Albert S y La Moral de Los Animales

8/6/2019 Albert S y La Moral de Los Animales

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T h e f e ll o w s h i p o f l i f eA l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r a n d t h e m o r a l s ta tu s

o f a n i m a l s

Ara Barsam

As the house keep e r who h as sc rubb ed the f l oor sees to i t t ha t the do or

is shu t , so tha t t he dog d oes no t com e in and und o a l l the w ork w i th h i s

muddy paws , so re l i g ious and ph i losophica l t h inke rs have gone to

grea t pa ins t o see t ha t no an ima l s en t e r and upse t t he i r sys t em of

ethics. 1

ALBERT SCHWEITZER (1875-1965) WAS A POLYMATHIC f i g u r e : b i b l i c a l

s c h o l a r , m u s i c i a n , p h y s i c i a n , p r e a c h e r , p h i l o s o p h e r , a n d t h e o -l o g ia n . H e i s c h i e fl y r e m e m b e r e d i n t h e o l o g i c a l c i r c le s f o r The quest of

the historical Jesus, o r m o r e b r o a d l y f o r h is m e d i c a l m i s s i o n i n A f r i c a

o r hi s i n te r p r e ta t io n s o f J. S . B a c h ' s m u s i c . B u t S c h w e i t z e r c o n s i d e r e d

h is m o s t m e a n i n g f u l c o n t r ib u t i o n , t h e o n e fo r w h i c h h e m o s t w i s h e d t o

b e r e m e m b e r e d , t o b e h is e t h ic o f ' r e v e r e n c e f o r l i f e ' .

A l t h o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o f ' r e v e r e n c e f o r l i f e ' i s w e l l k n o w n , i t h a s

b e e n s u b j e c t t o a r a n g e o f d i s to r t i o n s a n d i t i s i m p o r t a n t th a t w e c o n -

f r o n t t h e s e in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t S c h w e i t z e r m e a n t b y t hi s te r m . 2

W e w i ll t h e n b e i n a b e t t e r p o s i t io n t o e x a m i n e s o m e o f t h e w a y s i ll

w h i c h h is e t h ic a l th o u g h t m a y b e i n s t r u c t iv e f o r t h e o l o g i c a l d i s cu s s i o n s

o n th e m o r n s ta tu s o f an i m a l s.

An 'ethical mysticism'

T h e f i r s t d i s t o r t i n g l e n s i s legalism. C o n t r a r y t o m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s ,

S c h w e i t ze r d o e s n o t p r o p o u n d ' r e v e r e n c e ' a s a n e w m o r a l l a w b u t

r a t h e r a s ' e t h i c a l m y s t i c i s m ' . H i s e t h i c a l m y s t i c i s m e m e r g e s f r o m

r e f le c t io n u p o n t h e k e y c o n c e p t ' w i l l - t o - l i v e ' . ' T h e e s s e n ti a l th i n g t o

r e a l is e a b o u t e t h i c s is t h a t it i s t h e v e r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f o u r w i l l- t o -

l i ve . ' 3

S c h w e i t z e r ' s s p e c if ic u s e o f th e t e r m ' w i l l - t o - l i v e ' i s d e r i v e d ( n o t

w i t h o u t m o d i f i c a ti o n ) f r o m A r t h u r S c h o p e n h a u e r . 4 H e l a u d s

S c h o p e n h a u e r ' s c o n v i c t i o n th a t ' t h e e s s e n c e o f t h i n g s - in - t h e m s e l v e s ,



T H E F E L L O W S H I P O F L I F E 2 2 5

w h i c h i s t o b e a c c e p t e d a s u n d e r l y i n g a l l p h e n o m e n a , i s t h e w i l l - t o -

l iv e . '5 S c h w e i t z e r a g r e e s t h a t th e ' w i l l - to - l i v e ' is n o t s o m e t h i n g s e c -

ond a r y (i.e . a c ons e qu e nc e o f t he kn ow l e dg e o f l if e ) bu t ra t he r i s p r i ma r y ,

i m m e d i a t e a n d u n c o n d i t i o n e d . 6 S i n c e t h e b a s i s o f o n e ' s s e l f i s

e x p e r i e n c e d a s w i l l - t o - l i v e , h e b e l i e v e s t h e b a s i s o f a l l a n i m a t e

p h e n o m e n a i n th e w o r l d , b y ' a n a l o g y ' w i t h h i m s e l f, s i m i la r ly t o b e w i ll -

t o - li v e . 7 S c h w e i t z e r i s c o n c e r n e d t h e n w i t h t h e c l a i m t h a t a n u n d e r -

s t an d i n g o f h u m a n n a t u r e i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n i n s ig h t m o r e g e n e r a l l y

i n to t h e n a t u r e o f r e al it y . F r o m a c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f o n e s e l f (t h em i c r o c o s m ) , o n e i s ab l e to a c q u i re k n o w l e d g e o f th e w o r l d ( th e

m a c r o c o s m ) ; t h e k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l d i s p r o p e r s e l f -

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . S c h w e i t z e r ' s m e t a p h y s i c s b e g i n w i t h t h e s u p p o s i t i o n

t ha t, d e s p i t e t he d i ve r s i t y a nd m ul t i p l i c i t y o f i nd i v i d ua l t h i ng s i n t he

w o r l d , a l l m a n i f e s t t h e s a m e i n n e r e s s e n c e , a w i l l - t o - l i v e .

S c h w e i t z e r 's a r g u m e n t r e s ts l a rg e l y o n t h e q u e s t io n o f w h e t h e r

k n o w l e d g e f r o m t h e in n e r e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w i l l- to - l iv e i s m o r e r e l i ab l e

t h a n k n o w l e d g e d e r i v e d f r o m e m p i ri c a l e x a m i n a t io n o f t h e o ut er ,p h y s i c a l w o r ld . H i s t h o u g h t i s t h a t al l r e a l it y m u s t , l ik e h i m s e l f , h a v e a n

i n n e r n a t u r e ( w i l l- t o - li v e ) a n d h e u s e s t h i s n o t io n t o o f f e r a n e w a c c o u n t

o f t h e r e la t io n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e l f, o t h e r li f e a n d G o d . T h e n o n -

e m p i r ic a l q u a l i t y o f th e w i l l as th e c o r e s e l f i s a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f h i s

w o r k , a l t h o u g h o f t e n f o r m u l a t e d a s i f i t w e r e a r e p o r t o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d

fact .

I t i s f r o m r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e w i l l - t o - l i v e t h a t S c h w e i t z e r d e r i v e s t h e

e t h ic o f r e v e r e n c e f o r li fe . E t h i c a l m y s t i c i s m b e g i n s w i t h a p e r s o n a l

r e f le c t io n o n t h e s e l f i n th e f i n it e w o r l d t h a t b i n d s h u m a n s w i t h n o n -

h u m a n l if e a n d G o d ( o f t e n r e fe r r e d to a s t h e ' in f in i te W i l l - to - L i v e ' ) . F o r

S c h w e i t z er , ' th e m o s t i m m e d i a t e a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e f a c t o f c o n -

s c i o u s n e s s i s t h a t " I a m l i fe w h i c h w i l ls t o li v e , in t h e m i d s t o f l if e

w hi c h w i l ls t o l i ve . ' ' 'a Th e d i r e ct , e xpe r i e n t i a l i de n t i f i c a t i on o f on e ' s

i nd i v i dua l w i l l - t o - l i ve ( l i f e ) w i t h o t he r l i f e , a nd t h r ough l i f e w i t h God ,

i s f o u n d a t i o n a l t o S c h w e i t z e r ' s e t h i c a l m y s t i c i s m . T h o u g h h i s m y s t i -

c i s m s ta r ts f r o m t h e in d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t ( ' I a m l if e w h i c h w i l ls - t o - l i v e ') ,

i t e x t e n d s t o a g e n e r a l iz a t io n o n t h e w o r l d ( ' i n t h e m i d s t o f o t h e r w i l ls -

t o - l i v e ' ) . H e d o e s n o t l im i t t h e w i l l -t o - l iv e t o h u m a n s ; i t i s d i s c e r n i b l e

i n ' th e f l o w e r i n g tr e e, in s t r a n g e f o r m s o f m e d u s a , [ an d ] i n th e b l a d e o f

g r a s s ' . 9 C o n c r e t e l y : ' E v e r y t h i n g , a c c o r d i n g l y , w h i c h m e e t s m e i n th e

w o r l d o f p h e n o m e n a i s a m a n i f e s t a t io n o f t h e w i l l - to - l i v e . ' 10 L a s t l y a n d

c r uc i a l ly , Sc hw e i t z e r r e t u r ns t o t he f in i t e m a n i f e s t a t i on s o f li f e a nd

h o l d s t h a t h u m a n m o r a l a c t i o n i s t h e l o c u s o f m y s t i c a l re l at io n : ' in



226 T H E F E L L O W S H I P O F L I F E

l o v i n g s e l f - d e v o t i o n t o o t h e r l i f e w e r e a l i s e o u r s p i r i t u a l u n i o n w i t h

[ G o d ] . ' 11

T h e s e c o n d d i s to r t in g l e n s i s inviolability. M a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e

a s s u m e d t h a t r e v e r e n c e f o r li f e u p h o l d s t h e m o r a l in v i o l a b i l i ty o f al l

l i f e o f w h a t e v e r k i nd . I t i s t r u e th a t S c h w e i t z e r s o m e t i m e s w r i te s i n

s u c h a w a y a s t o i n v i t e t h i s m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g • H i s b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f

t h e m o r a l p r o c l a i m s : ' i t is g o o d t o m a i n t a i n a n d t o e n c o u r a g e l if e , it i s

b a d t o d e s t r o y l i f e o r o b s t r u c t i t .' 12 F u r t h e r , t h e e t h i c a l p e r s o n i s o n e

w h o :

• . . t e a rs n o l e a f f r o m a t r ee , p l u c k s n o f lo w e r , a n d t a k e s c a r e to c r u s h

n o i n s e c t. I f in t h e s u m m e r h e i s w o r k i n g b y l a m p l i g h t, h e p r e f e r s t o

k e e p t h e w i n d o w s h u t a n d b r e a t h e a s t u f f y a tm o s p h e r e ra t h e r t h a n s e e

o n e i n s e c t a f t e r a n o t h e r f a l l w i th s i n g e d w i n g s u p o n h i s t a b le .

I f h e w a l k s o n t h e r o a d a f t e r a s h o w e r a n d s e e s a n e a r t h w o r m w h i c h

has s t rayed o n to it , he be th ink s h im se l f tha t i t m us t ge t d r i ed up in t he

s u n , i f i t d o e s n o t r e t u r n s o o n e n o u g h t o g r o u n d i n t o w h i c h i t c a n

bur row , so he l i f ts it f ro m the dea d ly s ton e su r face , and p u t s i t on g ra s s .

I f h e c o m e s a c r o s s a n i n s e c t w h i c h h a s f a l l e n i n to a p u d d l e , h e s t o p s a

m o m e n t in o r d e r t o h o l d o u t a l e a f o r a s t a l k o n w h i c h i t c a n s a v eitself . 13

A t f ir st s i g h t t he s h e e r p r a c t i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s e i n j u n c t i o n s

p r e s e n t s i ts e lf . B u t w h a t S c h w e i t z e r o f f e r s h e r e a r e n o t rules b u t r a t h e r

examples o f t he t y p e o f a c t io n e x p e c t e d f r o m o n e w h o u p h o l d s r e v e r -

e n c e f o r l i f e. A l t h o u g h h e u p h o l d s t h e b o u n d l e s s d e m a n d s o f r e v e r e n c e

f o r l if e , h e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t in o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n l if e , h u m a n s a r e

f o r c e d t o h a r m o r s a c r i f i c e o t h e r w i l l s - t o - l i v e . I n d e e d , t h e v e r y w o r d

' r e v e r e n c e ' (Ehrfurcht) i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e i s n o t d e p i c t i n g o b e d i e n c e t o

m o r a l l a w b u t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h ' a n e w t e m p e r o f m i n d ' . 14 Ehrfurcht i s

a n id e a l o f c h a r a c t e r t o w a r d s o t h e r l if e w h i c h ' p e n e t r a t e s u n c e a s i n g l y

a n d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s a m a n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n , r e f le c t i o n , a n d r e s o l u t i o n s ' . 15

R e v e r e n c e f o r l i f e c a n n o t b e d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a il o n c e a n d f o r a l l .

N e i t h e r c a n i t b e e x p r e s s e d i n c o n v e n i e n t f o r m u l a e n o r r e d u c e d t o a l is t

o f i m p e r a t i v e s . S c h w e i t z e r i s h e s i t a n t to c o d i f y e t h i ca l o p t i o n s i n

a d v a n c e a n d c a n o f t e n b e s e e n t o p r o v i d e l e s s a n ' e t h i c ' o r p r i n c i p l e

t h a n a n ' e t h o s ' i n t h e s e n s e o f a p r e p a r a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s p r i o r t o t h e

d e c i s i o n o f m o r a l a c t i o n .

T h e t h i r d d i s t o r t i n g l e n s i s inconsistency. S i n c e S c h w e i t z e r d e f i n e s

r e v e r e n c e a s a n ' a b s o l u t e ' e t h ic w h i c h e n j o in s ' r e s p o n s i b i l i ty w i t h o u t

l i m i t t o w a r d s a l l t h a t l i v e s ' , 16 i t i s p e r h a p s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t r e v e r e n c e

i s j u d g e d t o e n ta i l i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n p r a c t ic e . I n d e e d , S c h w e i t z e r i s n o t



T H E F E L L O W S H I P O F L I F E 227

immune from such charges since, for example, he notoriously had fish

caught to feed his sick pelicans. Such inconsistencies are made more

glaring in the light of his rejection of any moral hierarchy.

The ethics of reverence for life makes no distinction between higher

and lower, more precious and less precious lives. It has good reasons

for this omission. For what are we doing, when we establish hard and

fast gradations in value between living organisms, but judging them in

relation to ourselves, by whether they seem to stand closer to us or

farther from us? This is a wholly subjective standard. How can weknow the importance other living organisms have in themselves and in

terms of the universe? ~7

Schweitzer is often interpreted at this point as suggesting that no

form of life should ever be destroyed and that all creatures, humans to

microbes, should have the same moral worth. It is doubtful whether this

was his intention. Rather what he is doing here is rejecting the long

tradition of moral hierarchy which places humanity at the top of the

pyramid of descending moral worth. Schweitzer readily and regrettablyadmitted that it is sometimes necessary to make choices between

various forms of life. But what he wanted to emphasize was the

essentially s u b j e c t i v e and a r b i t r a r y nature of these declarations.

Though in practical matters humans must make decisions about the

relative priority of diverse life forms, our judgement in this matter is

irreducibly subjective (anthropocentric) and not to be taken as an

objective measure of the value of other life forms.

S h a r e d s o u rc e i n G o d

For Schweitzer, the presence of the will-to-live affords a being its

intrinsic worth. But the will-to-live itself is not seen as the direct s o u r c e

of its value. The origin of value lies in the infinite Will-to-Live, God;

through the will-to-live 'my existence joins in pursuing the aims of the

infinite Will-to-Live of which I am a man if es ta ti on. ., and thus I give

my existence a meaning from within outwards'. 18 Value comes notfrom human estimation, but from the view that the human will-to-live

(and a l l wills-to-live) are of a shared source in God.

The common origin of all wills-to-live is a doctrine which carries

with it epistemological and ethical implications for Schweitzer. He

affirms that 'life' is 'something possessing value i n i t s e l f '19 and

believes 'the mystery of life is always too profound for us, and its value

is beyond our capacity to estimate' .2o The experience, or apprehension,

of moral value is primary.



2 2 8 T H E F E L L O W S H I P O F L I F E

R e v e r e n c e f o r l if e th e n i s n e i th e r a m o r a l p r i n c i p l e t h at u p h o l d s t h e

a b s o l u t e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f l i f e n o r a s t ri ct s e t o f o b l i g a t i o n s t o b e c o n -

s t r u e d a s m o r a l l a w . ' E h r f u r c h t ' h o l d s a v a s t e r c o n n o t a t i o n ; i t i s a t t i -

t u d e, e x p e r i e n c e a n d m y s t i c is m . I n d e e d , s h o r n o f its m y s t i c a l a s p e c t,

S c h w e i t z e r 's t h o u g h t d o e s l o o k a b s o l u t i s t a n d i m p r a c t i c a b l e . B u t th a t is

p r e c i s e ly h o w h e w i sh e d n o t t o b e r e a d . S c h w e i t z e r s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e

a r e o t h e r v a l u e s o f d e e p e r i m p o r t t h a n t h e s t r ic t p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l i fe . F o r

i n s t a n c e , ' p r o l o n g e d ' a n d ' i n t e n s e ' s u f f e r i n g i s ' a m o r e te r r i b l e l o r d o f

m a n k i n d t h a n e v e n d e a t h ' , e l T h i s i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s m a d e w i t h p a r -

t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s a n d d e s e r v e s t o b e r e a d i n f u l l :

H o w e v e r s e r i o u s l y m a n u n d e r t a k e s t o a b s t a i n f r o m k i l l i n g a n d

damaging , he cannot en t i re ly avo id i t . He i s unde r t he l aw of

n e c e s s i t y , w h i c h c o m p e l s h i m t o k i l l a n d t o d a m a g e b o t h w i t h a n d

w i t h o u t h is k n o w l e d g e . I n m a n y w a y s i t m a y h a p p e n t h at b y s l a v is h

a d h e r e n c e t o t h e c o m m a n d m e n t n o t t o k il l c o m p a s s i o n i s le s s s e rv e d

than by break ing i t. W hen the suf fe r ing of a l iv ing c rea ture canno t be

a l levia ted, i t is m ore e thica l to end i ts l i fe by ki l l ing i t merc i ful ly than i t

i s to s t and a loof . I t i s more c rue l t o l e t dom es t i c an ima l s wh ich on e can

no longe r feed d i e a pa infu l dea th by s t a rva t ion t han to g ive t hem a

quick and pa in l e s s end . The pr inc ip l e o f no t -k i l l i ng and no t -ha rming

m u s t n o t a i m a t b e i n g i n d e p e n d e n t , but must be the servant o f and

subordinate itse lf to, com passion, z2

A c t i v e c o m p a s s i o n s u p e r s e d e s e v e n s t ri c t o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e p r i n c i p le

o f n o n - v i o l e n c e . W h i l e n o k i ll in g c a n b e s e e n a s a m o r a l g o o d , i t m a y

s o m e t i m e s b e c o n s i d e r e d ' j u s ti f ia b l e ' i n s it u a t io n s o f c r is i s w h e r e

c o m p e t i n g c l a im s c o n f li ct . T h e i n j u r y o r d e s t r u c ti o n o f a n y c r e a t u r e

r e q u i r e s m o r a l j u st i f ic a t io n , t h o u g h e v e n s u c h ju s t i f i c a ti o n d o e s n o t

m a k e k i ll in g e t h ic a l. T o k e e p ' a d j u s t m e n t s b e t w e e n e t h ic s a n d

n e c e s s i t y a ll r e a d y f o r u s e ' i n o r d e r to e a s e o n e ' s c o n s c i e n c e i s u n -

e th i ca l . R e s p o n s i b l e a c t i o n m e a n s t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f a n y c l a i m to

e t h ic a l r i g h t e o u s n e s s : ' T h e g o o d c o n s c i e n c e , ' S c h w e i t z e r n e v e r c e a s e s

t o r e m i n d u s , ' is a n i n v e n t i o n o f t h e d e v i l . '23

R e v e r e n c e f o r li fe , f a r f r o m a m o r e l i t e ra l in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e

p h r a s e , is n o t m e a n t t o e s t a b l is h s p e c i f ic r u l e s f o r e a c h p o s s i b l e

c i r c u m s t a n c e , b u t t o c r e a t e a n a t ti tu d e o f u n i v e r s al r e v e r e n c e t h a t

m o t i v a t e s a c t io n .

C h a l l e n g e s t o C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y a n d e t h i c s

H a v i n g c l a ri f ie d a s p e c ts o f S c h w e i t z e r ' s r e v e r e n c e f o r l i fe , i t is n o w

p o s s i b l e to i n d i c a te s o m e o f hi s c h a l le n g e s t o c o n t e m p o r a r y C h r i s ti a n

t h e o l o g i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o n t h e m o r a l s t a tu s o f a n i m a l s .



T H E F E L L O W S H I P O F L I F E 229

The first and perhaps most important contribution that Schweitzer

presents concerns t h e my s t i c a l a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f l ife . At the

centre of many present theological controversies is the issue of value:

whether beings outside of ourselves hold value, and if so, of what kind

and why. What Schweitzer emphasizes is that the recognition and

appreciation of the value of life is a mystical apprehension. This

understanding is 'primary' because all subsequent decisions and

choices depend upon it.

To understand Schweitzer at this point it is perhaps best to recallPlato who describes philosophers in a democratic state as those who

'wrangle over notions of fight in the minds of men who have never

beheld Justice itself'.24 Likewise, Schweitzer would maintain that one

can have no proper sense of oneself or other beings in the world unless,

first and foremost, one has a sufficient sense of the value of life itself.

Everything depends practically upon this prior recognition of value. In

order to appreciate more fully Schweitzer's insight, it may be

instructive to contrast his position with instrumentalist and utilitarianconsiderations of value as expounded by thinkers within the Christian

tradition.

As we have seen, Schweitzer refuses to add subjective value-

judgements - such as this is valuable, this is expendable - to any

manifestation of life. Each manifestation of the will-to-live is to be seen

in and for itself, and separate from anthropocentric representations. By

contrast, many prominent Christian theologians have offered an

instrumentalist understanding of life. Entrenched in a theological tra-dition of the orders of creation, St Augustine states in relation to the Old

Testament prohibition against killing:

When we say, 'Thou shalt not kill,' we do not understand this.., of

the irrational animals that fly, swim, walk, or creep, since they are

disassociated from us by their want of reason, and are therefore by the

just appointment of the Creator subjected to us to kill or keep alive for

our own uses; if so, then it remains that we understand thecommandment simply of rnanY

Augustine's rejection of fellowship with animals is not alone in the

Christian tradition. St Thomas Aquinas also feels that '[d]umb animals

and plants are devoid o f the life of reason' which is 'a sign that they are

naturally enslaved and accommodated to the uses of others [i.e.

humans]' . 26 He continues to expound an instrumentalist and

hierarchical understanding of creation.



2 3 0 T H E F E L L O W S H I P O F L I F E

Hereb y i s r e fu ted the e r ror o f those who sa id i t i s s in fu l fo r a m an to k i l l

dumb an ima ls : fo r by d iv ine providence they a re in tended for man ' s

use in the na tura l o rder . H ence i t i s no t wrong for ma n to m ake use o f

them, e i the r by k i l l ing or in any wa y wha teve r . 27

A q u i n a s u n d e r s t a n d s t h e ro l e o f n o n - h u m a n c r ea t io n a l m o s t s t r i c t ly i n

t e r m s o f it s c a p a c i t y t o s e r v e h u m a n w a n t s . C r e a t io n , h e i n si st s, w a s

c r e a t e d s o l e l y f o r ' i n t e ll e c t u a l c r e a t u r e s ' . I n A u g u s t i n e ' s a n d A q u i n a s ' s

t h e o l o g y , t h e v a l u e o f n o n - h u m a n l i f e i s m e a s u r e d b y i ts u t i l it y t o

h u m a n i n t e r e st s . S i n c e a n i m a l s a r e s e e n t o l a c k ' r a t i o n a l i t y ' , t h e y c a n

t h e n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s in s t r u m e n t s f o r h u m a n s w h o a l o n e p o ss e s s s u c h a

c a p a c i t y . R a t i o n a l i t y i s r e g a r d e d a s t h e f a c u l t y p a r e x c e l l e n c e w h i c h

d e t e r m i n e s o u r i m m o r t a l s o u l f u l n e s s , a t r a i t e x p l i c i t l y d e n i e d t o n o n -

h u m a n c r e a t i o n .

A s i m i la r t y p e o f in s t r u m e n t a l i s m is f o u n d i n t h e R e f o r m e r s , n o t a b l y

J o h n C a l v i n a n d M a r t in L u t h e r. A d d r e s s i n g t h e i s s u e o f t h e s u b j e ct io n

o f a n i m a l s to h u m a n d o m i n i o n in G e n e s i s 1, C a l v i n re m a r k s : ' H e n c e

w e i n f e r w h a t w a s t h e e n d f o r w h i c h a ll t h i n g s w e r e c r e a t ed ; n a m e l y ,

t h a t n o n e o f t h e c o n v e n i e n c e s a n d n e c e s si t i e s o f l if e m i g h t b e w a n t i n g

t o m e n ' .28 C a l v i n b e l i e v e s ' t h a t m e n m a y r e n d e r a n i m a l s s u b s e r v i e n t to

t h e ir o w n c o n v e n i e n c e , a n d m a y a p p l y t h e m t o v a r i o u s u se s, a c c o r d i n g

t o t h e i r w i s h e s a n d t h e i r n e c e s s i t i e s ' .29 L u t h e r f o l l o w s s u i t . A f t e r t h e

f a l l a n d f l o o d , ' t h e a n i m a l s a r e s u b j e c t e d to m a n a s t o a ty r a n t w h o h a s

a b s o l u t e p o w e r o v e r l i f e a n d d e a t h ' .3o F o r L u t h e r , t h is is G o d ' s ' g i f t ' t o

h u m a n s a n d i t s h o w s h o w G o d i s ' f a v o u r a b l y i n c l i n e d a n d f r i e n d l y

t o w a r d s m a n ' . 31

The inherent value of anima l l i f e

T h e s e t h i n k e r s a n d t w o t r a d i ti o n s , as w i t h m o s t m o d e r n t h e o l o g y , u n i t e

i n s e e i n g a n i m a l s a s a u t il i ty d e v i c e f o r th e f u l f i l m e n t o f h u m a n a i m s .

S u c h u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f n o n - r a t i o n a l i t y a n d n o n - f e l l o w s h i p h a v e

l a rg e l y d o m i n a t e d C h r i s t ia n d i s c u s si o n s o f a n i m a l s a n d h a v e s e r v ed a s

t h e j u s t if i c a ti o n f o r e x c l u d i n g t h e m f r o m m o r a l c o n s i d e ra t io n . I n c o n -

t ra s t, S c h w e i t z e r l o c a t e s t h e v a l u e o f b e i n g s n o t i n a n y s p e c if ic f a c u l t y

o r c a p a c i t y l i m i t e d t o a c e r t a i n s p e c i e s , b u t r a t h e r i n t h e ' w i l l - t o - l i v e '

c o m m o n t o a l l l i f e . H e p r e s e n t s a r i v a l i d e a t o t h e s c h o l a s t i c a n d

r e f o r m e d v i e w s : ' l i f e ' h a s in h e r e n t w o r t h in d e p e n d e n t o f h u m a n

c a l c u l a ti o n s . I n h i s s e r m o n o n ' R e v e r e n c e f o r l i f e ' ( 19 1 8 ) , S c h w e i t z e r

b e g i n s w i t h a s w e e p i n g r e f u t a t i o n o f tr a d i t io n a l C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i o n s

o f h u m a n s ' b e h a v i o u r to w a r d s n o n - h u m a n li fe : ' C h r is t ia n i ty , f r o m th e




f ir st c e n t u r i e s u p u n t i l d e e p i n th e M i d d l e A g e s , d i d n o t e n n o b l e p e o p l e

i n t h e i r b e h a v i o u r t o w a r d a n i m a l s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r i e s o n e f in d s

t h e g r e a t e st t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s a n d c r u d e n e s s b o u n d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e

m o s t e a r n e s t p i e ty . '3 2 H i s s e r m o n c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n a t t a c k o n t h e

t h e o l o g ic a l r a t i o n a le f o r n e g l e c t o f n o n - h u m a n c r ea tu r e s.

O n e t h in k s l e ss a b o u t w h a t w e o u g h t t o b e t o w a r d t h e p o o r c r e a tu r e s

t h a n a g a i n a n d a g a i n a b o u t h o w o n e c a n m a k e t h e m o s t o f t h e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m a n a n d t h e m : ' Y o u h a v e a n i m m o r t a l s o u l . T h e

a n i m a l d o e s n o t . A n u n b r i d g e a b l e c h a s m l ie s b e t w e e n u s , ' a s i f w e

r e a ll y k n e w s o m e t h in g a b o u t i t Y

T h e e m p h a s i s - p r o m u l g a t e d b y A q u i n as , A u g u s t in e , C a l v in a n d

L u t h e r , a m o n g s t o t h e r s - p l a c e d o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d

o t h e r l if e f o r m s h a s, S c h w e i t z e r c la im s , o b s c u r e d h u m a n s ' m o r a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i ty t o r e v e r e n c e a n i m a l l if e . I n s te a d o f f o c u s i n g o n t h e

' d i f f e r e n c e s ' a m o n g s t v a r i o u s f o r m s o f l if e , S c h w e i t z e r m a i n t a i n s t h a th u m a n s s h o u l d s e e k to ' e x p e r i e n c e t h e i n n e r - r e l a te d n e s s t h a t e x i s ts

a m o n g a l l l i v i n g t h i n g s ' . 3 4 A u t i l i t a r i a n p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e w o r l d , h e

s u g g e s ts , c o n c e a l s f r o m u s o u r re l a t i o n w i th i t . A s s u c h , S c h w e i t z e r

d e f i n e s t h e h u m a n p e r s o n ( i. e. a s l i f e i n th e m i d s t o f l if e ) in t e r m s o f

r e l a t io n a l i t y , n o t j u x t a p o s i t i o n , t o o t h e r l i fe . S e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s g o e s

h a n d in h a n d w i th m o r a l c o n s c i o u s n e ss . F r o m s u c h an o n t o l o g y o f

s o c i a li ty , h e e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e ' d i s s im i l a r i ty , t h e s t r a n g e n e s s ,

b e t w e e n u s a n d o t h e r c r e a tu r e s is h e r e r e m o v e d ' , a n d h e e n j o in s

h u m a n s t o h o l d a ' r e v e r e n c e fo r al l l i f e ' Y

T h e m y s t i c a l a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f l if e , o r ' w i l l - t o - l i v e ' a s

S c h w e i t z e r w o u l d s ay , b e c o m e s t h e c e n tr a l l i n k in g c o n c e p t o f o n to -

l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y a m o n g s t h u m a n s , n o n - h u m a n s p e c ie s a n d G o d . I t i s

t h is s e n s e o f c o n n e c t i o n , n o t ' d i f f e r e n c e ' o r ' u t i l i t y ' , w h i c h S c h w e i t z e r

c h a l l e n g e s u s t o fi n d w i t h o t h e r c r e a t u r e s : o n e ' s a t t it u d e t o ' l i f e ' i s th e

t o u c h s t o n e o f C h r i s t ia n e th i cs . S u c h a v i e w a f f ir m s t h e v a l u e o f a ll l i f e

a n d i n c o r p o r a t e s c o n s i d e r a ti o n o f n o n - h u m a n s p e c i es i n t h e o l o g ic a l

d i s c o u r se : ' T o t h i n k o u t in e v e r y i m p l i c a t io n t h e e t h ic o f l o v e f o r a ll

c r e a t i o n - t h is i s th e d i f f ic u l t t a s k w h i c h c o n f r o n t s o u r a g e . '3 6 T o t a k e

s e r i o u s l y a t h e o c e n t r i c e t h i c a l v i e w o f c r e a t i o n i s t o a f f i r m t h a t a ll li f e

h o l d s v a l u e to t h e C r e a t o r a n d m e r i t s r e v e r e n c e : ' W e r e j e c t th e i d e a th a t

m a n i s " m a s t e r o f o t h e r c r e a t u r e s , " " l o r d " a b o v e a ll o t he rs . W e n o

l o n g e r s a y t h e r e a r e s en s e l e ss e x i s t e n c e s w i th w h i c h w e c a n d e a l a s w e

p l e as e . '37 S c h w e i t z e r s u g g e s t s a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f o u r r e l a t io n s h i p t o




the universe: we are to perceive each manifestation of life for i t s e l f , and

no longer for o u r s e l v e s .

Schweitzer's view challenges the idea that humans' sole responsi-

bility in the world is to take care of their own species. Ethical concern

for human life is seen to be part of a wider moral horizon that

encompasses all life. In his exegesis of the parable of the Good

Samaritan, Schweitzer seeks to expand our understanding of neighbour

to include non-human creation.

What is the sort of love toward God which compels us to be kind to

others? What does love for our neighbour mean?... The presuppo-

sition of morality is to share everything that goes on around us, not

only in human life but also in the life of all creatures. 3s

By extending the category of 'neighbour' to include all life, Schweitzer's

reading of the parable develops Jesus' refusal to limit the extent of

neighbourly love. Schweitzer rejects the same limiting question that the

lawyer asked Jesus; rather than narrowing the scope of 'neighbour', he

recasts the issue.

Schweitzer includes non-human life in the category of neighbour. He

rejects attempts to circumscribe the boundaries of moral concern:

reverence for life 'does not draw a circle of well-defined tasks around

me, but charges each individual with responsibility for all life within

his reach and forces him to devote himself to helping that life'.39 He

reads the parable as a metaphor for moral inclusivity that corresponds

analogically to non-human species. Like Jesus' rejection of a racially

restrictive criterion of neighbourly discrimination, Schweitzer seeks to

counter the limiting structures of communal proximity by emphasizing

humans ' participation in the 'community of life'.

Practical i m p l i c a t i o n s

As Schweitzer's convictions deepened, some of the practical impli-

cations of his thinking began to catch up with him. One change was hisadoption of a vegetarian diet later in life. Erica Anderson, his photo-

biographer narrates:

No bird or afflma] in the hospital vii]age - hen or pig or sheep - is

killed for food. Fish and crocodile meat brought by fishermen are

occasionally served at table, but Schweitzer himself in recent years has

given up eating either meat or fish, even the liver dumplings he used to

relish and enjoy.




'I can't eat anything that was alive any more' [Schweitzer said]. When

a man questioned him on his philosophy and said that God made fish

and fowl for people to eat, he answered, 'Not a t a l l . ' 4 0

During Schweitzer 's final illness, his daughter, Rhena, offered him beef

broth. He declined.

He challenges us to see that our moral community is not simply

composed of humans: '"What you have done to one of the least of

these, you have done to me ." This word of Jesus is valid for us all, andit ought to determine what we do also to the least among living

creatures. TM The Samaritan is a paradigm of love that shatters con-

ventional responsibility and thus for Schweitzer c r e a t e s a new set of

neighbour relations where previously there were none. And certainly

for him, the concluding words of the parable stand as a challenge to

Christian ethics: 'Go and do likewise.'

The way Schweitzer's insight can contribute to Christian ethics is the

directing of m o r a l s e n s i t i v i t y t o s u f f e r i n g l if e . He repeatedly-draws

attention to 'the cry of the Fellowship of those who bear the Mark of

Pain'. Who are the members of this Fellowship? 'Those who have

learnt by experience what physical pain and bodily anguish mean,

belong together all the world over; they are united by a secret bond. '42

The Fellowship of Pain certainly included the human community.

But it also extended beyond humankind. In a passage from his auto-

biography, he speaks again of his sensitivity to the prevalance of suf-

fering and the costly, sacrificial kind of loving it engenders.

Only at rare mo men ts have I felt really glad to be alive. I cannot help

but feel the suffering all around me, not only of humanity but of the

whole of creation. I have never tried to withdraw myself from this

co mmu nit y of suffering. It seemed to me a matter of course that we

should all take our share of the burden of pain that lies upon the

world. 43

While Schweitzer believed suffering was ineluctably a feature o f his

life, he never allowed it sovereignty over his own existence. The

implication he draws from this insight is that human responsibility in

the world involves seeking to release others from suffering.

Schweitzer's especial emphasis on the debilitating nature of pain that

exists in both the human and non-human world focuses attention on the

problem of redemption.




And we all, when we see suffering, must be challenged by a desire for

redemption, to help all creatures. We move within the midst of a great

mystery: the mystery of pain..And we come to be always conscious of

our great responsibility to alleviate it.44

Sensitivity to the suffering in the world requires humans not only to

renounce violence against life (insofar as it is possible to do so) but also

to alleviate it. This involves a costly self-sacrifice on behal f of others

and finds expression for Schweitzer in reverence for life. Perhaps more

than any other theologian, he connects the suffering in the world with

service to other life. But the problem of suffering is not resolved in this

world. As explored below, Schweitzer's next insight on the Fellowship

of Pain relates to an eschatological hope for the redemption of crea-

turely suffering.

Perhaps it is appropriate to address Schweitzer's eschatological

challenge 'at the end'. Schweitzer can contribute to contemporary

theological ethics by offering an eschatology o f liberation, a universal

redemption of all beings from the bondage of suffering and death.

For Schweitzer, the eschatological field has been a playground for

anthropocentrism.

Originally the dominant thought of the Kingdom of God meant that

believers shared with one another the blessings of a new creation. But

now the experience of the individual took precedence . . . Each

separate believer is now concerned with his own redemption. He cares

nothing for the future of mankind and of the world. 45

By contrast, Schweitzer's vision of redemption is as comprehensive as

creation itself. His eschatology of liberation draws on both Old and

New Testament visions of universal redemption. His percept ion of the

kingdom of God stems from his reading of 'the prophet Isaiah' (11:6-9)

who proclaims 'the Lord will save the world', as well as St Paul's

'marvellous passage' (i.e. Romans 8:22) that 'speaks of the longing of

the whole creation for early redemption' and displays 'his deep sym-

pathy with the animal creation and the natural world'.46 Schweitzer

writes of the cosmic scope of Christian eschatology, highlighting the

import of God's future as one not merely for humans but for the whole

creation which groans and sighs. As with the 'universality ' of reverence

for life, our conception of the kingdom should be cosmic in scope.

Schweitzer challenges us to find a doctrine of human redemption with

the world, not apart from the world.




S c h w e i tz e r a n d t h e f u t u r e o f C h r is ti a n t h eo l o gy

Sc hw e i t z e r r e gar de d t r ad i t i ona l ph i l o s oph i c a l and r e l i g i ous e t h i c s

w hi c h r e s t r i c t e d t he i r s c ope t o human r e l a t i ons a s s p i r i t ua l l y i mpo-

ve r i s he d . I n i t s p l ac e he o f f e r e d a ne w v i s i on : ' W e ne e d a bound l e s s

e t h ic w h i c h w i l l in c l u d e t h e a n i m a l s a l s o . ' 47 S c h w e i t z e r c a n r ig h t ly b e

s e e n as a p i one e r o f an i nc l us i ve , non- v i o l e n t e t h i c and pr ophe t i c o f

c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n c e r n s i n a n i m a l t h e o l o g y .

Sc hw e i t z e r ' s t hought c ha l l e nge s C hr i s t i an t he o l ogy ' s c ons t r i c t e d

e t h ic a l c o n c e p t i o n s o f l if e a n d o f f e rs s o m e i n s ig h t s o n h o w t h e y m i g h tbe e n l ar ge d . H i s c ont i nu i ng c ha l l e nge t o C hr i s t i an t he o l ogy r e mai ns t o

i mpl e me nt s uc h e t h i c a l i n s i gh t s t oday . I n t ha t s e ns e , Sc hw e i t z e r ' s

c o n t ri b u ti o n t o C h r i st ia n e th i c s i s in m a n y w a y s o n l y n o w b e g i n n i n g .

Ara Barsam is a doctoral student at the University of Oxford where he is

working on Albert Schw eitzer's m ystical theology and ethics, and serves as a

tutor for the Study o f R eligion.

N O T E S

1 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r, The teaching of reverence fo r life, R i c h a r d a n d C l a r a W i n s t o n ( tr a n s) ( N e w

Y o rk : H o l t , R i n e h a r t a n d W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 5 ) , p 4 9 .

2 F o r t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s t o p ic w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s e c o l o g i c a l - t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f ic a n c e , s e e A r a B a r s a m

a n d A n d r e w L i n z e y , ' A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r ' i n J o y P a l m e r ( e d) , Fifty key thinkers on the environment

( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e P r e s s , 2 0 0 0 ) .

3 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , ' T h e e t h i c s o f r e v e r e n c e f o r l i f e ' , Christendom (Win te r 1936 ) , p 229 .

4 K a n t m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e d if f e re n t ia t i o n b e t w e e n n o u m e n a l a n d p h e n o m e n a l w o r l d s d e l i n e a te d

t h e a b s o l u t e b o r d e r o f k n o w l e d g e . B u t i t is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e f o r S c h o p e n h a u e r t o c l a i m t h a t w e

a r e a w a r e o f o u r s e l v e s i n t w o d i s t i n c t w a y s : i n t h e c o g n i t i v e f a s h i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h w e c o m e t o

k n o w e x t e r n a l t h i n g s , a n d ' f r o m w i t h i n ' w h i c h m a y b e d e s c r i b e d a s ' w i l l ' . H e w r i te s : ' T h e w i l l i s

t h a t p r i m a r y a n d o r i g i n a l f o r c e . . , a n d e x p r e s s e s i n i ts e l f i n s o m e w a y e v e r y t h i n g in t h e w o r l d a n d

i s t h e k e r n e l o f a l l p h e n o m e n a . ' A f t e r a s se r t i n g t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e w i ll , S c h o p e n h a u e r r e f in e s t h e

c o n c e p t , d e s c r i b i n g i t a s ' w i l l - to - l i v e ': ' E v e r y g l a n c e o f t h e w o r l d . . , c o n f i rm s a n d e s t a b li s h e s

t h a t t h e will-to-live, f a r f r o m b e i n g a n a r b i t r a r y h y p o s t a s i s , i s t h e o n l y t r u e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

w o r l d ' s i n n e r m o s t n a t u r e . ' A r t h u r S c h o p e n h a u e r , The world as will and representation, E. E J.

P a y n e ( t ra n s ) (N e w Y o rk : D o v e r , 1 9 6 6 ) , p p 2 9 3 , 3 5 0 .

5 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r, The philosophy ofcivilisation, C . T . C a m p i o n ( t ra n s ) ( N e w Y o rk : M a c m i l l a n

a n d C o m p a n y , 1 95 0) , p 2 3 6 . S c h o p e n h a n e r r e p e a t e d l y a f f i r m s t h a t t h e t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f i s t h e ' w i l l -

t o - l i v e ' . S e e The world as will and representation, pp 14 , 16 , 18 , et passim.

6 S c h w e i t z e r , The philosophy ofcivilisation, p 55 . 'Das Letzte Wissen, nach dem wir trachten, ist

das Wissen vom Leben. Unser Erkennen erschaut das Leben von au'en, unser Wille yon innen.'

7 Ibid., p 308 .

8 Ibid., p 310 .

9 Ibid., p 282 .

10 Ibid., p 2 3 7 .




11 Albe r t S chwei t ze r , Ind ian though t and i t s deve lopmen t , C . B . E . R us s e l l ( t r an s ) (B os ton :

B e a c o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 ), p 2 6 4 .12 The ph i lo sophy o f c i v i l i sa t ion , p 309 .

13 Ib id . , p 310 .

14 Ib id . , p 83 .

15 Ibid., p 316 .

16 Ib id . , p 311.

17 The teaching o f reverence fo r l i fe, p 47 .

18 The ph i losoph y of c iv i li sa t ion , p 305 .

19 Ib id . , p 57 .

2 0 ' T h e e t h i c s o f r e v e r e n c e f o r l i f e ' , p 2 3 8 .

2 1 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , On the edge o f t he pr imeva l f o res t , C . T . C a m p i o n ( t r an s ) (L o n d o n : A . & C .

B lack , 1922 ) , p 70 .

2 2 Ind ian though t an d i t s deve lopmen t , p 83 .

23 The phi loso phy o f c iv i li sat ion , p 318 .

24 P la to , The republic P a r t V H , 5 1 8 , E M . C o r n f o r d ( t r a n s) (O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s,

1969 ) , p 232 .

2 5 S t A u g u s t i n e , The c i t y o f God 1 .20 , M arc us Dod s ( tr an s ) (Ed inbu rgh : T & T C la rk , 1877 ) , p 32 .

2 6 S t T h o m a s A q u i n a s , Summa theologiae l a 64 .1 .

2 7 S t T h o m a s A q u i n a s , Summa Contra Gent i les I I I .12 .

2 8 J o h n C a l v i n , Com mentar i e s on the f i r s t book o f M oses ca l l ed G enes i s vo l I ( 1 :26 ) , J ohn King

( t ra n s ) ( E d i n b u r g h : E d i n b u r g h P r i n t i n g C o m p a n y , 1 8 4 7 ), p 9 6 .

2 9 C a l v i n , Com mentar i e s on the f i r s t book o f M oses ca l l ed G enes i s vol I (9 :2) , p 291 .

3 0 M a r t i n L u t h e r , i n Luther ' s works v o l I I, J a r o s l a v P e l i k a n ( e d ) ( S t L o u i s : C o n c o r d i a P u b l i s h i n g

Hous e , 1958 ) , p 132 .

31 Lu th e r , i n Luther ' s works vol I I , p 133 .

3 2 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z er , A place for revelation: sermo ns on reverence for l ife , M a r t i n S t r e g e a n d

L o t h a r S t i e h m ( e d s ) , D a v i d L a r r i m o r e H o l l a n d ( t ra n s ) ( N e w Y o r k: M a c m i l l a n P r e s s , 1 9 88 ) , p 2 4 .

33 Ib id . , p 24 .

3 4 Ib id . , p 24 .

3 5 ib id . , p 11.

3 6 A l b e r t S c h w e i tz e r, ' P h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e m o v e m e n t fo r t h e p r o te c t io n o f a n i m a l s ' , The

In terna t iona l Journa l o f Anb na l P ro tec t ion ( M a y 1 9 3 5 ) .3 7 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , i n E r i c a A n d e r s o n , The Schwe i t zer a lbum ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r & R o w ,

1965) , p 174 .

3 8 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z er , i n Reverence fo r l i f e , U l r i c h N e u e n s h w a n d e r (e d ), R e g i n a l d H . F u l l e r

( t r an s ) (New York : Harp e r & R ow, 1969 ) , pp 118 -11 9 .

3 9 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , Out o f my l if e and though t, A . B . L e m k e ( t r a n s) ( N e w Y o rk : H e n r y H o l t a n d

C o m p a n y , 1 9 9 0 ) , p 2 3 7 .

4 0 A n d e r s o n , The Schwe i t zer a lbum, p 37 .

41 A place for revelation: sermo ns on reverence fo r l i fe , p 32 .

4 2 On the edge o f t he pr imeva l f o res t , p p 1 2 4 - 2 5 .

4 3 Out o f my l i fe and though t, p 242 .

4 4 S c h w e i t z e r , i n A n d e r s o n , The Schwe i t zer a lbum, p 162.

4 5 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , i n E . N . M o z l e y ( e d ) , The theo logy o f A lb er t Sch w e i t ze r for Chr is ti an

enquirers ( L o n d o n : A . & C . B l a c k , 1 9 5 0 ), p 8 3 .

4 6 A place for revelation: sermo ns on reverence fo r l i fe , p 32 .

4 7 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , in C h a r l e s J o y ( e d ), The an im a l w or ld o f A lbe r t Schw e i tzer : j ung le i ns igh ts

into reverence for l i fe (B os ton : B eacon P res s , 1950 ) , p 30 .

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