained was treated for a long time in 36o nitric acid, first cold and then at the boiling point; the insoluble residue was next washed with distilled water, treated with ammonia, washed again and finally treated for a long time with boiling aqua regia.

"The liquor when filtered and subjected to the reagents of gold showed the presence of this metal in the form of abundant deposits which may be estimated at 0.05 gr in all, which is very high considering the 6 gr of silver employed. The deposits when collected and dried had a yellow green metallic color and possessed all the characteristics of gold...

"The addition of tin to the other bodies has certainly facilitated the reactions of the gold and increased the yield of this metal which can be manufactured artificially by my process, i.e., by synthesis and in measurable quantities.

"It would be very easy to show that, given the respective prices of gold and of the other substances that are used in my process to produce it, a profit could be obtained if the process were worked industrially, all the more so as the greater part of the silver employed can be recovered at each test..

"I believe I now hold the key to the regular and even industrial manufacture of gold.

"But the industrial question is voluntarily put aside from my thoughts, for my only object is the search for pure scientific truth."

In a correspondence to Jollivet-Castelot, Mr. Ballandras reported on "How I Succeeded In Making Gold According To The Process of Mr. Jollivet-Castelot: Dosage of gold obtained by the second method":

"From a mixture of 10 gr silver, 3 gr of tin, 3 gr of arsenic sulfide, and 3 gr of antimony sulfide, the residue which had been obtained was crushed as much as possible and subjected to a treatment of pure chloric acid like in the first method. However, in order to completely eliminate the silver and the tin employed, I scrupled to begin again the indicated treatments, that is as much to say that the powder which was obtained having been subdued first to the action of azotic acid, then washed with distilled water, then subdued to the action of chloric acid, then washed with distilled water, then once more washed with distilled water, and these different operations were begun once again with another portion of pure chloric acid... The insoluble residue was subdued to the prolonged action of aqua regia...

"It must be noted that this thing happened during the ebullition. The washed residue contained the slighter part of gold; this thing would be found dissolved in the last liquor which I obtained.

"After 18 hours of digestion at about 25o, I subdued the mixture to ebullition during 3 hours. After refrigeration, I filtered on glass wool and I looked if parts were not drawn along in suspense. I found nothing. Then, I decided to proceed to a circumstantial analysis of the liquor which I obtained...

"The quantity of gold which was obtained was 0.476 gr for 10 gr of silver employed, or 0.0476 gr of gold per gram of silver."

Jollivet-Castelot read this memorandum to the Academie Royal des Sciences (Belgium) on June 6, 1926:

"A Recent Experiment In Transmutation --- All my research work on transmutation since 1908 has started from the fact that gold is found in nature associated with antimony and arsenic sulfides as well as with tellurium, which is considered as a mineralizer of gold. I therefore considered that it was logical to introduce tellurium into the artificial combination of silver and arsenic and antimony sulfides that I make...

"I prepared a mixture composed of 6 gr of silver, 1 gr of native orpiment free of gold, 1 gr of antimony sulfide and 2 gr of tellurium... I added pure silica to the usual fluxes. This mixture was heated in the furnace in the usual way for one hour at about 1100o C. The residue obtained was of a blackish-grey color with violet reflections. It weighed 6.42 grams.

"When subjected to the action of nitric acid, the residue was attacked with difficulty and greenish metallic particles become detached. The solution was then decanted and

a greenish-yellow residue remained which was kept at the boiling point of nitric acid for several hours. After decanting off the liquor once again, the residue, which had not changed, was washed, treated with ammonia and then subjected to the action of boiling aqua regia in which it was entirely dissolved after boiling for several hours.

"[The solution was chlorinated and subjected to the reagents of gold with positive results, although] a certain amount of gold was certainly lost in this test just as in all my previous tests, for it is known that arsenic, antimony, and tellurium entrain gold in their fusion and their volatilization.

"In order to obviate this disadvantage, I had thought of making the vapors of arsenic acid and antimony sulfides and of tellurium act on the silver in fusion in a closed vessel by means of a special device...

"I consider it certain that if the vapors were allowed to bubble through the melted silver, a much higher yield of gold would be obtained than that I have obtained hitherto by an imperfect and too rapid contact of the bodies in presence, while it is undoubtedly necessary to make them react on one another in the vapor state in a closed vessel."

Mr. Louis Outon, a pharmaceutical chemist in Buenos Aires, reported to Jollivet-Castelot in a letter (July 26, 1927):

"Dear Sir... I have repeated the experiments... in my laboratory and am amazed at the results. For the moment, it is only the scientific side which interests me, since the cost of the gold obtained is often greater than the value of the metal..."

Mr. A. Ballandras also replicated the experiments and reported the results:

"I will not conceal the fact that I have often heard ironical remarks aboutprocesses by which he succeeded in manufacturing gold. I determined to check his tests with the greatest possible accuracy...

"In a new quartz crucible, I placed 15 gr silver, 6 gr arsenic sulfide, 6 gr antimony sulfide. The crucible was heated at a temperature of 500o C and then for one hour and a half at 1100o C. At this moment the mass was fairly liquid... The crucible was then allowed to cool down. The reddish-brown residue obtained weighed exactly 23.742 gr, or a loss of 3.258 grams.

"I allowed this residue to cool in pure nitric acid in which the greater part was dissolved fairly easily. After prolonged boiling the liquor was filtered on a new glass wool. The resultant liquor was very clear and absolutely free of any particles.

"The glass wool was then macerated in aqua regia rich in hydrochloric; after 18 hours maceration, the whole was boiled for 3 hours. I again filtered on glass wool in order

to separate any traces of the filter from the liquor... Any gold that might have been obtained would necessarily be found in the last liquor... It was of importance to prove its existence qualitatively at least.

"For this purpose, I tried the various standard reagents, the results being the following: 1) Oxalic acid: flakey precipitate; 2) Iron sulfate: glossy metallic black; 3) Tin chloride: peach pink precipitate; 4) Formol: rather light bluish coloration; 5) Sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate: light coloration after boiling; 6) Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide: yellowish coloration, cloudy.

"These reactions are sufficiently characteristic and clearly prove the existence in the last liquor of a metal which, even if it is not gold, must nevertheless be placed very close to the latter... the metal obtained and gold must be perfectly isotopic.

"I have repeated this test several times and I have observed: 1) That the production of gold is a function of the rapidity with which the necessary heat is obtained; 2) That it is also a function of the degree of tightness of the crucible. A crucible that is closed as tightly as possible gives better results; 3) That the amount of gold obtained was not always uniform; some of the tests were absolutely sterile and I inferred that this was due to some defect in the mounting.

"I think there must be a certain temperature that should not be exceeded and that the external conditions of pressure and electricity must be of considerable importance."

In another experiment, Ballandras used silver (10 gr), tin (3 gr), orpiment (3 gr), and antimony sulfide (3 gr):

"After having operated as previously, I obtained a quantity of gold corresponding to 0.05 gr per gram of silver employed... This I consider to be a highly interesting result."

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(6) Dr. Stephen Emmens ~

Early in 1897, the British chemist Stephen H. Emmens, then residing in New York, announced the discovery of a new element which fills the "vacant space existing in the sub-group of Group I", and which he thought to be the intermediate matter from which silver and gold are formed. Dr. Emmens said:

"Our claim is that the element in question is therefore neither silver nor gold, but which may, by our new physical methods, be converted into gold." (14)

In 1897, Dr. Emmens' Argentaurum Laboratory on Staten Island produced over 660 ounces of gold from silver and sold it to the U.S. Assay Office. He revealed a few historical and technical details of his transmutation process in his book, Argentaurum Papers #1: Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation:

"Our work, which converts silver into gold, had its origin in the course of certain investigations which I undertook for the purpose of preparing chemically pure nickel... in 1892. In attempting to prepare these pure metals [nickel and iron], a certain product was obtained which seemed to differ from anything recorded in the textbooks. The same product was subsequently found when the investigation was extended to the case of metallic cobalt... The phenomena observed afforded indications of the existence of some substance common to the whole of the elements in what is known as Series 4 of Group 8 of the classification of Chemical Elements... It appeared to us almost self-evident that if we were right in supposing a common substance to be present in any single series of elements, the same would hold good for each group.

"And as Group I of the classification contains the precious metals --- gold and silver ~ it was obvious that our time and attention should be directed to these metals rather than to any other...

"Our starting point, so far as silver and gold were concerned, was afforded by the remarkable discoveries of Mr. Carey Lea with regard to [colloidal silver]... It was found that... this subdivision of metallic silver was attended by very considerable changes in the physical properties of the substance...By certain physical methods and by the aid of a certain apparatus, we succeeded in bringing about a further subdivision of the silver. We were not surprised to find that the substance obtained differed so far from ordinary silver that it could no longer be regarded as the same elementary substance. It seemed to require a new name and a new chemical symbol. Inasmuch, therefore, as our theory was that this substance was common to both gold and silver, and in reality was the raw material out of which both gold and silver were constructed by the hand of nature, we named the substance Argentaurum...

"The next step was to ascertain whether this substance could be so treated as to be grouped into molecules of greater density than those of silver... We found that... Argentaurum can be aggregated into molecules having a density considerably superior to that of ordinary gold molecules. Whether we are right as to this or not, the condensed Argentaurum presents the appearance and is endowed with the properties of ordinary metallic gold...

"We do not consume any chemicals and other costly materials in our process; what we use is mainly energy in some of its various forms, such as heat, electricity, magnetism, gravity, cohesion, chemical affinity, x-rays and the like... Our chief source of expense is the time required for bringing about the desired molecular changes... One ounce of silver will produce three-quarters of an ounce of gold..." (6)

Herbert Fyfe reported that Dr. Emmens' process comprised five stages: 1) mechanical treatment; 2) fluxing and granulation; 3) mechanical treatment; 4) treatment with a "modified nitric acid", and 5) refining. Dr. Emmens said:

"I regard the mechanical treatment as the causa causans. The fluxing and granulation serve, I think, merely to render the molecular aggregate susceptible of displacement and rearrangement." (15)

The mechanical treatment was accomplished by means of Dr. Emmens' "Force Engine", which exerted pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures. Step 4, using "modified nitric acid", contradicts the statement made elsewhere, that "we do not consume any chemicals... in our process." (4, 7-12, 15, 16, 23)

Dr. Emmens included a sample of Argentaurum and these instructions in a letter (21 May 1897) to Sir William Crookes:

"Take a Mexican dollar and dispose it in an apparatus which will prevent expansion or flow. Then subject it to heavy, rapid, and continuous beating under conditions of cold such as to prevent even a temporary rise of temperature when the blows are struck. Test the material from hour to hour, and at length you will find more than the trace (less than one part in 10,000) of gold which the dollar originally contained."

Sir Crookes was unable to replicate the experiment to his satisfaction. He reported:

"A specimen of Argentaurum sent me by Dr. Emmens has been examined with the spectrograph. It consists of gold with a fair proportion of silver and a little copper. No lines belonging to any other known elements, and no unknown lines, were detected."

This analysis resembles that of ordinary bullion gold, which contains silver and copper to make it harder and more fusible than pure gold.

In a rejoinder, Dr. Emmens noted:

"I have received a letter from a very eminent Fellow of the Royal Society informing me that he has performed the crucial experiment suggested in my letter of May 21, 1897, to Sir William Crookes. The gold contained in the Mexican dollar after 40 hours of intense cold and continuous hammering was found to be 20.9% more than the quantity of gold contained in the same dollar before the test."

In 1898, Emmens floated the Argentaurum Company, a syndicate which promised that for one ounce of silver (then worth about 50 cents) entrusted with payment of $4.50 per ounce for conversion costs, the investor would be repaid with 3/5 ounce of gold (then worth about $11). Dr. Emmens' application for a patent on his process was

refused, however, so production never began, since he would not have been able to protect his methods from unscrupulous competitors. (24, 29, 30)

Dr. Emmens was issued several U.S. Patents for inventions; at least two of them may be related to his process: #501,996 (25 July 1893), Electrolytic bath; and #501,997 (25 July 1893), Apparatus for Electrolytic Extraction of Metals. Dr. Emmens' Force Engine produced hammering pressures in excess of 500 tons/in2 at very low temperatures. These effects can be achieved by a variety of modern methods.

Semantic ambiguities in Dr. Emmens' writings confuse the understanding of the process. At times, Argentaurum refers to a new element, or to the gold produced from it, or to Lea's intermediate allotropic silver.

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(7) Carey Lea ~

Carey Lea discovered the preparation of so-called "allotropic" and "intermediate" silver in 1889 while he was studying reductions of silver nitrate. "Allotropic" is a misnomer, however. In 1925, Dr. Richard Zsigmondy, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Göttingen, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his study of Lea's "allotropic" silver under the ultramicrosope. Dr. Zsigmondy found that such silver actually was a monoatomic colloid of ordinary silver, not another isotope.

Lea determined that silver occurs in "allotropic", "intermediate", and ordinary forms. Ordinary silver is protean in nature. The aqueous solutions are colloidal monoatoms, and give perfectly clear solutions. The several forms of "allotropic" silver (a-Ag) dry with their particles in optical contact with each other, thus forming continuous films that are beautifully colored, perfect mirrors. Strong acids and pressure will convert a-Ag to the normal form. There are three forms of a-Ag, and all are unstable. (21, 22)

There is also a very stable "intermediate form" of silver (i-Ag) which is easy to prepare. It occurs as bright gold-yellow or green crystals with a metallic luster. Treatment with a very dilute solution of ferric chloride will enhance the appearance of its foliar structure, interpenetrating with plant-like ramifications, or fine acicular crystals up to 1 inch long.

Intermediate silver is hard, tough, and unaffected by pressure. It is nearly as indifferent to oxidizing and chlorizing agents as is normal silver. Intermediate silver can be formed from the allotropic varieties by light, heat, or chemical action. The simplest preparation is as follows:

"It has long been known that golden-yellow specks would occasionally show themselves in silver solutions, but could not be obtained at will and the quantity thus appearing was infinitesimal. Probably this phenomenon has often led to a supposition that silver might be transmuted into gold. This yellow product, however, is only an allotropic form of silver, but it has all the color and brilliancy of gold, a fact which was apparent even in the minute specks hitherto obtained...

"It is a little curious that its permanency seems to depend entirely on details in the mode of preparation. I have found many ways of obtaining it, but in a few months the specimens preserved changed spontaneously, to normal silver... The normal silver produced in this way is exquisitely beautiful. It has a pure and perfect white color like the finest frosted jewelers' silver, almost in fact exceeding the jeweler's best products. I found, however, one process by which a quite permanent result could be obtained... the following proportions give good results:

"Two mixtures are required: No. 1 containing 200 cc of a 10% solution of silver nitrate, 200 cc of 20% solution of Rochelle Salt [Sodium potassium tartrate] and 800 cc of distilled water. No. 2, containing 107 cc of a 30% solution of ferrous sulfate, 200 cc of a 20% solution of Rochelle salt and 800 cc of distilled water. The second solution (which must be mixed immediately before using only) is poured into the first with constant stirring. A powder, at first glittering red, then changing back to black, falls, which on the filter has a beautiful bronze appearance. After washing it should be removed whilst in a pasty condition and spread over watch glasses or flat basins and allowed to dry spontaneously. It will be seen that this is a reduction of silver nitrate by ferrous sulfate...

"Although the gold-colored silver (into which the nitrate used is wholly converted) is very permanent when dry, it is less so when wet. In washing, the filter must be kept always full of water; this is essential. It dries into lumps exactly resembling highly polished gold...

"If we coat a chemically clean glass plate with a film of gold-colored allotropic silver, let it dry, first in the air, then for an hour or two in a stove at 100o C, and then heat the middle of the plate carefully over a spirit lamp, we shall obtain with sufficient heat a circle of whitish gray with a bright, lustrous golden ring round it, somewhat lighter and brighter than the portion of the plate that has not been changed by heat. This ring consists of what I propose to call the "intermediate form"...

"With sulfuric acid diluted with four times its bulk of water and allowed to cool, an immersion of one or two seconds converts a film on glass or on pure paper wholly to the intermediate form...

"Its properties are better seen by using a film formed on pure paper, one end of which is heated over a spirit lamp to a temperature just below that at which paper scorches.

The change is sudden and passes over the heated portion of the surface like a flash. Examining the changed part, we find:

1st. That it has changed from a deep gold to a bright yellow gold color.

2nd. When subjected to a shearing stress it does not whiten or change color in the slightest degree.

3rd. It is much harder, as is readily perceived in burnishing it.

4th. It no longer shows the color reaction with potassium ferricyanide and ferric chloride, changing only by a slight deepening of color.

"Of these characteristic changes the second is the most remarkable. The gold-colored silver in its original condition changes with singular facility to white silver; almost any touch, any friction, effects the conversion...

The intermediate form is distinguished from normal silver almost solely by its bright yellow color and its higher luster."

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(8) References ~

1. "A.A.E.": Nature 121 (# 3060), p. 981 (June 23, 1928) 2. "A.C.": Chimie et Industrie, (1927), Suppl. 18/19 (4). 3. Anonymous: Rev. Ind. Chimie Industrielle 37: 63 (1928) 4. Ridpath, J.C.: The Arena (Boston) 19(1): 139-140 (1898); "The Age of Gold" 5. Baskerville, C.: Popular Science Monthly 72 (1): 46-51 (1908); "Some Recent Transmutations" 6. Bolton, Henry C.: Chemical News 76: 61-62 (6 August 1897); "The Revival of Alchemy" 7. Emmens, Dr. Stephen H.: Chemical News 76: 117-118 (3 September 1897); The Engineering & Mining Journal 62 (10): 221, 222 (5 September 1896); "The Transmutation of Silver into Gold"; ibid., 62 (11): 243, 244 (12 Sept. 1896); “ Emmens’ Transmutation of Ag into Au”; ibid., 62 (14): 315, 316 (3 Oct. 1896); "The Transmutation of Ag into Au" 8. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Science 5 (112): 314, 315 (19 Feb. 1897); ibid., 5 (113): 343-344 (26 February 1897); "The Argentaurum Papers No. 1, Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation" 9. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Argentaurana ; G. Du Boistel (Bristol, 1899). 10. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Science 7 (168): 9, 386-389 (18 March 1898); "The Age of Gold -- A Rejoinder"

11. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Arcanae Naturae (Paris, 1897) 12. Emmens, Dr. S. H.: Argentaurum Papers #1: Some Remarks Concerning Gravitation; Plain Citizen Publ. Co. (New York, 1896) 13. Fletcher. E. A.: Frank Leslie's Popular Magazine (March 1898) 14. Fulcanelli: Les Demeures Philosophales, vol. 1, p. 184-185, 189-200; J. Pauvert (Paris, 1964) 15. Fyfe, H. C.: Pearson's Magazine (March 1898) 16. Gaddis, V. H.: American Mercury 86: 65-69 (January 1958) 17. Jollivet-Castelot, Francois: Chimie et Alchimie; E. Noury (Paris 1928) 18. Jollivet-Castelot, Fr.: La Fabrication Chimique de L'Or (Douai, 1928) 19. Jollivet-Castelot, Fr.: L'Hyperchimie (Paris, 1896-1901) 20. Jollivet-Castelot, Fr.: La Synthese de L'Or; H. Daragon (Paris, 1909) 21. Lea, Carey: Amer. Sci. J. (Series 3) 37 (222): 476-491 (June 1889); ibid., 38 (223): 47-50 (July 1889); ibid., 38 (224): 129 (August 1889); Ibid., 38 (225): 237-241 (September 1889); ibid., 41 (243): 179-190 (March 1891); ibid., 42 (250): 312-317 (October 1891); ibid.,48 (148): 343 (October 1894); ibid., 51 (24): 259-267 (April 1891); ibid., 51 (246): 282-289 (April 1891). 22. Lea, C.: Zeit. Anorg. Allgem. Chem. 7: 340-341 (1894) 23. MacKenzie, J.: Spokane Mines & Electrician (17 February 1897) 24. Ord, W. E.: Knowledge 20: 285 (1 December 1897) 25. Tiffereau. Theodore: Les Metaux Sont Des Corps Composes; Vaugirard (Paris, 1855) 26. Tiffereau, T.: L'Or et le Transmutation des Metaux 27. Tiffereau, T.: Comptes Rendu Acad. Sci. Paris 38: 383, 792, 942 (854); ibid., 39: 374, 642-644, 743, 1205 (1854); ibid., 40: 1317 (1855); ibid., 41: 647 (1855); ibid., 123: 1097 (1896) 28. Waite, Arthur E.: A Collection of Alchymical Processes; S. Weiser (New York, 1987) 29. Woodward, Dr. R. S.: Science 5 (112): 343-344 (19 February 1897) 30. Young, C. A.: Science 5 (113): 343-344 (26 February 1897)

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PART 4

The Unknown $19 Trillion Depository Trust Company

The Unknown $19 Trillion Depository Trust CompanyRumor Mill News <Rayelan@aol.com>http://company.monster.com/detrco/ 9-15-99

Part I of II-

This exclusive report is a compilation of interviews and background research from October 1995 through April 1999. The Depository Trust Company (DTC) is the best kept secret in America. Headquartered at 55 Water Street in New York City, the average American has no clue that this financial institution is the most powerful banking corporation in the world. The general public has no knowledge of what the DTC is or what they do. How can a private banking trust company hold assets of over $19 trillion and be unknown? In a recent press release dated April 19, 1999, the Depository Trust Company stated: The Depository Trust Company (DTC) is the world's largest securities depository, holding nearly $19 trillion in assets for its Participants and their customers.... Last year, DTC processed over 164 million book-entry deliveries valued at more than $77 trillion. In dealing with the trust department of Midlantic Bank, N.A. in New Jersey [now PNC Bank, N.A.], this writer was authorized, as trustee and power of attorney, to transfer original trust assets comprising of common stocks and bonds to a new trust set up in another jurisdiction. An Assistant Vice President from the Trust & Financial Management Office of Midlantic Bank said to me "it will take at least 6 weeks to do this as the majority of the stocks and bonds are not held in the name of the trust". This same Midlantic Bank Assistant V.P. also stated in a letter dated November 17, 1995, "Of the 11 municipal bonds, 8 are held in book entry only. This means they cannot be physically re-registered with a certificate sent to the new trustees." (* these are not the actual figures quoted in the letter in order to protect the privacy of the account holder, at their request. Also, we were asked not to name the Midlantic Assistant V.P. in order to protect her privacy Rights. We respect these requests with full moral compliance). In disbelief, I brought this matter to the attention of our research assistants at the Christian Common Law Institute [formerly the North Bridge News] and we began our lengthy investigation into the matter. After 3 years, the can of worms we've opened up should frighten every American. With the advent of reported Y2K computer glitches and the possible collapse of our 'paper asset' economy, every person who has a stock or bond in their portfolio had better read this report and act on the information we are disclosing here. In November 1995, after encountering numerous "no comments" and a myriad of "that's not my department" excuses via telephone, I eventually spoke with Mr. Jim McNeff who told me his position was Director of

Training for the DTC. He said he'd been employed there for 19 years and was "very proud" of his employer. During my initial telephone interview, either Jim's employer or some other unknown person or persons were illegally listening or taping our telephone conversation according to the electronic eavesdropping equipment we have installed on our end. Why did anyone feel it was necessary to illegally record our conversation without advising us? Was some federal alphabet agency monitoring DTC calls to safeguard National Security? That in itself is suspicious enough to warrant a big red warning flag. Jim informed me back then (1995) that "the DTC is the largest limited trust company in the world with assets of $ 9.1 trillion". In July 1998, I spoke with Ms. Rose Barnabic of the DTC Finance Department who said that "DTC assets are currently estimated at around $11 trillion". As of April 19, 1999, the DTC itself has stated that their assets total "nearly $19 trillion" (see above). Mr. McNeff had also stated "the DTC is a brokerage clearing firm and transfer center. We're a private bank for securities. We handle the book entry transactions for all banks and brokers. Every bank and brokerage firm must secure their membership with us in case they become insolvent, so your assets are secure with DTC". Yes, you read that correctly. The DTC is a private bank that processes every stock and bond (paper securities) for all U.S. banks and brokerage houses. The big question is this; Just who gave this private bank and trust company such a broad range of financial power and clout? The reason the public doesn't know about DTC is that they're a privately owned depository bank for institutional and brokerage firms only. They process all of their book entry settlement transactions. Jim McNeff said "There's no need for the public to know about us... it's required by the Federal Reserve that DTC handle all transactions". The Federal Reserve Corporation, a/k/a The Federal Reserve System, is also a private company and is not an agency or department of our federal government, according to the 1998 Federal Registry. The Federal Reserve Board of Governors is listed, but they are not the owners. The Federal Reserve Board, headed by Mr. Alan Greenspan, is nothing more than a liaison advisory panel between the owners and the Federal Government. The FED, as they are more commonly called, mandates that the DTC process every securities transaction in the US. It's no wonder that the DTC (including the Participants Trust Company, now the Mortgage-Backed Securities Division of the DTC) is owned by the same stockholders as the Federal Reserve System. In other words, the Depository Trust Company is really just a 'front' or a division of the Federal Reserve System. "DTC is 35.1% owned by the New York Stock Exchange on behalf of the Exchange's members. It is operated by a separate management and has an independent board of directors. It is a limited purpose trust company and is a unit of the Federal Reserve." -New York Stock Exchange, Inc. Now, let's see how this effects the average working American family. If you're not aware how the system works, you should visit or call a stock broker or bank and instruct them you want to purchase some shares of common stock or a small municipal bond, for example. They will set up a brokerage account for you and act as your agent with full durable power of attorney (which you must legally sign over to them) to conduct business on your behalf, upon your buy or sell instructions. The broker will place your stock or bond purchase into their safekeeping under a "street name". According to Mr. McNeff of the DTC, no bank or broker can place any stock

or bond into their firm's own name due to Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Security and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulations. The broker or bank must then send the transaction to the DTC for ledger posting or book entry settlement under mandate by the Federal Reserve System. Remember, since your bank or broker can't use their name on the certificate, they use a fictitious street name. "Since the DTC is a banking trust company, we can't hold the certificates in our name, so the DTC transfers the certificates to our own private holding company or nominee name." states Mr. McNeff. The DTC's private holding company or street name, as shown on certificates we have personally examined from numerous certificate holders, is shown as either "CEDE and Company", "Cede Company" or "Cede & Co". We have searched every source known to learn who CEDE really is, but have been unable to get any background information on them. Is Cede Company fictitious or is their identity perhaps a larger secret than DTC? We must presume that the information Mr. McNeff gave us was correct when he confirmed that Cede Company was a controlled private holding company of the DTC. We have now found the following proof that CEDE is real from the Bear Stearns internet site: NEW YORK, New York - March 16, 1999 - Bear Stearns Finance LLC today announced that it will redeem all of the 6,000,000 outstanding 8.00% Exchangeable Preferred Income Cumulative Shares, Series A ("EPICS") of Bear Stearns Finance LLC, liquidation preference of $25.00 per Series A Share, CUSIP number G09198105. All of the Series A Shares are held by Cede & Co., as nominee of The Depository Trust Company, and the payment of the redemption price will be made to Cede & Co. by ChaseMellon Shareholder Services, LLC, as paying agent, whose address is: 85 Challenger Road, Ridgefield Park, New Jersey 07660. The banks and brokers are merely custodians for their clients. By federal law (SEC), they cannot hold any assets in the customer's name. The assets must be held in the name of DTC's holding company, CEDE & Co. That's how DTC has more than $19 trillion dollars of assets in trust... or is it really in "trust" if the private Federal Reserve System is technically holding it in their "unknown" entity's name? Obviously, if stock and bond certificates you've purchased aren't in your name, then the "holder" (the Federal Reserve System) could theoretically refuse to surrender them back to you under a "national emergency" according to the Trading with the Enemy Act (as amended). Is this the collateral being held by the private Federal Reserve System to pay off the national debt owed to them by our federal government, first initiated by Lincoln's debt bonds of 1864? According to Mr. McNeff, the DTC was a former member of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), and "Our sister company is the National Securities Clearing Corporation... the NSCC" (they have since merged). He was correct since we now know that the NYSE holds 35.1% of the "ownership" of the DTC on behalf of their NYSE members. Simply put, the Depository Trust Company absolutely controls every paper asset transaction in the United States as well as the majority of overseas transactions, and they now physically hold (as of April 1999) 99% of all stock and bond book-entrys in their street name, not the actual owner's names. If you have stock or bond certificates in your name buried in your back yard or under your mattress, we suggest you keep them there. If not, it might be very wise to cancel your brokerage account and power of attorney status, re-register the stocks and bonds in your name (if you still can), and

keep them hidden where only you know their location. Otherwise, you have absolutely no control over them (see Part II of our exclusive research report on the DTC for more information on beneficial ownership status). However, getting a stock or bond certificate these days is not so easy if possible at all: "For the most part, issuers know little about the role of the Depository Trust Company (DTC). The DTC was created in 1973 as a user-owned cooperative for post-trade settlement. Our members are banks and broker/dealers, whom we refer to as participants. We handle listed and unlisted equities, including 51,000 equity issues and 170,000 corporate debt issues, equating to more than 78% of shares outstanding on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). We also have more than 95% of all municipals on deposit. In the 1980s, the "Group of 30" [business leaders] recommended that stock certificates be eliminated, because physical certificates create risk. The Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a concept release in 1994 to gradually decrease certificates, providing optional direct registration on the books of the issuer instead of a certificate.... this enhances the portability of shares between transfer agents and brokerage accounts. With the direct registration system, brokers transmit instructions to purchase through DTC, which the issuer or transfer agent then registers, so shares can be delivered electronically." -John D. Faith, Manager, Corporate Trust Services, The Depository Trust Company (1996) Now we're about to reveal to you the most shocking discovery we came across during our research into this matter. Most of us remember a few years back the purported computerized selling of stocks that resulted in Wall Street's "Black Monday": Dow Dives 508.32 Points in Panic on Wall Street "The largest stock-market drop in Wall Street history occurred on "Black Monday" -- October 19, 1987 -- when the Dow Jones Industrial Average plunged 508.32 points, losing 22.6% of its total value. That fall far surpassed the one-day loss of 12.9% that began the great stock market crash of 1929 and foreshadowed the Great Depression. The Dow's 1987 fall also triggered panic selling and similar drops in stock markets worldwide" -Source: Facts on File World News CD ROM The stock exchanges had dramatic record losses, and a record volume of shares were traded on that infamous Monday in October 1987. We all asked ourselves how computers could have done this by themselves without someone knowing about it. After all, someone has to program a computer to tell it what to do, what not to do, or even when to do or not do it. During my telephone conversation, Mr. McNeff was trying to assure me that they [the DTC] have "never lost a certificate or made a mistake in a book ledger transaction". In attempting to give me an example of how trustworthy the DTC is when I asked him how he could back up such a statement, he replied "DTC's first controlled test was 4 or 5 years ago. Do you remember Black Monday? There were 535 million transactions on Monday, and 400 million transactions on Tuesday". He was very proud to inform me that "DTC cleared every transaction without a single glitch!". Read these quotes again: He stated that Black Monday was a controlled test. Black Monday was a deliberately manipulated disaster for many Americans at the whim of a controlled test by the DTC. What was the purpose of this test? Common sense tells you that you test something before you intend to use it. It's quite obvious that the stock markets are going to 'crash and burn' at some future date and for some 'unknown' reason since the controlled test was so successful. Was this just one of the

planned tests for a Y2K internationally planned worldwide economic meltdown? The Great Depression is about to be repeated, and it will be as deliberate and manipulated as the first one that began with the stock market crash of 1929. We are, without a doubt, on the brink of the Mother of all economic Depressions. As of May 3, 1999, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) went above a record 11,000 points. Just prior to the 1929 stock market crash, Wall Street was posting record prices, record earnings, and record profits.... just like the scenario we are experiencing today. Will Y2K be a manipulated and deliberate a financial meltdown? Too many facts already support this probability. On June 7, 1995, the federal government issued a new regulation requiring stock and bond certificate transfers to be cleared in three days instead of the previous five day time period. It coincided with the infamous Regulation CC that purportedly gave us faster three day availability of funds from deposited checks. This means that brokers and banks must get your stock or bond transaction into the street name (Cede & Co.) of the DTC within 3 working days. That's hard to do considering banks claim it takes 3 or more days to clear a check that you've submitted to pay for a stock purchase. But, there's a reason for this new regulation and it coincides with the introduction of the new FRS "dollars". On February 22, 1996, "the DTC will flip the switch" according to Mr. McNeff. "What switch?", I asked. "This is the day that clearing house funds will no longer be accepted for stock or bond transactions" was my reply from Jim. "Instead, only Fed Funds will be accepted". Fed Funds, or a Fedwire, are electronic computer ledger debit transfers between Federal Reserve System member banks. No checks or drafts have been allowed from that day, just as Mr. McNeff accurately stated. This is more commonly called a 'cashless transaction'. I call it the reality of the mark of the beast. This is the manifestation of the new international god, the New World Order [I prefer the term 'New World DISorder' as a more accurate description]. [RMNews: In case you are new to all of this and you don't understand that the Federal Reserve Banking System is a privately owned bank, there is an article on the www.rumormillnews.com page that will help you begin to understand. It is found by clicking the Gunther Russbacher button and then clicking on the headline that reads: An Expose of the Federal Reserve. This article was written in late 1991 or early 1992. At the time is was published in many diferent newspapers and newsletters. It was the first introduction the American people had to the "new money" that is referenced in this article.

Consider this my fellow Christian Americans: All pension funds and other institutional 'managed funds' are comprised of paper asset investments such as stocks, bonds, and mutual funds. These certificates are technically in the name of DTC's private holding company, CEDE and Company. The DTC is owned by the private Federal Reserve System owners (Click for a complete list of names). Congress has attempted, on no less than two occasions since 1995, to pass legislation allowing pension funds to be used by the government as purported 'loans'. All the Federal Reserve System has to do is hand it over. But, what happens to the people counting on those pension fund investments in order to feed themselves in their retirement? Too bad for them.... they're out of luck because for the 'good of the nation', they may

be forced to share or relinquish their lifetime of hard-earned wealth. This can be done without the consent of Congress under an Executive Order based on the War and Emergency Powers Act and a state of National Emergency, just like we are already under (See further Executive Orders). Since the Federal Reserve System already holds our stocks and bonds in their fictitious DTC "street name", CEDE, then perhaps they'll cash them in for the federal government's failure to repay the loans that have become way overdue. Heck, some of Lincoln's gold backed bonds from 1864 have not been repaid yet.... and for a reason. On March 6, 1933, all bullion gold and gold coins were forcibly taken from the hands of private citizens (see New York Times). Under the War Powers Act, President Roosevelt declared a national emergency touted as a "Banking Holiday". It was declared due to the deliberately calculated stock market crash that preceded the Great Depression. Where did this gold end up? Into the hands of the Federal Reserve System owners. The majority is stored in the impervious rock vaults they own beneath New York City. Is it any surprise that the DTC physically holds all the remaining non-book entry issued stock and bond certificates in the same place? Technically, our entire nation is still under the Executive Order declaration of the War Powers Act and in a continual state of national emergency (See Clinton's 1994 Executive Order 12919). The President can enforce any new emergency at any time under Executive Order or Presidential Directive. In 1995, we [the former North Bridge News] published that we expected a new national "dollar" emergency to be declared within a year or two. Just like we thought at the time, they have now blamed it on the purported drug dealers who are allegedly destroying our currency by money laundering schemes. Since late 1996, old U.S. $100 FRB notes issued by the Federal Reserve Bank are being exchanged for new $100 FRS issued by the Federal Reserve System. These new notes have scanable magnetic platinum encryption on the plastic strips embedded inside the bills. The U.S. Treasury claims this is for "the blind". Now, new $20 and $50 FRS's are replacing the older notes as well. What people don't realize is that very soon, the older FRB notes will no longer be 'legal' and there will be a penalty for hoarding them. This is what happened to those Americans holding gold and gold coins after 1933. "We are most gratified with the successful introduction of the new $100 and $50 notes and look forward to the same success with the new $20s," Chairman Greenspan said. For the first time, a machine-readable capability has been incorporated for the blind. A new feature in the $20 will facilitate the development of convenient scanning devices that could identify the note as a $20. -U.S. Treasury, Office of Public Affairs, RR-2449 released May 20, 1998. Why new paper 'money' and for what purpose? Because the new FRS notes in your pocket can be scanned and whoever scans them can know exactly how much money you have on you. The older FRB notes are not encoded to do this. This writer knows firsthand of at least one machine, manufactured by Diebold, Inc. (a/k/a InterBold) that scans the money in your pockets, wallet or purse no different in theory than a credit card scanner, but much more sophisticated. I participated in a 'test' of this machine at a U.S. international airport in 1998. To me, it looks much like the standard metal detector scanners you walk through at all airports. I was asked (by who I believe was a U.S. Treasury Agent, as he introduced himself and flashed his ID quickly in my face so I

couldn't read it) if I had any of the new $100 or $50 bills in my pockets. I looked in my wallet and saw I had one new $100 FRS note. I told him "yes", then he said "Good, but don't tell me how much". After saying he would "really appreciate it" if I would help them with a test, he asked me to walk through what looked like a typical airport scanner. No beeps. No noise. No sound at all. He looked at a computer screen and said "Do you have a new $100 bill?". When I confirmed that was true, he thanked me and told me to please move on. I tried to ask him how the machine knew that, but he ignored my question. I took a good look at the scanning system and believe I have now spotted them at Kennedy, Atlanta, Miami and Los Angeles airports. The odd part about this is that these machines seem to all be located in the customs areas where you enter the U.S. from a foreign country. Obviously, they want to know if someone is carrying more than $10,000 into the U.S. Common sense dictates that they should be more concerned about people leaving with more than $10,000 if they're really trying to thwart the drug dealers.... until you begin to realize that there must be some other hidden agenda: They are apparently going to stop money from entering the U.S. for a reason. Will the President call for the confiscation of all gold bullion and bullion coins as Roosevelt did? Who will end up with it? The Federal Reserve System owners, just like before. Since June 1998, international gold supplies have been so low that some private Swiss Banks have been paying a premium above the market wholesale value for gold bullion. This was confirmed to us by a gold and diamond mining Chief Executive from Rex Mining in Guinea, West Africa, who supplies raw gold to a major Swiss Banking company smelter and processor The spot gold market has been manipulated to keep the price low so that the Federal Reserve System owners can purchase all that is available through their various trusts and corporations. World gold availability on the open market is now at a record low and mining production of gold is also at a record low output. What happened to 'supply and demand' with gold and silver? Normally, when supply is high the price decreases. When supply is low, precious metal prices increase. Perhaps the private FED will peg the new dollar to gold prices, as many experts have already speculated. What will stocks and bonds purchased with old dollars be worth then? Pennies to the dollar, so to speak. Who ends up being the only winner? The Federal Reserve System stockholders. They control the circulation amounts of paper money in the U.S. Combine that with the new scanner to stop large amounts from entering into the U.S., and the scenario amounts to a planned shortage of paper FRS notes, the banning of the older FRB notes, and the soon to be astronomical price of gold which most Americans will be forbidden to have or hoard, once again. The facts we've presented in this report all point to this. People will be at the mercy of the federal government for daily food and for jobs. Checks are soon to be totally phased out. Banks issue ATM debit cards and tell you they must charge more for your account if you use a real live human teller instead of the machine. The switch is being turned on. This is not speculation. This is the truth of reality. It's already been tested, and their new system works. Just ask Jim McNeff of the DTC. The day has come when you must decide to accept or reject the beast and the New World Disorder.

Part Two

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Home | Understanding Scarce-Rare Coins | FAQ | Coin Collecting and Investing | Model Portfolios | Scarce-Rare Coin Grading | Price Charts | Special Coins For Sale | Request Buy Quotes | Request Sell Quotes | About Us | Special Reports | Precious Metal IRA's | Join Our Email List | Guarantees and Disclaimer | Numismatic Affiliations -------------------------------------------------------------------Dear Congressman:

How the United States can easily Sink the National Debt.

re: Turning Lead into 10kt Gold Coins

If the United States, transmutated lead metal into $100 US Created

10KT Gold Coins ( oreo cookie style ) and issued $100 Created "

Gold Certificates" , and then Deposited them under US title 12

section 412, into the US Treasury National Debt Sinking Fund as "

collateral notes " the national debt can be easily sunk, while keeping

series E US Savings Bonds, for economic stability, thus removing

a big encomonic stress on the US ecomony because " money ends

suffering ."

Based on the following, the wealth of the United States needs to

be reassessed at least 10 x, ( this Country is SUPER RICH .why have

a needless debt.)

Facts on Lead Metal and its Transmutation into

Gold

(1) Lead metal has 82 protons & electrons and

contains Gold in it already and Lead is the ONLY

METAL that can be the STANDARD WEIGHT as

10kt Gold ( that is semi safe to use )

(2) Lead metal does transmutate into Gold when

bombarded with a source of neutrons.

(3) It is alleged that Lead naturally transmutes into

Gold over millions of years within a vein of quartz

chrystals and the piezo electric effect interaction,

like coal into diamonds.

(4) Certain compounds when added to lead metal ,

will turn lead into golden color, see " yellow lead "

" naples yellow " ( a gold color ) and see the golden

lead chrystal, " Vanadinite ."

(5) Being the only metal suitable as the Standard

Weight as 10kt gold, lead can be easily transmuted

into $100 US Created Gold Coins for the US Mint

and its $100 Created Gold certificates and if a layer

of real 10kt gold covers the created gold coin, it will

be safe for people to handle.

(6) Lead is decayed uranium.

If the Federal Reserve, US Mint and Treasury needs a Modern Alchemist please let me know, I would like to work on this project for the US government because money ends suffering.

" Therefore buy of me gold refined in the fire " God rev 3:18 Because Money Ends Suffering.

May God Bless YouYours FaithfullyRev Daniel Izzo BA/ MS science researcher inventor512 Onondaga AveSyracuse, NY 132071-315-472-5088

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The U.S. Postal Savings Bank , discontinued in 1970

Note: The United States Postal Service is an independent agency of the executive branch of the federal government. It was created by the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 and went into operation on July 1, 1971. Prior to that date it was named the Post Office Department, and the postmaster general who headed it was a member of the president's Cabinet.

The Postal Service is managed by a board of governors, which selects a postmaster general and deputy postmaster general as chief executive officers. There are five regional postmasters general, each of whom manages all postal activities within a region.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The U.S. Postal Savings Bank

In 1910, by an Act of Congress, the U.S. Postal Savings Bank was born and it was one of the best ideas in the Republic's history. By that time, most civilized countries of the world had a Postal Savings Bank.

President Theodore Roosevelt's speech on the necessity for a Postal Savings Bank in 1908:

"I again renew my recommendation for postal savings banks, for depositing savings with the security of the Government behind them. The object is to encourage thrift and economy in the wage-earner and person of moderate means. In 14 States the deposits in savings banks as reported to the Comptroller of the Currency amount to $3,590,245,402, or 98.4 per cent of the entire deposits, while in the remaining 32

States there are only $70,308,543, or 1.6 per cent, showing conclusively that there are many localities in the United States where sufficient opportunity is not given to the people to deposit their savings. The result is that money is kept in hiding and unemployed. It is believed that in the aggregate vast sums of money would be brought into circulation through the instrumentality of the postal savings banks. While there are only 1,453 savings banks reporting to the Comptroller there are more than 61,000 post-offices, 40,000 of which are money order offices. Postal savings banks are now in operation in practically all of the great civilized countries with the exception of the United States."

The Postal Savings Bank was officially inaugurated in 1910, during the Administration of President William Howard Taft:

"The second subject worthy of mention in the Post-Office Department is the real necessity and entire practicability of establishing postal savings banks. The successful party at the last election declared in favor of postal savings banks, and although the proposition finds opponents in many parts of the country, I am convinced that the people desire such banks, and am sure that when the banks are furnished they will be productive of the utmost good. The postal savings banks are not constituted for the purpose of creating competition with other banks. The rate of interest upon deposits to which they would be limited would be so small as to prevent their drawing deposits away from other banks.

"I believe them to be necessary in order to offer a proper inducement to thrift and saving to a great many people of small means who do not now have banking facilities, and to whom such a system would offer an opportunity for the accumulation of capital. They will furnish a satisfactory substitute, based on sound principle and actual successful trial in nearly all the countries of the world, for the system of government guaranty of deposits now being adopted in several western States, which with deference to those who advocate it seems to me to have in it the seeds of demoralization to conservative banking and certain financial disaster. The question of how the money deposited in postal savings banks shall be invested is not free from difficulty, but I believe that a satisfactory provision for this purpose was inserted as an amendment to the bill considered by the Senate at its last session. It has been proposed to delay the consideration of legislation establishing a postal savings bank until after the report of the Monetary Commission. This report is likely to be delayed, and properly so, cause of the necessity for careful deliberation and close investigation. I do not see why the one should be tied up with the other. It is understood that the Monetary Commission have looked into the systems of banking which now prevail abroad, and have found that by a control there exercised in respect to reserves and the rates of exchange by some central authority panics are avoided. It is not apparent that a system of postal savings banks would in any way interfere with a change to such a system here. Certainly in most of the countries of Europe where control is thus exercised by a central authority, postal savings banks exist and are not thought to be inconsistent with a proper financial and banking system."

By 1913, the Postal Savings Bank was another great American success story. Here is an article from The Commercial Tribune, Cincinnati, Feb. 6, 1913:

Monfort Explains Postal Savings.St. Xavier's Students Listen to Exposition of Uncle Sam's Bank

Postmaster E. R. Monfort delivered an interesting address on "The Postal Savings Bank" last night, before the department of commerce, accounts, and finance of St. Xavier's College.

"The postal savings bank" [he said] "is a new department of the greatest business on earth-the banking business. Few people realize the magnitude of the Postal Department. In Cincinnati alone last year over $17,000,000 changed hands in handling the mails. There are 2,650 mail carriers in the city, and the salaries of the deliverers and the railway mail clerks with headquarters in Cincinnati amounted to over $1,000,000.

"The postal savings bank, although a new department of the Mail Service, has grown so rapidly that it is at present one of the largest. The people put more trust in the postal bankthan they do in the ordinary banks. It is designed merely to protect and take care of the earnings of the working class. Under this system the money that is placed in the care of the Government can be withdrawn at any time. At times, it is said, more than half the money of the world is out of circulation and in the pockets of the people. At such time the circulating money is not sufficient to carry on the business of the world, and a panic follows. The great financiers of the world have been unable to account for these conditions, but many think that this system, by placing cash at the disposal of the poorer people, will greatly lessen the hardships of such panics.

"In speaking of the rapid growth of the postal savings bank and its favor with the people, he let the figures speak for themselves. On January 11, 1912, there was in the bank $11,000,000;now there is $30.000.000. On this money the depositors receive 2 percent interest. The Government, however, invests this money so that the department is self-supporting and so far has paid all its own expenses

This staggering sum was reached so quickly even though the maximum deposit was 500 dollars. Most of the depositors were poor and recent immigrants who did not trust the commercial banks and were very familiar with postal savings' banks in their home countries. The minimum age for opening an account was 10.

The people loved their savings bank and pressure quickly grew to increase the maximum amount. A bill was introduced in Congress in 1914 to repeal this ceiling. It was called the Moon Act. President Wilson acting under advice of the Roman hierarchy vetoed it because some of the banks receiving deposits were not part of the newly created Federal Reserve System!!

President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921).

President Woodrow Wilson (another tool of Rome) vetoed the legislation that would have made the Postal Saving Bank another great American success story.

The Income Tax versus the Postal Savings Bank.

In 1913, _____ imposed slavish INCOME TAX system on the land of the FREE. . . .This was a direct competitor to the Postal Savings Bank. The income tax was an exact duplicate of the feudal Dark Ages Papal income tax:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Editor's NotesOne dollar in 1913 was the equivalent to about 30 dollars today, so 30 million dollars would be about 600 million dollars at today's exchange rate. This was the increase in just 2 years even though the maximum deposit was 500 dollars.

Visit the Postal Savings Bank of Hibernia - the birthplace of our great Irish-American hero Father Crowley.

The British Post Office Savings Bank is the world's oldest, it was founded in 1861.

Japan financed their industrial revolution through her Postal Savings Bank. It is one of the largest banks in the world right now with deposits of $10 TRILLION.

China also discovered the Postal Savings Bank 10 years ago.

The U.S. Postal Savings Bank was discontinued in 1970 during the Presidency of Richard Nixon.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------William H. Taft, Presidential Candidate, Republican Party"Postal Savings Bank"Hot Springs, Virginia, August 5, 1908

SPEECH TEXT

The Republican platform recommends the adoption of a postal savings bank system. The government guarantee will bring out of hoarding places much money which may be turned into wealth producing capital and will be a great incentive for thrift in the many small places in the country having now no savings bank facilities which are reached by the post office. It will bring to everyone however remote from financial centers a place of perfect safety for deposit with the interest returned. The pending bill for such banks provides for the investment of the money deposited in national banks and the various places in which we’ve gathered or as near thereto as may be practicable. This answers the criticism contained in the Democratic platform that under the system the money gathered in the country will be deposited in Wall Street banks. The system of postal savings bank has been tried in so many countries successfully that it cannot be regarded longer as a new and untried experiment. The Democratic platform recommends a tax upon the national banks and upon such state banks as may come in, in the nature of enforced insurance, to raise the guarantee funds to pay the depositors of any bank which fails. The proposition is to tax the honest and prudent banker to make up for the dishonesty and imprudence of others. No one can foresee the burden which under this system would be imposed upon the sound and the conservative bankers of the country by this obligation to make good for the losses caused by the reckless, speculative and dishonest men who would be unable to secure deposits under such a system on the faith of the proposed insurance. Because in its present shape, the proposal would remove all safeguards against recklessness in banking… and in the end, probably the only benefit would accrue to the speculator who would be delighted to enter the banking business when it was certain that he could enjoy any profits that would accrue, while the risk would have to be assumed by his honest and hardworking fellow. In short, the proposal is wholly impracticable unless it is to be accompanied by a complete revolution in our banking system with a supervision so close as practically to create a government bank. If the proposal were adopted exactly as the Democratic platform suggests, it will bring the whole banking system of the country down in ruin. And this proposal is itself an excellent illustration of the fitness for national control of a party, which will commit itself to a scheme of this nature without the slightest sense of responsibility for the practical operation of the law proposed. The Democratic party announces its adhesion to this plan and only recommends the tried system of postal savings bank as an alternative if the new experimental panacea is not available. The Republican party prefers the postal savings bank as one tried safe and known to be effective and as reaching many more people now, without banking facilities, than the new system proposed.

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DEAR MEMBER OF CONGRESS:

AMERICA HAS MORE THAN $50 TRILLION OF UNUSED CAPITAL ?

IF YOU COULD; WOULD YOU SUPPORT:

(A) CREATING: CRYONIC BURIAL RESURRECTION CHAPELS FOR DECEASED AMERICANS ?

(B) LEGALLY SINK THE NATIONAL DEBT ?

(C)ISSUE: UNITED STATES MONEY NOTES?

(D) RE-OPEN THE UNITED STATES POSTAL SAVINGS BANK, & issue USPSB NOTES, that produces AMTRAK NOTE

FUNDING ?_________________________________________

IDEA TO PROVIDE THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT TRILLIONS OF EXTRA DOLLARS IN REVENUE AND TAX SAVINGS.

WHY NOT ISSUEUnited States Notes ? as $1US NOTES in 1928

$2 US NOTES in 1928 1953 1963, $5 US NOTES in 1928 1953 1963; $100 US NOTES in1966

AS CUSTODIANS OF MONEY USC TITLE 31 SEC 3302What is a United States Note, how is it Independent from Debt ?

LEGALLY SINK THE UNITED STATES DEBT WITHOUT CIRCULATING EXTRA MONEY

AND ALSO SECURING US GOVERNMENT BONDS BUT IN INTEREST BEARING TRUST HOW TO LEGALLY SINK NATIONAL DEBT

The Unknown $19 Trillion Depository Trust Company Part of the SEC US Gov Trust

to Secure and Sink the National Debt:USE

(1) USC Title 12 sec 412; Apllication for Notes Collateral Required:Then

(2) USC TITLE 12 SEC § 342. Deposits; exchange and collection; member and nonmember banks or other depository institutions;

AS CUSTODIANS OF MONEY USC TITLE 31 SEC 3302THEN

(3) DEPOSIT THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE FROM USC TITLE 12 SEC 412, 342, SECURED BY THE $19 TRILLION DEPOSITORY TRUST

COMPANY AS SIMPLE COLLATERALTHEN

(4) DEPOSIT SAID $19 TRILLION DOLLAR NOTE; BUT IN TRUST ; ( NOTE NOT TO BE CIRCULATED ) WITH THE UNITED STATES

TREASURY

THEN (5) REMOVE THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATIONS FROM THE

GENERAL FUNDOBLIGATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND SEPARATE THESE DEBT

PAYMENTS FROM THE GENERAL FUNDTHEN

(6) MAKE A PAYMENT PLAN TO SLOWLY PAY THE UNITED STATES DEBT OBLIGATION FROM THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR TREASURY

TRUST FROM NUMBER 3 ABOVEWHEREAS THE ENTIRE UNITED STATES DEBT IS NOW SUNK,

SECURED AND IN THE PROCESS OF PAYMENT THRU TREASURY TRUST FUND OF PART 3

United States Postal Savings Bank can create money notes and FUND AMTRAK AND ABANONED RAILROADS.

THE $19 TRILLION DOLLAR DEPOSITORY TRUST COMPANY a SEC GOV TRUST, as collateral under USC Title 12 sec 412 (1) Reissue: UNITED STATES Notes as Legal tender,

(2) the United States Postal Savings Bank can create money notes and load money to Amtrak -Railroad bonds in exchange for US Postal Savings Bank

money notes.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CRYONIC PRESERVATION PROVIDES A SENSE OF A REAL SCIENTIFIC SECURITY FROM DEATH AND HOPE IN A

RESURRECTION OF THE DEAD BODYMany of the security from death issues people have can be addressed through

science and general medical resurrection.

Our childhoods are the best time of our lives , once robotic parents are created for tough labor our lives could be like children again, and more people would

want to be brought back from temporary death.

Reviving to life already after freezing already happens naturally. Every spring, life that was once frozen in the winter months, suddenly blooms to life again.

Many plants and animals replace their body water with a natural sugar anti-freeze to prevent the cell DNA from shattering when frozen.

When Human Beings die; not all of the body is dead, just the brain stem stops to function.

Please remember that mammals start out the size of a period dot and grow into a baby in 9 months, using just food and oxygen from the mother.

In the future stem cells can be cultured and the deceased body can be revived with these cells, like filling a dry sponge with fresh water.

At 10:49 PM, Rev Dan Izzo said... " Resurrection is the rising again from the dead, the resumption of life. "

Could this Bible prophesy be Cryonics ?

BROTHER DANIEL IZZO512 Onondaga AveSyracuse, NY 13207

-------------------------------------Concerning the Idea to ask Congress to reissue

UNITED STATES NOTES as a Legal Tender again, dormant since 1966.

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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------United States Patent Application 20050027316 Kind Code A1 Izzo, Daniel Robert February 3, 2005 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Resurrection burial tomb

AbstractA Resurrection Burial Tomb includes a means to preserve and revive Human Beings and provide power and power systems for the same, comprising of a container of preservation means, holding the suspended dead person's body and connected to electrical and energy apparatus systems contained in the Resurrection tomb and robotic machine workers that help maintain and work to revive the suspended Human Being; wherein the process provides power and security from death to living Human Beings being useful and novel, producing a less savage empowered child culture and machine parents.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Inventors: Izzo, Daniel Robert; (Syracuse, NY) Correspondence Name and Address: Reverend Daniel Robert Izzo 512 Onondaga Ave Syracuse NY 13207 US Serial No.: 161974 Series Code: 10

Filed: June 4, 2002 U.S. Current Class: 607/1 U.S. Class at Publication: 607/001 Intern'l Class: A61N 001/00 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Claims--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1) I the Reverend Daniel Robert Izzo, hereby claim the, "A Resurrection Burial Tomb" that is a novel means to revive a dead person's body from the grave; and providing a 1 little more security from an impending death; will preserve and prevent the human body from decay and will prolong the human life and tissue and return it into a conscious state, together with the means do do the same, and a means to produce energy, to do the same; comprising of: an artificial womb and a container with fluid having a crystal radio crown and antenna that connects to a radio and energy devices; wherein the deceased person is prevented from decay within said container and where energy is obtained from the radio crown that oscillates into the deceased person's nerves and brain and the entire container is within a building and tomb that is weather tight, wherein a nuclear device is used to generate electric energy and heat energy; wherein part of the dead person's bone is converted into a microprocessor and computer; wherein the computer and energy sources, drive a heart lung machine that keeps the dead person's remaining cell tissue alive, together with an artificial heart assister pump; wherein the deceased person's bone will regain consciousness, using the material of their bone and artificial and organic means consisting of human bone material; that is convertible into a computer and microprocessor, organically grown body parts; artificially grown body parts; nerves a muscles; wherein the microprocessor will oscillate of the dead person, from the said bone material; being used will oscillated of the person's life frequency; together with artificially grown nerves and olfactory nerves that grow, reconstructed nerve patterns of the deceased person; together and consisting of artificial and organically grown muscle; comprising of silicon and compounds to cause silicon and material mean to expand and contract with energy and force; and organic material; when a voltage of energy is applied; wherein the deceased person's skeleton remains, will be revived to consciousness, using collagen, a microprocessor, co version to a computer consciousness, artificial muscle that expands and contracts with energy and force, artificial nerves that will allow the dead person's skeleton remains; to independently communicate new consciousness and thoughts; wherein the said microprocessor contains elements of human bone materials that will be able to convert itself into other electric circuit patterns, by inputing the desired pattern stored in its memory; such as imputing radio, for radio circuit, imputing oscilloscope for oscilloscope circuit; wherein said microprocessor will receive and transmit input data and electric pulses, and will contain information, record data and monitor the burial tomb,

comprising of a means to receive and transmit data and electric pulses; and contain information, record data and monitor, wherein said microprocessor comprises of: a sheet of flexible insulating plastic paper that contains an enlargement of specially painted and printed computer microchips; integrated electric circuits and having thousands of field effect transistors; capacitors and resistors; that was applied and formed with applied layers of paint, wherein the sheet of plastic paper is coated with a complete layer of positively doped silicon substrate that is printed and painted in an electric circuit pattern of an insulating coat of silicon dioxide paint; then an area contain the devices negatively charged electric areas, type-N, will be painted and printed; in a pattern for type-N areas, with a paint that contains silicon and germanium crystals and phosphorus with in the type-N semiconductor paint; wherein then the device's negatively charged electric areas will have extra free electrons and produces N-type, negatively charged electric current conduction; wherein then, another electric circuit pattern is then printed and painted that will conduct the P-type, positively charged electric semiconductor regions with a polysilicon paint that contains silicon, germanium, crystals and boron mixed in the paint; wherein the results of the paint leave gaps in the germanium crystal structure because there is not enough electrons to fill all of the spaces in the crystal and produces a P-type semiconductor patterned region for the device's positive electric current conduction; wherein then another layer of silicon dioxide is printed and painted in an electric circuit insulating pattern and shall have some holes for electric conduction and shall have a printed and painted aluminum or other electric conducting metal paint; applied on it in a circuit pattern and shall provide electric contacts that will receive electric data pulses of either digital inputs or analog-to-digital converter inputs and the electric contacts will provide the device's digital output or the device's digital-to-analog data output, wherein the microprocessor's input of data will be able to store the data in the device's central processing unit; the device's random access memory; and the device's read only memory and are connected together within the device's address bus; data bus; and control bus and the device's bus system connects to the device's input and output connection; wherein the device can store the data for processing and the device turns data into processed results; into actions and dip lays, wherein the enlarging of the pattern of the computer microchip electric circuit; integrated electric circuits, 100+thousands of field effect transistors; capacitors and resistors; and then applying the materials to create the same electric systems; painting and printing upon plastic paper, 100+thousand transistors; capacitors and resistors; on an altered xerography process using the aforementioned materials of plastic, silicon, silicon dioxide, polysilicon, germanium; phosphorous; boron, crystals, metal, or painting the electric circuit patterns of the I/C; microprocessor-microchip; 100+thousand transistors, capacitors, resistors, circuits in and enlarged pattern; also by lithographic printing or offset cylinders containing the material of paint and the circuit designs; or of the layer printing methods that print the materials without shorting the electric circuit, wherein the microprocessor can be altered and

produce electric energy, and can be a photoelectric cell on top of the microprocessor and can be altered and have a parallel along the circuits with arsenic, wherein a photoelectric effect takes place, producing electricity; wherein processes in the Resurrection Burial Tomb, and Conscious Revival System; having interactions therein wherein; prior domestic priorities of the inventor's; cosmic radio wave crown, a Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator; a Hydraulic Leverage Engine, a Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System; the Zinc-Carbon Pill and Transistorized Plastic Paper Computer, the Artificial Heart Assister Pump; the Artificial Muscle Robot; and the Thermionic Electron Electric Generator and Artificial Liver Ammonia Diffuser; interact in new and improved functions that preserve the deceased person's and offer a little more security from our deaths. and electric energy, and power systems; are used as a means to provide the process; wherein a small pump will circulate blood and fluid; that is attached to the person's arteries and veins; wherein when a person's heart fails to pump properly; the automatic device will sense this dysfunction; and will begin to pump and circulate oxygenated blood and fluid properly throughout the person's body tissues, if any, wherein the pumping system is powered electrically or nuclear energy; wherein the power source to circulate and pump blood fluid is connected to the device; wherein the device is connected to a person's blood circulatory system and will maintain a fresh supply of oxygen to a deceased person's brain and body; wherein; medication and process of the Zinc-Carbon Pill electrophoresis compounds are used in the process for destroying microbes, fungi, bacteria and viral infection and clove leaf oil topical paste for herpes virus, and protect the deceased person's tissues infection; wherein an engine is used to provide the Resurrection Burial Tomb; with a power source; wherein the Hydraulic Leverage Engine is used comprising of; a gasoline combustion chamber having gas therein; a diesel compression chamber having diesel gas fuel therein; a hydraulic pneumatic engine having gas therein; and ION engine having gas therein; a heat source within said housings which interacts with gas or fuel, or an energy source to provide output, a piston connected to the output of the energy or heat source; wherein; the piston will act upon a hydraulic jack piston pump and is connected to a lever bar and the lever bar rests upon a fulcrum point and bar, wherein the lever bar rests upon a fulcrum point and bar, wherein the lever bar acts upon a set of weight load pistons that connect to a crankshaft and the crankshaft is connected to a load bearing work wheel; and wherein the output of the energy or heat source shall cause and move the effort pistons to apply a small pressure upon the hydraulic jack piston pump that in turn will apply a larger force of pressure upon the lever bar, that in turn will apply an even larger force of pressure upon the weight load pistons that connects to the crankcase and crankshaft and work wheel; so that the crankshaft, under applied pressure of the effort pistons acting upon the hydraulic jack piston pump and lever bar acting upon the weight load pistons, turns a work wheel with much more force that was initially acted upon it from the energy source or heat source but at less distance, wherein the effort multiplied by the distance from the

fulcrum, (effort pistons-lever bar ) equal the weight multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum (weight load pistons), wherein the Resurrection Burial Tomb has a workable engine for the interaction process; wherein the Zinc-Carbon Pill will prevent decay of the human person, wherein the process will electrocute viruses and other microbes within a human host and will explode viruses, bacteria, fungi and other microbes, like an overloaded electric light bulb, without destroying many human cells, with the ability to increase the natural electric current and voltage of a human being, with electro-chemical compounds and a process of electrophoresis; and electrocution and electrostatic activity; comprising of; elements of; zinc and its zinc oxides; zinc sulfides and zinc acetates and other zinc elements, carbon and carbon elements and can be in the form of carbonyl and its group, carboxyl and its group, carboxyl and its group and other carbon based elements, magnesium and its compounds and group, wherein the combining of these elements increases the electrical energy of a Human Being with chemical energy and can shatter and explode viruses, bacteria, fungus and other microbes and parasites that cause diseases and cell death of a Human Being, and can be applied also externally to a Human Host with the same effect together with these elements; Zinc; Carbon; Magnesium; Electrophoresis materials; adramycin; antineoplastic; antipan; arsenic; barium and its sulfides; benzyl; benzoic acid; benzoly peroxide; carbamazephine;carbolated campor, carbolic acid; cerumenolytic; daunomycn; hydrogen peroxide; hydrochloride; keratolic acid; magnesium; mithramycn; ozone; phenol red; phenylactetic acid carboxy; phenyl carbinol; pheny ethyl alchohol; phenylactetic acid carboxy; phenyl carbinol; pheny ethyl alcohol; phenyl meruric nitrate; piperdine; permathrin; dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate; pyrethrin; piperonyl butoxide; sodium; sodium hydrogen-carbonate; sodium perborate; suger; sulfa; sulfamide; penicillin; carben carbenicillin; radio chemicals; ultra-violet rays; electric jolts; negative ions; positive ions and water; wherein combining these elements increases and amplify the electrical energy of a host human inside the tomb chambers, to a safe level, but will explode with electric energy, viruses, bacteria, funguses and other microbes and parasites without damaging many Human cells and is obtained ny chemical energy and other energy forms and the process and treatment with chemicals can be in the form of liquids, solids, powders, pastes, pill gas and electric energy forms as light radiation energy and electro-static energy absorption means to prevent decay of the deceased person's Human cell life, and wherein the means for a communication device is used from the Citizen Band Free Public Radio wave Telephone System comprising an audio input, microphone, a frequency programmer number pad to frequency crystal oscillator. a programmed radio frequency to signal number display, transmit and receive antennas. a keyboard to computer input. a speaker, a video monitor, TV monitor, a fax machine/printer, a data input and computer storage data unit, electric plug input/output, telephone line for wire service, cable input/output wire, video/audio camera that is removable, a source of communication antennas for a radio wave receiver and transmit or and propagated radio waves; wherein;

the invention's Citizen Band Free Public Radio wave Telephone system's; audio input with cable wires; input amplifier, radio frequency amplifier, modulated amplifier or frequency amplifier, modulated amplifier or Frequency amplifier master oscillator, radio frequency amplifier, radio frequency amplifier; radio frequency amplifier, crystal oscillator that is programmable; antenna; pre-selection circuit; a frequency changer; intermediate frequency amplifier; frequency detector; low frequency amplifier speaker; antenna for receiver; local oscillator, will interact and function within the Resurrection Burial Tomb processes and radio crown; as a means for monitoring communication, entertainment fun and data; wherein the invention uses artificial muscles and produces electric current that is stored in the electric storage unit being maintained/operated by the "Artificial Muscle Robot" and its artificial hands having, artificial muscle that is connected to a frame with movable joints and the artificial hand is covered and protected with a material that permits movement, wherein the artificial muscle will expand and contract with force, using electric current by way of spring wires that is within the artificial muscle that is weaved and patterned and layered like a real human hand having sensors for input/output signals through a central joint palm, that has a computer brain with optical sensors and an input/output communication and receives transmits radio communication and the robot has arms with artificial hands. wherein the robot is powered by a Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator other electric input means that move and perform work of Human hands tasks can perform to maintain and work for the Resurrection Burial Tomb work functions; wherein the Hydraulic Pneumatic Engine and the "Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System with a thorium plated magnetron (2) energy systems, using steam from the microwave hot water boiler to drive and help turn the hydraulic pneumatic engine and electric generator wherein the Artificial Muscle Robot assists in the operation of the tomb's hydraulic pneumatic engine and microwave hot water boiler heating energy system. wherein the Lever Engine c covert 1 ton of torque into 4 tons without gear/transmission for the invention's work functions and other electric systems comprising of the Thermionic Electron Electric Generator, having a power source, cathode, cesium, thorium, container with magnetic force inside, and a high voltage anode chamber with argon gas inside for output, wherein the input of 10 watts of electric power is amplified to about 100 watts of electric power output, for energy creation, and the invention's Hydraulic Pneumatic Engine used for work functions and comprising of the Portable Nuclear Powered Engine that mitts less radiation than 3 TV sets and is used for work functions and electric power generation. wherein; the invention's rebuilding and preserving Human persons who are deceased or suspended or are being revived into normal function, uses the same means of cryogenic preservation, in the U.S. South Pole, Antarctica territory and the invention comprises of an "Artificial Womb" converted from an oxygen petrofusion machine, wherein the Hyman's cells are preserved/protected and can grown into normal function, wherein a means of a Human bone being crystallized and converted into a computer microprocessor,

for an "Artificial Muscle Robot" consciousness and for some normal function. and a means for a Human person inside a container that is filled with a preservative medium that prevents decay and who is wearing a Crystal radio crown to hear the living, awaiting the day of resurrection, wherein the invention comprises of the Thermionic Electron-Electric Generator that is used to generate the invention's electric power, that comprises of; containment inside a sealed tube contain a source of input power that heats a thorium tungsten nichrome wire that is inside another sealed tube that contains cesium gas that generate electrons, wherein a thoriated platinum cathode obtains emitted electrons and emits more electrons inside a magnetic field having cobalt magnets, wherein an anode collects the electrons and sends them to a argon gas ionizer chamber having argon gas therein wherein high voltage electric is present that ionizes the radiation of the argon gas and causes electrons to rush to one electron and positively charged ions to the other electrode and positively charged ions to the other electrode; wherein the electrons join other electrons emitted from the anode at the negative electrode as the radiation and high voltage causes an electric current within the device and sends it to the increased electric output to the invention's electric current supply wherein the invention comprises of an electric generator having radioactive cobalt 60 magnets, and depicts radioactive cobalt 60 magnets that cause electrons to move faster than iron magnets and produces more electric output per calorie than iron magnets and its output is increased by high voltage argon gas ionization inside the electric generator, wherein radioactive cobalt field structure magnets create a magnetic field; wherein coils of wire are mounted so that they can be spun around in a magnetic field with mechanical energy input; wherein the entire device is inside a vacuum tube that is filled with a gas and charged to a very high voltage wherein the radioactive cobalt 60 ionizes the gas spading the electrically neutral gas into positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons wherein; the positive ions rush to one electrode and the electrons rush to the other electrode wire, wherein this triggers an electric current from one electrode to the other, while the mechanical energy input turns the wire coil electrode and creates electrical output between the cobalt 60 magnetic field magnets wherein magnetic force and ionized gas of radioactive cobalt 60 magnets make electrons move in the wire coil generating an electric current output, and a means for the invention's electric systems connected to the invention's electric wiring that provides amplified electricity; wherein the Thermionic Electron Electric Generator are a source of amplified electric power to the invention's wiring wherein the invention comprises of devices that convert heat energy into electric current wherein the invention comprises of a Microwave Boiler, converting thorium/uranium electrons into microwave energy said magnetron microwave device, said microwave magnetron and a klystron thats cathodes and anodes are plated with thorium and uranium and whose magnets are of radioactive cobalt., wherein the invention's microwave emitting device shall be improved by plating the magnetron's electric cathode with thorium and uranium that is radioactive, the

anode is of magnetizable metal, radioactive cobalt, nickel or iron and the anode is plated with radioactive metal; wherein the operation of the invention's magnetron, a high D-C potential is applied between cathode and anode, setting up a radial electric field, wherein the combined forces cause electrons to take a spiral path and when the magnetron, the electric oscillations of the magnetron resonators set up an A-C electric field across the resonator gaps, wherein the thorium and uranium metal cathode, magnetic metal anode of cobalt and plated with radioactive metal, in the magnetron sets up an increase in spiraling reactions when an electric current is applied and causes the magnetron output current to be many times the electric input of the invention's magnetron, and the invention, comprises of electric devices converting thorium uranium, cesium tungsten, nichrome, and argon gas atoms interacting and generating electron emissions into electric energy, and using mechanical energy input and obtain a greater energy output of electric energy, the invention's, Thermionic Electron-Electric Generator, that coverts a smaller energy power input into a larger electric energy output wherein; the invention's devices converting heat energy and electro magnetic energy into a larger electric energy output, wherein the invention's devices converting a smaller electric energy input into a larger heating calorie output for room tomb air radiant heat, wherein the invention's devices converting thermionic emissions into a larger radiant energy output, wherein; the invention's devices using cobalt magnets and mechanical energy together with high voltage ionized argon gas to provide an output of electric energy. wherein; the invention's devices using cobalt 60 magnets, wherein the invention's devices using rare earth elements to increase the power output, wherein the invention's devices converting electric input into mechanical output, wherein the invention's "Artificial Liver and Ammonia Diffuser" for cirrhosis treatments with blood clotting restorability; comprising of a container having an input tube containing Human Blood with toxins that is filtered with a calcium filter (2) that circulates and moves the blood/fluid with an electric pump and mixes plasma fluid input and connects into and restores blood clotting; a settling tank that connects into another calcium filter tank that then sends the filtered blood that has its clottability restored; into another tank wherein the blood is again filtered (2) and slightly heated in the unit tank where the blood is again filtered and slightly heated in the unit tank; wherein the slight heating and calcium mixes with the Human blood and causes ammonia toxins to diffuse into a vent and the blood is sent through a connecting pipe into a cooling unit and filters down to remove any extra calcium and cools the blood and fluid and sends the cleaned of toxins blood/fluid into a storage tank and a output tube for use if a Human Being and final testing to insure toxin material removal, before being used to the person in need, and said processes interact within the invention for an outcome; wherein the invention comprises of a "Portable Nuclear Powered and Electric Generator" that comprises of a Stirling type engine; wherein the invention's engine having a doubled walled capsule cylinder that is filled with helium gas and contains a floating piston at the top of the floating piston is a pellet of radioactive material that heats the helium to about 1,200 degrees F.,

where this very hot helium expands rapidly, then forcefully drives down the piston to the bottom of the cylinder where the temperature is almost 1,100 degrees F., lower and as the piston moves down it forces some of the gas out through a valve in the cylinder floor near the spring bellow and the floating piston acts and pushes against the upper hydraulic jack piston and the upper hydraulic jack piston will push against the helium reservoir and will compress the helium gas and pushes against the helium reservoir and will compress the hydraulic fluid reservoir tat will force the hydraulic jack plumps lower hydraulic pistons that will force and act upon a larger load than was or b acted upon it, and will push this force against the crankcase that will turn and urn the load bearing work wheel and the invention's oil pan is filled with oil and the work wheel will turn an electric generator and the entire device is contained inside of a magnetic bottle that has a coil of a magnetic field metal and the magnetic bottle is contained in a ceramic box that is covered with lead plates an a battery is used to hold the electric current in storage for use of the electric systems of the invention, to provide an electric source for the invention; wherein; wherein the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator" shall also comprise of and consisting of a Tidal regenerate engine that has a double walled capsule cylinder, contain a signal computer that is an electromagnet (29) that is activated to attract another magnet and the movement expands a bellows (22a) that forces a little water up a tube into a water boiler where heat from a radioactive source and a thorium plated magnetron maser protected by a window of quartz will vaporize water into steam and the steam is heated further inside of a super heater tube and the steam then pushes another bellows that, in turn, sends a pulse of hydraulic fluid through the hydraulic jack piston pump and will compress the hydraulic piston that will force and act upon a larger load than was originally acted upon it, and also force a lever and together will push this force ageist the crankshaft that will turn and turn the load bearing work wheel and the engine's oil pan is filled with oil and the work wheel will turn an electric generator and the entire engine is contained in a ceramic box that is covered with lead plates and barium plates and the ceramic box is located within a cement molded building and shall contain barium radiation absorbers and power extinguishers that shall discharge and absorb radiation when the extinguishers sense radiation leakage, wherein electric and power is produced for the invention; wherein; the invention's, comprises of a :cylinder housing operating inside of a magnetic bottle that is contained in a ceramic box that is covered with lead plates and barium plated and is located within a cement premolded building that contains the barium radiation absorbers and powder extinguishers, wherein the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator" cylindrically shaped housing having water and a source of electric power to be amplified and converted into microwave energy and a source of generating microwave energy having its magnetron cathode tubes plated with radioactive nuclear materials as a source of amplifying the cathode rays that will be coveted into microwave energy to provide an output and a computer that uses either cable wire and or transmits

data by radio waves and television KHZ-MHZ-GHZ waves to a radio and television receiver that is connected to a computer that is connected to a magnetic video/audio tape recorder for recording computer data inexpensively, wherein 1 VHS magnetic tape can hold 1.5 gigabytes of computer data, wherein the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator", cylindrically shaped housing and thorium plated magnetron that emits microwave energy and a magnet receiving cosmic radio waves and converting the energy into usable electric current by using a crystal radio set with an antenna sensitive at collecting radio wave energy and using and storing it inside of a battery and the cosmic radio waves shall also be received and recorded on magnetic tape and stored for analysis of fluctuations and data pulses inside of the unit's audio-video recorder and accessed by the computer key code 2) A Thermionic Electron Electric Generator and Artificial Ammonia Diffuser as defined in claim 1 and in the specification, in which very low energy input creates a higher energy output. 3) Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System as defined in claim 1 and in the specification, in which low energy input creates a higher energy output. 4) A Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator as defined in claim 1 and in the specification, in which low level nuclear energy input creates a steady means of power, for charging batteries and providing electric current. 5) A Hydraulic Leverage Engine as defined in claim 1 and the specification; wherein 1 unit of input work is converted into 4 units of output work using a lever and hydraulic jacks. 6) The Zinc-Carbon Pill and Transistorized Plastic Paper Computer as defined in claim 1 and the specification, wherein microbes, viruses, bacteria and fungi are electrocuted without much human cell destruction, and information data is stored. 7) The Artificial Muscle Robot as defined in claim 1 and the specification wherein, the transistorized plastic paper computer is used a the CPU and the power source is a portable nuclear powered engine and electric generator. 8) The Artificial Heart Assister Pump as defined in claim 1 and the specification wherein a energy source is used to provide an output. 9) The Citizen's Band Free Public Radio wave Telephone as defined in claim 1 and the specification, wherein the transistorized plastic paper computer is used for radio propagation. 10) A Resurrection Machine and Consciousness Revival System as defined in claim 1 and the specification is incorporated with the Resurrection Burial Tomb, to provide output. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------Description--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

[0001] Application Ser. No. 10/161,974 [0002] A RESURRECTION BURIAL TOMB in this application is a CIP of application Ser. No. 09/619,698 filed Jul. 19, 2000, which is a CIP of "A

Resurrection Machine and Consciousness Revival System" application No. 60/144,245 filed Jul. 19, 1999 and a CIP of "The Thermionic Electron Electric Generator and Artifical Liver Ammonia Diffuser" application No. 60/295,356; filed on Jun. 04, 2001 and "The Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System" application Ser. No. 08/766,130 filed Dec. 16, 1996 U.S. Pat. No. 6,064,047 with Discloser Document #412019 priority, filed Jan. 10, 1997 and "The Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator" application Ser. No. 09/205,415 filed Dec. 02, 1998 (being a CIP of application Ser. No. 08/798,316 filed on Feb. 10, 1997) and "The Hydraulic Leverage Engine" application Ser. No. 09/177,760 filed on Oct. 24, 1998 (being a CIP of application Ser. No. 08/813,825 filed on Aug. 21, 1997 and application No. 60/063,068 filed on Oct. 27, 1997 and application No. 60/072,624 filed on Jan. 26, 1998 and "The Zinc-Carbon Pill and Transistorized Plastic Paper Computer" application Ser. No. 09/239,269 filed on Jan. 26, 1999 (being a CIP of application No. 60/072,579 filed on Jan. 26, 1998) and "The Artificial Muscle Robot" application No. 60/148,654 filed on Aug. 13, 1999 Pat. App No. 60/128,747 filed on Apr. 12, 1999 "Free Citizen's Band Public Radio wave Telephone System and Computer" Together with priority "conception of invention claims " of "The Artificial Heart Assister Pump" application No. 60/122,189 filed on Mar. 01, 1999 and Disclosure Document #452294 filed on Mar. 03, 1999 Together with priority "conception of invention claims" of: Disclosure Document #412019 filed on Jan. 10, 1997; Discloser Document #452294; Discloser Document #494846; Discloser Document #486705; Discloser Document #494219 filed May 21, 2001; Discloser Document #493,675 filed May 17, 2001; Discloser Document #493701; [0003] The above references are held the priority and inventions, of the applicant, the Reverend Daniel Robert Izzo of 512 Onondaga Ave., Syracuse New Your 13207 citizen of the United States of America, who has not abandoned any of his science inventions, obviously, but views them as a form of his children. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0004] 1. Field of the Invention [0005] This invention pertains to processes and devices that provide power and security from death, and more particularly, a noble branch or field thereof; known in psychoanalysis as an empowerment means that relieves some fears of eternal death and the anxiety about the same, together with devices to empower people who lack independent power sources. [0006] 2. Background Information [0007] In order to provide background information so that the invention maybe completely understood and appreciated in its proper context, reference may be made to a number of prior art patent and applications of the inventor as follows. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] It is another principle object of the invention; to provide the present Human Community, being sadomasocistic by nature; (re; cruel world, death and taxes; master-slave; cop-robber; landlord-tenant; schoolmaster-pupil; boss-worker etc.); with a more fun and better, self supporting prolonged Child Culture having Robot Parents and energy sources to empower the same; (re;

man and machine), the inventor believes that this is the next progression in Human development, wherein government makes its own tax es from gold coins trans mutated from neutron bombarded lead and engineers a sort of made-made heaven; wherein the work is play and fun, inapt. Psychoanalysis shows that the 3 main issues that human beings deal with are issues of 1) Power, (food, heat, etc.) 2) Sex Gratification, (creation of children) 3) Security from Death. (religion tales anxiety relief, peace etc.) because they have survival value. This invention attempt provide human beings with issues; (1) Power; and a little more of issue (3) Security from Death. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0009] FIG. 1 [0010] 1) Is a drawing of the Resurrection Tomb holding the container of preservative; holding the dead person's body and connected to electrical and energy apparatus contained in the Resurrection Tomb consisting of concrete/cement molded manhole building/tomb with power source for the dead/dying human beings. [0011] 2) Sealed entrance to building/tomb. [0012] 3) Double walled, vacuum sealed container with preservative medium that prevents decay of human tissue and a means for tissue nutrition and oxygen. [0013] 4) Depicts a power source, of a portable nuclear powered engine and electric generator and batteries for storage of electric power. [0014] 5) Depicts a radio and communication system with antenna connected to power source. [0015] 6) Turbine system that converts water and or wind power into electric/energy for the burial tomb. [0016] 7) Depicts intelligent robot maintenance worker. [0017] 8) Depicts a heating source. [0018] 9) Depicts an engine/pumping system [0019] 10) Depicts a means and apparatus that provides oxygen/nutrition t the surviving/growing human tissue. [0020] 11) Depicts electrical apparatuses for monitoring communication and entertainment of the burial/chambers. [0021] FIG. 2 [0022] 1) Depicts a dead human being inside of a container containing tissue preservative fluid; that has a radio wave crown. [0023] 2) Connected to the head of the person; with an antenna that connects to a radio. [0024] 3) That is either electric powered or a crystal radio; that can collect and store radio wave energy that all 1-4 fits inside of a piece molded man hole/building burial tomb. [0025] 4) Radio waves [0026] 5) Building/tomb. [0027] 6) A human being's bone containing silicon, phosphorus and boron that is ground up.

[0028] 7) Grounded up elements and are used to produce a computer electric circuit that is placed inside of a computer. [0029] 8) (Harry Quartz and Silicon crystals that oscillate at the frequency of the dead person's life/energy force.) [0030] 9) With a human skeleton frame [0031] 10) With a few bones missing waiting to have artificial muscles and intelligence restored to it's material. To become conscious again with it's old stored thoughts, mannerism and memories. [0032] FIG. 3 [0033] Depicts two human beings (in fetal form) being kept alive in a jar of fluid. [0034] 1) Awaiting the day that new nerves regenerate in their bodies to regain consciousness once again. Please note: When we die, " not all of our body is "dead" mainly our nerves and brain has "burned out" and "died", when we die. The rest of our body is OK for several days. [0035] FIG. 4 [0036] Depicts a human skeleton that will be filtered with new artificial nerves; muscle and conscious together with organic compounds and nutrition. [0037] FIG. 5 [0038] Depicts a human skeleton being filled with artificial nerves; muscle and eyes, preparing for a conscious resurrection. [0039] FIG. 6 [0040] Depicts the preserved brain and nerves 1 that was from FIG (1). The preserved brain and nerves have been treated with nerve growth hormone that was cultured from olfactory nerves and other nerve hormones. [0041] FIG. 7 [0042] Depicts arteries and veins far carries blood 1 or energy far artificial muscles. [0043] FIG. 8 [0044] Depicts a human skeletal being fitted with artificial muscle that expands and contracts with data inputs. The artificial muscle used is silicon with elements and minerals used to expand and contract silicon and artificially grown organic muscles. [0045] FIGS. 9 & 10 [0046] Depicts the Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator that produces energy for the unconscious human being's home and the dead human being's tomb, see CIP for specifications. [0047] FIGS. 11 & 12 [0048] Depicts the Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator obtaining cosmic radio wave energy and is connected to the human material computer (30E; 30F;37) See the CIP specification for Ser. No. 09/205,415 and CIP application Ser. No. 09/177,760. [0049] FIG. 13 [0050] Depicts the Cement Molded Building and Tomb (19B) being powered by the Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator, see CIP Application Ser. No. 09/177,760, and CIP specification for Ser. No. 09/205415.

[0051] FIGS. 14 & 15 [0052] Depicts the Microwave Hot water (40) Powered Heating System with Thorium plated Magnetron maser that provides heat for the building and tomb. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,064,047. [0053] Ser. No. 10/181,974 [0054] FIG. 19) Depicts the invention's Citizen Band Free Public Radio wave Telephone System's unit A and B [0055] 1) Audio input, microphone. [0056] 2) Frequency programmer number pad to frequency crystal oscillator. [0057] 3) Programmed radio frequency to signal number display showing 4.725088 MHz, 47.25088 MHz and 472.5088 kHz, usable in the U.S. when the government (FCC)allows common carrier use of radio frequency numbers similar to a person's telephone number, from 200 kHz Thur 999 kHz, 0.000010 MHz Thur 9.999999 MHz, 0.0000010 MHz Thur 99.999999 MHz. (with public radio stations frequencies reserved). [0058] 4) Transmit and receive antennas. [0059] 5) Keyboard to computer input. [0060] 6) Speaker. [0061] 7) Video Monitor/TV monitor. [0062] 8) Fax machine/printer. [0063] 9) Data input and computer storage data unit. [0064] 10) Electric plug input/output. [0065] 11) Telephone line for wire service. [0066] 12) Cable input/output wire. [0067] 13) Video/Audio camera that is removable. [0068] 14) Source of communication antenna for (a) and (b) Radio wave receiver and transmit or [0069] 15) Propagated Radio wave from devices A and B. [0070] 16) Radio receiver speaker. [0071] FIG. 19B) Depicts the invention's; [0072] (1) audio input with cable wires [0073] (2) input amplifier; [0074] (3) radio frequency amplifier; [0075] (4) modulated amplifier or a frequency modulator; [0076] (5) modulated amplifier or a frequency modulator-master oscillator [0077] (6) Radio frequency amplifier; [0078] (7) Radio Frequency amplifier; [0079] (8) Radio Frequency amplifier; [0080] (9) Crystal oscillator that is programmable; [0081] (10) Antenna; [0082] (11) Pre-selected circuit; [0083] (12) Frequency changer; [0084] (13) Intermediate Frequency amplifier; [0085] (14) Frequency detector, [0086] (15) Low Frequency amplifier,

[0087] (17) Antenna [0088] (18) local oscillate, [0089] FIG. 20) Describes the invention's stream paddle wheel and electric generator, wherein the wind/river water flow (2) causes multiple paddle wheels (3) to turn a shaft (4) that turns and drives an electric generator (5) and the unit (1) produces electric current that is stored in the electric storage unit (6) being maintained/operated by the "Artificial Muscle Robot" of figure (2) part (10). [0090] FIG. 21) Describes the invention's "Artificial Muscle Robots" artificial hand and the invention's artificial muscle hand having (1) one with artificial muscle (2) that is connected to a (bone) frame (8) with movable joints (4) and the artificial hand (1) is covered and protected with a material (3) that permits movement. The invention's artificial muscle (2) will expand and contract with force, using electric current by way of spring wires (6) that is within the artificial muscle (2) that is weaved and patterned and layered like a real human hand having sensors (7) for input/output signals through a central joint palm (5). [0091] FIG. 22) Describes the invention's, "Artificial Muscle Robot" (10) that has a computer brain (9) with optical sensors (11) and an input/output communication device (12) and receives transmits radio communication (17) and the device (10) has arms (13) with artificial hands (1). wherein the robot (10) is powered by one of the invention's, "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine (15) and (16) and other electric inputs (18) and can move and perform handwork (1) (7) (6) of many tasks Human hands can perform to make Human life easier. [0092] FIG. 39) Describes the invention's "Artificial Heart Assister Pump" and the "Zinc-Clove Leaf Oil Paste" 1) A Human Person 2) An Artificial Heart Assister Pump that is electric or nuclear powered. 3) A Human Heart. 4) The Zinc-Clove leaf oil paste on a [0093] FIGS. (23) (24) (25) Describe the invention's, "Portable Nuclear Powered and Electric Generator" that comprises of a Stirling type engine having a doubled walled capsule cylinder (1) that is filled with helium gas (2) and contains a floating piston (3). At the top of the floating piston (3) is a pellet of radioactive material (4) that heats the helium (2) to about 1,200 degrees F., This very hot helium (2) expands rapidly, then forcefully drives down the piston (3) to the bottom of the cylinder (1) where the temperature is almost 1,100 degrees F., lower. As the piston (3) moves down it forces some of the gas out through a value (5) in the cylinder floor near the spring bellow (6). The floating piston (3) acts and pushes against the upper hydraulic jack (8) piston (7). The upper hydraulic jack (8) piston (7) will push against the helium reservoir (9) and will compress the helium gas and pushes against the helium reservoir (9) and will compress the hydraulic fluid reservoir (11) that will force the hydraulic jack pumps (8) lower hydraulic pistons(12) that will force and act upon a larger load than was originated upon it, and will push this force against the crankcase (13) that will turn and turn the load bearing work wheel (14). The invention's oil pan (15) is filed with oil. The work wheel (14) will turn an electric generator (16). The entire device is contained inside of a magnetic bottle (17) that has a coil of a magnetic field metal (18). The magnetic bottle (17) is contained in a ceramic box (19) that

is covered with lead plates (20). A battery (21) is used to hold the electric current in storage for use of the electric systems of the invention. [0094] FIGS. (27) (28) (29) Describe the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator" consisting of a Tidal regenerator engine that has a double walled capsule cylinder (1) contain a signal computer (30) that signals an electromagnet (29) that is activated to attract another magnet (29b). The movement expands a bellows (22a) that forces a little water (26) up a tube (31) into a water boiler (24) where heat from a radioactive source (23) and or a thorium plated magnetron maser (33) protected by a window of quartz (34) will vaporize water (26) into steam (32). The steam (32) is heated further inside of a super heater tube (21). The steam (32) then pushes another bellows (22b) that, in turn, sends a pulse of hydraulic fluid (28b) through the hydraulic jack piston pump (28) and will compress the hydraulic piston (28c) that will force and act upon a larger load than was originally acted upon it, and also force a lever (35) and together will push this force ageist the crankshaft (13) that will turn and turn the load bearing work wheel (14). The engine's oil pan (15) is filled with oil. The work wheel (14) will turn an electric generator (16). The entire engine is contained in a ceramic box (19) that is covered with lead plates (20) and barium plates (20b) and the ceramic box (19) is located within a cement molded building (19b) and shall contain barium radiation absorbers and power extinguishers (20c) that shall discharge and absorb radiation when the extinguishers (20c) sense radiation leakage. [0095] FIG. 30) Describes the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator", cylinder housing (1) operating inside of a magnetic bottle (17) that is contained in a ceramic box (19) that is covered with lead plates (20) and barium plated (20b) and is located within a cement premolded building (19b) that contains the barium radiation absorbers and powder extinguishers (20c). [0096] FIG. 31) Describes the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator" cylindrically shaped housing (1) having water (26) and a source of electric power to be amplified and converted into microwave energy (36) and a source of generating microwave energy (33) having its magnetron cathode (33a) tubes plated with radioactive nuclear materials as a source of amplifying the cathode rays that will be coveted into microwave energy to provide an output (33b). A computer (30) that uses either cable wire (30b) and or transmits data by radio waves and television KHZ-MHZ-GHZ waves (30b) to a radio and television receiver (30c) that is connected to a computer (30e) that is connected to a magnetic video/audio tape recorder (30f) for recording computer data inexpensively, wherein 1 VHS magnetic tube (30f) can hold 1.5 gigabytes of computer data. [0097] FIG. 32 Describes the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator", cylindrically shaped housing (1) and thorium plated magnetron that emits microwave energy (33) and a magnet (29) receiving zzzzz930c) (39) cosmic radio waves (38) and converting the energy into usable electric current (40) by using a crystal radio set (39) with an antenna (40)

sensitive at collecting radio wave energy (38) and using and storing it (41) inside of a battery. The cosmic radio waves (38) shall also be received (30c) and recorded on magnetic tape (30f) and stored for analysis of fluctuations and data pulses inside of the unit's (1-15) audio-video recorder (30f) and accessed by the computer key code (37) [0098] FIG. 33) Describes the invention's Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator usage of lever bars (35) that will convert 1 ton of torque force into 4 tons of force, but a less distance. [0099] FIG. 23) Details the invention's "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine and Electric Generator" that emits less radiation than 3 television sets. [0100] Human Person's mouth that destroys microbes, such as Herpes virus. [0101] FIG. 40) Describes the invention's "Hydraulic Pneumatic Engine" (1) and the "Microwave Hot Water Boiler Heating System" with a thorium plated magnetron (2) energy systems, using steam (3) from the microwave hot water boiler (2) to drive and help turn the hydraulic pneumatic engine (1) and electric generator (4) wherein the Artificial Muscle Robot of FIG. (10) assists in the operation of the invention's hydraulic pneumatic engine and microwave hot water boiler heating (5) energy system. [0102] FIG. 41) Describes the invention's energy devices; 1) depicts the "Lever Engine" that can covert 1 ton of torque into 4 tons without gears/transmission. 2) depicts the "Thermionic Electron Electric Generator" having a power source, cathode, cesium, thorium, container with magnetic force inside, and a high voltage anode chamber with argon gas inside for output, wherein the input of 10 watts of electric power is amplified to about 10 watts of electric power output, for energy creation. 3)depicts the invention's "Hydraulic Pneumatic Engine" used for work functions. 4) depicts the invention's, "Portable Nuclear Powered Engine" that emits less radiation than 3 TV sets and is used for work functions and electric power generation [0103] FIG. 42) Describes the invention's rebuilding and preserving Human persons who are deceased or suspended or are being revived into normal function, 10) depicts a means of cryogenic preservation, in the U. S. South Pole, Antarctica territory 11) depicts a Human person in an "Artificial Womb" coveted from an oxygen petrofusion machine, wherein the Hyman's cells are preserved/protected and can grown into normal function. 9,8,7,6,) depicts a Human bone being crystallized and coveted into a computer microprocessor, for an "Artificial Muscle Robot" consciousness and for some normal function. 4,3,2,1) depicts a Human person inside a container that is filled with a preservative medium that prevents decay and who is wearing a Crystal radio crown to hear the living, awaiting the day of resurrection. (when we die, we can still hear, if there is ear drum function.). [0104] FIG. 43) Describes the invention's "Thermionic Electron-Electric Generator" (30) that is used to generate the invention's electric power, that is contained inside a sealed tube (10)5 contain a source of input power (4)d that heats a thorium tungsten nichrome wire (3)c that is inside another sealed tube (20) that contains cesium gas (5)e that generate electrons, wherein a thoriated

platinum cathode (6)f obtains emitted electrons (1)a and emits more electrons inside a magnetic field (7)g having cobalt magnets (12)l; wherein an anode (11)k collects the electrons and sends them to a argon gas ionizer chamber (25) having argon gas therein(8)h wherein high voltage electric is present (26) that ionizes the radiation of the argon gas (8)h and causes electrons to rush to one electron (27) and positively charged ions to the other electrode (27) and positively charged ions to the other electrode (28); wherein the electrons join other electrons emitted from the anode (11)k at the negative electrode (27); as the radiation and high voltage causes an electric current within the device (30) and sends it to the increased electric output to the invention's electric current supply (13)m [0105] FIG. 44) Depicts the invention's electric generator having radioactive cobalt 60 magnets. and depicts radioactive cobalt60 magnets that cause electrons to move faster than iron magnets and produces more electric output per calorie than iron magnets and its output is increased by high voltage argon gas ionization inside the electric generator, wherein (1) radioactive cobalt fuel structure magnets create a magnetic field; wherein (2) coils of wire are mounted so that they can be spun around in a magnetic field with mechanical energy (10) input; wherein the entire device is inside a vacuum tube (6) that is filled with a gas (4) and charged to a very high voltage (4a) wherein the radioactive cobalt 60(1) ionizes the gas (4) splitting the electrically neutral gas (4) into positively charged ions (13) and negatively charged electrons (3) wherein the positive ions (13) rush to one electrode (6a) and the electrons (3) rush to the other electrode wire (2) wherein this triggers an electric current from one electrode (2) to the other, (6a) while the mechanical energy input (10) turns the wire coil electrode (2) and creates electrical output (11) between the cobalt60 magnetic field magnets (1) wherein magnetic force and ionized gas of radioactive cobalt60 (1) magnets make electrons move in the wire coil (2) generating an electric current output, (11). [0106] FIG. 45) Describes the invention's electric systems (1) connected to the invention's electric wiring (2) that provides amplified electricity; wherein the "Thermionic Electron Electric Generator" (3) (4) are a source of amplified electric power to the invention's wiring (2). [0107] FIG. 46) Describes the invention's devices that convert heat energy into electric current (1) (2) (3) (4) (5). [0108] FIG. 47) Describes the invention's Microwave Boiler, converting thorium/uranium electrons into microwave energy (1) (2) (3). [0109] (1) depicts said magnetron microwave device, (2) (3) depicts said microwave magnetron and a klystron thats cathodes and anodes are plated with thorium and uranium and whose magnets are of radioactive cobalt., wherein the invention's microwave emitting device shall be improved by plating the magnetron's electric cathode with thorium and uranium that is radioactive, the anode is of magnetizable metal, radioactive cobalt, nickel or iron and the anode is plated with radioactive metal; wherein the operation of the invention's magnetron, a high D-C potent is applied between cathode and anode, setting up

a radial electric field, wherein the combined forces cause electrons to take a spiral path and when the magnetron oscillates, the electric oscillations of the magnetron resonators set up an A-C electric fuel across the resonator gaps, wherein the thorium and uranium metal cathode, magnetic metal anode of cobalt and plated with radioactive metal in the magnetron sets up an increase in spiraling reactions when an electric current is applied and causes the magnetron output current to be many times the electric input of the invention's magnetron. [0110] FIG. 48) Describes the invention's electric devices converting thorium, uranium, cesium tungsten, nichrome and argon gas atoms interacting and generating electron emissions into electric energy. [0111] FIG. 49) Describes the invention's devices using mechanical energy input and obtain a greater energy output of electric energy. [0112] FIG. 50) Describes the invention's Thermionic Electron-Electric Generator, that coverts a smaller energy power input into a larger electric energy output. [0113] FIG. 51) Describes the invention's devices converting heat energy and electro magnetic energy into a larger electric energy output. [0114] FIG. 52) Describes the invention's devices converting a smaller electric energy input into a larger heating calorie output for room tomb air radiant heat. [0115] FIG. 53) Describes the invention's devices converting thermionic emissions into a larger radiant energy output. [0116] FIG. 54) Describes the invention's devices using cobalt magnets and mechanical energy together with high voltage ionized argon gas to provide an output of electric energy. [0117] FIG. 55) Describes the inventions devices using cobalt 60 magnets. [0118] FIG. 56) Describes the invention's devices using rare earth elements to increase the power output. [0119] FIG. 57) Describes the invention's devices converting electrical input into mechanical output. [0120] FIG. 58) Describes the invention's "Artificial Liver and Ammonia Diffuser" for cirrhosis treatments with blood clotting restorability; comprising of a (1) container having an input tube (14) containing Human (14) Blood with toxins that is filtered with a calcium filter (2) that circulates and moves the blood/fluid with an electric pump (13) and mixes plasma fluid input (3) and connects (13) into and restores blood clotting, a settling tank (5) that connects (13) into another calcium filter (2) tank (6) that then send the filtered blood (13) that has its clottability restored; into another tank (8) wherein the blood is again filtered (2) and slightly heated (7) in the unit (8) tank where the blood is again filtered (2) and slightly heated (7) in the unit (8) tank; wherein the slight heating and calcium mixes with the Human blood and causes ammonia toxins (9) to diffuse into a vent (9) and the blood is sent through a connecting pipe (13) into a cooling unit (10) and filters (10a) down to remove any extra calcium and cools the blood and fluid and sends (13) the cleaned of toxins blood/fluid into a storage tank (11) and a output tube (12) for use if a Human Being and final testing to insure toxin material removal, before being used to the person in need.

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Tesla's Electric Car #1 - 01/09/98This file was originally posted on the KeelyNet BBS on January 30, 1993 as TESLAFE1.ASC.

This file was inspired by a newspaper article in the local Dallas Morning News. It was in a column called "Texas Sketches" written by A.C. Greene. I called Mr. Green and Mr. Langkop who both courteously sent the additional source material. Both also expressed an interest in more Tesla information as well as Texas experimenters, we are sending them material in return. There is also a second file with my thoughts on the Tesla power box, that file is listed on KeelyNet as TESLAFE2.ASC.

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from January 24th, Sunday - Dallas Morning News Texas Sketches column

The Electric Auto that almost triumphed Power Source of '31 car still a mystery by A.C. Greene

Not long ago, Texas Sketches told the story of Henry "Dad" Garrett and his son C.H.'s water-fueled automobile, which was successfully demonstrated in 1935 at White Rock Lake in Dallas.

Eugene Langkop of Dallas (a Packard lover, like so many of us) notes that the "wonder car" of the future may be a resurrection of the electric car. It uses no gasoline, no oil - just some grease fittings - has no radiator to fill or freeze, no carburetor problems, no muffler to replace and gives off no pollutants.

Famous former electrics include Columbia, Rauch & Lang and Detroit Electric.

Dallas had electric delivery trucks in the 1920s and 30s. Many electric delivery vehicles were used in big cities into the 1960s.

The problem with electrics was slow speed and short range.

Within the past decade two Richardson men, George Thiess and Jack Hooker, claimed to have used batteries operating on magnesium from seawater to increase the range of their electric automobile from 100 miles to 400 or 500 miles.

But it is a mystery car once demonstrated by Nikola Tesla, developer of alternating current, that might have made electrics triumphant.

Supported by the Pierce-Arrow Co. and General Electric in 1931, he took the gasoline engine from a new Pierce-Arrow and replaced it with an 80-horsepower alternating-current electric motor with no external power source.

At a local radio shop he bought 12 vacuum tubes, some wires and assorted resistors, and assembled them in a circuit box 24 inches long, 12 inches wide and 6 inches high, with a pair of 3-inch rods sticking out. Getting into the car with the circuit box in the front seat beside him, he pushed the rods in, announced, "We now have power," and proceeded to test drive the car for a week, often at speeds of up to 90 mph.

As it was an alternating-current motor and there were no batteries involved, where did the power come from?

Popular responses included charges of "black magic," and the sensitive genius didn't like the skeptical comments of the press. He removed his mysterious box, returned to his laboratory in New York - and the secret of his power source died with him.

A.C. Greene is an author and Texas historian who lives in Salado. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------The original article from which Mr. Greene gleaned the above info was from a Packard Newsletter. Mr. Gene Langkopf kindly sent us a copy of that article which now follows.

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The Forgotten Art of Electric - Powered Automobilesby Arthur Abrom Electric powered automobiles were one of the earliest considerations and this mode of propulsion enjoyed a brief but short reign. The development of electricity as a workable source of power for mankind has been studded with great controversy.

Thomas A. Edison was the first to start to market systems (i.e. electric generators) of any commercial value. His research and developmental skills were utilized to market a "direct current" system of electricity. Ships were equipped with D.C. systems and municipalities began lighting their streets with this revolutionary D.C. electric system. (At that time) Edison was the sole source of electricity!

While in the process of commercializing electricity, Thomas Edison hired men who knew of the new scientific gift to the world and were capable of new applications for electricity. One such man was a foreigner named Nikola Tesla. This man, although not known to many of us today, was without a doubt the greatest scientific mind that has ever lived. His accomplishments dwarfed even Thomas Edison's! Whereas Mr. Edison was a great experimenter, Mr. Tesla was a great theoretician. Nikola Tesla became frustrated and very much annoyed at the procedures Edison followed.

Tesla would rather calculate the possibility of something working (i.e. mathematical investigation) than the hit and miss technique of constant experimentation. So in the heat of an argument, he quit one day and stormed out of Edison's laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey.

Working on his own, Tesla conceived and built the first working alternating current generator. He, and he alone, is responsible for all of the advantages we enjoy today because of A.C. electric power.

Angered by Edison, Tesla sold his new patents to George Westinghouse for 15 million dollars in the very early 1900's. Tesla became totally independent and proceeded to carry on his investigative research in his laboratory on 5th Avenue in New York City.

George Westinghouse began to market this new system of electric generators and was in competition with Edison. Westinghouse prevailed because of the greater superiority of the A.C. generators over the less efficient D.C. power supplies of Thomas Edison. Today, A.C. power is the only source of electricity the world uses. And, please remember, Nikola Tesla is the man who developed it.

Now specifically dealing with automobiles in the infant days of their development, electric propulsion was considered and used. An electric powered automobile possessed many advantages that the noisy, cantankerous, smoke-belching gasoline cars could not offer.

First and foremost is the absolute silence one experiences when riding in an electrically powered vehicle. There is not even a hint of noise. One simply turns a key and steps on the accelerator - the vehicle moves instantly! No cranking from the start, no crank to turn (this was before electric starters), no pumping of the accelerator, no spark control to advance and no throttle linkage to pre-set before starting. One simply turned the ignition switch to on!

Second, is a sense of power. If one wants to increase speed, you simply depress the accelerator further - there is never any hesitation. Releasing the accelerator causes the vehicle to slow down immediately - you are always in complete control. It is not difficult to understand why these vehicles were so very popular around the turn of the century and until 1912 or so.

The big disadvantage to these cars was their range and need for re-charging every single night. All of these electric vehicles used a series of batteries and a D.C. motor to move itself about. The batteries require recharging every night and the range of travel was restricted to about 100 miles. Understand that this restriction was not a serious one in the early part of this century. Doctors began making house calls with electric cars (do you remember doctors making house calls?) because he no longer needed to tend to the horse at night time - just plug the car into an electric socket! No feeding, no rub-down and no mess to clean up!

Many of the large department stores in metropolitan areas began purchasing delivery trucks that were electrically powered. They were silent and emitted no pollutants. And, maintenance was a minimum on electrically powered vehicles. There were few mechanics and garages in operation in the early 1900's. So city life and travel appeared to be willing to embrace the electric automobile. Remember, these masterfully built vehicles all ran on D.C. current.

Two things happened to dampen the popularity of the electric automobile. One was the subconscious craving for speed that gripped all auto enthusisasts of this era. Each manufacturer was eager to show how far his car could travel (i.e. the transcontinental races) and what was its top speed!

Col. Vanderbilt constructed the first all concrete race track in Long Island and racing became the passion for the well-to-do. Newspapers constantly record new records of speed achieved by so-in-so. And, of course, the automobile manufacturers were quick to capitalize on the advertising effect of these new peaks of speed. Both of these events made the electrically powered vehicles appear to only belong to the "little old lady" down the street or the old retired gentleman who talked about the "good old days".

Electric vehicles could not reach speeds of 45 or 50 m.p.h. for this would have destroyed the batteries in moments. Bursts of speeds of 25 to 35 m.p.h. could be maintained for a moment or so. Normal driving speed-depending upon traffic conditions, was 15 to 20 m.p.h. by 1900 to 1910 standards, this was an acceptable speed limit to obtain from your electric vehicle.

Please note that none of the manufacturers of electric cars ever installed a D.C. generator. This would have put a small charge back into the batteries as the car moved about and would have thereby increased its operating range. This was considered by some to be approaching perpetual motion - and that, of course, was utterly impossible! Actually, D.C. generators would have worked and helped the electric car cause.

As mentioned earlier, Mr. Westinghouse's A.C. current generating equipment was being sold and installed about the country. The earlier D.C. equipment was being

retired and disregarded. As a side note, Consolidated Edison Power Company of New York City still has one of Thomas Edison's D.C. generators installed in its 14th St. powerhouse - it still works! About this time, another giant corporation was formed and entered the A.C. generating equipment field - General Electric. This spelled the absolute end for Edison's D.C. power supply systems as a commercial means of generating and distributing electric power.

The electric automobile could not be adapted to accomodate and utilize a polyphase motor (i.e. A.C. power). Since they used batteries as a source of power, their extinction was sealed. No battery can put out an A.C. signal. True, a converter could be utilized (i.e. convert the D.C. signal from the battery to an A.C. signal), but the size of the equipment at this time was too large to fit in an automobile - even one with the generous dimensions of this era.

So, somewhere around 1915 or so, the electric automobile became a memory. True, United Parcel Service still utilizes several electric trucks in New York City today but the bulk of their fleet of vehicles utilizes gasoline or diesel fuel. For all intensive purposes, the electrically powered automobile is dead - they are considered dinosaurs of the past.

But, let us stop a moment and consider the advantages of utilizing electric power as a means of propelling vehicles. Maintenance is absolutely minimal for the only oil required is for the two bearings in the motor and the necessary grease fittings. There is no oil to change, no radiator to clean and fill, no transmission to foul up, no fuel pump, no water pump, no carburetion problems, no muffler to rot out or replace and no pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. It appears as though it might be the answer we have been searching for!

Therefore, the two problems facing us become top speed and range of driving - providing, of course, the A.C. and D.C. problems could be worked out. With today's technology this does not seem to be insurmountable. In fact, the entire problem has already been solved - in the past, the distant past and the not so distant! Stop! Re-read the last sentence again. Ponder it for a few moments before going on.

Several times earlier in this article, I mentioned the man, Nikola Tesla and stated that he was the greatest mind that ever lived. The U.S. Patent Office has 1,200 patents registered in the name of Nikola Tesla and it is estimated that he could have patented an additional 1,000 or so from memory!

But, back to our electric automobiles - in 1931, under the financing of Pierce-Arrow and George Westinghouse, a 1931 Pierce-Arrow was selected to be tested at the factory grounds in Buffalo, N.Y. The standard internal combustion engine was removed and an 80-H.P. 1800 r.p.m electric motor installed to the clutch and transmission. The A.C. motor measured 40 inches long and 30 inches in diameter and the power leads were left standing in the air - no external power source!

At the appointed time, Nikola Tesla arrived from New York City and inspected the Pierce-Arrow automobile. He then went to a local radio store and purchased a handful of tubes (12), wires and assorted resistors. A box measuring 24 inches long, 12 inches wide and 6 inches high was assembled housing the circuit. The box was placed on the front seat and had its wires connected to the air-cooled, brushless motor. Two rods 1/4" in diameter stuck out of the box about 3" in length.

Mr. Tesla got into the driver's seat, pushed the two rods in and stated, "We now have power". He put the car into gear and it moved forward! This vehicle, powered by an A.C. motor, was driven to speeds of 90 m.p.h. and performed better than any internal combustion engine of its day! One week was spent testing the vehicle. Several newspapers in Buffalo reported this test. When asked where the power came from, Tesla replied, "From the ethers all around us". Several people suggested that Tesla was mad and somehow in league with sinister forces of the universe. He became incensed, removed his mysterious box from the vehicle and returned to his laboratory in New York City. His secret died with him!

It is speculated that Nikola Tesla was able to somehow harness the earth's magnetic field that encompasses our planet. And, he somehow was able to draw tremendous amounts of power by cutting these lines of force or causing them to be multiplied together. The exact nature of his device remains a mystery but it did actually function by powering the 80 h.p. A.C. motor in the Pierce-Arrow at speeds up to 90 m.p.h. and no recharging was ever necessary!

In 1969, Joseph R. Zubris took his 1961 Mercury and pulled out the Detroit internal combustion engine. He then installed an electric motor as a source of power. His unique wiring system cuts the energy drain at starting to 75% of normal and doubles the electrical efficiency of the electric motor when it is operating! The U.S. Patent Office issued him a patent No. 3,809,978. Although he approached many concerns for marketing, no one really seemed to be interested. And, his unique system is still not on the market.

In the 1970's, an inventor used an Ev-Gray generator, which intensified battery current, the voltage being induced to the field coils by a simple programmer (sequencer). By allowing the motor to charge separate batteries as the device ran, phenomenally tiny currents were needed. The device was tested at the Crosby Research Institute of Beverly Hills, Ca., a 10-horepower EMA motor ran for over a week (9 days) on four standard automobile batteries.

The inventors estimated that a 50-horsepower electric motor could traverse 300 miles at 50 m.p.h. before needing a re-charge. Dr. Keith E. Kenyon, the inventor of Van Nuys, California discovered a discrepancy in the normal and long accepted laws relating to electric motor magnets. Dr. Kenyon demonstrated his invention for many scientists and engineers in 1976 but their reaction was astounding. Although

admitting Dr. Kenyon's device worked, they saw little or no practical application for it!

So the ultimate source for our electrically powered automobile would be to have an electric motor that required no outside source of power. Sounds impossible because it violates all scientific thought! But it has been invented and H.R. Johnson has been issued a patent No. 4,151,431 on April 24, 1979 on such a device!

This new design although originally suggested by Nikola Tesla in 1905, is a permanent magnet motor. Mr. Johnson has arranged a series of permanent magnets on the rotor and a corresponding series - with different spacing - on the stator. One simply has to move the stator into position and rotation of the rotor begins immediately.

Howard Johnson Permanent Magnet Motor

His patent states,

"The invention is directed to the method of utilizing the unpaired electron spins in ferro magnetic and other materials as a source of magnetic fields for producing power without any electron flow as occurs in normal conductors and to permanent magnet motors for utilization of this method to produce a power source.

In the practice of this invention, the unpaired electron spins occurring within permanent magnets are utilized to produce a motive power source solely through the super-conducting characteristics of a permanent magnet and the magnetic flux created by the magnets are controlled and concentrated to orient the magnetic forces generated in such a manner to do useful continuous work such as the displacement of a rotor with respect to a stator.

The timing and orientation of magnetic forces at the rotor and stator components produced by permanent magnets to produce a motor is accomplished with the proper geometrical relationship of these components".

Now before you dismiss the idea of a magnetically run motor - a free energy source, consider the following :

Engineers of Hitachi Magnetics Corp. of California have stated that a motor run solely by magnets is feasible and logical but the politics of the matter make it impossible for them to pursue developing a magnet motor or any device that would compete with the energy cartels.

In a book entitled, "Keely and His Discoveries" by Clara B. Moore published in 1893, we find the following statemtents,

"The magnet that lifts a pound today if the load is gradually increased day by day will lift double that amount in time. Whence comes this energy? Keely teaches that it comes from sympathetic association with one of the currents of the polar stream and that its energy increases as long as the sympathetic flow lasts, which is through eternity".

Now consider some basic observations concerning magnets:

1) Two permanent magnets can either attract or repel depending on the arrangement of the magnetic poles. 2) Two magnets repel further than they attract because of friction and inertia forces. 3) Most of our energy comes directly or indirectly from electromagnetic energy of the sun, e.g. photosynthesis and watercycle of ocean to water vapor to rain or snow to ocean. 4) Magnetic energy "travels" between poles at the speed of light. 5) Permanent magnets on both sides of an iron shield are attracted to the shield and only weakly to each other at close proximity to the shield. 6) Permanent magnets are ferrous metals and are attractive only. Attraction is an inverse square force. 7) Magnetic energy can be shielded. 8) The sliding or perpendicular force of a keeper is much less than the force in the direction of the field to remove the keeper. 9) Most of the magnetic energy is concentrated at the poles of the magnet. 10) A permanent magnet loses little strength unless dropped or heated. Heating misaligns the magnetic elements within the magnet. 11) If a weight lifted by a permanet magnet is slowly increased, the lifting power of the magnet can be increased until all the magnetic domains in the magnet are aligned in the same direction. This becomes the limit. 12) Using magnets to repel tends to weaken them as it causes more misalignment of the domains. 13) A magnetic material placed between two magnets will always be attracted to the stronger magnet.

So, our ultimate motor becomes a permanent magnet motor of proper size with speed being controlled through the automobiles transmission. And, here is the biggest plus, permanent magnets keep their strength for a minimum of 95 years! So here we have a fuel-less automobile that would last us our lifetime.

There is only one drawback to an automobile powered by a permanent magnet motor - if the vehicle gets involved in an accident, the shock of the crash could jar the magnets and cause them to lose power! But this seems to be a small price to pay for an automobile that could run all day at 60 m.p.h. - use no fuel - and never need a recharge!

Now the only question left to be answered is, "Where do you buy one?" or perhaps, "When will we be able to buy one?" At present there are several companies offering interim solutions. Some offer electric powered designs - but this is strictly batteries, while others offer a hybrid combination of batteries and small gasoline engines. All of these so-called "modern alternatives" suffer from the same lack of accessories we've become accustomed to.

They do not, or cannot offer power steering, brakes or windows or air- conditioning, etc. Since they are small aerodynamically shaped packages holding only two people, their appeal is distinctly limited.

When someone constructs an automobile run by a permanent magnet motor attached to the differential thus eliminating the transmission, the world will beat a path to his door - providing the energy cartel doesn't find him first!

In Richardson, Texas last year, two men - George Thiess and Jack Hooker have advanced the storage battery to a new level. Their new batteries will operate on magnesium made from seawater.

Thiess/Hooker Advanced Storage Battery

The magnesium is used to charge the battery while in an electrolene solution and the range of their auto is increased by replacing the magnesium rods every 400 to 500 miles. Their studies are being officially watched by the Department of Energy. Perhaps an all new era of electrically powered automobiles may be on its way to reality. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------This subject is intensely interesting to many researchers so if you have any suggestions or comments, we here at KeelyNet would greatly appreciate your sharing with us.

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TESLAFE2.HTM - commentary

TESLCAR.HTM - another viewpoint

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The Gravitational Instability Cosmological Theory of the Formation of the Universe .When The Universe Started To Fallby Reverend Daniel IzzoSaturday, August 21, 2004

The Gravitational Instability Cosmological Theory on the Formation of the Universe

WHEN DID MOTION FIRST START ?

The Gravitational Instability Cosmological Theoryon the Formation of the Universe.

When the Universe started to fall

(1) The expansion of the universe is a result of the " heat ' contained therein;

(2) The source of the " heat " is the cosmic microwave radiation backround at 3 kelvin,wherein;

(3) The microwave electro magnetic-nuclear energy was formed as a result of theinteraction of two different static gravitational vacuum fields, causing gravitationalinstability and the motion, void of matter, at this time,

wherein; static gravitational field (1) began to go into "motion".

Therefore; only (2) static gravitational vacuum fields alone, being void of E=MC^2

could create E=MC^2; and the matter of the Universe.

When did motion first start ?

Science knows the formation of matter in our universe was caused by the forces of the

universe.

These forces are:

(1) The Force of Gravity

(2) The Force of Electro Magnetism

(3) The Strong Nuclear Force

(4) The Weak Nuclear Force

At some point in time, motion within the universe, had to begin.

The paradox would be, what force could cause motion to begin, without moving in itspresent space-time ?

The Gravitational Cosmological Theory wasdeveloped from an is rooted in the Einstein Steady State Theory and the Bondi-Gold-Hoyle Steady State Theory,

Wherein the Steady State Theory the universe,contains more protons than electrons thatcreate dust particles andgalaxies formed in their current locations and the cosmicmatter is recycled therein at the center of the galaxy furnace.------------When the Universe started to fall:The Gravitational Instability Cosmological Theory on the Formation of the Universe.The Theory:(1) The expansion of the universe is a result of the " heat ' contained therein;(2) The source of the " heat " is the cosmic microwave radiation backround at 3 kelvin,wherein;(3) The microwave electro magnetic-nuclear energy was formed as a result of theinteraction of two different static gravitational vacuum fields, causing gravitationalinstability and the motion, void of matter, at this time, wherein; static gravitationalfield (1) began to go into "motion".Therefore; only (2) static gravitational vacuum fields alone, being void of E=MC^2could create E=MC^2; and the matter of the Universe.Q: When did this motion start?A: If a neutral particle is able to resist the universal motion, in theory, that particlewould go back in time. Going back in time the neutral particle would then enter into (1)of the (2) motionless-static gravity vacuum fields void of motion, and cause an unbalanceand gravitational instability and this interaction would create motion and energyparticles.Q: What causes a gravitational static vacuum field in the first place ?A: Pressure force is used to create a vacuum on Earth, perhaps an exotic something100,000 times weaker than the force of gravity decays, causing a static-motionless gravity vacuum field.

Theory by

Rev Daniel Izzo July 2002512 Onondaga AveSyracuse, NY 13207

Subj: The Steady State Theory verses The Big Bang Theory / Cosmological alternatives

Alternative Theory (2)

The Steady State Galaxy Theory

by R.Rufus Young galaxy@nbnet.nb.caLast revised Dec 30,1996

An Alternative To

The Big Bang Theory

Go to Text only version. INDEX

Introduction Basic Operation of Galaxies Mass and Energy Shape of Galaxies Red Shift Microwave Background Radiation Entropy Hydrogen-Helium Ratio Quasars Summary Introduction

The purpose of this Web Page is to show that the Steady State Galaxy Theory can provide an alternative to the Big Bang Theory in explaining the universe around us. It covers the operation of Galaxies and shows that they recycle both Matter and Energy and are able to carry on indefinitely. It also explains the Shape of Galaxies, Red Shift, Microwave Background Radiation, Entropy and the Hydrogen-Helium Ratio.

If the reader takes an open-minded approach and looks at all aspects of the material presented here before reaching any conclusions, it will, at least, provide them with some food for thought.

Basic Operation of Galaxies

At the center of each galaxy is a neutroid which acts to constantly recycle all the matter and energy in the galaxy. This neutroid is similar to a neutron star but is

very much larger and has reached a size where the pressure and temperature at its surface are great enough to generate a nuclear fusion process. In the areas of the neutroid's magnetic poles, the products of fusion are trapped by the magnetic field and are pushed out along the magnetic field by the pressure of the nuclear fusion process going on below. This results in a column of material composed of hydrogen, helium and other light elements being ejected at each of the neutroid's two magnetic poles. This material moves out from the neutroid at essentially constant velocity until it reaches a point where the magnetic field is no longer strong enough to control it. Once free of the magnetic field the material then continues under it's own momentum to travel to the outer edge of the galaxy before starting to fall back toward the neutroid.

This process enables the neutroid to eject matter from itself and results in jets of hydrogen and helium ions being produced at each of the neutroid's two magnetic poles. The larger the neutroid becomes, the greater the size and velocity of its jets. This becomes a stable and self-limiting process where the amount of material attracted to the neutroid will be equal to the amount of material expelled at its magnetic poles. Eventually if too much material is added to the system, the velocity of the material being ejected from the magnetic poles will be sufficient for it to escape from the system altogether, thus limiting the total mass the system can accumulate. This process forms the basis of operation of all galaxies. The size and shape of galaxies are determined by the size of the neutroid at their center and its rate and plane of rotation. In the case of our own galaxy (The Milky Way) these jets have sufficient momentum to carry the material out to 100,000 light years distance from the center.

As the jets of gas stream out from the Neutroid, large clouds of it condense and form the stars which are predominately located in the spiral arms of the Galaxies. These stars eventually burn up their Hydrogen fuel and in the process create the other heavier elements we find in the universe, all the while continuing to travel to the outer edge of the galaxy. It has probably been at least 10 Billion years since the material of which our solar system is composed was initially ejected from the neutroid. It is now located about 2/3rds the distance to the edge of the galaxy, but since it is constantly decelerating it will take it another 20 billion years to reach its maximun distance from the neutroid. The total transit time from when material is ejected from the neutroid at the center of the Milky Way to when it returns to the neutroid will be about 60 Billion years.

Although the material ejected by the neutroid appears to travel in a spiral arc, in actual fact it is travelling in a straight radial line out from the neutroid and will eventually travel back along the same radial path to the neutroid. To help visualize this process, imagine setting up two super cannons, each on opposite sides of the earth at the equator and each pointing straight up and each capable of firing a projectile with sufficient velocity that it will take 12 hours to reach the top of its projectory. Now, fire a projectile from each cannon every hour for 12 hours and

plot the position of each projectile at the end of the 12 hours. The result, as shown in figure 1, will be two spiral arms much like the Galactic arms are shaped.

IF we continue the experiment for another 3 hours and draw a new plot, figure 2, we find that the first projectiles that were fired have now passed the peak of their altitude and have started to fall back to earth and the whole spiral pattern appears to have rotated counterclockwise 45 degrees. However, the only changes in the positions of projectiles No.1 have been to move slightly closer to the earth along a radial line and they will continue falling back to earth along the same radial path and will impact the earth 24 hours after being fired. They do not themselves travel in a spiral path around the earth although the loci of their instantaneous positions forms a spiral which appears to be rotating.

Figure 3 represents a typical small galaxy which is composed of 3 parts, (a) a Central Core (Area 1), (b) 2 Jets of material being ejected from the core (Areas 1 to 2), and (c) Spiral Arms (Areas 2 to 3). The Central Core consists of a neutroid at the center and an obscuring mass of material trapped in the Neutroid's magnetic field. The areas from 1 to 2 are gigantic jets of gas which are being ejected by the Neutroid and are contained within its magnetic field. Star formation occurs in these areas. At point 2 the magnetic field of the Neutroid weakens to the extent that it no longer constrains the material within it and as the material continues to move outward it will now trace a spiral arc as per the previous illustrations in Figs. 1 & 2. At point 3 the hydrogen fuel has been consumed and although the remains of the burned out stars are still there they become invisible dark matter as they continue to travel to the top of their projectory and then fall back to the Neutroid.

Thus, the galaxies form huge recycling systems which will carry on indefinitely.

Hydrogen, helium and other light elements are ejected ejected from the Neutroid. Clouds of this material condense to forms stars which emit energy and in the process form heavier elements. These stars eventually exhaust their fuel and die. In the process many of these stars will explode as supernovas. The heavier elements which we find in our solar system are the remnants from these dead stars. All this material will travel to the outer edge of the galaxy and will then start falling back in toward the neutroid. Upon hitting the neutroid, the force of the impact will be great enough that the atoms of heavier elements will be split apart and the temperature and pressure will be great enough that this incoming matter will be converted to neutrons. In the areas of the neutroid's magnetic poles, a nuclear fusion reaction will take place that forces a streams of material to be expelled thus completing the cycle.

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Mass and Energy

Einstein showed that mass and energy are related by the formula E=MC^2. What this famous formula says is that what we call the mass of a particle is really nothing more than a measure of the sum total of all forms of energy associated with that particle. The various forms of energy include potential energy, kinetic energy, chemical energy, nuclear binding energy, etc. Of these various forms of energy, potential energy is the most important and accounts for the largest part of the mass of particles which constitute our immediate enviroment.

When a particle is in a deep gravational well, such as in the case of particles that make up the neutroid at the center of galaxies, they have very little potential energy,and hence, very little rest mass. As they are pushed out from the neutroid their potential energy and hence their rest mass is increased dramatically. When these particles eventually fall back into the neutroid, this potential energy is converted to kinetic energy and results in the particles making up the neutroid having very little rest mass but a tremendous amount of kinetic energy.

This combination of low rest mass and high kinetic energy prevent the neutroid from collapsing into a black hole as has been speculated by many scientists. This combination also makes it relatively easy for a nuclear fussion process to push material out from the neutroid in the area of the neutroid's magnetic poles.

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Shape of Galaxies

The Concept of the Steady State Galaxy as put forth above can account for the shape of all galaxies we see in the universe. As explained above, the spiral is the basic shape of galaxies. The exact shape will be determined by the size of the neutroid, the tilt of its magnetic axis with respect to its axis of rotation and its rate of rotation .

Our Milky-Way is typical of large mature galaxies in which it takes many billions of years for the magnetic poles to make one revolution. As well, the hydrogen ejected at the magnetic poles has sufficient velocity to reach a distance of 100,000 light-years from the Neutroid and it takes it tens of billions of years to reach that distance. If the rate of rotation of the magnetic poles of the Neutroid were much greater in relation to the velocity of the hydrogen jets, the spiral arms would overlap and become nondistinct thus forming an ELIPICAL Galaxy. If the magnetic axis were slightly less than 90 degrees with respect to the axis of rotation, a thicker galaxy would result.

BAR Galaxies are small galaxies in which the hydrogen fueling the Stars is all consumed before the Stars can escape the magnetic field of the Neutroid's

magnetic poles.

Many galaxies such as M104(NGC4594) exhibit a very prominent dust lane about their edge. This is a feature that is difficult to explain using presently accepted theories but is to be expected in some types of galaxies under the steady state galaxy theory.

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Red Shift

The Big Bang Theory was originally proposed in order to explain the 'RED Shift' of light received by us from distant galaxies. Light received from distant stars can be broken down and analyzed as to its spectral content. It has been found that stars of a similar size and age produce identical spectral patterns which are related to their atomic composition. However, it was also found that the wavelength of the light from distant galaxies was increased in proportion to their distance from us. Scientists have interpreted the cause of this effect to be due to a doppler shift, meaning that it is caused by the distant galaxies moving away from us,-i.e. the expanding universe. This doppler shift is the same as one gets standing near a railway track when a train passes blowing its whistle, as the train passes by, the sound of its whistle appears to drop in frequency.

In reality the universe we live in is not expanding and is in a steady state where its matter and energy are being constantly recycled. The so called Red Shift is caused by other factors. We know from a branch of Physics known as Quantum Mechanics that the Energy of a photon of light is defined by the equation E=hv where E is the energy of the photon, h is plancks' constant and v is its frequency. If for any reason energy is lost from a photon, its frequency will decrease in accordance with this equation.

Scientists do not as yet have a good understanding of the nature of a photon as to whether it is a particle or a wave, or some combination of both. Although experiments done by Michhelson and Morley and others have been interpreted to rule out the existence of an universal aether, this is by no means certain. Scientists can't measure what happens to a photon over a period of a minute, let alone what happens to to it over a period of a billion years. Based on current knowledge, there is no way scientists can state with absolute certainty that photons do not lose energy over time.

The mechanism for the lose of energy by photons over time is still unclear. It could be by interaction of the photon with the stray atoms of hydrogen which are dispersed throughout intergalactic space. It is well known that photons do exert 'radiation pressure' on particles they encounter and if pressure is exerted, then energy must be transferred. Another possibility is that there is indeed an aether

which absorbs some energy over time and reradiates it as a black body radiator having a temperature of 2.8 degrees K. One thing that is clear is that the radiation density of the starlight photons which leave own galaxy is equal to the radiation density of the Microwave Background radiation which is received by our galaxy. This fact is probably more than a coincidence and is an indication that the starlight radiation is being converted by some unknown process to the Microwave Background radiation. It is every bit as reasonable to assume that the Red Shift is caused by loss of energy of the photon over time as it is to assume that it is caused by a doppler effect.

Because of the downshifting in the frequency of light for whatever reason, there is a limit to how far it is possible to image distant galaxies. The actual universe will be far larger than we can imagine or detect and will probably be infinite in size.

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MicroWave Background Radiation

A second argument which has been made to support the Big Bang Theory is the microwave background radiation. COBE has shown that the spectrum of the Microwave Background Radiation (MBR) is that of an ideal Black Body Radiator having a temperature of about 2.8 degrees K. It has also shown that this radiation has a Redshift/Blueshift to it, indicating that the earth is moving about 300Km/s relative to the shell of matter that emitted the radiation. Since this speed is too great for the earth's movement within the milky-way galaxy, it indicates that the source is outside our galaxy and that our galaxy is moving in relation to that source.

As indicated in the previous section dealing with redshift, the starlight photons radiated by galaxies gradually lose energy through some unknown process which then reradiates this energy as the Microwave Background Radiation. The wavelength of the photons of the MBR, at the peak of the spectrum radiation curve, will be about 1mm. Since the rate of loss of energy by photons will be inversely proportional to the wavelength of those photons, and since the MBR photons have a wavelength of more than a thousand times that of visible light, the percentage loss of energy by the MBR photons will be at a rate of over one thousand times less than that of a visible photon. (If it takes a visible photon 15 billion years to lose 3/4's of it's energy, then it would take a MBR photon 15,000 billion years to lose 3/4's of it's energy). It follows that since MBR photons have a range of travel of more than one thousand times that of visible light photons, they are also a thousand times more likely to encounter a galaxy and be absorbed by the matter of that galaxy then a visible light photon would.

Thus, energy is radiated by galaxies in the form of starlight photons. Energy from these photons is gradually converted to MBR photons. These MBR photons are

eventually absorbed by some other galaxy.

Since the intensity of the microwave background radiation will be relatively constant throughout the universe (assuming an infinite steady state universe), the amount of energy a galaxy will absorb from it will be proportional to the size of that galaxy. The amount of energy a galaxy radiates is also proportional to it's size, thus an equilibrium will be reached where a galaxy will receive as much energy in the form of MBR photons as it itself radiates in the form of starlight photons.

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Entropy

A third argument that has been put forward in support of the Big Bang Theory is entropy, in that, it is argued that the universe must eventually run down into a state of thermal equilibrium. Energy exists in various forms such as atomic binding energies, thermal energy, potential and kinetic energy, etc., all of which are associated with matter, or it exists in photons which have been radiated by matter and will eventually be reabsorbed by matter. Under the Steady State Galaxy Theory as put forth above, since all matter in a Galaxy is recycled through the Neutroid on a regular basis, all energy contained by that matter is also recycled at the same time and, thus, the universe does not run down into a state of thermal equilibrium.

There is a perception that energy only flows from hot bodies to cooler ones. This is not true for radiant energy. The MBR photons which exhibit the characteristics of a 2.8 degree black body radiator do get absorbed by the much hotter material which makes up the galaxies. The critical factor which determines the direction of net flow of radiant energy is not the relative temperatures of the bodies but the energy densities they produce. In the case of our universe, the MBR radiation has an energy density equal to the starlight radiation energy density emitted by the galaxies. Thus, there is an equilibrium condition where galaxies receive as much energy in the form of MBR Radiation as they radiate in the form of Starlight Radiation and there will be no net flow of energy from the galaxies to the material in intergalactic space.

(return to index)

Hydrogen-Helium

A fourth arguement which has been used to support the Big Bang theory is that it would account for the abundance of helium we find in the universe. The amount of helium present (24%) cannot be accounted for by star production and according to Gamow it was generated by the Big Bang.

Under the Steady State Galaxy theory, the nuclear fusion process which is expelling the material from the neutroid would generate large amounts of helium as well as other light elements and is the source of the excess helium found in the universe.

(return to index)

Quasars

The latest Hubble pictures of quasars show that they are associated with galaxies and in most cases there is evidence that these galaxies have recently collided with other galaxies.

In normal galaxies, the neutroid at their center is obscured by a halo of material trapped in the neutroid's magnetic field. In the case of quasars, this halo of material has been temporarily destroyed by the collision with another galaxy and we are seeing the bare neutroid which is, as expected, extremely energetic.

(return to index)

Summary

The Steady State Galaxy Theory as put forth above can provide the basis for the operation of the Universe as it is seen to exist. It can not only account for the shape of all galaxies we see in the universe which is something no other theory as proposed so far can accomplish but it can also explain the existence of quasars.

As more data is gathered by the Hubble Space Telescope and other sources, it is becoming increasingly clear that the Big Bang theory cannot account for the universe around us. I believe the the Steady State Galaxy Theory as presented here can provide the basis of an alternative to the Big Bang Theory.

(return to index) (return to top of page) Other Interesting Papers

For a historical perspective of the Big Bang Theory see Keith Stein's Essay "The Big Bang Myth"

"Endless, Boundless, Stable Universe" by Grote Reber -a pioneer in the field of Radio Astronomy.

"Dark Matter" and "Hubble's Constant in Terms of the Compton Effect" by John Kierein

Please E-mail me your comments and suggestions.

galaxy@nbnet.nb.caLast revised Dec 30,1996. reprintedCopyright R.Rufus Young 1996 all rights reserved.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------VORTEX

Liquid - Gravity Induced Vortex

A plug is pulled under a contained volume of liquid. The liquid above the discharge opening starts dropping down through the opening creating a lower pressure column of liquid. The Pascal’s rule of pressure in fluids says that the static pressure within the whole volume exerted sideways around this dropping column will attempt to fill into the dropping water column, creating an inverted cone of flow toward the discharge. The surface plane of the liquid develops a hollow due to the pressure drop above the discharge. If the liquid column is in a sufficient ratio to the opening diameter, gravitational acceleration at the surface hollow tends to outrun the discharge rate and any slightest impetus causes the liquid sliding down the slope of the depression to spin. Vortex develops easier in a conical vessel than in any other vessel, because it is the surface hollow where the gravitational acceleration causes the liquid to slide into the falling liquid column. The static pressure orthogonal to the vortex vertical axis acts on the column as the total static pressure (area x force). Vortex spin translates this pressure into accelerating "orbital" speed of the column. (fig 1) The circular motion component is triggered by external influences, such as rotation of earth, or by general liquid flow, if any. The circular motion within a vortex redirects the strictly centripetal horizontal pressure component in the liquid side railing it off the vertical axis of the vortex, accelerating the vortex circular motion. The static pressure in the liquid surrounding the vortex becomes realized into the circular motion of the vortex. Therefore, the horizontal vector of static pressure acts as a vortex spin accelerator. The dynamic relations within a vortex cause a greater transfer of gravitational energy into liquid circular motion, than can be accounted for by strictly downward static pressure calculations. If the liquid did not spin, the horizontal component of static pressure would act on the vortex axis symmetrically, and the would not be realized as spin motion.

In plain terms; while the orthogonal vector of static pressure from the surrounding volume acts on the column along the "surface" area of the whole column, it accelerates the spin of the column with total force equal to the static pressure drop

per unit of area at the particular depth and at all these units. There are many more units (lets say mm^2) of the surface of the water column then in the cross section of the discharge hole.

In the most simple terms, the area across the static pressure acting on a vortex accelerating its liquid (or fluid) into spin is substantially greater than the cross sectional area of the discharge hole. The acceleration on the falling column comes from vertical acceleration of the column. In other words; the "horizontal" rotational component of gravitational acceleration of the liquid surrounding the vortex speeds up the circular component of water flow around the vortex. The vertical gravitational acceleration (drop) of water within the column is caused by vertical attraction on that column only. The vertical component of static pressure within the vortex is not lessened by all that much, as can be seen from the depth and size of the depression of the vortex at the surface.

As the column progresses in its vertical motion down, the energy of vortex circular speed is also progressively translated into the energy of vertical speed of the column. If the circular component of the vortex speed at the bottom of a discharge were used for energy production along with the falling column kinetic energy, these two components combined would supply greater total energy output than needed for lifting of the same liquid volume (per unit of time) to the original height.

In other words, we would be milking total static pressure exerted by gravitation on liquid volume from a much greater area than discharge hole area without having to pay the cost of returning that volume back to the height across that same area. It seems obvious from the above that static pressure, or tension of a field, can be translated into circular motion of a medium.

Vortex phenomenon is the proof that field “static potential” can be utilized for energy extraction. Vortex phenomenon also proves that the so-called "static potential" energy of fields is caused by dynamic energy flows. This does not violate any laws of physics, it is a law of physics.

The discharge and the surrounding containment have to be regular in shape, otherwise more and chaotic turbulences within the fluid accelerating through the discharge break the vortex symmetry and hinder its progress. Regular does not mean a perfect cone, but a shape mimicking the structure of natural turbulence. This shape is somewhat ropy walled parabolic cone.

VORTICESThe circumferential speed of liquid molecules within a vortex increases as the molecules approach the central axis of the vortex. Therefore, it is clear that the farther a molecule is from this axis, the lesser is its orbital speed. Any object within such vortex, including the liquid molecules, spin themselves

counter to the spin of the vortex, as their outer orbital speed is slower than their inner speed relative to the axis of the vortex. (Planetary gear or a bearing ball in a bearing represents such a counter spin) Unless other forces are present, any small vortice within a major vortex counter spins. Some claim that such a phenomenon has never been observed in nature. Crap. It is readily observable phenomenon on rivers. Any larger vortex in a cove of a river bend has these counter spinning satellite vortices present. They are usually transient, but are readily observable in nature.

This principle has a severe impact on the coalescing theory of planetary systems as well as galactic systems. It is obvious that planets should spin counter to planetary system. Since not all of them do, actually the majority does not, it is obvious that the spin of planets and stars has its casualty in the behavior of magnetic and electric fields, rather than being a remainder of gas cloud vortice motion within the solar system general vortex.

Any and every energy flow through a restriction under an orthogonal pressure of a field tends to develop a vortex structure. It does not matter whether that flow is liquid, gaseous or what we consider to be a field. The acceleration gain in a vortex is a utilizable phenomenon. It is one of the phenomena, which counteracts thermal entropy in the universe. It concentrates the rate of flow through a restriction utilizing a dispersed energy of a general field.

Any and every so-called massive particle contains a few geometries of vortexes (Nucleon). The main, dense flows can be considered to be magnetic field compounds of the dispersed electric field components. Electric field components qualify for a sort of aether, but not a chaotic aether of the past and not exactly liquid like in a sense of water in the sea. It’s liquid is comparable to water flow in rivers.

S.D.K. November 18, 2000

INDEXFIELD FORCES

We have a few principles of the induction of attractive and repulsive force.

The primary (snake propagation) has been described in my original Tour the Force

The secondary attractive force acts between two reciprocating counter flows of positive and negative components of primary as well as secondary gravitational field. The two flows, passing each other, vortex on their common side. Their mutual propagation along the long axis is caused by the primary principle, but the

friction between these two flows creates vortexes between them slowing their common side fringe down as opposed to their far sides fringe.

If you care for a graphic description, look up some photos of Jupiter atmosphere. Its atmosphere moves in strips of counter flowing gas streams and these photos will do better than anything I can draw.

It is this slowing down of the near side fringe, which attracts parallel paths together. Once we have fringes on two or more sides of a single thread of a path, created by the proximity of other paths, we get a general field strength gradient toward the mother body wherever a mother body is present in space, a star, a planet, a wire.

Why wire? Look through a fly screen at some really colorful background. Autumn leaves on maple trees will do rather well. You will find out what I am talking about when you realize that the blurry effect you can see is caused by the “curvature of space” around the wires. That curvature is discriminate and it may resonate, although you would not see it. Such a resonance is behind the effect of Young double slit experiment. Yes, light is a sort of wave, but the explanation of Young double slit experiment is not a proof of it. It was a partly lucky and partly unlucky mistake.

Why the strings rubbing against each other by their fringes do not stop like any other frictional system? The energy of the path has nowhere to dissipate, so it does not dissipate anywhere. That energy can and is used once a gravitational field accelerates a solid body relative to the wavy pattern of the universe. It is used, or better said converted, while accelerating a fluid vortex spin and free fall. It gets transformed into higher orders of energy, be it thermal or kinetic, of what we call particulate, but other than that, it has nowhere to go. Its soliton turbulences are stable in that sense, that they pass energy one to another. The universal gravitational field is the ultimate storehouse of energy, from which all higher forms of energy arise and to which all higher forms of energy return.

We have learned how to convert thermal energy to mechanical energy and to electric dipole energy and back to some degree. Now we should learn how to convert gravitational energy to thermal, mechanical or electric dipole energy.

S.D.K. 14. April 2001

FIELDS 6MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE

Spacing of magnetic lines of force depends on at least two criteria.

The first one is the size of the iron shaving particulate. The finer is the size of the

particulate, the finer is the line of force structure.

The second one is the intensity of the magnetic field. As pointed out in TTF, when we steadily increase the amp value in a DC conductor, the lined of force around the conductor contract and new lines are being added from the iron dust at the margin around the conductor. On the other hand, when we steadily decrease the Amp value in a DC conductor, the lines of force spread and the margin around the conductor collects the iron dust.

When are in the process of placing a steel object between two magnets, which are in attractive orientation and lets say 3” apart, the original lines of force between the two magnets distort so that they concentrate on the steel object. When we line up magnets in attractive orientation with spaces in between or steel objects between two magnets in attractive orientation, the lines of force join all the poles of the magnets or all the steel pieces between the magnets.

When we curve a set of magnets in attractive orientation with some spacing in between them so that the magnets create a circle, all lines of force join into the circle of the poles and the external lines of force (the donut) disappears.

The above (and much more) points out that iron, as well as magnets are able to attract and concentrate and lead magnetic field along any steel or iron or any ferromagnetic structure or permanent magnet structure. The lines of force are created by iron particulate of any size, but the size of the particulate decides how far apart the lines can be before the space between the lines begins to fill with magnetic field again.

When we stick two parallel rows of steel posts into the ground in even an approximate NS orientation, we create at least a partial gap in the magnetic field of earth within the isle between the rows of steel posts. The post distance in the row should be less than the distance of posts across the isle.

The same working arrangement can be created with help of electromagnets, again arranged into a double row, with all their poles oriented in one general geographic orientation and complying with geomagnetic field polarity orientation, because the electromagnets will again tie geomagnetic lines of force (actually create them) and concentrate the geomagnetic field into lines of force.

RELEVANCY

The relevancy of this comes out when we dig into the stone levitation story form Middle East which states:

“First, a 'magic papyrus' (paper) was placed under the stone to be moved. Then the stone was struck with a metal rod that caused the stone to levitate and move along

a path paved with stones and fenced on either side by metal poles. The stone would travel along the path, wrote Al-Masudi, for a distance of about 50 meters and then settle to the ground. The process would then be repeated until the builders had the stone where they wanted it."

The same relevancy comes up when we dig into stories about Edward Leedskalnin and the artifacts left by him on his death at Coral Castle. Ed was the only man in the West who had been able to handle monoliths without the use of heavy machinery in modern times.

Leedskalnin had no outside source of hydropower, yet he had electrical installations on his property. He was able to handle blocks of coral stone up to 29 tons in weight as evidenced by his work for anyone to see. He seems to have used grids of copper wires and other electrical devices to help him with his work. He has also been reported to “sing” to his stones while working with them. When we read through Leadskalnin’s articles on magnetism, we can get the hang of what his idea behind his stone levitation was, especially when we learn that his work gloves and boots had sheet metal pieces attached to them. Unfortunately, he has not left an instruction manual and what he never revealed has to be found out.

It appears that steel or magnet or electromagnet induced geomagnetic field gap is not exactly necessary in order to achieve stone levitation, because other modern time report from Tibet does not include any steel or electric apparatus, never the less, there are possibly other ways in which magnetic field gaps can be created. Sound, on the other hand, is always reported as a factor.

Note, just about all the references needed can be found on KeelyNet. (See Links)

SDK 7 August 2001

FIELDS 7

INDEXTHE PRIMARY FIELD NETWORK

The “free” space of the universe is interwoven with uncountable paths of electric communication among the celestial bodies of the primary field. Polarity of each path of the primary field is steady and looped on the quark, nucleon, atom, molecule, planetary, galactic and eventually universal scale. Each quark and antiquark along a single path is strung on this path like a bead on a string. The permanent induction of such a path may join countless quarks of alternate electric polarity in countless bodies and the path is an integral part of those quarks. This two-way communication of flows with the quark knots on them can be compared to beads strung on a double thread string. I will assign red color to the positive “charge” quark and blue color to the negative “charge” quark. Figure one shows only one quark of a pair for simplicity.

Fig 1

The paths polarity directions between more than two bodies are not unidirectional even for a single circle path. The curvature of the path is not caused by inertia. It is caused by the directionality of the quark orientation at the point of exit and entry. See TTF2/FIELDS 5 for the cause of mutual adherence of the two directions of a single path of electric force exchange. The whole loop can be perceived as separate strings as well as a single string.

I have to create a term for the intersection related to the wave function of a path. The term is null axis point.

Fig 2

The paths of electric communication intersect in free space either actively at null axis points or passively at any other points on the paths. Figure three shows idealized planar arrangement. The sinusoids themselves will be distorted as paths standing waves compound at some places to some degree.

Fig 3

Once we understand that the path is a flow of something and that the wave of this flow is static or standing, like the riverbed of Mississippi river, we do not have to count in any frequencies of the paths when crossing each other as yet. The important condition is that any orthogonal paths intersect at their null axis points tying orthogonal paths together into network. Every two-path null point intersection generates turbulence between their four flows, somewhat similar to the cloverleaf intersection on a freeway. Stability of this turbulence is conditioned by the spatial frequency of the wave components of the paths. If the intersecting paths have harmonic relationship, which fits into the curved length of the turbulence (cloverleaf loop), the turbulence will be stable. If the two intersecting paths have disharmonic spatial frequencies, the turbulence will oscillate at best, and alternately fall apart and reestablish at the worst.

There are stable and unstable turbulences around the null axis point intersections of the field network holding the network together, some in a transient manner and some in a stable manner. The same is valid for the structure of nucleon, but it is not valid for the structure of emitted electron thermal phase.

When the primary gravitational field network gets disturbed at any point, it behaves as a three dimensional net. It does not mean that its structure follows three axes in Euclidian cubic axis arrangement. It only means that the space is filled through out with this network. The geometry of the network structure itself is multidirectional and constantly shifting. The directions of the paths within the network are just about as numerous as the paths themselves.

When we consider the field of a single charged spherical body, its geometry seems purely radial, i.e. scalar. When we consider geometry of the field of two reciprocating (opposite polarity) bodies, it changes quite drastically. The cause of the scalar field of a single charged body lies in the induction taking place between the body and air molecules and water vapor molecules and earth molecules and whatever molecules, or better said their component quarks all around the so called charged body. In practice, there is no scalar field. Scalar field is a theoretical idealization of crooked natural geometry. Perfect scalar field would require a perfect charged sphere within another perfect sphere (including perfect material), within which the charged sphere would be placed in dead center. The outer sphere would have to be perfectly isolated from the rest of the universe, otherwise it would induce its induced polarity toward the outside becoming a charged body to the outside and the ideal theoretical scalar field would become the practical crooked field. In reality, the inner charged body actually becomes electrically neutral. (Courtesy Joe Hiding)

Anyway, the network can be obviously shaped and disturbed and induced and manipulated as long as we know what we are dealing with and what we are doing with it. The notion that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon equivalent to radio waves and microwaves is incorrect. The experimentation of Nicola Tesla in Colorado has clearly shown that repeated manipulation of the geometry of the general field causes a general wave disturbance through out the network of gravitational field. This disturbance is a real longitudinal wave generated within the gravitational network. On the other hand, light is progressive unification of electric paths flows into a local magnetic flow.

The speed of light and the speed of gravitation and the speed of radio wave are interdependent because the wavelengths are interdependent. When you look back to the volleyball net analogy, you can realize that the transverse wave of single net string and the longitudinal wave of the whole net depend on each other in some ratio, whatever that ratio may be. It is a bit confusing to recognize what is a longitudinal wave within the whole network and what is a transverse wave in it. A disturbance, which propagates in one direction as a longitudinal wave, causes transverse wave in orthogonal directions and vice versa. Our concept of the transverse and longitudinal is derived from our string and spring experimenting, which limits our perception to the behavior of the string or the spring. We tear phenomena out of their context and study them out of their context. Then we

grossly err applying the newly derived (experimentally as well as mentally confirmed within artificially imposed limits) concepts to the general behavior of the limitless universe.

S.D.K. 14. April 2001

FIELDS 5

INDEX

FORCES This site is dedicated to ideas. Some are mine, some belong to others. Any and all of the information on this site is as is. If you dissagree with anything here, be aware that I also disagree with a lot of things.

BY S.D.K.

TOUR THE FORCE

Is a series of closely interrelated documents outlining the problems with the currently established interpretations of behavior of the most fundamental physical phenomena like heat, light, el. current etc. It does not argue with the established mathematical processes (so called mathematical theories), as most are reasonably valid generalizations of functions of particular natural forces. It argues with the concepts of why things behave the way they do and with their causality and geometrical as well as functional relationships, not with how much they behave.

Tour the Force contains a somewhat outdated line of deduction of what force phenomena really are all about and what are their mutual relations. The particulate causality of gravitational force and other force fields as such had to give way to simpler concept of wave relationship of energy flows along waves. Yet, this original Tour the Force has its relevancy in paving the road to understanding of Tour the Force 2

GISMOS

Contains assortment of descriptions and comments on a few man made contraptions, which were or are claimed to work as intended, as undependable as some may be.

TOUR THE FORCE 2

Contains updates to the original Tour the Force. This part is in development and I am uploading new documents as I manage to solve the different parts of the over all puzzle and put its documents into a reasonable form. My original Tour the Force is a prerequisite to understanding of Tour the Force 2.

EXPERIMENTS

Contains assorted bits and pieces of little known knowledge about anomalous experiments done by "less" learned folks. Some may have my explanations and all of them stress the need of humanity as such to resist the dogma of the established authority on truth.

IDEAS

Contains assorted ideas and experiences. Some of the ideas have the potential to eventually move to experiments once conclusively performed.

LINKS

Scientific as well as not so scientific references. They should be understood as pointers in directions of possible research, not as exhaustive sources of information. Lots of interesting stuff, lots of garbage. You have to do your own research and sorting out. Good luck.

VICTOR S. GREBENNIKOV

English translation of the original Russian text.

PATENTS

First of my patenting experiences concerns a simple brushless alternator. This attempt had gone to hell due to bottomless pockets of my former patent lawyers (for a translation of the English description into legalese worth close to C$ 5 500, submission fees extra). You can view the patent application here, as it was submitted to US patent office by my ex-patent agents. The patent has fallen into public domain due to insufficient funds.

My second patent experience concerns a very simple and very effective air (gas)

dryer so far applied only on compressed air systems. I have applied for a patent registration and filed an application (Canadian) according to Canada Patent Office instructions myself. The application has been accepted and had cost C$150.00 plus registered mail. I have not quite revealed the whole patent here, but you can find its general description and experience with its performance here.

INDEX

The Decay of the False VacuumWritten by Sten Odenwald

Copyright (C) 1983 Kalmbach Publishing. Reprinted

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------In the recently developed theory by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, that unifies the electromagnetic and weak forces, the vacuum is not empty. This peculiar situation comes about because of the existence of a new type of field, called the Higgs field. The Higgs field has an important physical consequence since its interaction with the W, W and Z particles (the carriers of the weak force) causes them to gain mass at energies below 100 billion electron volts (100 Gev). Above this energy they are quite massless just like the photon and it is this characteristic that makes the weak and electromagnetic forces so similar at high energy. On a somewhat more abstract level, consider Figures 1 and 2 representing the average energy of the vacuum state. If the universe were based on the vacuum state in Figure 1, it is predicted that the symmetry between the electromagnetic and weak interactions would be quite obvious. The particles mediating the forces would all be massless and behave in the same way. The corresponding forces would be indistinguishable. This would be the situation if the universe had an average temperature of 1 trillion degrees so that the existing particles collided at energies of 100 Gev. In Figure 2, representing the vacuum state energy for collision energies below 100 Gev, the vacuum state now contains the Higgs field and the symmetry between the forces is suddenly lost or 'broken'. Although at low energy the way in which the forces behave is asymmetric, the fundamental laws governing the electromagnetic and weak interactions remain inherently symmetric. This is a very remarkable and profound prediction since it implies that certain symmetries in Nature can be hidden from us but are there nonetheless.

During the last 10 years physicists have developed even more powerful theories that attempt to unify not only the electromagnetic and weak forces but the strong nuclear force as well. These are called the Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) and the simplist one known was developed by Howard Georgi, Helen Quinn,and

Steven Weinberg and is called SU(5), (pronounced 'ess you five'). This theory predicts that the nuclear and 'electroweak' forces will eventually have the same strength but only when particles collide at energies above 1 thousand trillion GeV corresponding to the unimaginable temperature of 10 thousand trillion trillion degrees! SU(5) requires exactly 24 particles to mediate forces of which the 8 massless gluons of the nuclear force, the 3 massless intermediate vector bosons of the weak force and the single massless photon of the electromagnetic force are 12. The remaining 12 represent a totally new class of particles called Leptoquark bosons that have the remarkable property that they can transform quarks into electrons. SU(5) therefore predicts the existence of a 'hyperweak' interaction; a new fifth force in the universe! Currently, this force is 10 thousand trillion trillion times weaker than the weak force but is nevertheless 100 million times stronger than gravity. What would this new force do? Since protons are constructed from 3 quarks and since quarks can now decay into electrons, through the Hyperweak interaction, SU(5) predicts that protons are no longer the stable particles we have always imagined them to be. Crude calculations suggest that they may have half-lives between 10(29) to 10(33) years. An immediate consequence of this is that even if the universe were destined to expand for all eternity, after 'only' 10(32) years or so, all of the matter present would catastrophically decay into electrons, neutrinos and photons. The Era of Matter, with its living organisms, stars and galaxies, would be swept away forever, having represented but a fleeting episode in the history of the universe. In addition to proton decay, SU(5) predicts that at the energy characteristic of the GUT transition, we will see the affects of a new family of particles called supermassive Higgs bosons whose masses are expected to be approximately 1 thousand trillion GeV! These particles interact with the 12 Leptoquarks and make them massive just as the Higgs bosons at 100 GeV made the W, W and Z particles heavy. Armed with this knowledge, let's explore some of the remarkable cosmological consequences of these exciting theories.

The GUT Era

To see how these theories relate to the history of the universe, imagine if you can a time when the average temperature of the universe was not the frigid 3 K that it is today but an incredable 10 thousand trillion trillion degrees (10(15) GeV). The 'Standard Model' of the Big Bang, tells us this happened about 10(-37) seconds after Creation. The protons and neutrons that we are familiar with today hadn't yet formed since their constituent quarks interacted much too weakly to permit them to bind together into 'packages' like neutrons and protons. The remaining constituents of matter, electrons, muons and tau leptons, were also massless and traveled about at essentially light-speed; They were literally a new form of radiation, much like light is today! The 12 supermassive Leptoquarks as well as the supermassivs Higgs bosons existed side-by-side with their anti-particles. Every particle-anti particle pair that was annihilated was balanced by the resurrection of a new pair somewhere else in the universe. During this period, the particles that mediated the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces were completely massless

so that these forces were no longer distinguishable. An inhabitant of that age would not have had to theorize about the existence of a symmetry between the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions, this symmetry would have been directly observable and furthermore, fewer types of particles would exist for the inhabitants to keep track of. The universe would actually have beed much simpler then!

As the universe continued to expand, the temperature continued to plummet. It has been suggested by Demetres Nanopoulis and Steven Weinberg in 1979 that one of the supermassive Higgs particles may have decayed in such a way that slightly more matter was produced than anti-matter. The remaining evenly matched pairs of particles and anti-particles then annihilated to produce the radiation that we now see as the 'cosmic fireball'.

Exactly what happened to the universe as it underwent the transitions at 10(15) and 100 GeV when the forces of Nature suddenly became distinguishable is still under investigation, but certain tantalizing descriptions have recently been offered by various groups of theoriticians working on this problem. According to studies by Alan Guth, Steven Weinberg and Frank Wilczyk between 1979 and 1981, when the GUT transition occured, it occured in a way not unlike the formation of vapor bubbles in a pot of boiling water. In this analogy, the interior of the bubbles represent the vacuum state in the new phase, where the forces are distinguishable, embedded in the old symmetric phase where the nuclear, weak and electromagnetic forces are indistinguishable. Inside these bubbles, the vacuum energy is of the type illustrated by Figure 2 while outside it is represented by Figure 1. Since we are living within the new phase with its four distinguishable forces, this has been called the 'true' vacuum state. In the false vacuum state, the forces remain indistinguishable which is certainly not the situation that we find ourselves in today!

Cosmic Inflation

An exciting prediction of Guth's model is that the universe may have gone through at least one period in its history when the expansion was far more rapid than predicted by the 'standard' Big Bang model. The reason for this is that the vacuum itself also contributes to the energy content of the universe just as matter and radiation do however, the contribution is in the opposite sense. Although gravity is an attractive force, the vacuum of space produces a force that is repulsive. As Figures 1 and 2 show, the minimum energy state of the false vacuum at 'A' before the GUT transition is at a higher energy than in the true vacuum state in 'B' after the transition. This energy difference is what contributes to the vacuum energy. During the GUT transition period, the positive pressure due to the vacuum energy would have been enormously greater than the restraining pressure produced by the gravitational influence of matter and radiation. The universe would have inflated at a tremendous rate, the inflation driven by the pressure of the vacuum! In this

picture of the universe, Einstein's cosmological constant takes on a whole new meaning since it now represents a definite physical concept ; It is simply a measure of the energy difference between the true and false vacuum states ('B' and 'A' in Figures 1 and 2.) at a particular time in the history of the universe. It also tells us that, just as in de Sitter's model, a universe where the vacuum contributes in this way must expand exponentially in time and not linearly as predicted by the Big Bang model. Guth's scenario for the expansion of the universe is generally called the 'inflationary universe' due to the rapidity of the expansion and represents a phase that will end only after the true vacuum has supplanted the false vacuum of the old, symmetric phase.

A major problem with Guth's original model was that the inflationary phase would have lasted for a very long time because the false vacuum state is such a stable one. The universe becomes trapped in the cul-de-sac of the false vacuum state and the exponential expansion never ceases. This would be somewhat analogous to water refusing to freeze even though its temperature has dropped well below 0 Centigrade. Recent modifications to the original 'inflationary universe' model have resulted in what is now called the 'new' inflationary universe model. In this model, the universe does manage to escape from the false vacuum state and evolves in a short time to the familiar true vacuum state.

We don't really know how exactly long the inflationary phase may have lasted but the time required for the universe to double its size may have been only 10(-34) seconds. Conceivably, this inflationary period could have continued for as 'long' as 10(-24) seconds during which time the universe would have undergone 10 billion doublings of its size! This is a number that is truely beyond comprehension. As a comparison, only 120 doublings are required to inflate a hydrogen atom to the size of the entire visible universe! According to the inflationary model, the bubbles of the true vacuum phase expanded at the speed of light. Many of these had to collide when the universe was very young in order that the visible universe appear so uniform today. A single bubble would not have grown large enough to encompass our entire visible universe at this time; A radius of some 15-20 billion light years. On the other hand, the new inflationary model states that even the bubbles expanded in size exponentially just as their separations did. The bubbles themselves grew to enormous sizes much greater than the size of our observable universe. According to Albrecht and Steinhardt of the University of Pennsylvania, each bubble may now be 10(3000) cm in size. We should not be too concerned about these bubbles expanding at many times the speed of light since their boundaries do not represent a physical entity. There are no electrons or quarks riding some expandind shock wave. Instead, it is the non-material vacuum of space that is expanding. The expansion velocity of the bubbles is not limited by any physical speed limit like the velocity of light.

GUMs in GUTs

A potential problem for cosmologies that have phase transitions during the GUT Era is that a curious zoo of objects could be spawned if frequent bubble mergers occured as required by Guth's inflationary model. First of all, each bubble of the true vacuum phase contains its own Higgs field having a unique orientation in space. It seems likely that no two bubbles will have their Higgs fields oriented in quite the same way so that when bubbles merge, knots will form. According to Gerhard t'Hooft and Alexander Polyakov, these knots in the Higgs field are the magnetic monopoles originally proposed 40 years ago by Paul Dirac and there ought to be about as many of these as there were bubble mergers during the transition period. Upper limits to their abundance can be set by requiring that they do not contribute to 'closing' the universe which means that for particles of their predicted mass (about 10(16) GeV), they must be 1 trillion trillion times less abundant than the photons in the 3 K cosmic background. Calculations based on the old inflationary model suggest that the these GUMs (Grand Unification Monopoles) may easily have been as much as 100 trillion times more abundant than the upper limit! Such a universe would definitly be 'closed' and moreover would have run through its entire history between expansion and recollapse within a few thousand years. The new inflationary universe model solves this 'GUM' overproduction problem since we are living within only one of these bubbles, now almost infinitly larger than our visible universe. Since bubble collisions are no longer required to homogenize the matter and radiation in the universe, very few, if any, monopoles would exist within our visible universe.

Horizons

A prolonged period of inflation would have had an important influence on the cosmic fireball radiation. One long-standing problem in modern cosmology has been that all directions in the sky have the same temperature to an astonishing 1 part in 10,000. When we consider that regions separated by only a few degrees in the sky have only recently been in communication with one another, it is hard to understand how regions farther apart than this could be so similar in temperature. The radiation from one of these regions, traveling at the velocity of light, has not yet made it across the intervening distance to the other, even though the radiation may have started on its way since the universe first came into existence. This 'communication gap' would prevent these regions from ironing-out their temperature differences.

With the standard, Big Bang model, as we look back to earlier epochs from the present time, the separations between particles decrease more slowly than their horizons are shrinking. Neighboring regions of space at the present time, become disconnected so temperature differences are free to develope. Eventually, as we look back to very ancient times, the horizons are so small that every particle existing then literally fills the entire volume of its own, observable universe. Imagine a universe where you occupy all of the available space! Prior to the development of the inflationary models, cosmologists were forced to imagine an

incredably well-ordered initial state where each of these disconnected domains (some 10(86) in number) had nearly identical properties such as temperature. Any departure from this situation at that time would have grown to sizable temperature differences in widely separated parts of the sky at the present time. Unfortunately, some agency would have to set-up these finely-tuned initial conditions by violating causality. The contradiction is that no force may operate by transmitting its influence faster than the speed of light. In the inflationary models, this contradiction is eliminated because the separation between widely scattered points in space becomes almost infinitly small compared to the size of the horizons as we look back to the epoc of inflation. Since these points are now within each others light horizons, any temperature difference would have been eliminated immediatly since hotter regions would now be in radiative contact with colder ones. With this exponentially-growing, de Sitter phase in the universe's early history we now have a means for resolving the horizon problem.

Instant Flat Space

Because of the exponential growth of the universe during the GUT Era, its size may well be essentially infinite for all 'practical' purposes . Estimates by Albrecht and Steinhardt suggest that each bubble region may have grown to a size of 10(3000) cm by the end of the inflationary period. Consequently, the new inflationary model predicts that the content of the universe must be almost exactly the 'critical mass' since the sizes of each of these bubble regions are almost infinite in extent. The universe is, for all conceivable observations, exactly Euclidean (infinite and flat in geometry) and destined to expand for all eternity to come. Since we have only detected at most 10 percent of the critical mass in the form of luminous matter, this suggests that 10 times as much matter exists in our universe than is currently detectable. Of course, if the universe is essentially infinite this raises the ghastly spectre of the eventual annihilation of all organic and inorganic matter some 10(32) years from now because of proton decay.

In spite of its many apparent successes, even the new inflationary universe model is not without its problems. Although it does seem to provide explainations for several cosmological enigmas, it does not provide a convincing way to create galaxies. Those fluctuations in the density of matter that do survive the inflationary period are so dense that they eventually collapse into galaxy-sized blackholes! Neither the precise way in which the transition to ordinary Hubbel expansion occurs nor the duration of the inflationary period are well determined.

If the inflationary cosmologies can be made to answer each of these issues satisfactorily we may have, as J. Richard Gott III has suggested, a most remarkable model of the universe where an almost infinite number of 'bubble universes' each having nearly infinite size, coexist in the same 4-dimensional spacetime; all of these bubble universes having been brought into existence at the same instant of creation. This is less troublesome than one might suspect since, if

our universe is actually infinite as the available data suggests, so too was it infinite even at its moment of birth! It is even conceivable that the universe is 'percolating' with new bubble universes continually coming into existence. Our entire visible universe, out to the most distant quasar, would be but one infinitessimal patch within one of these bubble regions. Do these other universes have galaxies, stars, planets and living creatures statistically similar to those in our universe? We may never know. These other universes, born of the same paroxicism of Creation as our own, are forever beyond our scrutiny but obviously not our imaginations!

Beyond The Beginning...

Finally, what of the period before Grand Unification? We may surmise that at higher temperatures than the GUT Era, even the supermassive Higgs and Leptoquark bosons become massless and at long last we arrive at a time when the gravitational interaction is united with the weak, electromagnetic and strong forces. Yet, our quest for an understanding of the origins of the universe remains incomplete since gravity has yet to be brought into unity with the remaining forces on a theoretical basis. This last step promises to be not only the most difficult one to take on the long road to unification but also appears to hold the greatest promise for shedding light on some of the most profound mysteries of the physical world. Even now, a handful of theorists around the world are hard at work on a theory called Supergravity which unites the force carriers (photons, gluons, gravitons and the weak interaction bosons) with the particles that they act on (quarks, electrons etc). Supergravity theory also predicts the existence of new particles called photinos and gravitinos. There is even some speculation that the photinos may fill the entire universe and account for the unseen 'missing' matter that is necessary to give the universe the critical mass required to make it exactly Euclidean. The gravitinos, on the other hand, prevent calculations involving the exchange of gravitons from giving infinite answers for problems where the answers are known to be perfectly finite. Hitherto, these calculations did not include the affects of the gravitinos.

Perhaps during the next decade, more of the details of the last stage of Unification will be hammered out at which time the entire story of the birth of our universe can be told. This is, indeed, an exciting time to be living through in human history. Will future generations forever envy us our good fortune, to have witnessed in our lifetimes the unfolding of the first comprehensive theory of Existence?

In the Mandelbrot set, nature (or is it mathematics) provides us with a powerful visual counterpart of the musical idea of 'theme and variation': the shapes are repeated everywhere, yet each repetition is somewhat different. It would have been impossible to discover this property of iteration if we had been reduced to hand calculation, and I think that no one would have been sufficiently bright or ingenious to 'invent' this rich and complicated theme and variations. It leaves us no way to become bored, because new things appear all the time, and no way to

become lost, because familiar things come back time and time again. Because this constant novelty, this set is not truly fractal by most definitions; we may call it a borderline fractal, a limit fractal that contains many fractals. Compared to actual fractals, its structurs are more numerous, its harmonies are richer, and its unexpectedness is more unexpected Benoit Mandelbrot

MANDELBROT SET

As mentioned earlier, no matter what the value of the complex parameter c is, in the iteration of the complex quadratic map there is a unique trapping set Tc and a corresponding escape set Ec. The Julia set (Jc) is the boundary between the set Tc and the set Ec. The Mandelbrot set is an answer to the following kind of enquiry. Of the infinite number of possible Julia sets that exists, is there any organizing principle that classifies these Julia sets.

The key results for this classification of Julia sets were already there in the works of Julia and Fatou who knew about the topological dichotomy in the Julia set. The result states that for any choice of the complex parameter c the associated Julia set Jc and the trapping set Tc are either topologically connected (severely deformed circles) or totally disconnected (generalized Cantor dust like).

This was indeed the key result that clued Mandelbrot, in 1979, to visualize a set in the complex parameter space c which is called the Mandelbrot set. The Mandelbrot set consists of all values of c that have connected Julia sets. Picking value of c that is outside the Mandelbrot set, and iterating the equation to obtain the Jc for this particular choice of c gives a disconnected Julia set.

Note important , as it is, the classification of Julia set in terms of disconnected sets, this still doesn't allow one to visualize the shape of the set of points, in the parameter space, for which the Julia set is connected. The genius is in the realization of the interrelation between the above mentioned dichotomy and in the long term behavior of the critical point.

The computer graphical renderings of Mandelbrot set is made possible by this important fact which states -- The trapping set Tc is connected if and only if the critical orbit is bounded. This definition makes it possible to draw a portrait of the Mandelbrot set.

For each complex number c, a sequence of iterates Zn is defined by 3. The complex number c is a member of the Mandelbrot set if and only if |Zn| is finite for all values of n. The bars indicate the magnitude of Zn given by Zn = Ö(Xn2 + Yn2) where Xn is the real component and Yn the imaginary component of Zn. The point, in the complex parameter space, is colored white if the orbit is unbounded for that particular value of c and is colored black if the orbits are bounded.

The figure shown below is the Mandelbrot set (in black). It extends from the cusp of the cardoid at Re c = 0.25 to the tip of the tail at Re c = -2 along the real axis and from Im c = -1.25 to Im c = 1.25 along the imaginary axis.

Monochrome Mandelbrot Set Portrait

The basic algorithm to generate the Mandelbrot set is as follows. For each pixel c, start with Z = 0. Iterate the above equation up to N times, exiting if |Z| gets large. If you finish the loop, the point is probably inside the Mandelbrot set. If you exit, the point is outside and can be colored according to how many iterations were completed. You can exit if |Z| > 2, since if Z gets this big it will go to infinity. The maximum number of iterations, N, can be selected as desired, for instance 200. Larger values of N will give sharper detail but take longer.

A note about why we start from Z0 = 0. Zero is the critical point of Mandelbrot equation given by 2. That is, a point where d/dz (Z2 + c) = 0. Critical points are important because by a result of Fatou: every attracting cycle (Tc) for a polynomial or rational function attracts at least one critical point. Thus, testing the critical point shows if there is any stable attractive cycle. For the case of equation with multiple critical points, all the critical points must be tested.

DETAILS

For the sake of clarity the largest cardoid (heart) shaped central region of the Mandelbrot set will be referred to as the main body of the Mandelbrot set (M1 -- the region labeled 1 in the figure(3) below). All other pieces that are attached to the main body will be referred to as the buds. The largest bud that is attached to the main body (along the real axis) will be called the M2 bud (bud labeled 2 in figure(3) below). The main body of the Mandelbrot set intersects the real axis at

Âc = 0.25 and Âc = -0.75. Extending the stability analysis criteria discussed for the case logistic equation, it is easy to see that the fixed point of the complex quadratic iterator is stable along the real axis for precisely the interval mentioned above.

The determination of the boundary of the main body of the Mandelbrot set relies on the realization that any value of the complex parameter picked from within the main body of the Mandelbrot set the corresponding Julia set is a boundary between the Escape set and the trapping set of the stable fixed point of the quadratic map. The boundary of the main body defines the locus of points (in the parameter space) for which the fixed point is indifferent, that is, the modulus of the derivative of the map about the fixed point is exactly equal to 1. Using this fact one can determine the explicit expression for the outline of the M-set's main body.

If z is the fixed point of complex quadratic map, it follows that z satisfies the equation z2 - z + c = 0. The derivative of the map about the fixed point z is given by 2z which in polar coordinates can be expressed as 2z = reif. Combining these two equations, and solving for c, we obtain c = 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------2r eif - 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------4r2 e2if (1)

Note, for the value of r < 1 the above equation determines the points inside the main body of the Mandelbrot set and r = 1 gives the bondary of M1. The above equation is the parametrization of the curve in the complex plane for 0 £ f < 2p. Thus, is explicitly seen as an equation of cardoid when expressed as Âc = cos(f)/2 - cos(2f)/4

Ác = sin(f)/2 - sin(2f)/4 (2)

by equating the real and imaginary parts of the equation.

It turns out, that at the parameter values, f = 2p/k, where k = 2, 3, 4, 5 ¼, one of the main buds of the Mandelbrot set is attached to M1 set. Moreover, the period of the attractive cycles that belong to these buds is given by the number k in 2p/k. Also, there is another amazing fact about the arrangement of the buds. Two given buds of periods p and q at the cardoid detemine the period of the largest bud in between them as p+q. (This is illustrated for the case of p = 2 and q = 3 in

figure(3) below). Similar rules are true for buds on buds.

Figure 3: The buds of the Mandelbrot set corresponding to Julia sets that bound the basins of attraction (trapping sets) of periodic orbits. The numbers in the figure indicate the periods of these orbits.

Figure 4: The plot of equation (2) which defines the boundary of the main body (M1) of the Mandelbrot set and the numbers indicate the periodicity of the buds that attach to the main body of the Mandelbrot set and the point where they attach to the main body of the Mandelbrot set.

The above two remarkable property corresponding to the periodicity of the bud was the reason for indexing the buds attached to the main body of the M-set as Mn. Thus, from the above argument the period 2 bud is attached at an angle p (setting k = 2 in f = 2p/k), similarly period 3 is the attached at f = 120 and so on. Figure(4) above shows the buds of the Mandelbrot set corresponding to Julia sets that bound basins of attraction of periodic orbits. The numbers in the figure indicate the periods of these orbits.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF CHOLESTEROL BIOSYNTHESIS REGULATION IN THE CELL

*Ratushny A.V., Ignatieva E.V., Matushkin Yu.G., Likhoshvai V.A.

Institute of Cytology and Genetics SB RAS, Russia

e-mail:ratushny@bionet.nsc.ru

*Corresponding author,

Keywords: gene network, cholesterol, regulation, mathematical model, computer analysis

Resume

Motivation:

An adequate mathematical model of the complex nonlinear gene network regulating cholesterol synthesis in the cell is necessary for investigating its possible function modes and determining optimal strategies of its correction, therapeutic included.

Results:

Dynamic model of function of the gene network regulating cholesterol synthesis in the cell is constructed. The model is described in terms of elementary processes-biochemical reactions. The optimal set of parameters of the model is determined. Patterns of the system behavior under different conditions are simulated numerically.

Introduction

Cholesterol, an amphipathic lipid, is an essential structural component of cell membranes and outer lipoprotein layer of blood serum. In addition, cholesterol is a precursor of several other steroids, namely, corticosteroids, sex hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D. Cholesterol is synthesized in many tissues from acetyl-CoA and its main fraction in blood serum resides with low-density lipoproteins (LDL). Free cholesterol is removed from the tissues with involvement of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and transported to the liver to be transformed into bile acids. Its major pathological role is in serving as a factor causing atherosclerosis of vital cerebral arteries, heart muscle, and other organs. Typical of coronary atherosclerosis is a high ratio of LDL to HDL cholesterol [Marry R. et al., 1993]. Haploid and diploid versions of the dynamic model of function of the gene network regulating cholesterol synthesis in the cell are constructed in the work. The models are described in terms of elementary processes-biochemical reactions. The optimal set of parameters of the model allowing the calculations to comply with the published experimental data is determined through numerical experiments. Patterns of the system dynamic behavior under different conditions are simulated numerically. The results obtained are compared with the available experimental data.

Cholesterol biosynthesis and its regulation

Approximately half of the cholesterol amount present in the organism is formed through biosynthesis (about 500 mg/day) [Marry R. et al., 1993], while the other half is consumed with food. The main part of cholesterol is synthesized in the liver (~ 80% of the total cholesterol produced), intestines (~ 10%), and skin (~ 5%) [Klimov & Nikul’cheva, 1999].

Acetyl-CoA is the source of all the carbon atoms composing the cholesterol molecule. The main stages of cholesterol biosynthesis are described in the GeneNet database.

Cholesterol regulates its own synthesis and the synthesis of LDL receptors at the level of transcription through a negative feedback mechanism [Wang et al., 1994]. A decrease in the cell cholesterol content stimulates SRP (sterol regulated protease)- catalyzed proteolysis of the N-terminal fragment of SREBP (sterol regulatory element- binding protein), bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. On leaving the ER membrane, SREBP migrates to the cell nucleus to bind the so-called sterol regulatory element (SRE), residing in the promoter of the receptor gene, thereby switching on the receptor synthesis. In addition, SREBP activates the gene of synthase of hydroxymethyl glutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase [Klimov & Nikul’cheva, 1999] as well as farnesyl diphosphate synthase and squalene synthase syntheses. Several studies have demonstrated rather fast effect of cholesterol on the reductase activity, unexplainable by the mere effect on the rate of enzyme synthesis. HMG-CoA reductase may be either active or inactive. Phosphorylation- dephosphorylation reactions provide for the transitions from one state into the other [Marry R. et al., 1993].

The main factors affecting the cholesterol balance at the cell level [Marry R. et al., 1993] are shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. Factors affecting the cholesterol balance at the cell level: C, cholesterol; CE, cholesterol esters; ACAT, acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase; LCAT, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase; A1, apoprotein A1; LDL, low density lipoproteins; VLDL, very low density lipoproteins, HDL, high density lipoproteins; (- ), inhibition of cholesterol synthesis; and (+) ACAT activation [Marry R. et al., 1993].

Cell cholesterol content increases if (1) specific LDL receptors bind cholesterol-containing lipoproteins; (2) cholesterol-containing lipoproteins are bound without receptors; (3) free cholesterol, contained in cholesterol-rich lipoproteins is bound by cell membranes; (4) cholesterol is synthesized; and (5) cholesterol ester hydrolase- catalyzed hydrolysis of cholesterol esters takes place.

Cell cholesterol content decreases if (1) cholesterol passes from membranes into cholesterol-poor lipoproteins, in particular LDL3 or LDL synthesized de novo (lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase promotes this transition); (2) ACAT-catalyzed cholesterol esterification takes place; and (3) cholesterol is used for synthesizing other steroids, in particular, hormones or bile acids in the liver [Marry R. et al., 1993].

Methods and algorithms

A generalized chemical kinetic approach [Bazhan et al., 1995] was used for the

simulation. A blockwise formalization was used, that is, each process is separated in an individual block and described independently of the other processes. A block is a simulation quantum, and its formal structure is completely described with the following three vector components: (1) X, the list of dynamic variables; (2) P, the list of constants; and (3) F, type of the right part of the system dX/dt = F(X, P) determining the rule these dynamic variables change with time. Four types of blocks are used to describe the processes in the model, namely:

Successive application of the blockwise approach to description of biological systems is based on the law of summation of the rates of elementary processes while uniting them in a general scheme of the simulated object development. The method of Gear [Gear, 1971] was used for numerical integration of the set of differential equations.

Results

Mathematical model

The mathematical model of intracellular cholesterol biosynthesis regulation comprises 65 kinetic blocks, 40 dynamic variables, and 93 reaction constants. The diploid model comprises 72 kinetic blocks, 44 dynamic variables, and 130 reaction constants. Experimental data, partially listed in table below, were used for the initial evaluation of certain parameters of enzymatic reactions with the system.

Table. Some constants of enzyme reactions

EnzymeSubstrateOrganismOrganKc, sec- 1 Km, mM HMG-CoA reductase HMG-CoA Rattus norvegicus [Gil et al., 1981] Liver 980(-)

HMG-CoA reductase HMG-CoA Rattus norvegicus [Kleinsek & Porter, 1979] Liver (-)0.0169

HMG-CoA reductase HMG-CoA Rattus norvegicus [Sugano et al., 1978] Intestine (-)0.0417

HMG-CoA synthase Acetyl-CoA

Acetoacetyl-CoAGallus gallus (hen) [Reed et al., 1975] Liver (-)

(-)0.1? 0.7

<0.005

HMG-CoA synthase Acetyl-CoA Homo sapiens [Rokosz et al., 1994] Adrenal (-)0.029

Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase Acetoacetyl-CoA CoABos taurus (calf) [Huth et al., 1975] Liver (-)

(-)0.01

0.025

Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase Acetoacetyl-CoA CoAGram-negative bacteria [Kim & Copeland 1997] 2.38e+4

2.38e+40.042

0.056

Presqualene synthase Farnesyl diphosphate Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) [Sasiak & Rilling, 1988] (-)0.03

Geranyltransferase Geranyl PP Isopentyl PPHomo sapiens [Barnard & Popjak 1981] Liver 40.7

40.74.4e-4

9.4e-4

Lanosterol synthase (R,S)-squalene-2,3-oxide Saccharomyces cerevisiae [Balliano et al., 1992] (-)0.035

ACAT-1 Oleoyl-CoA CholesterolHomo sapiens (Cricetulus griseus)[Chang et al., 1998] Ovary (-)7.4?-3

Bile acid hydrolase Taurocholate Lactobacillus sp. (bacteria) [Lundeen & Savage, 1990] 19000.76

Other published data were used for evaluating parameters of the model, in particular [Klimov & Nikul’cheva, 1999]:

Fasting LDL concentration in adult human blood serum CLDL = 200- 300 mg/dl.

The average number of unesterified and esterified cholesterol molecules per one LDL particle QUEC = 475 and QEC = 1310.

LDL half-life in blood of healthy humans t 1/2 = 2.5 days; therefore, kLDLutil. = ln(2)/t 1/2 =3.21*10-6 sec-1.

Total number of LDL receptors per one cell at 37° C QLDLR = 15,000- 70,000.

Lifespan of LDL receptors t = 1- 2 days; therefore, kLDLRutil. = 1/t ~ 7.72e - 6 sec- 1.

LDL receptor recyclization span t ~ 20 min.

The values of the rest parameters of the model were determined through numerical experiments.

Figure 2. Kinetics of main components of the system regulating cholesterol biosynthesis in the cell.

Results of calculations

The results obtained while simulating the cell response to a twofold increase in LDL particle content in blood serum (Fig. 2, b) illustrate the model performance. The number of receptors bound to LDL increases (d); unbound, decreases (e). Intracellular concentrations of free cholesterol (a) and its esters (c) increase. Free cholesterol binds the protease (SRP), preventing SREBP-1 formation (f). Productions of enzymes involved in the internal cellular cholesterol synthesis

(HMG-CoA reductase; g), LDL receptors, and intermediate low-molecular-weight components (mevalonic acid, h; squalene, i) are stopped. Cholesterol concentration in the cell is decreasing. No further influence on the system provided, it returns to the initial state. A complete recovering requires about 15 h.

In future, we plan to perform computer stimulation of recombination process in diploid cell, by modelling interactions between alleles of genes responsible for cholesterol biosynthesis.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Galina Chirikova for translation of the manuscript into English and to N.A. Kolchanov for fruitful discussions. The work was supported by National Russian Program "Human Genome" (No 106), Integrational Science Project of SB RAS "Modelling of basic genetical processes and systems".

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Vacuum Energy Density, or How Can Nothing Weigh Something? Recently two different groups have measured the apparent brightness of supernovae with redshifts near z = 1. Based on this data the old idea of a cosmological constant is making a comeback.

Einstein Static CosmologyEinstein's original cosmological model was a static, homogeneous model with spherical geometry. The gravitational effect of matter caused an acceleration in this model which Einstein did not want, since at the time the Universe was not known to be expanding. Thus Einstein introduced a cosmological constant into his equations for General Relativity. This term acts to counteract the gravitational pull of matter, and so it has been described as an anti-gravity effect.

Why does the cosmological constant behave this way?

This term acts like a vacuum energy density, an idea which has become quite fashionable in high energy particle physics models since a vacuum energy density of a specific kind is used in the Higgs mechanism for spontaneous symmetry breaking. Indeed, the inflationary scenario for the first picosecond after the Big Bang proposes that a fairly large vacuum energy density existed during the

inflationary epoch. The vacuum energy density must be associated with a negative pressure because:

The vacuum energy density must be constant because there is nothing for it to depend on. If a piston capping a cylinder of vacuum is pulled out, producing more vacuum, the vacuum within the cylinder then has more energy which must have been supplied by a force pulling on the piston. If the vacuum is trying to pull the piston back into the cylinder, it must have a negative pressure, since a positive pressure would tend to push the piston out. The magnitude of the negative pressure needed for energy conservation is easily found to be P = -u = -rho*c2 where P is the pressure, u is the vacuum energy density, and rho is the equivalent mass density using E = m*c2.

But in General Relativity, pressure has weight, which means that the gravitational acceleration at the edge of a uniform density sphere is not given by

g = GM/R2 = (4*pi/3)*G*rho*R

but is rather given by g = (4*pi/3)*G*(rho+3P/c2)*R

Now Einstein wanted a static model, which means that g = 0, but he also wanted to have some matter, so rho > 0, and thus he needed P < 0. In fact, by setting rho(vacuum) = 0.5*rho(matter)

he had a total density of 1.5*rho(matter) and a total pressure of -0.5*rho(matter)*c2 since the pressure from ordinary matter is essentially zero (compared to rho*c2). Thus rho+3P/c2 = 0 and the gravitational acceleration was zero, g = (4*pi/3)*G*(rho(matter)-2*rho(vacuum))*R = 0

allowing a static Universe.

Einstein's Greatest BlunderHowever, there is a basic flaw in this Einstein static model: it is unstable - like a pencil balanced on its point. For imagine that the Universe grew slightly: say by 1 part per million in size. Then the vacuum energy density stays the same, but the matter energy density goes down by 3 parts per million. This gives a net negative gravitational acceleration, which makes the Universe grow even more! If instead the Universe shrank slightly, one gets a net positive gravitational acceleration, which makes it shrink more! Any small deviation gets magnified, and the model is fundamentally flawed.

In addition to this flaw of instability, the static model's premise of a static

Universe was shown by Hubble to be incorrect. This led Einstein to refer to the cosmological constant as his greatest blunder, and to drop it from his equations. But it still exists as a possibility -- a coefficient that should be determined from observations or fundamental theory.

The Quantum ExpectationThe equations of quantum field theory describing interacting particles and anti-particles of mass M are very hard to solve exactly. With a large amount of mathematical work it is possible to prove that the ground state of this system has an energy that is less than infinity. But there is no obvious reason why the energy of this ground state should be zero. One expects roughly one particle in every volume equal to the Compton wavelength of the particle cubed, which gives a vacuum density of

rho(vacuum) = M4c3/h3 = 1013 [M/proton mass]4 gm/cc

For the highest reasonable elementary particle mass, the Planck mass of 20 micrograms, this density is more than 1091 gm/cc. So there must be a suppression mechanism at work now that reduces the vacuum energy density by at least 120 orders of magnitude. A Bayesian ArgumentWe don't know what this mechanism is, but it seems reasonable that suppression by 122 orders of magnitude, which would make the effect of the vacuum energy density on the Universe negligible, is just as probable as suppression by 120 orders of magnitude. And 124, 126, 128 etc. orders of magnitude should all be just as probable as well, and all give a negligible effect on the Universe. On the other hand suppressions by 118, 116, 114, etc. orders of magnitude are ruled out by the data. Unless there are data to rule out suppression factors of 122, 124, etc. orders of magnitude then the most probable value of the vacuum energy density is zero.

The Dicke Coincidence ArgumentIf the supernova data and the CMB data are correct, then the vacuum density is about 75% of the total density now. But at redshift z=2, which occurred 11 Gyr ago for this model if Ho = 65, the vacuum energy density was only 10% of the total density. And 11 Gyr in the future the vacuum density will be 96% of the total density. Why are we alive coincidentally at the time when the vacuum density is in the middle of its fairly rapid transition from a negligible fraction to the dominant fraction of the total density? If, on the other hand, the vacuum energy density is zero, then it is always 0% of the total density and the current epoch is not special.

What about Inflation?During the inflationary epoch, the vacuum energy density was large: around 1071 gm/cc. So in the inflationary scenario the vacuum energy density was once large, and then was suppressed by a large factor. So non-zero vacuum energy densities

are certainly possible.

Observational LimitsSolar SystemOne way to look for a vacuum energy density is to study the orbits of particles moving in the gravitational field of known masses. Since we are looking for a constant density, its effect will be greater in a large volume system. The Solar System is the largest system where we really know what the masses are, and we can check for the presence of a vacuum energy density by a careful test of Kepler's Third Law: that the period squared is proportional to the distance from the Sun cubed. The centripetal acceleration of a particle moving around a circle of radius R with period P is

a = R*(2*pi/P)2

which has to be equal to the gravitational acceleration worked out above: a = R*(2*pi/P)2 = g = GM(Sun)/R2 - (8*pi/3)*G*rho(vacuum))*R

If rho(vacuum) = 0 then we get (4*pi2/GM)*R3 = P2

which is Kepler's Third Law. But if the vacuum density is not zero, then one gets a fractional change in period of dP/P = (4*pi/3)*R3*rho(vacuum)/M(sun) = rho(vacuum)/rho(bar)

where the average density inside radius R is rho(bar) = M/((4*pi/3)*R3). This can only be checked for planets where we have an independent measurement of the distance from the Sun. The Voyager spacecraft allowed very precise distances to Uranus and Neptune to be determined, and Anderson et al. (1995, ApJ, 448, 885) found that dP/P = (1+/-1) parts per million at Neptune's distance from the Sun. This gives us a Solar System limit of rho(vacuum) = (5+/-5)*10-18 < 2*10-17 gm/cc

The cosmological constant will also cause a precession of the perihelion of a planet. Cardona and Tejeiro (1998, ApJ, 493, 52) claimed that this effect could set limits on the vacuum density only ten or so times higher than the critical density, but their calculation appears to be off by a factor of 3 trillion. The correct advance of the perihelion is 3*rho(vacuum)/rho(bar) cycles per orbit. Because the ranging data to the Viking landers on Mars is so precise, a very good limit on the vacuum density is obtained:

rho(vacuum) < 2*10-19 gm/cc

Milky Way GalaxyIn larger systems we cannot make part per million verifications of the standard model. In the case of the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way, we only say that the vacuum energy density is less than half of the average matter density in a sphere centered at the Galactic Center that extends out to the Sun's distance from the center. If the vacuum energy density were more than this, there would be no centripetal acceleration of the Sun toward the Galactic Center. But we compute the average matter density assuming that the vacuum energy density is zero, so to be conservative I will drop the "half" and just say

rho(vacuum) < (3/(4*pi*G))(v/R)2 = 3*10-24 gm/cc

for a circular velocity v = 220 km/sec and a distance R = 8.5 kpc.

Large Scale Geometry of the UniverseThe best limit on the vacuum energy density comes from the largest possible system: the Universe as a whole. The vacuum energy density leads to an accelerating expansion of the Universe. If the vacuum energy density is greater than the critical density, then the Universe will not have gone through a very hot dense phase when the scale factor was zero (the Big Bang). We know the Universe went through a hot dense phase because of the light element abundances and the properties of the cosmic microwave background. These require that the Universe was at least a billion times smaller in the past than it is now, and this limits the vacuum energy density to

rho(vacuum) < rho(critical) = 8*10-30 gm/cc

The recent supernova results suggest that the vacuum energy density is close to this limit: rho(vacuum) = 0.75*rho(critical) = 6*10-30 gm/cc. The ratio of rho(vacuum) to rho(critical) is called lambda. This expresses the vacuum energy density on the same scale used by the density parameter Omega. Thus the supernova data suggest that lambda = 0.75. If we use OmegaM to denote the ratio of ordinary matter density to critical density, then the Universe is open if OmegaM + lambda is less than one, closed if it is greater than one, and flat if it is exactly one. If lambda is greater than zero, then the Universe will expand forever unless the matter density OmegaM is much larger than current observations suggest. For lambda greater than zero, even a closed Universe can expand forever.

The figure above shows the regions in the (OmegaM, lambda) plane that are suggested by the current data. The green region in the upper left is ruled out because there would not be a Big Bang in this region, leaving the CMB spectrum unexplained. The red and green ellipses with yellow overlap region show the LBL team's allowed parameters (red) and the Hi-Z SN Team's allowed parameters

(green). The blue wedge shows the parameter space region that gives the observed Doppler peak position in the angular power spectrum of the CMB. The purple region is consistent with the CMB Doppler peak position and the supernova data. The big pink ellipse shows the possible systematic errors in the supernova data.

The figure above shows the scale factor as a function of time for several different models. The colors of the curves are keyed to the colors of the circular dots in the (OmegaM, lambda) plane Figure. The purple curve is for the favored OmegaM = 0.25, lambda = 0.75 model. The blue curve is the Steady State model, which has lambda = 1 but no Big Bang.

Because the time to reach a given redshift is larger in the OmegaM = 0.25, lambda = 0.75 model than in the OmegaM = 1 model, the angular size distance and luminosity distance are larger in the lambda model, as shown in the space-time diagram below:

The OmegaM = 1 model is on the left, the OmegaM = 0.25, lambda = 0.75 model is on the right. The green line across each space-time diagram shows the time when the redshift was z = 1, which corresponds to approximately to the most distant of the supernovae observed to date. Using a ruler you can see that the angular size distance to z = 1 is 1.36 times larger in the right hand diagram, which makes the observed supernovae 1.84 times fainter (0.66 magnitudes fainter).

ConclusionIn the past, we have had only upper limits on the vacuum density and philosophical arguments based on the Dicke coincidence problem and Bayesian statistics that suggested that the most likely value of the vacuum density was zero. Now we have the supernova data that suggests that the vacuum energy density is greater than zero. This result is very important if true. We need to confirm it using other techniques, such as the MAP satellite which will observe the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background with angular resolution and sensitivity that are sufficient to measure the vacuum energy density.

Ned Wright's Home Page

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The Gum Nebula : giant plasma blob headed to Earth by the year 5500 AD ? The gum nebula may have melted the last ice age about 12,000-15,000 years ago, causes earth quakes, volcanos and the ozone lay hole, 12,000-15,000 years ago it was 1 million times, brighter than the moon, is only 300-1000 light years away and now covers 40-60% of the Earth's southern sky.

Monday, May 30, 2005

Gum Nebula exploded star may have melted last ice age @12,000 to 15,000 years agoIt currently covers 40-60% of the Earth's southern skyif the gum nebula's plasma and engery travels about 1.5 million miles per hour the matter will be on Earth by 5500 AD

posted by Brother-Dan-Izzo @ 11:03 AM 0 comments

Blame it on the Gum Nebula: the Giant Blob headed to Earth by 5500 AD ? Giant Blob headed to Earth by 5500 AD ? Blame it on the Gum Nebula star explosion @15,000 years ago, it may have melted last ice age, caused ozon hole, volcanos and earth quakes, (Supernova Remnant in Puppis & Vela)Covering 40-60% of the Southern SkyOnly 1 message in topic - view as tree" noWrap width="1%" bgColor=#b71c0c>Br Dan IzzoMay 28, 7:16 pm show optionsFrom: "Br Dan Izzo" - Find messages by this authorDate: Sat, 28 May 2005 16:16:03 -0700Local: Sat,May 28 2005 7:16 pmSubject: Giant Blob headed to Earth by 5500 AD ? Blame it on the Gum Nebula star explosion @15,000 years ago, it may have melted last ice age, caused ozon hole, volcanos and earth quakes, (Supernova Remnant in Puppis & Vela)Covering 40-60% of the Southern SkyReply Reply to Author Forward Print Individual Message Show original Remove Report AbuseBlame it on the Gum Nebula: Giant Blob headed to Earth ?Gum Nebula (Supernova Remnant in Puppis & Vela) Covering 40-60% of the Southern Sky and Heading this WayBLAME THE GUM NEBULA FORTHEORY THAT THE GUM NEBULA:(1) CAUSED THE MELTING OF THE LAST ICE AGE(2) CAUSED THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER(3) CAUSES THE INCREASE IN EARTH'S TEMPERATURE INPART(4) CAUSES INCREASE IN EARTH QUAKES, AND STORMS, LIKE THE RECENT EARTH QUAKES, TSUNAMIS, AND VOLCANO ERPUPTION

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------DEAR MEMBERS OF CONGRESSTHE GUM NEBULA COVERS 40-60% OF THE EARTH'S SOUTHERN SKY AND IF ITS PLASMA TRAVELS AT @1.5 MILLION MILES PER HOUR IT WILL REACH THE EARTH @ 5,500 ADITS GAMMA RAY/COSMIC RAY EMF ENERGY ALREADY PASTED BY THE EARTH 300-1000 YEARS AFTER THE STAR EXPLODED @15,000-11,000 BCBLAME IT ON THE GUM NEBULA, SUPER NOVA EXPLOSION :ITS RADIATION PULSE WAS SEVERAL TIMES MILLION STRONGER THAN THE SUNTHE GUM NEBULA REVIVALED THE MOON IN BRIGHTNESS IN THE SOUTHERN SKYBLAME THE GUM NEBULA FORTHEORY THAT THE GUM NEBULA:(1) CAUSED THE MELTING OF THE LAST ICE AGE(2) CAUSED THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER(3) CAUSES THE INCREASE IN EARTH'S TEMPERATURE INPART(4) CAUSES INCREASE IN EARTH QUAKES, AND STORMS, LIKE THE RECENT EARTH QUAKES, TSUNAMIS, AND VOLCANO ERPUPTIONIT IS VERY POSSIBLE THAT THE EARTH IS RECIEVING A LOT MORE THAN THE GUM NEBULA'S LIGHT ENERGY PHOTONS AT THIS TIMEMORE THOUGHT AND RESEARCH NEEDEDTHE GUM NEBULA IS NOT AN ACT OF GOD AND IT'S PLASMA IF IT REALLY DOES MAKE IT TO EARTH WOULD BE VERY WEAK IONS AND HELP FEED OUR SUNCOSMIC MAGNETIC FORCE AND GOD BLESS YOUCRYONIC LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY DEPT OF GENERAL RESURRECTION BR DAN IZZO 512 ONONDAGA AVE SYRACUSE, NY 13207

cut and pasted web page on Gum Nebula below:

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Top left is NE. Image width is about 2 degrees minImage and text © 1978-2002, Anglo-Australian Observatory/Royal Obs. Edinburgh.Photograph from UK Schmidt plates by David Malin. About ( 12,000 to 15,000 years ago ) 120 centuries ago an inconspicuous star in what is now the constellation of Vela brightened by about 100 million times to rival the Moon as the brightest object in the night sky. This photograph shows a portion of the north-western quadrant of an expanding nebulous shell, which now surrounds the site of the explosion. Near the centre of the nebula (and not seen here) is the Vela pulsar, a rapidly-spinning

neutron star only a few kilometres in diameter, the remnant of the star that exploded. This tiny object spins about 11 times a second and until recently was among the faintest stars ever studied at optical wavelengths, a far cry from its brief glory as one of the brightest stars ever seen.

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Date & Time: Dec 29 2002, 26:08 JST(+0900), 25min. Exp. Optical: SMC PENTAX f=165mm F2.8, Aperture: F2.8 with IDAS LPS-P1 light-pollution supression filter Auto-guided with TAKAHASHI JP Equatorial Camera: PENTAX 67 Film: Ektachrome E200 (+1EV pushed) Location: Ooizumi vil., Yamanashi pref.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Fum Nebula / Supernova Remnant R.A. 08h 34m (around center) Dec. -45° 00' (around center) Apparent Size 40 x 90° Real Size N/A Magnitude - Distance 1500 light yrs.(center) 300 light yrs.(closest region) In lower southern sky in winter night, an extraordinary vast but dimmed ?gGum Nebula?h is spreading out with a size of 40 x 90 degrees. The nebula is positioned in the Milky Way of Puppis to Vela. The nebula with name of an astronomer, who investigated about the nebula, is considered a supernova remnant exploded about from 10 to 30 thousand years ago. In Japan, I can capture images of only northern part of Gum Nebula, but its low altitude of meridian transit make difficult to take pictures of the nebula clearly. This image shows you a limited area of Gum Nebula around the border of Puppis and Vela, equivalent a part of northeast region. A circular nebulosity in center has an ID of Gum17. The Gum Nebula has been grouped into some regions and assigned ID numbers because it's too large to regard as single celestial object. Its whole figure has ring structure, looks like a swollen Veil Nebula in Cygnus.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cosmic Radio Signals can be polarized at 91mhz (fm); 160mhz (vhf); 610mhz ( on channel 78uhf-tv) by keying a cb microphone over a radio receiver set on these radio channels with your home equipment. These are known cosmic radio sources from outerspace from Annual Review of Astrophysics and Astronomy 1966 editor Leo Goldberg. Facts : A lot of the static snow that you recieve is your non cable uhf tv; is cosmic radio signals......many elements naturally emitt radio pulses whern excited; You can polarize these signals with CB radio Microphone buy keying the transmitting CB microphone over the speaker of a recieving radio set at 91 mhz..(91fm)..160 mhz..(160 vhf radio)..and transmit the spacey sound you hear to a recieving TV set at channel 78 UHF tv.....then you will see a ATT type of symbol..and see the oscillations and fluctutations of the cosmic radio signal that has been just polarized.....personally I think 160 vhf radio.....is artifically generated.....since it oscillates odd.....if intelligent life has learned to genrate radio signals within our galaxy....the odds are in our favor.we are recieving them.as they recieve our signals from 50+ years ago.......that energy is

bouncing off our heads now. I have recieved a strange CBS eye symbol on my TV after I did this, It wasn't CBS's thought..it was gold on the edge, with a green center eye and purple round about the eye..but for this happened a circular rainbow image formed.then out of the cloud the CBS eye appeared.the eye looked like a lizards eye.....real spooky.I called CBS in NY, and they don't know why they pick that symbol..(~) after some research.there was a " CBS" electron gun.made for TV picture tubes in the 1950's..so maybe back in the early days of television..tv engineers must have recieved this same signal.

Cosmic Mangetic Force and God Bless You

Br Dan Izzo512 Onondaga Ave Syracuse, NY 13207

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Facts on Lead Metal and its Transmutation into Gold

(1) Lead metal has 82 protons & electrons and contains Gold in it already.

Lead is the ONLY METAL that can be the STANDARD WEIGHT as 10kt Gold ( that is semi safe to use )

(2) Lead metal will transmutate into Gold when bombarded with a source of neutrons.

(3) It is alleged that Lead naturally transmutes into Gold over millions of years within a vein of quartz chrystals and the piezo electric effect interaction,like coal into diamonds.

(4) Certain compounds when added to lead metal , will turn lead into golden color, see " yellow lead " " naples yellow " ( a gold color ) and see the golden lead chrystal, " Vanadinite ."

(5) Being the only metal suitable as the Standard Weight as 10kt gold, lead can be easily transmuted into $100 US Created Gold Coins for the US Mint and its $100 Created Gold certificates and if a layer of real 10kt gold covers the created gold coin, it will be safe for people to handle.

(6) Lead is decayed uranium.

If the Federal Reserve, US Mint and Treasury needs a Modern Alchemist please let me know, I would like to work on this project for the US government because money ends suffering.

" Therefore buy of me gold refined in the fire " God rev 3:18 Because Money Ends Suffering.

May God Bless YouYours FaithfullyRev Daniel Izzo BA/ MS science researcher inventor512 Onondaga AveSyracuse, NY 132071-315-472-5088