Alcala AC Et Al. 2008 Review of the Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas_4000nn

7/26/2019 Alcala AC Et Al. 2008 Review of the Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas_4000nn

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Philipp. Scient. 45: 161 2008, University of San Carlos

REVIEW ARTICLE

Review of the Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas

A.C. Alcala1, J.A. Ingles2and A.A. Bucol1

1Silliman University-Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental

Management, Silliman University, Dumaguete City 6200, Philippines2World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), JBD Plaza, No. 65 Mindanao Avenue,Bagong Pag-asa, Quezon City 1105, Philippines

ABSTRACT

The marine biodiversity of the four seas in southernPhilippines, namely, the Moro Gulf, the Davao Gulf, theSarangani Bay, and the Sulawesi Sea, was reviewed. Thebiodiversity in the shallow marine waters is similar to those inother parts of the country. The biodiversity is also in a similarconservation status, that is, in various degrees of depletion.But it is possible that there are marine species that are uniqueto these seas. This is especially true of the Sulawesi Sea,which is characterized by great variation in terms of habitatand depth. The importance of the resources in the four seaslies in the contributions of some species, such as tuna fishes,to the livelihoods of coastal populations in the area.

INTRODUCTION

Some research and development projects on marine biodiversityand fisheries have been conducted in the marine waters of southernPhilippines. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources(DENR) 2006 list of projects includes 11 coastal and marine resource

management projects dealing partly with marine biodiversity in theshallow seas of southern Mindanao. Among the institutions and agenciesinvolved in marine biodiversity studies in the area are the SouthernPhilippines Agribusiness, Marine and Aquatic School of Technology


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2 The Philippine Scientist, Volume 45 (2008)

(SPAMAST) in Malita, Davao del Sur, the Davao del Norte StateCollege (DNSC) in Panabo City, Davao del Norte, the University of thePhilippines in the Visayas (Miagao, Iloilo), and the Mindanao StateUniversity (Naawan campus). The development projects of theDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources and the Bureau ofFisheries and Aquatic Resources, usually in partnership withinternational funding institutions, typically included research on fisheriesand biodiversity. The research findings of these aforementionedinstitutions have been brought together in the present paper in an attemptto construct a biodiversity profile of the whole area that can serve variouspurposes such as establishment of marine protected areas. In the course

of this review, some gaps and deficiencies in our current knowledge onthe biodiversity of the area have been identified and discussed.

The socioeconomic importance of the southern Philippine seaslies in the fact that more than 10 million people now live in the fourregions (Western Mindanao, Southern Mindanao, Central Mindanao, andARMM) in the vicinity of the four seas, namely, the Davao Gulf, theMoro Gulf (including Illana Bay), the Sarangani Bay (includingSarangani Islands), and the Sulawesi Sea. This population figure comesfrom the National Statistics Office in 2002, and a substantial proportionis probably directly and economically dependent on marine and coastalresources of these seas. The four seas are known for their economicimportance (see Fisheries Statistics 20032005). Davao Gulf is a well-

known international shipping center. Samal Island in Davao Gulf isknown for pearl culture and tourism. Moro Gulf is well known for itsfisheries. Sarangani Bay, the home of the skipjack tuna, has become acenter for aquaculture for milkfish and top predatory fish species. TheSulawesi Sea serves as a highway for movements of the tuna species andother fish species, marine turtles, and cetaceans, among others.

Brief Description of the Study Seas

This review is focused on four seas: the Moro Gulf and theIllana Bay as part of the Gulf (enclosed by the Zamboanga Peninsula, theLanao provinces, Maguindanao province and Sultan Kudarat province),

the Davao Gulf (enclosed by the Davao provinces and CompostelaValley province), and Sarangani Bay (enclosed by Sarangani and SouthCotabato provinces). The Sarangani Strait separates the Sarangani andBalut Islands at the southern tip of Sarangani and Davao del Sur


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Alcala et al.: Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas 3

provinces from the Mindanao mainland. These three southern Philippineseas are continuous with the Sulawesi Sea, the fourth sea covered in thisreview. They have a diverse marine environment because of the variabledepths and the presence of shallow marine habitats that include coralreefs, seagrass beds and mangroves. Different shallow marineecosystems dominate in some parts of the area according to informationprovided by the DENR. Zamboanga provinces, Basilan, Davao Orientaland Cotabato City are still relatively rich in mangroves. Davao del Surand Zamboanga del Sur lead in seagrass beds. Sarangani, Davao del Surand Zamboanga del Sur lead in coral reef ecosystems. However, thepresent status of these ecosystems needs verification. The four seas are

interconnected (Fig. 1) and have a greater proportion of waters 1,000 mand deeper, compared to other areas in the country such as the Palawanarea.

Figure 1. Map of the Sulawesi Sea. Isobath in meters. (Modified from: NASABlue Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)

Moro Gulf

The Moro Gulf is a deep body of water with an area of about22,000 km2. About 40% of it is deeper than 2,000 m. Its deepest part near


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its eastern portion is about 5,000 m. The western part of the Gulf isshallow, less than 200 m deep, with extensive mangroves and coral reefs(Zamboanga del Sur and Zamboanga Sibugay provinces) (Fig. 2). Withinthe Gulf is the Illana Bay.

Figure 2. Map of Moro Gulf. Isobath in meters. (Modified from: NASA BlueMarble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)

Davao Gulf

Davao Gulf is about 7,300 km2 in area (Fig. 3). It is a fairly deepbody of water. The southern half is about 1,800 m deep. The deepest partis near the mouth at 2,800 m. Only a thin strip near the shoreline isshallow, with a depth of less than 100 m, where mangroves, seagrasses,and coral reefs may still exist. Inside the bay is Samal Island, aconservation and tourism island and site of giant clam (Tridacna gigas)introduction by the University of the Philippines Marine Science Instituteand the Davao del Norte State College. A small, privately-owned islandwith coral reef and mangrove in the northern part of the gulf belonging tothe province of Compostela Valley is also a conservation island. TheDENR has established a marine protected area mostly of seagrass bedsalong the shore of Davao Gulf in this province.

Illana Bay


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Figure 3. Map of Davao Gulf and Sarangani Bay. Isobath in meters. (Modifiedfrom: NASA Blue Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)

Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Islands

Sarangani Bay is the smallest body of seawater in the study area(ca 480 km2) and generally shallower compared to the other two seas(Fig. 4). Inside the bay, the water depth ranges from 200 m to 1,000 m.At the mouth of the bay the depth reaches 2,000 m. The bottomsubstratum is dominated by mud. The northern part of the bay containscoral reef.

Off the southern tip of Sarangani and Davao del Sur provincesare the Sarangani Islands composed of two small islands, Balut andSarangani, separated from the Mindanao mainland by the SaranganiStrait. In the shallow waters around these islands are coral reefs. Currents

in the vicinity of Balut Island are almost constant and swift; onemeasurement registered at 7 knots (A. Ong, pers comm). Currents areprobably due to the Mindanao Current flowing southward along theeastern coast of Mindanao. In August 2006, a fish-kill involving coralreef fishes occurred, which, according to the Bureau of Fisheries and


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Aquatic Resources (BFAR), was caused by the high sulfur content of thewater (A. Ong, pers comm). Beyond the 183 m isobath are deeper watersranging from 200 m to 1,946 m in depth. Sarangani Islands are wellknown for rare shells. Although over-fished in terms of the major tunaspecies, the Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Strait are still relatively rich inpelagic fish species and are favorite areas for sport and recreationalfishing (A. Ong, pers comm).

The Sulawesi Sea: Topography and Oceanography

The Sulawesi Sea is a large marine ecosystem (LME) with

variable depths and varied bottom topography that partly explain itscomplex oceanography (Tomascik et al.1997). The Sulawesi Sea aloneis about 450,000 km2in area. The total area of the Sulawesi Sea and theSulu Sea plus the Visayan inland seas (= Sulu-Sulawesi Sea Ecoregion ofWWF [Ingles & Trono 2004]), is about 900,000 km2. The Sulawesi Sealies at the center of the worlds highest marine biodiversity area(DeVantier et al. 2004). The Sulawesi Sea, with which the southernPhilippine seas are continuous, varies in depth, reaching 4,000 to 5,780m in the Sarangani Strait southwest of the Sarangani Islands and 1,000 to4,200 m towards the southeast (Fig. 4). This highlights the importance ofthe mesopelagic and bathypelagic realms suspected of favoringspeciation of certain marine species in this tropical sea (Madin 2008).

The North Equatorial Current influences the direction of surfacecurrents in the three Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea (Wyrtki 1961,Villanoy 1988, Villanoy & Udarbe 1995) (Fig. 5). This current moveswestward. Upon reaching the sea area between northern Samar andCatanduanes (Zheng et al. 2006), it splits into the Kuroshio or JapanCurrent heading north and the Mindanao Current flowing south. Duringthe southwest monsoon months (June to November), the MindanaoCurrent spits into two in the Sulawesi Sea, one stream proceeding southand another stream flowing counterclockwise as the EquatorialCountercurrent. During the northeast monsoon months (November toMay), the Mindanao Current flows south and southeastward andproceeds counterclockwise as the Equatorial Countercurrent; and a small

component flows counterclockwise in the eastern portion of the SulawesiSea and Moro Gulf.

The Mindanao Current joins with the current from the SouthChina to form the Indonesian Throughflow (Zheng et al. 2006) moving


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Figure 4. The Islands in the Sulawesi Sea. Isobath in meters. (Modified from:NASA Blue Marble, Bathymetry: US Defense Agency)

south via the Makassar Strait east of Kalimantan and allowing marinepropagules and migratory marine species from the Pacific Ocean, theSouth China Sea and the Sulu Sea to reach the Indian Ocean (seediscussion on whales and dolphins).

The nature of the deep-water circulation in the four seas is notclearly understood. But it is clear that the deep-sea currents are complexpartly because of the varied topography of the sea bottom.

The seawater quality of the Davao Gulf and the Sarangani Bayas well as nearby areas has been assessed to be Marginal (barelyacceptable) for Sarangani Bay and General Santos, Satisfactory for thewestern part of Davao Gulf but Unsatisfactory for Davao City and


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Figure 5. (A) Surface current patterns in the Philippines and adjacent watersduring northeast and southwest monsoon (source: Villanoy & Udarbe 1995); (B)Surface currents in December in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. (Source: Wyrtki1961)


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environs without giving the basis for such a classification (PhilippinesEnvironment Monitor 2003). This situation should be addressed byagencies responsible for maintaining good water quality.

Earthquakes and Tsunamis

Fig. 6 shows a subduction zone, the Cotabato-West SangiheTrench), in the Sulawesi Sea and the Moro Gulf (Hamilton 1979). Atsunami hit Cotabato and Lanao Sur in 1976 killing some 7,000 people.An eyewitness living on Bongo Island off Cotabato City once describedto the first author the impact of that tsunami on this island. The Sulawesi

Sea, the Moro Gulf, and the Davao Gulf have been the epicenters ofmany shallow earthquakes of magnitudes 7.0 or more from 19181973(Fig. 7) (MRDP-CMBC 2003).

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this review is to assemble secondary dataand information inclusive of those from gray literature that willcontribute to the building of a biodiversity profile of the seas of southernPhilippines. The other objectives are the identification of the majorthreats to the biodiversity and the determination of gaps in our currentknowledge of the biodiversity.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

This paper is a table review of the findings of research anddevelopment projects on the biodiversity of southern Mindanao, whetherpublished or unpublished. The documents examined consisted of (1)papers in refereed and non-refereed journals, (2) books, (3) unpublishedproject reports, (4) newsletters, (5) maps and charts, (6) selected papersposted on the Internet, and (7) posters produced by government agencies.Telephone and e-mail facilities have also been used to accessinformation. The information gathered from the aforementioned sourceswas supplemented with interviews from knowledgeable persons involved

in marine resource-related business in General Santos City and DavaoCity. The data and information on the biodiversity of southern Philippineseas are discussed in relation to those in other areas of the Philippines,where possible, to give the reader an idea of how the biodiversity of


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Figure 6. Island arc-elements in the central and southern Philippines. (Source:Hamilton 1979)


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Figure 7. Earthquake Map of Mindanao. (Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 BaselineSurvey Report)

southern Mindanao compares with those in other parts of the country,and to highlight gaps in our knowledge of the four southern Philippineseas.

No statistics except the mean have been used in this report.There are no SE estimates because the authors of the papers and reportsreviewed (except those dealing with fish density and biomass estimatesfrom MPAs and non-MPAs in the Visayas, Spratlys, Maguindanao andSultan Kudarat) did not include them.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Under this section, we present our findings on the biodiversity ofsouthern Philippines and compare it(where possible) with those of otherparts of the country.


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Seagrasses, Mangroves, and Corals

The three shallow-water marine ecosystems common in thePhilippines are seagrass beds, mangroves and coral reefs. Their healthstatus indicates the conservation status of the marine environment aswell. Fig. 8showsthe species richness of seagrass and mangrove areasin five localities, two protected areas (Sultan Kudarat and Maguindanao)and three unprotected areas (Sarangani Bay, Davao Gulf, and MalalagBay). There were 6 to10 species of seagrass (Table 1) and 6 to17 speciesof mangrove trees (Table 2). Also shown is the percentage of live hardcoral in six localities (two protected areas, Sultan Kudarat and

Maguindanao, and four others unprotected) ranging from 25% inMaguindanao (protected in 2005) to 68% in Sarangani (unprotected in1987).

Table 1. Seagrass species identified in southern Philippines. *Excluding MalalagBay

SEAGRASS SPECIES Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarangani

Bay

Davao

Gulf*

Malalag

Bay

Potamogetonaceae Haloduleuninervis X X X

Halodule

pinifolia X X X X XCymodocea

serrulata X X X

Cymodocea

rotundata X X X X X

Syringodium

isoetifolium X X X X X

Thalassodendron

ciliatun X

Hydrocharitaceae Enhalusacoroides X X X X X

Thalassia

hemprichii X X X X X

Halophilaspinulosa X X

Halophila ovalis X X X X X

Total 10 6 7 10 9 7


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Table 2. Mangrove species identified in southern Mindanao. *ExcludingMalalag Bay

FAMILY SPECIESParil-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarangani

Bay

Davao

Gulf*

Malalag

Bay

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophoramucronata

X X X

Rhizophora

apiculata

X X X X

Ceriops

decandra

X X

Ceriops tagal X X

Bruguiera

parviflora

X

Bruguiera

cylindrica

X

Bruguiera

sexangula

X

Avicenniaceae Avicenniamarina

X X X

Avicennia

alba

X X X X

Avicennia

lanata

X X

Avicennia

officinalis

X

Sonneratiaceae Sonneratiaalba

X X X X

Sonneratiacaseolaris

X X X

Combretaceae Terminaliacatappa

X X

Lumnitzera

littorea

X

Lumnitzera

racemosa

X

Myrsinaceae Aegicerasfloridum

X

Aegiceras

corniculatum

X

Euphorbiaceae Excoecariaagallocha

X X X

Fabaceae Pongamiapinnata

X X

Prosopisvidaliana

X

Lythraceae Pemphisacidula

X X


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Table 2. continued.

FAMILY SPECIESParil-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarangani

Bay

Davao

Gulf*

Malalag

Bay

Palmae Nypa fruticans X X X X

Acanthaceae Acanthusilicifolius

X

Bignoniaceae Dolichandronespathacea

X X

Melaiceae Xylocarpusgranatum

X X

Xylocarpus

moluccensis

X

Xylocarpus sp. X

TOTAL 12 28 17 6 10 7 16

In the country in general, areas with good seagrass meadowsharbor more than 10 species. The localities sampled did not exhibit ahigh species richness for seagrass. For excellent mangrove forests, 20 ormore species are expected. An example is southern Palawan, which has27 species of mangrove trees out of more than 30 species reported fromthe Philippines (Matillano 2005). The remaining mangrove forest patchesin southern Philippines appear to show various degrees of disturbance.The live coral cover at the lower end of the range (2540%) in southern

Mindanao appears to be similar to those on unprotected reefs in otherparts of the country. But protected coral reefs in the Central Visayas havegenerally higher live coral cover, about 5060% (see Alcala et al.2006).

Biodiversity in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

and Unprotected Areas

In the area, 31 MPAs have been established or are beingestablished (SUAKCREM unpubl data): one in Zamboanga del Sur, eightin Sarangani, seven in Davao del Sur, 11 in Davao del Norte and oneeach in Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao, Compostela Valley, and DavaoOriental. However, in only few of them is the biodiversity known. The

only available data are from two MPAs, and these are summarized in thisreport. This is because monitoring through time has not been done formost of the MPAs.

As most MPAs are located along shallow coastal areas, thebiodiversity reported from them concerns the shallow water species


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Figure 8. (A) Seagrass species richness, (B) Mangrove species richness, and (C)

Live coral cover (%) in southern Mindanao. Sultan Kudarat and Maguindanaosites are MPAs. (Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005;Mindanao State University-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al.1997a; Calumponget al. 1997b) Figure in parenthesis after site indicates number of stationssurveyed. Year indicates time of survey.


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commonly distributed at water depths not exceeding 50 m. Essentially,similar groups of shallow-water marine species have been reportedthroughout the country, and deep-water, globally important biodiversitysuch as whale sharks, dolphins, and dugongs have been observed only incertain areas. The occurrence of these species in or near MPAs dependson the presence of food sources. This is true for example of dugongs,which are dependent on the presence of a couple of species of seagrassused as food.

Seagrass and mangrove species. The 6,000-ha MPA inMaguindanao was established on Bongo Island in 20022005 by thelocal government unit of Parang, Maguindanao assisted by the BFAR-

Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The 1,200-ha MPAin Sultan Kudarat was established in the barangays of Paril and Sangay,municipality of Kalamansig also in 20022005, with the assistance of theDENR. Both MPAs consist of coral reef, mangroves and seagrass bedsand are co-managed by the local government units and localcommunities. The species of seagrass and mangrove in these two MPAsand in unprotected sites in southern Mindanao listed in Tables 1 and 2are common throughout the country.

Reef and reef-associated fish. The reef and reef-associated fishspecies in southern Mindanao are listed in Appendix 1, based on the20022005 monitoring reports on the two MPAs in Sultan Kudarat andMaguindanao (MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005, Nillos

et al. 2005a, 2005b) and from rapid-survey assessments made at fewselected sites in Sarangani Bay, Davao Gulf and Malalag Bay(Calumpong et al. 1997a, 1997b; Mindanao State University 1995). Atotal of about 350 species in 33 Families has been identified inunderwater visual surveys. This is only a rough estimate of the totalnumber of species found in the area as visual surveys generallyunderestimate the true numbers. The majority of the species in the listbelonged to the category of small, indicator species, and only about 111species in 13 Families were food or target species.

The 13 Families to which the food fishes belong wereAcanthuridae (surgeonfishes), Caesionidae (fusiliers), Carangidae(jacks), Eppiphidae (bat fishes), Haemulidae (sweetlips), Holocentridae

(soldier fishes), Lethrinidae (emperor breams), Lutjanidae (snappers),Mullidae (goat fishes), Nemipteridae (breams), Scaridae (parrotfishes),Serranidae (groupers) and Siganidae (rabbitfishes). The acanthuridsconsisted of 27 species, followed by scarids with 16 species, serranids


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with 15 species, and caesionids, lutjanids, mullids, and siganids witheight species each. The rest of the Families were represented by two tofive species. Carangidae, which comprises top predators, was representedby only three species. No reef and reef-associated species were unique tosouthern Philippines.

The two MPAs in Sultan Kudarat and Maguindanao had thehighest mean species richness, >100 species, while unprotected sites inSarangani, Malalag, and Davao Gulf had fewer species, indicating therole of protection in maintaining species richness (Fig. 9). The mostnoteworthy fish species found in these MPAs were the several largebumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) and the aquarium fish,

blue tang (Paracanthurus hepatus). The former was found in the twoMPAs, while the latter was limited to Paril-Sangay, Sultan Kudarat.

There was a wide range in the estimates of mean fish density inthe various sites in southern Mindanao. The highest estimate was inSarangani Bay (9,075 individuals per 500 m2), followed by Davao Gulf(1,929 individuals/500m2), and was lowest in Malalag Bay (Fig. 10). It isdifficult to make a generalization on the basis of the data, but it isobvious that the estimate for Sarangani Bay is an outlier.

The mean biomass of target fish species (Fig. 11) was highest inMaguindanao (an MPA), 7.8 kg/500 m2or 15.6 tons/km2. Davao Gulf, anon-MPA, was second, with a biomass of 5.2 kg/500 m2 or 10.4tons/km2. The rest were lower than 10 tons/km2. These estimates are in

the lower end of the scale for fully protected MPAs (e.g., Alcala 2001).Mean number of species of macro-invertebrates. There were

only few macro-invertebrates such as giant clams, sea urchins, seacucumbers, and shells observed in southern Philippines. The meannumber of species ranged from 0 to 13.16 (Fig. 12), indicating theirdepleted status. There have been reports of rare gastropod species butdocumentation is lacking.

Mean density of holothurians and giant clams in Maguindanao

and Sultan Kudarat MPAs (Bongo Island and Paril-Sangay). The datafor three years on density of these two macro-invertebrate groups in thetwo MPAs are shown in Fig. 13 for holothurians and Fig. 14 for giantclams. The giant clams belong to two common species, Tridacna

squamosaand T. maxima. The effect of protection on giant clam densityis obvious, density being higher after a period of protection. However,the density of holothurians was higher in take zones.


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Figure 9. Fish species richness in southern Mindanao. Figure in parenthesisindicates number of stations surveyed. Year indicates time of survey. (Sources:MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005; Mindanao State University-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al.1997a; Calumpong et al.1997b)

Figure 10. Southern Mindanao Mean Fish Density compared to Density in

Bohol Sea and South China Sea. Figure in parenthesis indicates number ofstations. Year indicates time of survey. (Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual ImpactAssessment 2005; Mindanao State University-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al.1997a; Calumpong et al.1997b)


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Figure 11. Southern Mindanao target fish biomass by locality compared withthose in Bohol Sea and South China Sea. Figure in parenthesis indicates numberof stations. Year indicates time of survey. (Sources: MRDP-CMBC AnnualImpact Assessment 2005; Mindanao State University-Naawan, 1995;Calumpong et al.1997a; Calumpong et al.1997b)

Figure 12. Southern Mindanao mean macro-invertebrate species richness. Figurein parenthesis indicates number of stations. Year indicates time of survey.(Sources: MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact Assessment 2005; Mindanao StateUniversity-Naawan 1995; Calumpong et al.1997a; Calumpong et al.1997b)


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Figure 13. Mean holothurian density at the two MPAs in Maguindanao andSultan Kudarat in 20032005. TZ - take (fishing) zones; NTZ - No Take Zones.(Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 Baseline Survey Report)

Figure 14. Density of two common species of Tridacna in the two MPAs inMaguindanao and Sultan Kudarat in 20032005. TZ - take (fishing) zones; NTZ- no take zones. (Source: MRDP-CMBC 2003 Baseline Survey Report)


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Diversity of Fishery Species

It is estimated that there are about 2,500 fish species in the Sulu-Sulawesi Sea (e.g., DeVantier et al.2004). The fishery species in this seais not known. A BFAR poster Marine Fishes of the Philippines showspictures of about 81 commercial species in 47 Families of cartilaginousand bony fishes that are widely consumed throughout the country. Thetop four specious Families in this poster in the order of abundance areCarangidae, Serranidae, Scombridae, and Clupeidae, the first two beingreef-associated and the last two pelagic. The number of species in thisposter is definitely an underestimate.

In a 30-year study of coral reef fishes associated with MPAs incentral Philippines, Alcala & Russ (2002) estimated about 100 species offood fishes. This number is also probably an underestimation.

Diversity of Species in Tuna Fisheries

Tuna fisheries mostly in southern Philippines and Sulawesi Seaincreased in landings from 10,000 tons in 1971 to over 200,000 tons in1981 according to Ruben Ganaden of BFAR. Another report (Chee1996) provides data on tuna landings, 325,000 tons in 1989 and 1990 and300,000 tons in 1991. Langley et al. (2004) puts the 2002 total tunalandings at 209,771 tons (146,436 tons commercial and 63,335

municipal). According to Noel Barut of the National Fisheries Researchand Development Institute (NFRDI), the total landed catch for all tunasis more than 500,000 tons. For 2005, Regions 11 and 12 (Davao andCotabato provinces) produced 293,000 tons of fish (assumed to bemainly tunas), and exported 84,288 tons in 2003, 77,356 tons in 2004,and 54,708 tons in 2005 (Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines 20032005). Species landed were yellowfin (Thunnus albacares), skipjack(Katsuwonus pelamis), frigate (Auxis thazard), bullet (Auxis rochei),longtail (Thunnus tonggol) and bigeye (Thunnus obesus), the latter twobeing relatively insignificant (Report of the Workshop on Philippinesand Indonesia research activities. Indo-Pacific Tuna Development andManagement Program 1983). Aprieto (1982) considers yellowfin,

skipjack, frigate and eastern little tuna (Euthynnus affinis) as the fourimportant tuna species. She pointed out that tuna migration (usuallyunderstood as the physical movements of tunas in oceans around theworld) does not stop at capture but continues to move over long distances


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in the form of canned products. Rasalan (1977) and Montilla & Bunag(1957) mention the blue bonito (Euthynnus yaito) as a commercial tunaspecies. Aside from the tuna species, non-tuna species caught offsouthern Mindanao include blue marlin (Makaira mazara), sailfish(Istiophorus platypterus), black marlin (Makaira indica), and swordfish(Langley et al.2004). The southern Philippine seas appear to have thelargest number and volume of large fishery species in the country.

The tuna species for export are the yellowfin and bigeye, forcanneries the skipjack, and for the local market the frigate, bullet and theeastern little tuna. Major importers of chilled fresh tuna in 2002 wereJapan, USA, and Hongkong, and Canada, Germany, and Singapore for

canned tuna (Langley et al.2004).Tuna handline boats numbered ca 10,000 in 2002, but licenses

issued were less. General Santos had 2,000 vessels for handliners. Ringnet fleet in General Santos was about 500 vessels; about 41 (in Davao)and 40 (in General Santos) were purse seiners.

Tuna Migrations. Movements to and from the Philippines oftagged yellowfins, skipjacks, and bigeyes through the Sulawesi and otherseas in the Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea and other islands in thewestern Pacific have been summarized in maps in the WWF Philippinesbiophysical assessment (2003). These maps are reproduced in this report(Figs. 1518). The impression is that tuna highways exist in these seas.

Comparison of Present and Past Fisheries. A reliable observer

(A. Ong) who has had wide and long experience on tuna fishing recallsthat tuna fishing was a year-round activity in the area in the 1970s1980swhen tuna species were abundant in Sarangani Bay and environs. Atthose times yellow fin tuna and skipjack were the common commercialfishes in the area. The skipjack trapped in fish corrals was easily caughtby hand. In Sarangani Bay, it was not unusual to catch 80 tons ofskipjack in one day in the 1980s. This fish at those times grew to largesizes, 1015 kg, in contrast to their rarity and small size (1 kg) these days(A. Ong, pers comm).

The yellow fin tuna has been over-fished in the seas of southernPhilippines and the adjacent Sulawesi Sea. Tuna long-liners and hand-liners now fish far out into the Indonesian Sulawesi reaching the

Halmahera and Taliabu Islands to as far as New Guinea in order to catchsufficient fish volume for the export market estimated at US$33M peryear for the 3,000 hand-liners and US$50-60M for long-liners and othergears catching yellow fins and other species (R. Lim, pers comm).


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Figure 15. Movement of Skipjack and Yellowfin Tuna to and from thePhilippines (Source: WWF-Philippines 2003)

Figure 16. Movement of SkipjackTuna from Sulu, Sulawesi, andPhilippine Seas. (Source: WWF-

Philippines 2003)

Movements of tuna released in the Philippines and recapturedoutside Philippine waters (Shipjack solid lines, yellowfin dashed lines, PRIMEX-SPC, 1993)

Movements of tuna recaptured in the Philippines from

releases outside Philippine waters (Shipjacksolid lines,yellowfin dashed lines, PRIMEX-SPC, 1993)


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Figure 17. Movement of Yellow-finTuna Sulawesi, Philippine, Sulu andSeas (Source: WWF-Philippines2003)

Figure 18. Movement of Big-eyeTuna from Philippine, Sulawesi, Sulu

and Seas (Source: WWF-Philippines2003)


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Conservation Strategies. Some tuna fishers recommend theexclusive use of hand-lines and the exclusion of other gears in catchingtuna because they claim that hand-lines are selective for large-size fish.Use of hand-lines also makes it possible for small unskilled fishers toparticipate in fishing, thus giving them an opportunity to improve theirlives. However, it is claimed that hand-lines catch more sexually maturetunas, implying reduction of spawners. There is reason to believe thattuna depletion has also been caused by the use of small mesh-size ringnets (sinsoro) and baby seines that catch juvenile tuna. Taking small fishreduces the value of the catch. Floyd and Pauly (1984) and Aprieto(1982) have presented evidence on the possible role of fish aggregating

devices (payaos) in facilitating the capture of juvenile fish in and aroundthese devices. There are at present about 20 such fish aggregatingdevices in Sarangani Bay. The practice of catching both large mature fishand juveniles should be controlled to achieve sustainability.

There is evidence from length-frequency data that Philippinetuna fishers catch a large proportion of juveniles. The median for tunacatch by ring net is 25 cm, that for US purse seiners is 50100 cm, andthat for Japanese long-liners is 120 cm (Sakagawa 1996). Mullen et al.(1996) give the median of length frequency distribution of yellowfincaught by purse seine as 2530 cm (range 15195 cm). Miyabe et al.(1996) confirmed the identification of these small juvenile yellowfinsand skipjacks caught in shallow waters off General Santos with the use

of mitochondrial DNA..

Fishery Species in Davao Gulf and their Conservation Status

For non-tuna fish species in Davao Gulf, Armada (2004) hasshown that catching of juveniles is a threat to sustainable fisheries. Helisted eight species of fish with their population parameters, one of whichis their extraction rates (E). All of these species appear to have high Es,all exceeding 0.50 (0.580.70) due to overexploitation at the juvenile andadult stages. These species belonging to Families Carangidae, Menidae,Scombridae and Siganidae are Selar crumenophthalmus, Rastrelligerbrachysoma, R. kanagurta, Mene maculata, Auxis thazard, A. rochei, and

Siganus canaliculatus. The last-named species has the highest E due toextremely high rate of exploitation occurring not only in Davao Gulf butalso all over the country. Armadas study should be repeated for otherfishery species.


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The fishery yields for five groups of fish in Davao Gulf andMoro Gulf caught by various gears in 1982 are shown in Fig. 19. DavaoGulf has greater fishery production (0.11.0 ton/km2) compared withMoro Gulf (0.10.2 ton/km2). These figures indicate a higher fisheryproductivity for Davao Gulf.

Figure 19. Yields of pelagic fish species in Davao and Moro Gulfs in 1983.(Source: Yesaki 1982)

Billfishes (Family Istiophoridae)

No study, published or unpublished, appears to have been madeon this group of commercially important pelagic species in the marinewaters under review. Interviews with two tuna fishers (A. Ong and R.Lim) indicated their presence in the Sulawesi Sea. These speciescertainly pass through the southern Mindanao seas and the Sulawesi Seabecause they migrate in the Indo-Pacific region based on the account byNakamura (2001).

Our informants stated that these fishes are strictly of localcommercial importance and there is no international market for them.The reason is the fear of foreign buyers that these species accumulatehigh concentrations of heavy metals.


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Two species of billfishes have been identified by an undatedFisheries Resource Management Project, BFAR poster Marine Fishes ofthe Philippines. These two species are the Black Marlin (Makairaindica) and Indo-Pacific Sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus). Both speciesare widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical waters of the Indo-Pacific and sometimes extending to temperate waters (Nakamura 2001).

Cetaceans (Whales and Dolphins)

Thus far only one study has been made partly on the cetaceans ofSulawesi Sea (Dolar & Perrin 1996). They reported six species, namely,

Stenella longirostris, S. attenuata, Lagenodelphis hosei, Grampusgriseus, Globicephala macrorhynchus, and Physeter macrocephalus.Bautista and Tan (in manuscript) report nine sighting of four species ofcetaceans Kogia sima, Stenella longirostris, Grampus griseus, andTursiops aduncus. Dolar (1999), Perrin et al. (2002) and Dolar et al.(2006) have reported on the marine mammals of the adjoining Sulu Sea.Because of the large size of the Sulawesi Sea, it is almost certain that thenumber of whales and dolphins will exceed that known for thePhilippines (27 species). The Longmanns beaked whale was reportedfrom Matina, Davao City in 2003. It is obvious that studies on thecetaceans of southern Philippines need to be conducted (D. Torres, perscomm).

Dolar (pers comm, unpubl list) recently reported a total of 27marine mammal species in the Philippines, 26 species of cetaceans(Order Cetacea) composed of 21 toothed whales and dolphins and fivespecies of baleen whales and one species of the Order Sirenia, thedugong.

Kreb & Budiono (2005) suggest that the Indonesian through-flow (passes) east of Kalimantan, through the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas andMakassar Strait carrying larvae and plankton from the Pacific Ocean tothe Indian Ocean. Similarly, these seas most likely provide a migratorypathway for whales and dolphins. These authors have reported 12species listed in Table 3in the marine waters east of Kalimantan. Theselisted species are also probably found in the southern Philippine marine

waters under review.Whales and dolphins are threatened by fishing nets (ring nets,

gill nets, drift nets). Dolphins are often caught as fisheries by-catch fromthe Sulu Sea (Dolar 1999, pers comm).


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Table 3. Cetacean species list.

Species

1. Tursiops truncatus

2. Stenella attenuata

3. Stenella longirostris

4. Stenella longirostris, sp. (with short beak)

5. Orcaella brevirostris

6. Stenella l. roseiventris

7.

Tursiopssp.

8.

Pseudorca crassidens

9. Peponocephala electra

10. Globicephala macrorhynchus

11. Tursiops aduncus

12. Neophocaena phocaenoides

In the Sulawesi Sea, our informant reported that tuna fishers areheavily penalized if caught capturing whales and dolphins. Acertification process is in effect which denies access of tuna products totuna exporters violating the ban on these endangered species (A. Ong,

pers comm).

Dugong

The dugong is definitely present in the southern part of theDavao Gulf. Several sightings have been made by R. Lucero andcolleagues off New Argao, Malita, Davao del Sur in 2005 (R. Lucero,pers comm). This endangered mammal was observed to swim singly oras a group of three individuals, including a calf. Apparently, theseanimals were used to the presence of boats about 50 m away. Theanimals probably fed in the area where three species of seagrass used asfood occur. The population size is not known but it is most likely very

small. Reports indicate the presence of dugongs in the Sarangani groupof islands, where seagrass beds are present. The third site with confirmeddugong (two adult individuals) is the Paril-Sangay area in SultanKudarat, part of the Moro Gulf, in 2005 (MRDP-CMBC Annual Impact


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Assessment Report 2005). These individuals apparently must have fed onseagrass beds outside of the site observed because of the absence ofseagrass at the observed site. It is inferred that the animals inhabit thecoastline of Sultan Kudarat and Sarangani provinces in westernMindanao. One individual was found dead in Sarangani sometime before2005.

The dugong has been reported in other parts of the Philippines(Guimaras Strait, Palawan) and is threatened by dynamite blasts and insome cases is directly hunted (Marsh et al.2002, L. Dolar, pers comm).

Sea Turtles

Only three species of sea turtles (hawksbill, green andleatherback) have thus far been reported in the seas off southernPhilippines. Five species have been reported in the Sulu-Sulawesi Sea(DeVantier et al.2004).

In Davao City, the beach of Matina Aplaya has been a nestingsite of the hawksbill for some time now and hatchlings have beenreturned to the sea. In 2003, 512 eggs of the hawksbill hatched; thehatchlings were returned to the sea at this site (Torres et al. 2004, J.Guirjen, pers comm). The area is a protected marine turtle sanctuarythrough the initiative of Mr. Leo Avila of Davao City, who has beenwaging a campaign to conserve sea turtles in the area.

At Lupon, Davao Oriental, hawksbill, green and leatherbackturtles have been reported (The Marine Protected Area Management Plan20052009, Municipality of Lupon, Davao Oriental).

Up to 30 green turtles per night were observed nesting onPanikian Island, Zamboanga del Sur (D. Torres, pers comm.). Green seaturtles are often released back to Sarangani Bay after capture (newspaperaccount, Philippine Star, February 15, 2007).

In the western coast of Mindanao, the beaches of Klid (sitio ofBarangay Paril) and Danauan Island (also in Paril), both in Kalamansig,Sultan Kudarat province have been used by green and hawksbill turtlesas nesting sites for several years. Since 2003 the local community hasbeen protecting the nests and the hatchlings were allowed to return to

Illana Bay, which is part of Moro Gulf (MRDP-CMBC Impact Reportfor 2005). Similarly, on the island of Bongo, off Cotabato City, the beachat Barangay Limbayan has been an egg-laying site of the two species.Local communities have protected the nests, and hundreds of hatchlingshave been allowed to return to the bay in 2003 and 2005.


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Sea Turtle Migrations in the Sulawesi Sea. Since no tagging ofhatchlings in southern Mindanao was done, it is not known where thesehatchlings go. But some information exists on turtles tagged outside thePhilippines that were reported to reach southern Mindanao. Ramirez deVeyra (1994) reported that a green turtle tagged on Yap Island,Micronesia in 1991 was caught in a fish gear in Glan, South Cotabato on17 January 1992 and must have traversed the Sulawesi Sea. This animaldied before its scheduled release. One (No. 27961) of the fourleatherback turtles tagged in Papua was tracked by satellite telemetryfrom Jamursba Medi Beach to Davao Gulf in 2002, traversing theSulawesi Sea (Fig. 20) (Dermawan 2004). Thus, data showing that sea

turtles hatched in southern Mindanao migrate across the Sulawesi Sea arelacking. However, based on the two examples mentioned above, it islikely that those hatchlings from Davao, Sultan Kudarat andMaguindanao do so.

Figure 20. Route of leatherback turtle from New Guinea to Davao Gulf. (Source:Dermawan 2004)


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Sea Turtle Movements from and within the Philippines. Themovements of green sea turtles tagged in the Turtle Islands, Sulu Sea,have been on the whole within the Sulu Sea (Fig. 21), except for oneanimal recovered dead in the Sulawesi Sea off East Kalimantan (Sagun2004). The rest of the tagged animals were recovered in the SuluArchipelago and the Visayan Seas. Torres et al. (2004) included datafrom reports on green turtles tracked by satellite telemetry from PulauRedang and Sarawak in Malaysia, from Thailand, and from the TurtleIslands to Balabac Island. In the late 1970s, one of the several hawksbillturtles we tagged in Negros Oriental was caught by a fisherman inMasinloc, Zambales, but the tag was not returned to us. Earlier, Meylan

(1982) mentioned a report of a single hawksbill tagged in the TurtleIslands, Sabah that traveled a straight-line distance of 713 km in 40 daysto the Philippines.

Threats to Sea Turtles. Gill nets and direct hunting remain themajor threats to sea turtles. This is particularly true in southwest andwestern Philippines (including the Spratlys), where fishers (some ofwhom are local government officials) have been hunting turtles and eventrading them with foreigners.

Figure 21. Movements of green sea turtles tagged in the Turtle Islands, Sulu Sea.(Source: Sagun 2004)


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Whale Sharks (Rhincodon typus)

Records of the occurrence and movements of the whale sharkthrough and in the Sulawesi Sea are lacking. One animal was reported inthe vicinity of General Santos in 2006.

Migration in the Sulu and South China Seas. Whale sharks liketunas and billfishes migrate over long distances across seas belonging todifferent political jurisdictions. Eckert et al. (2002) monitored themovements of six whale sharks from the Sulu Sea to the South China Seaunder the political jurisdiction of the Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam.Two of the sharks traveled 4,567 and 8,025 km. Because of this

migration, conservation of this species requires agreement among thesethree countries.

Whale sharks are now protected in many parts of the country butare still threatened by indiscriminate fishing. From the popular press, itappears that eco-tourism has helped in the conservation of the whaleshark especially in Donsol, Sorsogon.

Plankton and Fish Spawning Sites

Threestudies on plankton in the Davao Gulf have been broughtto our attention: those by Mindanao State University at Naawan (1995),Monteclaro (2002) and Abunal (2000). The Mindanao State University

study deals with both phytoplankton and zooplankton but does notspecifically refer to fish plankton. Monteclaro reported on thezooplankton of Davao Gulf, which he found equally abundant during thenortheast and southwest monsoon months but exhibited more biomassduring the southwest monsoon. Abunal (2001) found fish eggs and fishlarvae throughout the year but mostly during August. Six fish families(but not including the Scombridae) dominated the fish larvalcomposition. The author concluded that commercial fish species,including tuna and reef fish, spawn and are nursed in Davao Gulf. Moredetailed studies are needed to identify fish larvae to species beforemaking such a conclusion.

Studies on fish eggs and fish plankton, especially those of

commercial species, are very important in determining the sources ofpropagules that maintain fishery species populations. The importance ofsuch studies is enhanced if correlated with ocean currents. Informationfrom Noel Barut of NFRDI indicates that the seas under review are tuna


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spawning grounds. The surface currents in the Sulawesi Sea wouldtransport fish larvae from the Pacific Ocean, where, according to JoseOrdoez of BFAR (pers comm), tuna also spawns. Because tunaindividuals of varying sizes from small juveniles to adults were seen inthe Sulu Sea, Moro Gulf and Sulawesi Sea, these seas are likely to bespawning sites.

Spawning sites of coral reef fish elsewhere appear to be reefareas where several species of Serranidae (groupers) and other fishgroups congregate to form spawning aggregations at favorable times ofthe year. Practically nothing is known on these aggregations in theSulawesi area as well as in other Philippine seas.

A fish plankton study in the South China Sea was made in April2004 by two graduate students from the University of the Philippines-Visayas and Silliman University (Floren 2008). Fish larvae of demersalspecies were taken in the vicinity of coral reefs of northern Palawan andthe North Danger Reef (Pugad-Parola Atoll) in contrast to pelagic fishlarvae taken in the more oceanic sampling stations in between.

Sea Snakes

No study has been done on the sea snakes in the southernPhilippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea. But fishers have reported seasnakes from Sarangani Bay and Sarangani Strait. Sea snakes in the

Pacific region have been reviewed by Rasmussen (2001). There is aneed to determine the species and their numbers for comparison with theVisayas, which has about a dozen species (Alcala 1986).

Migratory Shore, Sea and Aquatic Birds

There are probably more than 180 species of migratory birdswintering in the Philippines, some of them aquatic, sea, and shore birds(Jensen et al.2005). Seabirds are good indicators of schools of fish, andtheir presence in a specific sea area serves as a guide to fishers where tofish. Sea birds follow well-known flyways to various parts of theSouthern Hemisphere. McClure (1974) summarized the information as of

the early 1970s. Three East Asian migration routes to various parts ofIndonesia and Australia pass through the Philippines via the chain ofislands, the Sulu Sea and the Sulawesi Sea. The information on ringedbirds accumulated by the project Migratory Animal Pathological Survey


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in the 1960s and 1970s showed recoveries of 25 species on Mindanao,some in Davao, Lanao and Zamboanga provinces. The species consistedof egrets (including the cattle egret Bubulcus ibis), night herons(Gorsachius spp.), and sterns (Sternaspp.). Egrets are birds of swampsand coastal areas throughout the country. Frigate birds (Fregata sp.)ringed from islands in Southeast Pacific have been reported to fly tocentral Philippines via the Sulawesi Sea. Pelagic sea birds of the FamilyDiomedeidae (albatrosses) and the Family Procellariidae (shearwaters)probably traverse the Sulawesi Sea in their migrations. The FamilySulidae (boobies) move around and nest on small islands (e.g.,Tubbataha islets in the Sulu Sea), and are likely to be found on small

islands in the Sulawesi Sea.

Marine Species Unique to the Sulawesi Sea Area

The marine biodiversity in southern Philippine seas have manyspecies common to the rest of the country. This is due to ocean watercirculation that distributes marine propagules over a wide area. Becauseof this, species endemism is low in marine ecosystems. However, someendemic species exist in some areas. For example, some rare species ofcorals are found only in southern Palawan and South China Sea (Moraleset al.2005) (Fig. 22). In the Sulawesi Sea rare cowries and cone shellsare found on Balut Island in the Sarangani Group of Islands (Fig. 23)

(http://www.shellhorizons.com/details.asp?ProductID=CT-106&Page=1;http://www.shellauction.net/auction_shell.php?id=115216; http://www.schnr-specimen-shells.com/cervus.jpg).

The Sulawesi Sea is the home of a very important fish from thestandpoint of evolution, the coelacanth. The second known coelacanthspecies (Latimeria menadoensis) was caught off North Sulawesi in 1997(Erdman 1999). Fricke et al.(2000) suggested that the population is verysmall and requires conservation measures but the probability that thecoelacanths of North Sulawesi are derived from a different area anddrifted there with oceanic currents, probably from the southernPhilippines or remote Pacific islands through the southerly Mindanaocurrent, cannot be eliminated. If this species were to be found in

Philippine part of the Sulawesi Sea, the country can be proud to be hometo this remarkable fish. Thus far, the search for this species byConservation International in the Sulawesi Sea has yielded negativeresults. A group of Filipino divers is reportedly searching for Latimeriain the Sarangani Islands.


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The tunas, billfishes, whales, dolphins, dugong, whale sharks, seaturtles, and pelagic sea birds are generally considered globally significantspecies because of their ecological and economic impacts. They exhibitmigratory behavior and are valued as food and/or tourism species.

Figure 22. Two rare species of Acropora, (top) A. fastigata (bottom) A.multiacutafrom southern Palawan. (Photo by Brian Stockwell)


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Figure 23. Three species of rare shells found in Balut Island, Sarangani Province(Sources: www.shellauction.net, www.shellhorizons.com, www.schnr-specimen-shells.com)

Cypraea herasei

Conus thomae Conus cervus


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Offshore MPAs

Thus far, only few shallow-water MPAs have been established inthe study area. The way to move forward is not only to establish moreshallow-water MPAs but also to establish MPA in areas with deeperwaters. Sulawesi Sea, because of its large area, appears to offeropportunities in this direction, as MPAs can be an effective means toconserve large migratory fish stocks (e.g., tuna) as well as other globallyimportant biodiversity. The only example of deep-water (high seas) MPAis the Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary in the Mediterranean(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary). A major

constraint is getting regional and international agreements formanagement. Areas near island groups between the Philippines andIndonesia (Fig. 4) are ideal for establishing deep-water or high seasMPAs. There already exist international and regional managementframeworks for such MPAs such as the United Nations Law of the SeaConvention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, InternationalMaritime Organization and Regional Management Organizations, andFish Stock Agreements.

MPAs and Tourism

MPAs have been shown to be effective as tools for fishery

management and conservation of biodiversity (e.g., Alcala 2001). Onegood idea is to include, in addition to regular tourism, recreationalfishing in the design and planning of MPAs in southern Philippines,where a potential for recreational fishing for large pelagic fish still exists.Fishing for pelagic game species with the intention of returning thecaptured fish after photographing them could attract tourists interested inrecreational fishing. This activity outside of no-take zones could bring inincome that could be used for the protection and management of MPAs.The Sarangani group of islands could well be considered for recreationalfishing (A. Ong, pers comm).

The role of MPAs in tourism is amply demonstrated by successesin the Central Visayas, particularly Bohol and Negros Oriental (Alcala et

al.2006).


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Threats to Marine Biodiversity

Threats to marine biodiversity in other parts of the country alsoexist in southern Philippines as already discussed above. Some fishinggears (e.g., fish aggregation devices, beach seines) catch or facilitate thecapture of adult and juvenile fish. Dolphins and sea turtles are still partof commercial fishing by-catch. Dugongs, whale sharks, turtles andwhales are often actively hunted. Target fishes, such as groupers andeven dugongs, are still fished using cyanides and/or blasting materials.Many species of target or food fishes, mollusks (e.g., giant clams,cowries, cone shells) and echinoderms (e.g., sea cucumbers) are over-

harvested.The only way to address these threats to the biodiversity of

southern Philippines is to conduct massive educational and informationcampaigns with the objective of changing attitudes and behavior of ourpeople and offering them alternative, non-extractive uses of biodiversitysuch as tourism. These activities are made difficult because of povertythat drives people to engage in destructive fishing, but they can be done.Non-monetary rewards and incentives ideally complement educationaland conservation campaigns.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This review of research studies and developmentprojects insouthern Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea, based on availablepublished and unpublished reports and papers, shows that the shallow-water biodiversity of the area studied does not differ much from those inother similar areas of the country in terms of (1) species composition and(2) ecological/conservation status. Unprotected coastal and marine areasin southern Mindanao are comparable with unprotected areas in otherparts of the country. Protected areas in southern Philippines have betterbiodiversity quality than unprotected ones.

Southern Philippine seas have, however, biodiversity and fisheryspecies (primarily tunas) that do not occur in large numbers in other partsof the country, upon which an estimated six million people depend

directly for livelihood and income.The marine environment of southern Philippines is more complex

than those in other parts of the country because of the bottomtopography, oceanography and vastness of the Sulawesi Sea. These


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physical and environmental features are the primary reasons for theenormous marine resource production and development potentials ofsouthern Philippines. These features can account for the uniqueness ofthe biodiversity of the Sulawesi Sea compared with the other seassurrounding the country. Among the unique species are the tunas and theManado coelacanth, but there are probably more unique species waitingto be discovered in the depths of this vast ocean.

While there are geological processes (e.g., earthquakes andtsunamis) in the southern Philippine seas and the Sulawesi Sea that cancause occasional environmental disturbances, the area appears to begenerally stable.

The primary role of stakeholders is to eliminate the gaps in ourknowledge of the area through more studies, to protect the environmentand the marine biodiversity and to manage the marine resources forsustainable development through action programs such as theestablishment of shallow-water and deep offshore MPAs and theimplementation of measures to stop the exploitation practices leading toresource depletion and environmental degradation.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1.

There are many gaps in our knowledge of the oceanography andbiodiversity of the seas of southern Philippines and the Sulawesi

Sea. More studies to determine the biodiversity of the area andits oceanography are needed. Some of these studies wouldrequire sophisticated equipment such as submersibles beingproposed by American oceanographers to study inner spacespeciation in the Sulawesi Sea.

2.

Without using sophisticated research equipment, much can beachieved toward understanding biodiversity by establishing moreshallow-water MPAs with provisions for regular monitoring overtime as well as strengthening the management of existing ones.These MPAs will be useful in bringing back depleted demersalfishery species and can play an important role in attractingtourists for economic development (e.g., recreational fishing).

3.

There is a need to establish large, high seas or offshore MPAsencompassing deep areas in the high seas used as migrationroutes and spawning/nursery grounds of large pelagic and


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migratory species. The Sarangani and Balut Islands can be partof the high seas or offshore MPAs.

4.

In agreement with Indonesia, a large MPA should be establishedfor deep-sea monitoring and studies on unique/rare species(including the coelacanth) and oceanographic processes.

5.

Because of the over-exploitation of the yellow fin tuna and otherspecies, conservation and control measures (e.g., regulating/banning non-selective gears such as payaos, fine-mesh beachseines, superlights) are needed.

6.

Information, Education and Communication (IEC) and studieson the large migratory species in the Sulawesi Sea should be

conducted by academic institutions in southern Philippines.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The financial support of WWF is gratefully acknowledged. Dr.Louella Dolar Perrin, an authority on marine mammals, kindly suppliedcopies of papers on marine mammals of the Sulawesi Sea. Roger Lim,Alex Ong, Pinky Ong, our friends in General Santos and Davao City,shared with us their vast knowledge and experience on the tuna fisheriesof the Sulawesi, Sarangani Bay and Moro Gulf. Girlie Gumanao ofDavao del Norte State College, Dr. Alexander Campaner, the Presidentof Southern Philippines Agribusiness, Marine and Aquatic School of

Technology (SPAMAST) and Ruth Lucero a faculty member of thisschool, kindly gave us lists and abstracts of their research projects.George G. Campeon, DA Regional Director kindly supplied us papers onplankton. Noel Barut, gave us information and copies of publishedpapers on fisheries statistics and status of the tuna fisheries. Dan Torreskindly supplied us information on sea turtle movements. Our assistants atSUAKCREM, Jasper Maypa, Julius Guirjen, Emily Layos, EstrildaCruz-Am, and Gianani Gloria all assisted in various ways that enabled usto complete this report. Jasper Maypa prepared the illustrations. Finally,we thank the two anonymous referees for their comments andsuggestions.


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Appendix 1. List of reef and reef-associated fish species in southern Mindanao.*Include Davao Oriental, Davao del Sur and Samal Island.

FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Apogonidae Apogon aureus X X X

Apogon angustatus X

Apogon

bandanensis

X

Apogon compressus X X X X X

Apogon sealei X X

Apogon sp. X X X

Archamia

zosterophora

X X

Cheilodipterus

macrodon

X

Cheilodipterus

quinquelineatus

X X

Blennidae Escenius midas X

Meiacanthus sp. X

Meiacanthus

atrodorsalis

X X X

Meiacanthus

grammistes

X X X

Plagiotremusrhynorhynchus X

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon auriga X X X X

Chaetodon

baronessa

X X X X X

Chaetodon bennetti X X

Chaetodon

citrinellus

X

Chaetodon kleinii X X X X

Chaetodon lineatus X

Chaetodon lunula X X

Chaetodon

melannotus

X X

Chaetodonmertensii

X X X X

Chaetodon meyeri X

Chaetodon

ocellicaudus

X


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Appendix 1. continued.

FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Chaetodontidae Chaetodonoctofasciatus

X X X X

Chaetodon

ornatissimus

X X X

Chaetodon

punctatofasciatus

X X X X

Chaetodon raffflesi X

Chaetodon

rainfordi

X

Chaetodon sp. X X X XChaetodon

speculum

X

Chaetodon spinus X

Chaetodon

trifascialis

X X X

Chaetodon

trifasciatus

X X X X X

Chaetodon

ulietensis

X

Chaetodon

unimaculatus

X X X X

Chaetodon

vagabundus

X X X X X

Chaetodontoplus

mesoleucus

X X

Forcipiger

flavissimus

X X X X

Forcipiger

longirostis

X X

Forcipiger sp. X

Hemitaurichthys

polylepis

X

Heniochus

acuminatus

X X

Heniochus

chrysostomus

X X X X X

Heniochus

diphreutes

X

Heniochus varius X X X X X

Hemitaurichthys

polylepsis

X X

Coradion altivelis X X

Coradion

chrysozonus

X X X

Corasion sp. X


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FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Labridae Diproctacanthusxanthurus

X X

Dischistodus

melanotus

X X

Epibulus insidiator X

Gomphosus varius X X

Halichoeres chrysus X X

Halichoeres

hortulanus

X X X X

Halichoeres

margaritaceus

X

Halichoeres

marginatus

X

Halichoeres

melanurus

X X

Halichoeres

melapterus

X X

Halichoeres

prosopeion

X X X X X

Halichoeres

richmondi

X X X

Halichoeres

scapularis

X X X X

Halichoeres sp. X X X

Hemigymnusmelapterus

X X X X

Hologymnosus

annulatus

X X

Hologymnosus

doliatus

X X

Labrid sp. X

Labrichthys

unilineatus

X X

Labroides bicolor X X

Labroides

dimidiatus

X X X X X

Labroides

pectoralis

X

Labropsis australis X X

Macropharyngodonnegrosensis

X

Novaculichthys

taeniorus

X


45/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Labridae Oxycheilinusdigrammus

X X

Oxycheilinus

unifasciatus

X

Pseudocheilinus

octotaenia

X

Pseudanthias

huchtii

X

Pseudanthias sp. X

Oxymonocanthuslongirostris X

Stethojulis sp. X X X

Thalassoma

hardwicke

X X X X X

Thalassoma lunare X X X X X

Thalassoma

lutescens

X X X

Thalassoma

purpureum

X

Thalassoma

quinquevittatum

X

Xyrichtys pavo X X

Cheilodipterus

artus

X X

Cheilodipterusquenquelineatus

X X

Cheilodipterus sp. X

Choerodon

anchorago

X

Pomacanthidae Apolemichthystrimaculatus

X

Centropyge bicolor X X X X

Centropyge

bispinosus

X X X

Centropyge nox X X

Centriopyge tibicen X X

Centropyge vrolikii X X X X X

Chaetodontoplusmesoleucus

X

Genicanthus

lamarck

X


46/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Pomacanthidae Pomacanthusimperator

X

Pomacanthus

navarchus

X

Pygoplites

diacanthus

X X X X

Pomacentridae Abudefdufvaigiensis

X X X X X

Abudefdufsexfasciatus X

Acanthochromis

polyacanthus

X X

Amblyglyphidodon

aureus

X X X X X

Amblyglyphidon

curacao

X X X X X

Amblyglyphidodon

leucogaster

X

Amphiprion clarkii X X X X X

Amphiprion

occelaris

X

Amphiprion percula X X X

Amphiprion

peridareion

X X

Amphiprion

frenatus

X X

Amphiprion

perideraion

X X

Amblyglyphidodon

leucogaster

X X X

Chromis acares X

Chromis

amboinensis

X X X

Chromis analis X X X X

Chromis atripes X X X X X

Chromis caudalis X X

Chromis

margaritifer

X X X X

Chromis nitida X

Chromis

retrofasciata

X X X X X


47/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Pomacentridae Chromis sp. X X X X

Chromis ternatensis X X X X

Chromis viridis X X X X X

Chromis weberi X X

Chromis xanthura X X X

Chryseptera

brownriggii

X X

Chryseptera

caeroleolineata

X X

Chryseptera cyanea X X X X

Chrysiptera

leucopoma

X X

Chryseptera

parasema

X

Chryseptera

rollandi

X X X

Chryseptera sp. X

Chryspetera starcki X

Chryseptera talboti X X X

Cirrhilabrus sp. X

Dascyllus aruanus X X X X X

Dascyllusmelanurus X

Dascyllus

reticulatus

X X X X X

Dascyllus

trimaculatus

X X X X X

Lepidozygus sp. X

Paraglyphipodon

melas

X X

Paraglyphipodon

nigroris

X

Pomacentrus

alexanderae

X X

Pomacentrus

amboinensis

X X X X X

Pomacentrus

bankanensis

X

Pomacentrus

boroughi

X X

Pomacentrus

brachialis

X X X X


48/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Pomacentridae Pomacentruscuadalis

X

Pomacentrus

coelestis

X X X

Pomacentrus

lepidogenys

X X

Pomacentrus

molluccensis

X X X X

Pomacentrus reidi X X X X

Pomacentrus sp. X X X XPomacentrus vaiuli X X

Pomachromis

rollandi

X

Neoglyphidodon

melas

X X X X

Neoglyphidodon

nigroris

X X X

Neopomacentrus

azysron

X X X

Neopomacentrus sp. X X X

Stegastes

fasciolatus

X

Stegastes nigricans X X

Stegastes sp. X X X

Zanclidae Zanclus cornutus X X X X X

TOTAL 8 196 129 188 81 80 84

TARGETSPECIES

Acanthuridae Acanthurus bleekeri X X

Acanthurus

caudalis

X

Acanthurus

dussumieri

X

Acanthurus mata X X

Acanthurus lineatus X X

Acanthuruslituratus

X

Acanthurus

nigricans

X X


49/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Acanthuridae Acanthurus nigroris X

Acanthurus

nigricauada

X X

Acanthurus

nigrofiscus

X

Acanthurus

olivaceus

X

Acanthurus

pyroferus

X X X X

Acanthurus sp. X XAcanthurus

thompsonii

X X

Ctenochaetus

binotatus

X X X X

Ctenochaetus

striatus

X X X X X

Ctenochaetus

strigosus

X

Ctenochaetus

tominiensis

X X

Naso annulatus X X

Naso hexacanthus X X

Naso lituratus X X X X

Naso lopezi X

Naso minor X

Naso unicornis X X

Paracanthurus

hepatus

X

Zebrasoma scopoas X X X X X

Zebrasoma

verifellum

X X

Aulostomidae Aulostomuschinensis

X X X X X

Caesionidae Caesiocaerulaureus

X X

Caesio cuning X X X X

Caesio lunare X

Caesio teres X X


50/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Caesionidae Pterocaesiolativittata

X

Pterocaesio marri X

Pterocaesio pisang X X X X

Pterocaesio tile X X

Carangidae Selaroidesleptolepis

X

Megalaspis cordyla XSeriola sp. X

Eppiphidae Platax pinnatus X

Platax tiera X X X

Haemulidae Plectorhinchuschaetodonoides

X X X X

Plectorhinchus

goldmanni

X

Plectorhinchus

lineatus

X X

Plectorhinchus

lessonii

X X

Holocentridae Myripristis sp. X X X X

Sargocentron

caudimamaculatum

X

Sargocentron

punctatissimum

X

Sargocentron sp. X

Lethrinidae Gnathodentexaureolineatus

X X X

Letthrinus lentjan X X

Monotaxis

grandoculis

X

Lutjanidae Lutjanus bohar X X

Lutjanus biguttatus X


51/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Lutjanidae Lutjanus decussates X X X

Lutjanus fulvus X X X

Lutjanus lutjanus X X

Lutjanus sp. X X

Macolor niger X X

Aphareus furca X

Mullidae Mulloidichthysvanicolensis

X X

Parupeneus

barberinoides

X X

Parupeneus

barberinus

X X X X X

Parupeneus

bifasciatus

X X X X

Parupeneus

cyclostomus

X

Parupeneus indicus X X X X

Parupeneus

multifasciatus

X X X X X

Upeneus tragula X X X

Nemipteridae Monotaxisgrandoculis

X

Pentapodus sp. X X X X

Scolopsis bilineatus X X X X X

Scolopsis lineatus X X X X

Scolopsis ciliatus X

Scaridae Cetoscarus bicolor X

Chlorurus sp. X X

Scarus bleekeri X

Scarus dimidiatus X X

Scarus forstenii X X

Scarus frenatus X X

Scarus ghobban X X X

Scarus globiceps X X X


52/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Scaridae Scarus microrhinos X X X

Scarus lepidus X

Scarus niger X X X

Scarus psittacus X

Scarus scaber X

Scarus sordidus X X X

Scarus tricolor X X

Scarus sp. X X X X

Serranidae Cephalopholisminiata

X X

Cephalopholis

argus

X

Cephalopholis

sexmaculatus

X X X

Cephalopholis

urodeta

X X

Cephalopholis

boenak

X X

Cephalopholis sp. X

Diploprion

bifasciatum

X

Epinephelusfasciatus

X X

Epinephelus mera X X

Epinephelus sp. X X

Plectropomus

leopardus

X X

Pseudanthias

huchtii

X X X

Pseudanthias tuka X X

Pseudanthias

ventralis

X

Variola louti X

Siganidae Siganus

atripectoralis

X

Siganus

canaliculatus

X X X

Siganus corralinus X X


53/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Siganidae Siganus guttatus X

Siganus

punctatissimus

X X

Siganus spinus X X X

Siganus puellus X X

Siganus vulpinus X X

TOTAL 14 112 69 60 35 46 30

OTHERSSPECIES

Balistidae Balistoidesconspicillum

X X

Balistapus

undulatus

X X X X

Balistapus sp. X

Melichthys vidua X X

Sufflamen bursa X X X

Sufflamen

chrysoptera

X

Sufflamen frenatus X

Pseudobalistes

flavimarginatus

X X

Ostraciidae Ostracion cubicus X X X

Ostracion meleagris X X

Ostracion sp. X X

Monacanthidae Monacanthuslongirostris

X

Unidentified

monocanthid

X X

Centriscidae Aeoliscus strigatus X X X X X

Aeoliscus chinensis X


54/61



FISH

FAMILIES

INDICATOR

SPECIES

Paril-

Sangay

Bongo

Is.

Sarang-

ani Bay

Davao

Gulf *

Malalag

Bay

Tetraodontidae Canthigasteramboinensis

X

Canthigaster

coronata

X

Canthigaster papua X X

Canthigaster sp. X X X

Canthigaster

solandri

X X

Canthigaster

valentinii

X X X

Arothron

nigropunctatus

X X

Microdesmidae Nemateleotrismagnifica

X

Pinguipedidae Paraperciscylindrica

X X X

Parapercis

clathrata

X

Callionymidae Ptereleotris evides X X

Scorpaenidae Pterois volitans X X X

Pterois antennata X

Pterois radiata X

Scoraenopsis sp. X

Synodontidae Saurida gracilis X X X

Synodus sp. X X X

Plotosidae Plotosus lineatus X

TOTAL 11 33 19 17 6 15 9


55/61


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Calumpong HP, Lepiten MV, Acedo CE (eds.). 1997a. Status of CoastalResources of the Sarangani Bay Learning Site. Silliman MarineLaboratory and Center of Excellence in Coastal Resource Management,Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 152 pp.

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Chee PE. 1996. Tuna fisheries interactions in Malaysia. In: RS Shomura, JMajkowski and RF Harman (eds.), Status of interaction of Pacific tunafisheries in 1995. FAO Corporate Document Repository.

Dermawan A. 2004. Indonesia, pp. 5360,In: Conservation and enhancement ofsea turtles in the Southeast Asian region, T. Zulkifli, et al. (eds.),Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management Department(MFRDMD), Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center(SEAFDEC), Taman Perikanan Chendering. Kuala Lumpur Malaysia,

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DeVantier L, Alcala AC, Wilkinson C. 2004. The Sulu-Sulawesi Sea:environmental and socioeconomic status, future prognosis andameliorative policy options. Ambio 33(1): 693702.

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Dolar ML. 1999. Abundance, Distribution and Feeding Ecology of SmallCetaceans in the Eastern Sulu Sea and Taon Strait, Philippines. Ph.D.dissertation, University of California, San Diego.

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Eckert SA, Dolar LL, Kooyman GI, Perrin W, Rahman RA. 2002. Movementsof whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) in Southeast Asian waters asdetermined by satellite telemetry. J. Zool. London 257: 111115.

Erdman MV. 1999. An account of the first living coelacanth known to scientistsfrom Indonesian waters. Environmental Biology of Fishes54: 439443.

Fisheries Statistics of the Philippines 2003-2005. Bureau of AgriculturalStatistics, Department of Agriculture, Quezon City, Philippines, 137pp.

Floren AS. 2008. Distribution patterns of ichthyoplankton in the South ChinaSea and part of the Sulu Sea, pp: 101108, In: AC Alcala, (ed.).


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Proceedings of the Conference on the Results of the Philippines-Vietnam Joint Oceanographic and Marine Scientific ResearchExpedition in the South China Sea (JOMSRE-SCS I to IV),Oceanfriends Foundation Inc., Dumaguete City.

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Fricke H, Hissman K, Schauer J, Erdman M, Moosa MK, Plante R. 2000.Biogeography of the Indonesian coelacanths. Nature 403: 38.

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Ingles JA, Trono RB. 2004. Ecoregion fisheries management: A new approachto address biodiversity loss caused by fisheries in the Sulu-SulawesiSeas, pp. 336341, In: DA-BFAR In Turbulent Seas: the Status

Documents

Alcala AC Et Al. 2008 Review of the Biodiversity of Southern Philippine Seas_4000nn