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Akbar

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar

Mughal Emperor of India

Reign 27 January 1556 - 29 October 1605[1] [2]

Coronation 14 February 1556, near Kalanaur, Gurdaspur

Predecessor Humayun

Successor Jahangir

Regent Bairam Khan (1556-1561)

Spouse 36 wives including Mariam-uz-Zamani

Issue

Jahangir5 other sons and 6 daughters

Full name

Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammed Akbar I

House Timurid

Father Humayun

Mother Hamida Banu Begum

Born 15 October 1542[3] Umerkot, Sind

Died 27 October 1605 (aged 63) Fatehpur Sikri, Agra

Burial Sikandra, Agra

Religion Din i Ilahi

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (ربکا دمحم نیدلا لالج Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar), also known as ShahanshahAkbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (15 October 1542  – 27 October 1605),[1] [2] was the third Mughal Emperor. Hewas of Timurid descent;[4] the son of Humayun, and the grandson of Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughaldynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of the northern and central Indiaand was one of the most powerful empires of its age.[5]

Akbar was thirteen years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi, following the death of his father Humayun.[6] During his reign, he eliminated military threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu.[7] [8] It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an

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emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by admittingRajput princesses in his harem.[7] [9]

Akbar's reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country.[10] He took a great interest in painting, and hadthe walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides encouraging the development of the Mughal school, he alsopatronised the European style of painting. He was fond of literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated intoPersian and Persian scriptures translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many Persian works illustrated by paintersfrom his court.[10] During the early years of his reign, he had an intolerant attitude towards Hindus and the otherreligions, but he exercised great tolerance after he began marriage alliances with Rajput princesses.[11] [12] [13] Hisadministration included numerous Hindu landlords, courtiers and military generals. He began a series of religiousdebates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Jains, Sikhs, Hindus, Cārvāka atheists, Jews,and Portuguese Roman Catholic Jesuits. He treated these religious leaders with great consideration, irrespective oftheir faith, and revered them.[14] He even founded a religion, the Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), which included theteachings of major religions of the world, but it amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar and starteddissolving after his death.[7] [15]

Early yearsAkbar was born on 15 October 1542 (the fourth day of Rajab, 949 AH), at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh(in modern day Pakistan), where Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum of Paatvillage were taking refuge.[3] Humayun gave the child the name he had heard in his dream at Lahore, Jalalu-d-dinMuhammad.[2] [16]

Akbar as a boy

Humayun had been driven into exile in Persia by the Pashtun leaderSher Shah Suri.[17] Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents butgrew up in the village of Mukundpur in Rewa (in present day MadhyaPradesh). Akbar and prince Ram Singh I, who later became theMaharajah of Rewa, grew up together and stayed close friends throughlife. Later, Akbar moved to the eastern parts of the Safavid Empire(now a part of Afghanistan) where he was raised by his uncle MirzaAskari. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, but he neverlearned to read or write. This lifestyle of his childhood made him adaring, powerful and a brave warrior but he remained illiteratethroughout his life. Although this did not hinder his search ofknowledge as it is said whenever he use to go to bed, there would besomebody reading for the king.[18] With time, Akbar matured into awell-informed ruler, with refined tastes in the arts, architecture, musicand a love for literature.

Following the chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son IslamShah, Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partlyprovided by his Persian ally Tahmasp I. A few months later, Humayundied. Akbar's guardian, Bairam Khan concealed the death in order toprepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14February 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah toreclaim the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur, Punjab, the 13 year old Akbar

was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform, which still stands.[19] [20] He was proclaimedShahanshah (Persian for "King of Kings"). Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age.[21] [22]

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Military achievements

Early conquestsAkbar decided early in his reign that he should eliminate the threat of Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead anarmy against the strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left Delhi under the regency of TardiBaig Khan. Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbarapproached.[23]

The Hindu king Hemu, however, commanding the Afghan forces, defeated the Mughal army and captured Delhi on6 October 1556.[21] Urged by Bairam Khan, who remarshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate hisposition, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it.[24] Akbar's army, led by Bairam Khan, met the larger forces of Hemuon 5 November 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi. The battle was going inHemu's favour when an arrow pierced Hemu's eye, rendering him unconscious. The leaderless army soon capitulatedand Hemu was captured and executed.[25]

The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege ofMankot. Sikandar, along with several local chieftains who were assisting him, surrendered and so was spareddeath.[26] With this, the whole of Punjab was annexed to the Mughal empire. Before returning to Agra, Akbar sent adetachment of his army to Jammu, which defeated the ruler Raja Kapur Chand and captured the kingdom.[26]

Between 1558 and 1560, Akbar further expanded the empire by capturing and annexing the kingdoms of Gwalior,northern Rajputana and Jaunpur.[27]

After a dispute at court, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj toMecca.[27] Bairam left for Mecca, but on his way was goaded by his opponents to rebel.[25] He was defeated by theMughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar, however forgave him and gave him the option of eithercontinuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage, of which Bairam chose the latter.[28]

Expansion

Mughal empire under Akbar

After dealing with the rebellion of Bairam Khan andestablishing his authority. Akbar went on to expand theMughal empire by subjugating local chiefs andannexing neighbouring kingdoms.[29] The first majorconquest was of Malwa in 1561, an expedition that wasled by Adham Khan and carried out with such savagecruelty that it resulted in a backlash from the kingdomenabling its ruler Baz Bahadur to recover the territorywhile Akbar was dealing with the rebellion of BairamKhan.[30] Subsequently, Akbar sent another detachmentwhich captured Malwa in 1562, and Baz Bahadureventually surrendered to the Mughals and was madean administrator. Around the same time, the Mughalarmy also conquered the kingdom of the Gonds, after afierce battle between the Asaf Khan, the Mughalgovernor of Allahabad, and Rani Durgavati, the queen of the Gonds.[31] However, Asaf Khan misappropriated mostof the wealth plundered from the kingdom, which Akbar subsequently forced him to restore, apart from

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Chittorgarh Fort

installing Durgavati's son as the administrator of the region.[32]

Over the course of the decade following his conquest of Malwa, Akbarbrought most of present-day Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal under hiscontrol. A major victory in this campaign was the siege of Chittor. Thefortress at Chittor, ruled by Maharana Udai Singh Sisodiya (Son ofRana Sangram Singh), was of great strategic importance as it lay on theshortest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also considered a key tocentral Rajasthan. On the advice of his nobles, Udai Singh retired tothe hills, leaving two warriors Jaimal and Patta in charge of thefort.Uday Singh, while staying in Hills, fathered a son who later cameto be known as Maharana Pratap[32] The Mughal army surrounded thefortress in October 1567 and it fell in February 1568 after a siege of six months. The fort was then stormed by theMughal forces, and a fierce resistance was offered by members of the garrison stationed inside, as well as localpeasants who came to their assistance. The women committed jauhar while over 30000 men were massacred by theMughal army.[33] [34] It was for the first and last time that Akbar indulged in carnage of this magnitude. Incommemoration of the gallantry of Jaimal and Patta, he ordered that stone statues of them seated on elephants becarved and erected at the chief gate of the Agra fort.[32] [35] The fortress was completely destroyed and its gates werecarried off to Agra, while the brass candlesticks taken from the Kalika temple after its destruction were given to theshrine of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer.[33] [36]

After Akbar's conquest of Chittor, two major Rajput clans remained opposed to him - the Sisodiyas of Mewar andHadas of Ranthambore. The latter, reputed to be the most powerful fortress in Rajasthan, was conquered by theMughal army in 1569, making Akbar the master of almost the whole of Rajputana. As a result, most of the Rajputkings, including those of Bikaner, Bundelkhand and Jaisalmer submitted to Akbar. Only the clans of Mewarcontinued to resist Mughal conquest and Akbar had to fight with them from time to time for the greater part of hisreign.[32] [33] Among the most prominent of them was Maharana Pratap who declined to accept Akbar's suzeraintyand also opposed the marriage etiquette of Rajputs who had been giving their daughters to Mughals. He renouncedall matrimonial alliances with Rajput rulers who had married into the Mughal dynasty, refusing such alliances evenwith the princes of Marwar and Amer until they agreed to sever ties with the Mughals.[37]

Consolidation

In 1566 A.D. Akbar rebuilt sections of the LahoreFort, following attacks by the Khokhars and

Timurs

Having conquered Rajputana, Akbar turned to Gujarat, whosegovernment was in a state of disarray after the death of its previousruler, Bahadur Shah. The province was a tempting target as it was acenter of world trade, it possessed fertile soil and had highly developedcrafts.[38] The province had been occupied by Humayun for a briefperiod, and prior to that was ruled by the Delhi Sultanate.[32] In 1572,Akbar marched to Ahmedabad, which capitulated without offeringresistance. He took Surat by siege, and then crossed the Mahi river anddefeated his estranged cousins, the Mirzas, in a hard-fought battle atSarnal.[38] [39] During the campaign, Akbar met a group of Portuguesemerchants for the first time at Cambay. Having established hisauthority over Gujarat, Akbar returned to Agra, but Mirza-ledrebellions soon broke out. Akbar returned, crossing Rajasthan at great speed on camels and horses, and reachedAhmedabad in eleven days - a journey that normally took six weeks. Akbar's army of 3000 horsemen then defeatedthe enemy forces numbering 20000 in a decisive victory on 2 September 1573.[38]

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The conquest of Gujarat marked a significant event of Akbar's reign as it gave the Mughal empire free access to thesea and control over the rich commerce that passed through its ports. The territory and income of the empire werevastly increased.[39] The following year, Akbar marched on Patna, capturing it on 7 August 1574,[40] andsubsequently, after a series of battles, defeated the ruler of Bengal, Daud Khan Karrani, at the Battle of Tukaroi on 3March 1575, thereby annexing the province to the Mughal empire.[41] However, Daud, who had fled to Orissa,regrouped his forces the following year and recaptured Bengal. Akbar then sent in reinforcements and Daud wasfinally defeated, captured and killed in the Battle of Rajmahal in July 1576.[42] The Mughal army also conqueredKabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and Kandesh (1601), among others. Akbar installed a governor over each of theconquered provinces.[43]

Administration

Political government

The court of young Akbar, age 13,showing his first imperial act: the

arrest of an unruly courtier, who wasonce a favorite of Akbar's father.

Illustration from a manuscript of theAkbarnama

Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolvedsince the Delhi Sultanate, but the functions of various departments were carefullyreorganised by laying down detailed regulations for their functioning:[44]

• The revenue department was headed by a wazir, responsible for all financesand management of jagir and inam lands.

• The head of the military was called the mir bakshi, appointed from among theleading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligencegathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for militaryappointments and promotions.

• The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems,and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard.

• The judiciary was a separate organization headed by a chief qazi, who wasalso responsible for religious endowments.

Akbar departed from the policy of his predecessors in his treatment of theterritories he conquered. Previous Mughals extracted a large tribute from theserulers and then leave them to administer their dominions autonomously; Akbarintegrated them into his administration, providing them the opportunity to serveas military rulers. He thus simultaneously controlled their power while increasingtheir prestige as a part of the imperial ruling class.[45] Some of these rulers wenton to become the navaratnas in Akbar's court.

TaxationAkbar set about reforming the administration of his empire's land revenue by adopting a system that had been used by Sher Shah Suri. A cultivated area was measured and taxed through fixed rates based on the area's crop and productivity. However, this placed hardship on the peasantry because tax rates were fixed on the basis of prices prevailing in the imperial court, which were often higher than those in the countryside.[46] Akbar changed to a decentralised system of annual assessment, but this resulted in corruption among local officials and was abandoned in 1580, to be replaced by a system called the dahsala.[47] Under the new system, revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices, and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought.[47] Akbar's dahsala system is credited to Raja Todar Mal, who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri,[48] and the structure of the revenue administration was set out by the latter in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor

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in 1582-83.[49]

Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Land which was fallow or uncultivated was charged atconcessional rates.[50] Akbar also actively encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. The villagecontinued to remain the primary unit of revenue assessment.[51] Zamindars of every area were required to provideloans and agricultural implements in times of need, to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and tosow seeds of superior quality. In turn, the zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce.Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue.[50] While the revenueassessment system showed concern for the small peasantry, it also maintained a level of distrust towards the revenueofficials. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependenton their full realisation of the revenue assessed.[52]

Military organizationAkbar organized his army as well as the nobility by means of a system called the mansabdari. Under this system,each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a mansab), and assigned a number of cavalry that he had to supply tothe imperial army.[48] The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from7000 to 10000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Other ranks between 10 and 5000 were assigned to othermembers of the nobility. The empire's permanent standing army was quite small and the imperial forces mostlyconsisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars.[53] Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab andthen promoted, based on their merit as well as the favour of the emperor.[54] Each mansabdar was required tomaintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greaterbecause they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that thequality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and only Arabian horseswere normally employed.[55] The mansabdars were remunerated well for their services and constituted the highestpaid military service in the world at the time.[54]

Capital of the empire

Diwan-i-Khas – Hall of Private Audience

Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti, a holy man who lived in theregion of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be a lucky one forhimself, he had a mosque constructed there for the use of the saint.Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor andRanthambore by laying the foundation of a new walled capital,23 miles (37 km) west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur("town of victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573 andsubsequently came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri in order todistinguish it from other similarly named towns.[32] Palaces for each ofAkbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuouswater-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon

abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply inFatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to thenorthwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. Other sources indicate Akbar simply lostinterest in the city[56] or realized it was not militarily defensible. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra fromwhere he reigned until his death.

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Diplomacy

Maharana Pratap

Matrimonial alliances

The practice of giving Hindu princesses to Muslim kings in marriage was knownmuch before Akbar's time, but in most cases these marriages did not lead to anystable relations between the families involved, and the women were lost to theirfamilies and did not return after marriage.[57] [58] However, Akbar's policy ofmatrimonial alliances marked a departure from previous practice in that themarriage itself marked the beginning of a new order of relations, wherein theHindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated onpar with his Muslim fathers and brothers in-law in all respects except being ableto dine and pray with him or take Muslim wives. These Rajputs were mademembers of his court and their daughters' or sisters' marriage to a Muslim ceasedto be a sign of degradation, except for certain orthodox elements who stillconsidered it a sign of humiliation.[58]

The Kacchwaha Rajput, Raja Bharmal, of Amber, who had come to Akbar'scourt shortly after the latter's accession, entered into an alliance by giving his daughter Harkha Bai in marriage to theemperor.[59] [60] Harkha Bai became Muslim was renamed Mariam-uz-Zamani. After her marriage she was treated asan outcaste by her Hindu family and for the rest of her life never visited Amer. She was not assigned any significantplace either in Agra or Delhi, but rather a small village in the Bharatpur district.[61] She died in 1623. A mosque wasbuilt in her honor by her son Jahangir in Lahore.[62] Bharmal was made a noble of high rank in the imperial court,and subsequently his son Bhagwant Das and grandson Man Singh also rose to high ranks in the nobility.[57]

Other Rajput kingdoms also established matrimonial alliances with Akbar, but matrimony was not insisted on as aprecondition for forming alliances. Two major Rajput clans remained aloof – the Sisodiyas of Mewar and Hadas ofRanthambore. In another turning point of Akbar's reign, Raja Man Singh I of Amber went with Akbar to meet theHada leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance. Surjan accepted an alliance on the condition that Akbar did not marryany of his daughters. Consequently, no matrimonial alliance was entered into, yet Surjan was made a noble andplaced in charge of Garh-Katanga.[57] Certain other Rajput nobles did not like the idea of their kings marrying theirdaughters to Mughals. Rathore Kalyandas threatened to kill both Mota Raja Rao Udaisingh and Jahangir becauseUdai Singh had decided to marry his daughter Jodha Bai to Jahangir. Akbar on hearing this ordered imperial forcesto attack Kalyandas at Siwana. Kalyandas died fighting along with his men and the women of Siwana committedJauhar.[63]

The political effect of these alliances was significant. While some Rajput women who entered Akbar's haremconverted to Islam, they were generally provided full religious freedom, and their relatives, who continued to remainHindu, formed a significant part of the nobility and served to articulate the opinions of the majority of the commonpopulace in the imperial court.[57] The interaction between Hindu and Muslim nobles in the imperial court resulted inexchange of thoughts and blending of the two cultures. Further, newer generations of the Mughal line represented amerger of Mughal and Rajput blood, thereby strengthening ties between the two. As a result, the Rajputs became thestrongest allies of the Mughals, and Rajput soldiers and generals fought for the Mughal army under Akbar, leading itin several campaigns including the conquest of Gujarat in 1572.[64] Akbar's policy of religious tolerance ensured thatemployment in the imperial administration was open to all on merit irrespective of creed, and this led to an increasein the strength of the administrative services of the empire.[65]

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Relations with the PortugueseAt the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on thewestern coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea-trade in that region. As a consequence ofthis colonialism, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, and this wasresented by the rulers and traders of the time.[66] The Mughal empire acquired its first access to the sea after Akbar'sconquest of Gujarat in 1572, and for the first few years, conscious of the threat posed by the presence of thePortuguese, remained content with obtaining a cartaz from them for sailing in the Persian Gulf region.[67] At theinitial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the siege of Surat in 1572, the Portuguese, recognising thesuperior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war, and the Portuguese Governor, uponthe request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations. Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy,in order to facilitate the safe passage of the members of his harem on their projected pilgrimage to Mecca.[68] In1573, he issued a firman directing his administrative officials in Gujarat not to disturb the Portuguese in theiradjoining territory of Daman. The Portuguese, in turn, issued passes for the members of Akbar's family to go on Hajjto Mecca. The cartaz thus issued made mention of the extraordinary status of the vessel and the special status to beaccorded to its occupants.[69]

Relations with the Ottoman Empire

Hejaz

In 1576 Akbar sent a very large contingent of pilgrims led by YahyaSaleh, including members of his harem, on Hajj by two ships fromSurat, which reached the port of Jeddah in 1577 and then proceededtowards Mecca and Medina.[70] Four more caravans were sent from1577 to 1580, with gifts and Sadaqah for the authorities of Mecca andMedina. The pilgrims in these caravans were poor, however, and theirstay strained the resources of these cities.[71] [72] The Ottomanauthorities requested that the pilgrims return home, but the ladies of theharem did not want to leave Hejaz. At length they were forced toreturn. These events persuaded Akbar to stop sending Hajj caravansand Sadaqat to Mecca and Medina. In 1586, Akbar expressed a desireto form an alliance with the Portuguese in order to attack the OttomanTurks.[73] In 1587 a Portuguese fleet sent to attack Yemen was routedand defeated by the Ottoman Navy. The Mughal-Portuguese alliance fell through because of the continuing pressureby the Mughal vassals at Janjira.[74]

Religious policyAkbar, as well as his mother and other members of his family, are believed to have been Sunni Hanafi Muslims.[75]

His early days were spent in the backdrop of an atmosphere in which liberal sentiments were encouraged andreligious narrow-mindednness was frowned upon.[76] From the 15th century, a number of rulers in various parts ofthe country adopted a more liberal policy of religious tolerance, attempting to foster communal harmony betweenHindus and Muslims.[77] These sentiments were further encouraged by the teachings of popular saints likeChaitanya, Guru Nanak and Kabir,[76] the verses of the Persian poet Hafez which advocated human sympathy and aliberal outlook,[78] as well as the Timurid ethos of religious tolerance that persisted in the polity right from the timesof Timur to Humayun, and influenced Akbar's policy of tolerance in matters of religion.[79] Further, his childhoodtutors, who included two Irani Shias, were largely above sectarian prejudices, and made a significant contribution toAkbar's later inclination towards religious tolerance.[79]

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One of Akbar's first actions after gaining actual control of the administration was the abolition of jizya, a tax whichall non-Muslims were required to pay, in 1562.[76] The tax was reinstated in 1575,[80] a move which has been viewedas being symbolic of vigorous Islamic policy,[81] but was again repealed in 1580.[82] Akbar adopted the Sulh-e-Kulconcept of Sufism as official policy, integrated many Hindus into high positions in the administration, and removedrestrictions on non-Muslims, thereby bringing about a composite and diverse character to the nobility.[83] [84] As amark of his respect for all religions, he ordered the observance of all religious festivals of different communities inthe imperial court.[14]

Relation with Hindus

Allahabad Fort

Akbar's attitudes towards his Hindu subjects were an amalgam ofTimurid, Persian and Indian ideas of sovereignty.[77] The liberalprinciples of the empire were strengthened by incorporatingHindus into the nobility.[76] However, historian DasharathaSharma states that court histories like the Akbarnama idealizeAkbar's religious tolerance, and give Akbar more credit than he isdue.[85]

Akbar in his early years was not only a practising Muslim but isalso reported to have had an intolerant attitude towards Hindus.[11]

It was during this period that he boasted of being a great conquerorof Islam to the ruler of Turan, Abdullah Khan, in a letter in 1579,[12] and was also looked upon by orthodox Muslimelements as a devout believer committed to defending the religion against infidels.[13] However, his attitude towardsthe Hindu religion and its practices no longer remained hostile after he began his marriage alliances with Rajputprincesses. He was also perceived as not being averse to performing Hindu rituals despite his Islamic beliefs.[13]

Akbar's Hindu generals could not construct temples without the emperor's permission. In Bengal, after Man Singhstarted the construction of a temple in 1595, Akbar ordered him to convert it into a mosque.[86] He gave two villagesfor the upkeep of a mosque and a Madrasa which was setup by destroying a Hindu temple.[87] During the early partof Akbar's reign, his army was responsible for the demolition of rich Hindu temples which had gold deities in theDoab region. However, he subsequently made amends for the same by donating a golden umbrella to cover the deityat a temple which had been demolished, and allowing the conversion of a mosque into Hindu temple atKurukshetra.[87]

Relation with JainsAkbar regularly hold discussions with Jain scholars and was also greatly impacted by some of their teachings. Hisfirst encounter with Jain rituals was when he saw a Jain shravika named Champa's procession after a six month longfast. Impressed by her power and devotion, he invited her guru or spiritual teacher AcharyaHiravijaya Suri toFatehpur Sikri. Acharya accepted the invitation and began his march towards the Mughal capital from Gujarat.[88]

Akbar was greatly impressed by the scholastic qualities and character of the Acharya. He held several debates anddiscussions on religion and philosophy in his courts. Arguing with Jains, Akbar remained sceptical of their rituals,and yet became convinced by their arguments for vegetarianism and end up deploring the eating of all flesh.[89]

The Indian Supreme Court too has cited examples of co-existence of Jain and Mughal architecture. Terming Mughalemperor Akbar as "the architect of modern India", a bench said that Akbar, who had great respect for Jainism, haddeclared "Amari Ghosana" banning the killing of animals during Paryushan and Mahavir Jayanti. He rolled back theJazia tax from Jain pilgrim places like Palitana. These farmans were also issued in 1592, 1584 and 1598.[90]

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Relations with Shias and Islamic clergy

Gate of the Akbar's mausoleum at Sikandra, Agra,1795

During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude ofsuppression towards Muslim sects that were condemned by theorthodoxy as heretical.[13] In 1567, on the advice of Shaikh Abdu'nNabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi -a Shia buried in Delhi - because of the grave's proximity to that ofAmir Khusrau, arguing that a "heretic" could not be buried soclose to the grave of a Sunni saint, reflecting a restrictive attitudetowards the Shia, which continued to persist till the early1570s.[91] He suppressed Mahdavism in 1573 during his campaignin Gujarat, in the course of which the Mahdavi leader BandagiMiyan Shiek Mustafa was arrested and brought in chains to thecourt for debate and released after eighteen months.[91] However,as Akbar increasingly came under the influence of pantheistic Sufimysticism from the early 1570s, it caused a great shift in his outlook and culminated in his shift from orthodox Islamas traditionally professed, in favor of a new concept of Islam transcending the limits of religion.[91] Consequently,during the latter half of his reign, he adopted a policy of tolerance towards the Shias and declared a prohibition onShia-Sunni conflict, and the empire remained neutral in matters of internal religious conflict within Islam.[92]

Silver coin of Akbar with inscriptions of the Islamicdeclaration of faith

In 1580, a rebellion broke out in the eastern part of Akbar'sempire, and a number of fatwas, declaring Akbar to be a heretic,were issued by Qazis. Akbar suppressed the rebellion and handedout severe punishments to the Qazis. In order to further strengthenhis position in dealing with the Qazis, Akbar issued a mazhar ordeclaration that was signed by all major ulemas in 1579.[93] [94]

The mahzar asserted that Akbar was the Khalifa of the age, therank of the Khalifa was higher than that of a Mujtahid, in case of adifference of opinion among the Mujtahids, Akbar could selectany one opinion and could also issue decrees which did not goagainst the nass.[95] Given the prevailing Islamic sectarian conflicts in various parts of the country at that time, it isbelieved that the Mazhar helped in stabilizing the religious situation in the empire.[93] It made Akbar very powerfuldue to the complete supremacy accorded to the Khalifa by Islam, and also helped him eliminate the religious andpolitical influence of the Ottoman Khalifa over his subjects, thus ensuring their complete loyalty to him.[96]

Relation with ChristiansAkbar met Portuguese Jesuit priests and sent an ambassador to Goa, requesting them to send two missionaries to hiscourt so that he could understand Christian doctrines better. In response, the Portuguese sent Monserrate andAcquaviva who remained at Akbar's court for three years and left accounts of their visit.[97] In 1603 a written firmanwas granted at the request of the Christian priests allowing them to make willing converts.[98] Even armed with thefirman, however, the missionaries found it extremely difficult to carry out their work: the Viceroy of Lahore, QulijKhan, a staunch Muslim official, employed tactics of harassment that caused many Christians to flee from Lahoreand Father Pinheiro went in fear of death.[99]

Akbar 11

Din-i-Ilahi

Akbar holds a religious assembly of different faiths inthe Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri.

Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophicalmatters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to beinfluenced by Sufi mysticism that was being preached in thecountry at that time, and moved away from orthodoxy, appointingto his court several talented people with liberal ideas, includingAbul Fazl, Faizi and Birbal. In 1575, he built a hall called theIbadat Khana ("House of Worship") at Fatehpur Sikri, to which heinvited theologians, mystics and selected courtiers renowned fortheir intellectual achievements and discussed matters of spiritualitywith them.[76] These discussions, initially restricted to Muslims,were acrimonious and resulted in the participants shouting at andabusing each other. Upset by this, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khanato people of all religions as well as atheists, resulting in the scopeof the discussions broadening and extending even into areas suchas the validity of the Quran and the nature of God. This shockedthe orthodox theologians, who sought to discredit Akbar bycirculating rumours of his desire to forsake Islam.[93]

Akbar's efforts to evolve a meeting point among therepresentatives of various religions was not very successful, aseach of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respectivereligions by denouncing other religions. Meanwhile, the debates atthe Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to theirpurpose of leading to a better understanding among religions,instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting to thediscontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.[97] However, his interaction with various religious theologians hadconvinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combineinto a new religious movement known as Din-i-Ilahi.[100] [101] However, some modern scholars claim that Akbar didnot initiate a new religion and did not use the word Din-i-Ilahi.[102] At about this time, he began to indicate that hehad lost faith in the creed of the prophet of Mecca.[103]

The purported Din-i-Ilahi was more of an ethical system and is said to have prohibited lust, sensuality, slander andpride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues. The soul is encouraged topurify itself through yearning of God.[104] Celibacy was respected, the slaughter of animals was forbidden and therewere no sacred scriptures or a priestly hierarchy.[105] However, a leading Noble of Akbar's court, Aziz Koka, wrote aletter to him from Mecca in 1594 arguing that the Din-i-Ilahi promoted by Akbar amounted to nothing more than adesire on Akbar's part to portray himself as "a new prophet".[106] To commemorate Din-e-Ilahi, he changed the nameof Prayag to Allahabad (pronounced as ilahabad) in 1583.[107] [108]

It has been argued that the theory of Din-i-Ilahi being a new religion was a misconception which arose due toerroneous translations of Abul Fazl's work by later British historians.[109] However, it is also accepted that the policyof sulh-e-kul, which formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, butas a part of general imperial administrative policy. This also formed the basis for Akbar's policy of religioustoleration.[110] At the time of Akbar's death in 1605 there were no signs of discontent amongst his Muslim subjectsand the impression of even a theologian like Abdu'l Haq was that Akbar remained a Muslim.[111]

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Historical accounts

Personality

Akbar hunting with cheetahs, c. 1602

Akbar on an elephant

Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazal in thebooks Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari. Other contemporary sources of Akbar'sreign include the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh AhmedSirhindi.

Akbar was an artisan, warrior, artist, armourer, blacksmith, carpenter, emperor,general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of huntingcheetahs during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologistand theologian.[112]

Akbar is said to have been a wise ruler and a sound judge of character. His sonand heir, Jahangir, in his memoirs, wrote effusive praise of Akbar's character,and dozens of anecdotes to illustrate his virtues.[113] According to Jahangir,Akbar's complexion was like the yellow of wheat. Antoni de Montserrat, theCatalan Jesuit who visited his court described him as plainly white. Akbar wasnot tall but powerfully built and very agile. He was also noted for various acts ofcourage. One such incident occurred on his way back from Malwa to Agra whenAkbar was 19 years of age.

Akbar rode alone in advance of his escort and was confronted by a tigress who,along with her cubs, came out from the shrubbery across his path. When thetigress charged the emperor, he was alleged to have dispatched the animal withhis sword in a solitary blow. His approaching attendants found the emperorstanding quietly by the side of the dead animal.[114]

Abul Fazal, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as having acommanding personality. He was notable for his command in battle, and, "likeAlexander of Macedon, was always ready to risk his life, regardless of politicalconsequences". He often plunged on his horse into the flooded river during therainy seasons and safely crossed it. He rarely indulged in cruelty and is said tohave been affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim,who was a repented rebel. But on rare occasions, he dealt cruelly with offenders,such as his maternal uncle Muazzam and his foster-brother Adham Khan.

Akbar and Tansen, visit Swami Haridas atVrindavan, a painting c. 1750

He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. Ain-e-Akbarimentions that during his travels and also while at home, Akbar drankwater from the Ganges river, which he called ‘the water ofimmortality’. Special people were stationed at Sorun and laterHaridwar to dispatch water, in sealed jars, to wherever he wasstationed.[115] According to Jahangir's memoirs, he was fond of fruitsand had little liking for meat, which he stopped eating in his lateryears. He was more religiously tolerant than many of the Muslim rulersbefore and after him. Jahangir wrote:

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"As in the wide expanse of the Divine compassion there is room for all classes and the followers of all creeds, so... inhis dominions, ... there was room for the professors of opposite religions, and for beliefs good and bad, and the roadto altercation was closed. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque, and Franks and Jews in one church, and observedtheir own forms of worship.[113] "To defend his stance that speech arose from hearing, he carried out a language deprivation experiment, and hadchildren raised in isolation, not allowed to be spoken to, and pointed out that as they grew older, they remainedmute.[116]

HagiographyDuring Akbar's reign, the ongoing process of inter-religious discourse and syncretism resulted in a series of religiousattributions to him in terms of positions of assimilation, doubt or uncertainty, which he either assisted himself or leftunchallenged.[117] Such hagiographical accounts of Akbar traversed a wide range of denominational and sectarianspaces, including several accounts by Parsis, Jains and Jesuit missionaries, apart from contemporary accounts byBrahminical and Muslim orthodoxy.[118] Existing sects and denominations, as well as various religious figures whorepresented popular worship felt they had a claim to him. The diversity of these accounts is attributed to the fact thathis reign resulted in the formation of a flexible centralised state accompanied by personal authority and culturalheterogeneity.[117]

Akbarnāma, the Book of Akbar

Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak presenting Akbarnama toAkbar, Mughal miniature

The Akbarnāma (Persian: /Lang-Ur ہمان ربکا), which literallymeans Book of Akbar, is a official biographical account of Akbar,the third Mughal Emperor (r. 1556–1605), written in Persian. Itincludes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times.[119]

The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by Abul Fazl,one of the Nine Jewels (Hindi: Navaratnas) of Akbar’s royal court.It is stated that the book took seven years to be completed and theoriginal manuscripts contained a number of paintings supportingthe texts, and all the paintings represented the Mughal school ofpainting, and work of masters of the imperial workshop, includingBasawan, whose use of portraiture in its illustrations was aninnovation in Indian art.[119]

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Coins of Akbar

Copper -half dam struck in themonth of Di of Ilahi 36 at

Lahore mint

Copper -dam struck in the yearAH.1000 (Alf). Mint -Urdu

Zafar Qarin

Silver square rupee ofLahoremint

Malwa copper coin Ujjainpurmint

Copper two dams Rebellion issue of Prince Salimduring Akbar's reign

Note: Akbar used to take a coin mint along with his military expeditions to issue coins under his authority afterannexation, bearing the mint name "Urdu Zafar Qarin"

In popular culture• In 2008, director Ashutosh Gowariker released a film telling the story of Akbar and his wife Hira Kunwari

(known more popularly as Jodha Bai), titled Jodhaa Akbar. Akbar was played by Hrithik Roshan and Jodhaa wasplayed by Aishwarya Rai.

• Akbar was portrayed in the award-winning 1960 Hindi movie Mughal-e-Azam (The great Mughal), in which hischaracter was played by Prithviraj Kapoor.

• Akbar and Birbal were portrayed in the Hindi series Akbar-Birbal aired on Zee TV in late 1990s where Akbar'srole was essayed by Vikram Gokhale.

• A television series, called Akbar the Great, directed by Sanjay Khan was aired on DD National in the 1990s.• A fictionalized Akbar plays an important supporting role in Kim Stanley Robinson's 2002 novel, The Years of

Rice and Salt.• Akbar is also a major character in Salman Rushdie's 2008 novel The Enchantress of Florence.• Amartya Sen uses Akbar as a prime example in his books The Argumentative Indian and Violence and Identity.• Bertrice Small is known for incorporating historical figures as primary characters in her romance novels, and

Akbar is no exception. He is a prominent figure in two of her novels, and mentioned several times in a third,which takes place after his death. In This Heart of Mine the heroine becomes Akbar's fortieth "wife" for a time,while Wild Jasmine and Darling Jasmine centre around the life of his half-British daughter, Yasaman KamaBegum (alias Jasmine).

• Akbar is featured in the video game Sid Meier's Civilization 4: Beyond the Sword as a "great general" available inthe game.

• Akbar is also the AI Personality of India in the renowned game Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties.• The violin concerto nicknamed "Il Grosso Mogul" written by Antonio Vivaldi in the 1720s, and listed in the

standard catalogue as RV 208, is considered to be indirectly inspired by Akbar's reign.• In Kunal Basu's The Miniaturist, the story revolves around a young painter during Akbar's time who paints his

own version of the Akbarnamu'

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Notes[1] "Akbar" (http:/ / www. the-south-asian. com/ Dec2000/ Akbar. htm). The South Asian. . Retrieved 23 May 2008.[2] Conversion of Islamic and Christian dates (Dual) (http:/ / www. oriold. uzh. ch/ static/ hegira. html) As per the date convertor Baadshah

Akbar's birth date, as per Humayun nama, of 04 Rajab, 949 AH, corresponds to 14 October 1542.[3] Majumdar 1984, p. 58[4] "Timurid Dynasty" (http:/ / www. newworldencyclopedia. org/ entry/ Timurid_Dynasty). New World Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 18 July 2009.[5] "Extant of Empire" (http:/ / www. writespirit. net/ authors/ akbar). .[6] Majumdar 1984, p. 104[7] Fazl, Abul. Akbarnama Volume II.[8] Prasad, Ishwari (1970). The life and times of Humayun (http:/ / scholar. google. com/ scholar?q=Ishwari Prasad life and times of humayun&

hl=en& lr=& oi=scholart). .[9] "Akbar" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1E1-Akbar. html). Columbia Encyclopedia. 2008. . Retrieved 30 May 2008.[10] Maurice S. Dimand (1953). "Mughal Painting under Akbar the Great" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3257529). The Metropolitan Museum

of Art Bulletin 12 (2): 46–51. .[11] Habib 1997, p. 84[12] Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2005). Mughals and Franks. Oxford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780195668667.[13] Habib 1997, p. 85[14] Hasan 2007, p. 73[15] Fazl, Abul. Akbarnama Volume III.[16] Part 10:..the birth of Akbar (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ mealac/ pritchett/ 00litlinks/ gulbadan/ part10. html) Humayun nama,

Columbia University.[17] Banjerji, S.K.. Humayun Badshah.[18] Fazl, Abul. Akbarnama Volume I.[19] "Gurdas" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080527210721/ http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ government/ gurdas1. GIF). Government of Punjab.

Archived from the original (http:/ / punjabgovt. nic. in/ government/ gurdas1. GIF) on 27 May 2008. . Retrieved 30 May 2008.[20] History (http:/ / gurdaspur. nic. in/ html/ profile. htm#history) Gurdaspur district website.[21] Chandra 2007, p. 226[22] Smith 2002, p. 337[23] Majumdar 1984, pp. 104–105[24] Chandra 2007, pp. 226–227[25] Chandra 2007, p. 227[26] Habib 1997, p. 3[27] Smith 2002, p. 339[28] Chandra 2007, p. 228[29] Habib 1997, p. 4[30] Chandra 2007, p. 229[31] Chandra 2007, p. 230[32] Chandra 2007, p. 231[33] Smith 2002, p. 342[34] Chandra, Dr. Satish (2001). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Har Anand Publications. p. 107. ISBN 8124105227.[35] Smith 2002, p. 343[36] Watson, C.C. (1904). Rajputana District Gazetteers. Scottish Mission Industries Co., Ltd.. p. 17.[37] James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India, 2 vols. London, Smith, Elder (1829,

1832); New Delhi, Munshiram Publishers, (2001), pp. 83-4. ISBN 8170691281[38] Chandra 2007, p. 232[39] Smith 2002, p. 344[40] Majumdar 1984, pp. 129-130[41] Majumdar 1984, p. 130[42] Majumdar 1984, pp. 130-131[43] Majumdar 1984, pp. 142-153[44] Chandra 2007, pp. 240–241[45] Habib 1997, p. 15[46] Chandra 2007, p. 233[47] Chandra 2007, p. 234[48] Chandra 2007, p. 236[49] Moosvi 2008, p. 160[50] Chandra 2007, p. 235[51] Moosvi 2008, pp. 164–165

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[52] Moosvi 2008, p. 165[53] Smith 2002, p. 359[54] Chandra 2007, p. 238[55] Chandra 2007, p. 237[56] Petersen, A. (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. New York: Routledge.[57] Chandra 2007, p. 243[58] Sarkar 1984, p. 37[59] Sarkar 1984, p. 36[60] Chandra 2007, pp. 242–243[61] Nath 1982, p. 397[62] Nath 1982, p. 52[63] Alam, Muzaffar; Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1998). The Mughal State, 1526-1750. Oxford University Press. p. 177. ISBN 9780195639056.[64] Sarkar 1984, pp. 38–40[65] Sarkar 1984, p. 38[66] Habib 1997, p. 256[67] Habib 1997, pp. 256–257[68] Habib 1997, p. 259[69] Habib 1997, p. 260[70] Moosvi 2008, p. 246[71] Ottoman court chroniclers (1578). Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 32 f 292 firman 740, Shaban 986.[72] Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1999). Akbar and his age. Northern Book Centre. p. 218. ISBN 9788172111083.[73] Majumdar 1984, p. 158[74] Ottoman court chroniclers (1588). Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 62 f 205 firman 457, Avail Rabiulavval 996.[75] Habib 1997, p. 80[76] Chandra 2007, p. 253[77] Chandra 2007, p. 252[78] Hasan 2007, p. 72[79] Habib 1997, p. 81[80] Day, Upendra Nath (1970). The Mughal Government, A.D. 1556-1707. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 134.[81] Ali 2006, p. 159[82] Dasgupta, Ajit Kumar (1993). History of Indian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 0415061954.[83] Ali 2006, pp. 164–165[84] Hasan 2007, pp. 72–73[85] Paliwal, Dr. D.L. (Ed.). Maharana Pratap Smriti Granth. Sahitya Sansthan Rajasthan Vidya Peeth. p. 182.[86] Forbes, Geraldine; Tomlinson, B.R. (2005). The new Cambridge history of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 0521267285.[87] Harbans, Mukhia (2004). The Mughals of India. Blackwell Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 9780631185550.[88] Sanghmitra. Jain Dharma ke Prabhavak Acharya. Jain Vishwa Bharati, Ladnu.[89] Sen, Amartya (2005). "13". The Argumentative Indian. Allen Lane. ISBN 0713996870.[90] "Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ ahmedabad/ Ahmedabad-turned-Akbar-veggie/ articleshow/

5259184. cms). The Times of India. 23 November 2009. . Retrieved 23 November 2009.[91] Habib 1997, p. 86[92] Ali 2006, pp. 165–166[93] Chandra 2007, p. 254[94] Ali 2006, p. 159[95] Hasan 2007, p. 79[96] Hasan 2007, pp. 82–83[97] Chandra 2007, p. 255[98] Krishnamurti, R; (1961). Akbar: The Religious Aspect. Faculty of Arts, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. p. 83.[99] MacLagan, Edward ; (1932). The Jesuits and the Great Mogul. Burns, Oates & Washbourne. p. 60.[100] Chandra 2007, p. 256[101] "Din-i Ilahi — Britannica Online Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9030480/ Din-i-Ilahi). Britannica.com. .

Retrieved 18 July 2009.[102] Sharma, Sri Ram (1988). The Religious Policy of the Mughal Emperors. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 42. ISBN 8121503957.[103] Smith 2002, p. 348[104] Roy Choudhury, Makhan Lal (1941), The Din-i-Ilahi, or, The religion of Akbar (3rd ed.), New Delhi: Oriental Reprint (published 1985,

1997), ISBN 8121507774[105] Children's Knowledge Bank — Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0ti8clvedTAC). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 18

July 2009.[106] Koka,Aziz (1594). King's College Collection, MS 194. This letter is preserved in Cambridge University Library. p. ff.5b-8b.

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[107] Conder, Josiah (1828). The Modern Traveller: a popular description. R.H.Tims. p. 282.[108] Deefholts, Margaret; Deefholts, Glenn; Acharya, Quentine (2006). The Way We Were: Anglo-Indian Cronicles. Calcutta Tiljallah Relief

Inc. p. 87. ISBN 0975463934.[109] Ali 2006, pp. 163–164[110] Ali 2006, p. 164[111] Habib 1997, p. 96[112] Habib, Irfan (1992). "Akbar and Technology". Social Scientist 20: 3–15. doi:10.2307/3517712.[113] Jahangir (1600s). Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (Memoirs of Jahangir).[114] Garbe, Richard von (1909). Akbar, Emperor of India. Chicago-The Open Court Publishing Company.[115] Hardwar (http:/ / persian. packhum. org/ persian/ main?url=pf?file=00702015& ct=48& rqs=60) Ain-e-Akbari, by Abul Fazl 'Allami,

Volume I, A´I´N 22. The A´bda´r Kha´nah. P 55. Translated from the original persian, by H. Blochmann, and Colonel H. S. Jarrett, Asiaticsociety of Bengal. Calcutta, 1873 – 1907.

[116] "1200—1750" (http:/ / www. sign-lang. uni-hamburg. de/ bibweb/ Miles/ 1200-1750. html). University of Hamburg. . Retrieved 30 May2008.

[117] Sangari 2007, p. 497[118] Sangari 2007, p. 475[119] Illustration from the Akbarnama: History of Akbar (http:/ / www. artic. edu/ artaccess/ AA_India/ pages/ India_12. shtml) Art Institute of

Chicago

References• Ali, M. Athar (2006). Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford University Press.

ISBN 9780195696615.• Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 9788125032267.• Habib, Irfan (1997). Akbar and His India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195637915.• Hasan, Nurul (2007). Religion, State and Society in Medieval India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 9780195696608.• Majumdar, R.C. (1984). The Mughul Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.• Moosvi, Shireen (2008). People, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 9780195693157.• Nath, R. (1982). History of Mughal Architecture. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 9788170171591.• Sangari, Kumkum (2007). "Akbar: The Name of a Conjuncture". In Grewal, J.S.. The State and Society in

Medieval India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 475–501. ISBN 9780195667202.• Sarkar, Jadunath (1984). A History of Jaipur. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 8125003339.• Smith, Vincent A. (2002). The Oxford History of India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195612974.

Further reading• Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak Akbar-namah Edited with commentary by Muhammad Sadiq Ali (Kanpur-Lucknow:

Nawal Kishore) 1881–3 Three Vols. (Persian)• Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak Akbarnamah Edited by Maulavi Abd al-Rahim. Bibliotheca Indica Series (Calcutta:

Asiatic Society of Bengal) 1877–1887 Three Vols. (Persian)• Henry Beveridge (Trans.) The Akbarnama of Ab-ul-Fazl Bibliotheca Indica Series (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of

Bengal) 1897 Three Vols.• Haji Muhammad 'Arif Qandahari Tarikh-i-Akbari (Better known as Tarikh-i-Qandahari) edited & Annotated by

Haji Mu'in'd-Din Nadwi, Dr. Azhar 'Ali Dihlawi & Imtiyaz 'Ali 'Arshi (Rampur Raza Library) 1962 (Persian)• Martí Escayol, Maria Antònia. “Antoni de Montserrat in the Mughal Garden of good government European

construction of Indian nature”, Word, Image, Text; Studies in Literary and Visual Culture, ed. Shormistha Panja etal., Orient Blacksw an, New Delhi, 2009. ISBN : 978-81-250-3735-4

• Augustus, Frederick; (tr. by Annette Susannah Beveridge) (1890). The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towardsthe history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 1) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/emperorakbaraco00buchgoog#page/ n8/ mode/ 1up). Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.

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• Augustus, Frederick; (tr. by Annette Susannah Beveridge) (1890). Gustav von Buchwald. ed. The Emperor Akbar,a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 2) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/emperorakbaraco00augugoog#page/ n4/ mode/ 1up). Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.

• Malleson, Colonel G. B. (1899). Rulers Of India: Akbar And The Rise Of The Mughal Empire (http:/ / www.archive. org/ stream/ rulersofindiaakb009177mbp#page/ n7/ mode/ 2up). Oxford at the Clarendon Press.

• Garbe, Dr.Richard von (1909). Akbar - Emperor of India. A picture of life and customs from the sixteenth century(http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ akbaremperorofin00garb#page/ n7/ mode/ 2up). The Opencourt PublishingCompany, Chicago.• Akbar, Emperor of India by Richard von Garbe 1857-1927 - (ebook) (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/

14134)• The Adventures of Akbar by Flora Annie Steel, 1847-1929 -(ebook) (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 18307)• Smith, Vincent Arthur (1917). Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542-1605 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/

cu31924024056503#page/ n7/ mode/ 2up). Oxford at The Clarendon Press.• Havell, E. B. (1918). The History of Aryan Rule In India from the earliest times to the death of Akbar (http:/ /

www. archive. org/ stream/ historyofaryanru00have#page/ n9/ mode/ 2up). Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York.• Moreland, W. H. (1920). India at the death of Akbar: An economic study (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/

cu31924022895001#page/ n5/ mode/ 2up). Macmillan & Co., London.• Monserrate, Father Antonio (1922). The commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J., on his journey to the court of

Akbar (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ commentaryoffath00monsuoft#page/ n7/ mode/ 2up). OxfordUniversity Press.

External links• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (http:/ / www. indohistory. com/ akbar. html) The Great• Akbar, Emperor of India by Richard von Garbe' (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 14134) at Project Gutenberg• The Mughals: Akbar (http:/ / www. wsu. edu:8080/ ~dee/ MUGHAL/ AKBAR. HTM)• The Mughal Emperor Akbar: World of Biography (http:/ / www. worldofbiography. com/ 9001-Akbar/ )• Photos of Akbar The Great's final resting place (http:/ / www. panoramio. com/ user/ 116638/ tags/ Akbar)Authority control: LCCN: n80002413 (http:/ / errol. oclc. org/ laf/ n80002413. html)

Article Sources and Contributors 19

Article Sources and ContributorsAkbar  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401038922  Contributors: 0, 130.64.31.xxx, 32 Osama B1n Laden 10, 4twenty42o, 7day, A suyash, AJR, Aa no bhadrah, Aamirshkh,Aaron Schulz, Abhinav paulite, Abul Mustafa, AdPaWiki, Adam sk, Adams197, Adil your, Aditya, AdjustShift, Afil, Ageo020, Agger, Aitias, Ajay996, Akbar Shah II, Akbar09, Akerans,Alansohn, Aldis90, Alexandreduchariot, Alextrevelian 006, Allstarecho, Alok kumar, Alpha Quadrant, AlphaGamma1991, Alphakappa, Amcbride, Amitshah111, Anakolouthon, Anclation,Andrewlp1991, Angela, Anilbg, Ankithreya, Ankur, Anoopkn, Anujkhandelwal, Anurag Garg, Anwar saadat, Aoki Li, Apbhamra, Apparition11, ArglebargleIV, Arjun024, Arslan-San, Arvindn,Asbestos, Ash iitg, Ashwini.b.r, Asnatu wiki, Atruschke, Atulsnischal, Aumnamahashiva, Aurangjab, Avoided, AxelBoldt, Ayla, Azithmus, B4rr4g3, Baa, BanyanTree, Baristarim, Bender235,BertK, Bettymnz4, Bhadani, Bhandanker.varun, Bhatt nav, Biglovinb, Binokary, Bless sins, Blizzard of deck, BobKawanaka, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Brenont, Bugwit, Bunnyhop11,Buteofalcon, CSHunt68, CactusWriter, Caknuck, Calvin 1998, CambridgeBayWeather, CanadianLinuxUser, CapitalR, Capt. James T. Kirk, CarTick, CardinalDan, Cataclysm, Catgut, CharlesMatthews, CharlotteWebb, Chedorlaomer, ChicXulub, Chicheley, Chintu rohit, Chzz, Closedmouth, CltFn, Conversion script, Coolbd, Coolkantha, Cp111, Cunado19, Cyde, Cydthesquyd,D0762, DMacks, DaGizza, Daddyfresh, Dan100, DanKeshet, DeadEyeArrow, Deandruid, Deavenger, Deepak D'Souza, Deeptrivia, Dejvid, Demicx, Denelson83, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Deville,Devraj Singh, Dewan357, Dharmateja, Dhoom, Dhruv21, DigiBullet, Din.dayal.singh, Disinterested, Disposition, Doctorbruno, Dolfy, Dominus, Downwards, Dr U, Drnsreedhar1959,Ducttapeavenger, Dudesleeper, Dwaipayanc, E104421, Either way, Ekabhishek, Elfelix, Ember of Light, Enauspeaker, Enigmaman, EoGuy, Epbr123, Erik9, Eubulide, EvKnight13, EvanSeeds,Everyking, Evlekis, Falcon8765, Fang Aili, Fastfission, Fazyninja, Fconaway, FeanorStar7, Feudonym, Fieldday-sunday, Finalius, Foxi tails, FrancoGG, Francs2000, Fratrep, Friend212, Fæ,GDibyendu, Gaius Cornelius, Ganeshk, Gary King, Gaura79, Geeteshgadkari, Generalboss3, Gggh, Ginsengbomb, Gjd001, Gnowor, Goegoe, Goethean, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, GorillaWarfare,Graeme Bartlett, Graffysnappy1, Graham87, GreatWhiteNortherner, GreenReaper, Grenavitar, Guru-45, Gwaka Lumpa, H1es-, Hadal, Haukurth, Hayabusa future, Hda3ku, Hede2000,HexaChord, Hhh12345, Hildegardy, Hinio, Hkrclu, Hmains, Hoo man, Hsbuttar, Hu12, Hugo999, Huon, Hydkat, Hynixx, IFaqeer, Iacobus, Iamtheealmighty, Ian Pitchford, Ibn Mubarak, Ifnord,Imawinna, Improv, ImpuMozhi, IndianCow, IndianGeneralist, Information-Line, Infrogmation, Insenlysen, Irishpunktom, Isnow, Itai, Itihaaskar, Ivan Bajlo, J.delanoy, JForget, JHMM13,JSpung, JaGa, Jacob.jose, Jagged 85, Java7837, Jay, Jayesh Patil, Jcw69, Jeff3000, Jeffq, Jigerkothamdi, Jmlk17, John Carter, John Castro III, John K, John254, JohnCD, JohnI, Johnhardcastl,JohnnyRush10, Jojit fb, Joopercoopers, Joshrulzz, Jovianeye, Joyson Noel, JuniorMuruin, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kanags, Katieh5584, Kazimostak, Keegan, Ketanashah, Khoikhoi, Khukri, King ofHearts, Kipala, Kipoc, Kirill Lokshin, Kjetil r, Kleinzach, Knight1993, Knizar, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, KoshVorlon, Kottaiajmel, Kotuku33, Krellis, Kwamikagami, Lahiru k, Laluforeva101,Lambda, Last Emperor, Laurinavicius, Lauristan, LeaveSleaves, LeoNomis, LessHeard vanU, Leszek Jańczuk, Lightmouse, Ligulem, LilHelpa, LinguisticDemographer, LittleOldMe, Llywrch,Looxx000xxool, Lord Emsworth, LordSimonofShropshire, M.Jibran, MC10, MER-C, Mackensen, Macphisto, Madman, Mahanchian, Maharaj Devraj, Makmac22, Malaiya, Malhonen, Malikm,Maliksyam 5, Mandarax, Manuel Anastácio, Marc Venot, Mariam Haji, Markymarc1121, Marriex, Martineejames, Mascharak, Mav, Maxim, Maximkaaa, Mddake, Melbourne MCG, Mestesso,MetalXP666555, Mick gold, Mifter, Misaq Rabab, More random musing, Mosmof, Mr. Billion, Mrod999, Mrzaius, Muhgcee, Mukerjee, NAHID, Naawfas, Naina3d, Nanda130184, Natrajdr,Navneeth, NawlinWiki, Nazimx, Nemonoman, Nerval, New Rock Star, NickBush24, Nihits, Nirvaan.wiki, Noor Aalam, Normanmc, Noshotgoalie, Nostradamus1, Notedgrant, Nsaa,NuclearWarfare, Nummer29, Ohconfucius, Ohio Mailman, Oldelpaso, Optichan, Ornil, Ottawa4ever, Oxymoron83, Pahari Sahib, Pannonius, Pappu cant dance saala, Patsw, Paul Barlow, PaulBunyan, Paul Drye, Paunch de leon, Pegship, Penguin in london, PericlesofAthens, Pgan002, Phantomsteve, Phenylalanine, PhilKnight, Philip Trueman, Philker, Piano non troppo, PigFlu Oink,Pitt 32, Plange, Portalian, Prashant Solomon, Pratheepps, Prismatic star, Pritish.jetley, Prodego, Profitoftruth85, Psycho Kirby, Quadell, Quoth, R'n'B, Rahul cpim, Raj mukherjee, Raj712,Rajabanthia, Rajprem, Rakeshdas2102, Raman Trivedi, Randhirreddy, Rashmun, Razimantv, Rchak2k, Redrose64, Redtigerxyz, RegentsPark, Revanthbabu, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,RockfangSemi, Rocknrollovinguy, Roland2, Roltz, Romanm, Roshanama, Rosser1954, Rudolf 1922, Rupakbiswas, RyanEberhart, SBC-YPR, SDC, SJP, SUSHRUTA, Sachkasamna, Sadhwani,Saffo, Sagheero, Saiswa, Salih, Salilb, Salvio giuliano, Sam Spade, Sanandan24, Sanchitalw, Sander123, Sandius, Sandorman, Sandyiit, Sanjai007, Sardanaphalus, Sasyed, Satbir Singh, SaurabhRahurkar, Savarkar, Scayol, Scjessey, Scythian1, Sdsouza, Secretlondon, Selket, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Shadowjams, Shakirfan, Shanel, Shanes, Shantanu786, Shariq, Sherurcij,Shivraj Singh, Shobhit102, Shshshsh, Shyam, Shyamsunder, Siddiqui, Sikandarji, Simran09, Sindbad mughal, SiobhanHansa, SirEditALot, Skbhat, Skumarla, Skylax, SlaveToTheWage,Smsarmad, Snowolf, Someone65, Sophus Bie, Sourav.sg, SpacemanSpiff, Spasage, Spencer, Splash, SquidSK, StN, Stephen G Graham, Sudhirkbhargava, Suhalbansal, Suicidalhamster,Sunderland06, Sunray, Supersaiyan, Svick, Syed Atif Nazir, Syedashar3, T L Miles, TDWolsey, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tagishsimon, Tahmasp, Tajik, Tamil33, Tarquin, Taurus, Tcncv,Tharnton345, The Behnam, The Firewall, The Thing That Should Not Be, The blackbird is involved, TheEgyptian, ThevikasIN, Thingg, Thomas Veil, Thylacine222, TicketMan, Tide rolls,Tim1357, TimBentley, TinaSparkle, Tirkfl, Tjdw, Tmichael, Tom Radulovich, Tommy2010, TooPotato, Tpbradbury, Tr33zon, Treisijs, Trevor MacInnis, Triona, TruHeir, Truelight2000,Tuncrypt, Unyoyega, Utcursch, Variable, Veeresh1976, VegaDark, Velho, Venu62, Versus22, Vickramj, Vicky006, Victor Chmara, Vinay84, Vipinhari, VishalB, Viz, Vnomad, Vpendse,Vyomunadkat, Vyzasatya, Wahabijaz, Watisup10, Webkami, Welsh, WhisperToMe, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, World8115, Wyote2, Xaosflux, Xtboris, YH1975, Yahel Guhan, Yashtulsyan, YoungPioneer, Zaharous, ZarfanAnsari, Zereshk, Ziga, Zip600001, Zoicon5, Zé da Silva, 1585 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:AkbarM.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AkbarM.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Manohar. Worked in late 16th centuryFile:Flag of the Mughal Empire.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Mughal_Empire.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Orange Tuesday (talk)Image:Akbar as a boy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akbar_as_a_boy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Frank C. Müller, G.dallorto, Ranveig, Vyzasatya,Wst, 3 anonymous editsImage:Mogulreich Akbar.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mogulreich_Akbar.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:JungpionierImage:India 04 0019 chittorgarh.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_04_0019_chittorgarh.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:FindanFile:Khangah Lahore Fort.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khangah_Lahore_Fort.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Airknight aten.wikipediaImage:Court of Akbar from Akbarnama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Court_of_Akbar_from_Akbarnama.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknownImage:Audienzhalle .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Audienzhalle_.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Olaf Oehlsen, PotsdamImage:RajaRaviVarma MaharanaPratap.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RajaRaviVarma_MaharanaPratap.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ekabhishek,Praveenp, Roland zh, Utcursch, 3 anonymous editsImage:Hijaz.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hijaz.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bontenbal, Degeefe, Juiced lemon, Timeshifter, 1 anonymous editsImage:Fort of Akbar, Allahabad, 1850s.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort_of_Akbar,_Allahabad,_1850s.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Abhishekjoshi, Faizhaider, Mattes, Roland zhImage:Gate of the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, Agra, India, 1795.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gate_of_the_Tomb_of_Akbar_at_Sikandra,_Agra,_India,_1795.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Thomas DaniellImage:Silver Rupee Akbar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silver_Rupee_Akbar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alfons Åberg, Ekabhishek, Jungpionier,RanveigImage:Jesuits at Akbar's court.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jesuits_at_Akbar's_court.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Grentidez, Gryffindor,Jungpionier, RanveigImage:AkbarHunt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AkbarHunt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Painter at the Court of AkbarImage:Kaiser Akbar bändigt einen Elefanten.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaiser_Akbar_bändigt_einen_Elefanten.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Miniatur der Moghulschule, Indien, datiert 1609-10Image:Akbar and Tansen visit Haridas.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Akbar_and_Tansen_visit_Haridas.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknownFile:AbulFazlPresentingAkbarnama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AbulFazlPresentingAkbarnama.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploaderwas Евгений Ардаев at ru.wikipediaFile:010akb-2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:010akb-2.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:030akb-22.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:030akb-22.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:003Ak3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:003Ak3.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:019akb-11.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:019akb-11.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Drnsreedhar1959File:044akb-36.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:044akb-36.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Drnsreedhar1959File:008Ak8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:008Ak8.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Drnsreedhar1959

License 20

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/