AJCD 13(1) autumn 04

A U T U M N 2 0 0 4V o l u m e 1 3 , N u m b e r 1

ARTICLES

★ The impact of work quality and quantity on the development of career decision statusJoanne K. Earl and Jim E. H. Bright

★ An e-portfolio for leisure sciences students: A case study at Edith Cowan UniversitySue Colyer and Julie Howell

★ Career maturity of Australian and South African high school students:Developmental and contextual explanationsWendy Patton, Mark B. Watson and Peter A. Creed

★ Career education for Muslim girls: Developing culturally sensitiveprovisionBarrie A. Irving and Vivienne Barker

★ Extending the use of constructivist approaches in career guidance and counselling: Solution-focused strategiesJudi H. Miller

ISSN 1038-4162Austra l ian Counci l fo r Educat iona l Research

PRINT POST PUBLICATION NUMBER PP381667/00531

A U S T R A L I A N J O U R N A L O F


CareerDevelopment

Australian Journal of Career DevelopmentThe Australian Journal of Career Development is a professional journalfocusing on current theory, practice and policy relating to the career andwork education field. The Journal provides a national forum for shar-ing, disseminating and debating current careers research, practice andpolicy.

The audience for the Journal includes professionals in educationaland academic settings, community and government agencies, and busi-ness and industrial settings. Therefore, topics should be presented withimplications for practice. Authors of research reports and theoretical dis-cussions should relate their conclusions to the realm of practical applica-tions.

NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORSGeneral Principles Material will be considered for publication if it meets one or more ofthe following: • it expands the body of knowledge; • it informs in a manner that will develop people’s professional

understanding; • it provides concrete assistance in professional practice; • it raises philosophical questions related to the field of careers prac-

tice; • it opens a new frontier of knowledge and ideas related to profes-

sional practice.

Sections of the Journal

1 Case Studies Case studies concerning innovative programs and individual workmay be submitted. They should be descriptive, providing the meritsand shortcomings of the situation. Concise presentations of less than3000 words are preferred.

2 Articles Articles are invited dealing with career development, planning, guid-ance and education, labour market and training issues, vocationaleducation and training, occupational information, career manage-ment policy, practice and programs. They should be a maximum of4500 words.

3 Reviews Books, reports, packages, computer programs or any other materialrelevant to career practitioners are reviewed in this section. If youknow of or have material that you feel is relevant, please contact theEditor or forward it directly.

4 Careers ForumThis section of the Journal is set aside to provide a forum for sharingof relevant information and stimulating discussion and debate.

Brief reports of relevant conferences, seminars and events, andforthcoming events will also be included.

Manuscript Standards All submissions are required in MS Word format. Hard copy shouldbe typed double-spaced. Submission of articles as an e-mail attach-ment is preferred.

Article and Case Study submissions should be preceded by anabstract of 100–150 words. Tables should be typed on separate pageswith approximate location indicated in the text. References are givenat the end of the text; only references cited in the text should be listed. Spelling should conform to the Macquarie Dictionary and language should be gender-inclusive.

More detailed information on style can be found in the PublicationManual of the American Psychological Association (5th edn). If youhave any queries, contact the Editor.

Review of Articles Manuscripts are evaluated by a blind reviewing system in which theauthor’s identity is anonymous to the referees and vice versa.Therefore there should be a separate title page showing the manu-script’s title, author(s) names, academic position(s) or employmenttitle(s), the address of institution(s) and the date the manuscript issubmitted. The first page of the manuscript should include the titleof the manuscript but omit the authors’ names and affiliations.

Artwork Contributors are invited to submit photographs or other pictorialmaterial to illustrate their submission. Black and white photos arepreferred, but colour photos with clear definition will be accepted.Materials need to be of high quality with good resolution to allow forreproduction in printing. If you are unable to provide material buthave suggestions about appropriate artwork, please contact theEditor.

Manuscript Submission Manuscripts in hard copy or as an e-mail attachment should be sub-mitted to the Editor, James Athanasou, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007Tel.: (02) 9514 3712; Fax: (02) 9514 3939 E-mail: [email protected]

Authors should keep a copy of the manuscript as manuscripts willnot be returned.

Subscriptions Within Australia $83.00 per annual subscription (3 issues). Overseassubscribers $109.00 (air mail). Address orders and enquiries to:

Customer Services Australian Council for Educational ResearchPrivate Bag 55Camberwell, Victoria 3124Tel: (03) 9835 7477 Fax: (03) 9835 7499

Disclaimer The opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the individualauthors and are not necessarily those of the Editors, or of theAustralian Council for Educational Research, or of the University ofTechnology, Sydney.

The Australian Journal of Career Development isindexed in: Australian Education Index (AEI),ERIC: Educational Resources Information Centre,and APAIS: Australian Public Affairs InformationService in printed, online form and the AUSTROMCD ROM.

Australian Journal of Career DevelopmentVolume 13, Number 1, Autumn 2004

EDITORJames A. Athanasou

University of Technology, Sydney

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Dr Anna Lichtenberg Dr Robert PryorEdith Cowan University, WA Congruence Pty Ltd, NSW

Col McCowan Meredith ShearsQueensland University of Technology, Qld Department of Employment Education and Training, NT

Rob Ware Professor Wendy PattonWorkWare Solutions Queensland University of Technology

EDITORIAL CONTACTS FROM CAREERS ASSOCIATIONS

Judith Leeson Mary McMahonAustralian Association of Career Counsellors Queensland Guidance and Counselling Association

Naomi Corlett Janine WattCareer Education Association of Vic Career Education Association of NT

Gwen Cartwright Jacqui PinkavaCareers Advisers’ Association of NSW Australian Association of Graduate Employers

Diana McDougall Tisha WilsonCareer Education Association of ACT Career Practitioners’ Association of New Zealand

Michael McGregorAustralian Human Resources Institute

INTERNATIONAL ADVISERS

Professor Norm Gysbers Professor Mark SavickasCollege of Education Northeastern Ohio Universities College of University of Missouri MedicineColumbia USA Ohio USA

Dr Suzette Dyer Professor Tony WattsUniversity of Waikato National Institute for Careers EducationHamilton NZ and Counselling

Cambridge UK

Published and distributed by the Australian Council for Educational Research, Private Bag 55, Camberwell 3124. Copyright © Australian Council for Educational Research. ISSN 1038-4162

Australian Journal of Career DevelopmentThe Australian Journal of Career Development is a professional journalfocusing on current theory, practice and policy relating to the career andwork education field. The Journal provides a national forum for shar-ing, disseminating and debating current careers research, practice andpolicy.

The audience for the Journal includes professionals in educationaland academic settings, community and government agencies, and busi-ness and industrial settings. Therefore, topics should be presented withimplications for practice. Authors of research reports and theoretical dis-cussions should relate their conclusions to the realm of practical applica-tions.

NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORSGeneral Principles Material will be considered for publication if it meets one or more ofthe following: • it expands the body of knowledge; • it informs in a manner that will develop people’s professional

understanding; • it provides concrete assistance in professional practice; • it raises philosophical questions related to the field of careers prac-

tice; • it opens a new frontier of knowledge and ideas related to profes-

sional practice.

Sections of the Journal

1 Case Studies Case studies concerning innovative programs and individual workmay be submitted. They should be descriptive, providing the meritsand shortcomings of the situation. Concise presentations of less than3000 words are preferred.

2 Articles Articles are invited dealing with career development, planning, guid-ance and education, labour market and training issues, vocationaleducation and training, occupational information, career manage-ment policy, practice and programs. They should be a maximum of4500 words.

3 Reviews Books, reports, packages, computer programs or any other materialrelevant to career practitioners are reviewed in this section. If youknow of or have material that you feel is relevant, please contact theEditor or forward it directly.

4 Careers ForumThis section of the Journal is set aside to provide a forum for sharingof relevant information and stimulating discussion and debate.

Brief reports of relevant conferences, seminars and events, andforthcoming events will also be included.

Manuscript Standards All submissions are required in MS Word format. Hard copy shouldbe typed double-spaced. Submission of articles as an e-mail attach-ment is preferred.

Article and Case Study submissions should be preceded by anabstract of 100–150 words. Tables should be typed on separate pageswith approximate location indicated in the text. References are givenat the end of the text; only references cited in the text should be listed. Spelling should conform to the Macquarie Dictionary and language should be gender-inclusive.

More detailed information on style can be found in the PublicationManual of the American Psychological Association (5th edn). If youhave any queries, contact the Editor.

Review of Articles Manuscripts are evaluated by a blind reviewing system in which theauthor’s identity is anonymous to the referees and vice versa.Therefore there should be a separate title page showing the manu-script’s title, author(s) names, academic position(s) or employmenttitle(s), the address of institution(s) and the date the manuscript issubmitted. The first page of the manuscript should include the titleof the manuscript but omit the authors’ names and affiliations.

Artwork Contributors are invited to submit photographs or other pictorialmaterial to illustrate their submission. Black and white photos arepreferred, but colour photos with clear definition will be accepted.Materials need to be of high quality with good resolution to allow forreproduction in printing. If you are unable to provide material buthave suggestions about appropriate artwork, please contact theEditor.

Manuscript Submission Manuscripts in hard copy or as an e-mail attachment should be sub-mitted to the Editor, James Athanasou, University of Technology, Sydney, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007Tel.: (02) 9514 3712; Fax: (02) 9514 3939 E-mail: [email protected]

Authors should keep a copy of the manuscript as manuscripts willnot be returned.

Subscriptions Within Australia $83.00 per annual subscription (3 issues). Overseassubscribers $109.00 (air mail). Address orders and enquiries to:

Customer Services Australian Council for Educational ResearchPrivate Bag 55Camberwell, Victoria 3124Tel: (03) 9835 7477 Fax: (03) 9835 7499

Disclaimer The opinions expressed in the Journal are those of the individualauthors and are not necessarily those of the Editors, or of theAustralian Council for Educational Research, or of the University ofTechnology, Sydney.

The Australian Journal of Career Development isindexed in: Australian Education Index (AEI),ERIC: Educational Resources Information Centre,and APAIS: Australian Public Affairs InformationService in printed, online form and the AUSTROMCD ROM.

Australian Journal of Career DevelopmentVolume 13, Number 1, Autumn 2004

EDITORJames A. Athanasou

University of Technology, Sydney

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Dr Anna Lichtenberg Dr Robert PryorEdith Cowan University, WA Congruence Pty Ltd, NSW

Col McCowan Meredith ShearsQueensland University of Technology, Qld Department of Employment Education and Training, NT

Rob Ware Professor Wendy PattonWorkWare Solutions Queensland University of Technology

EDITORIAL CONTACTS FROM CAREERS ASSOCIATIONS

Judith Leeson Mary McMahonAustralian Association of Career Counsellors Queensland Guidance and Counselling Association

Naomi Corlett Janine WattCareer Education Association of Vic Career Education Association of NT

Gwen Cartwright Jacqui PinkavaCareers Advisers’ Association of NSW Australian Association of Graduate Employers

Diana McDougall Tisha WilsonCareer Education Association of ACT Career Practitioners’ Association of New Zealand

Michael McGregorAustralian Human Resources Institute

INTERNATIONAL ADVISERS

Professor Norm Gysbers Professor Mark SavickasCollege of Education Northeastern Ohio Universities College of University of Missouri MedicineColumbia USA Ohio USA

Dr Suzette Dyer Professor Tony WattsUniversity of Waikato National Institute for Careers EducationHamilton NZ and Counselling

Cambridge UK

Published and distributed by the Australian Council for Educational Research, Private Bag 55, Camberwell 3124. Copyright © Australian Council for Educational Research. ISSN 1038-4162

1A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l o f C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t Vo l u m e 1 3 , N u m b e r 1 , Au t u m n 2 0 0 4

CONTENTS

Editor ial 2Part-time employment

Career Profi le 4Interview with Julie Ryan

Case StudyManaging the presence of personal issues in career counselling: 7Using transactional analysis with possible selvesFran Parkin and Geoff Plimmer

Ar ticlesThe impact of work quality and quantity on the development of career decision status 15Joanne K. Earl and Jim E. H. Bright

An e-portfolio for leisure sciences students: A case study at Edith Cowan University 23Sue Colyer and Julie Howell

Career maturity of Australian and South African high school students: 33Developmental and contextual explanationsWendy Patton, Mark B. Watson and Peter A. Creed

Career education for Muslim girls: Developing culturally sensitive provision 42Barrie A. Irving and Vivienne Barker

Extending the use of constructivist approaches in career guidance and counselling: 50Solution-focused strategiesJudi H. Miller

Book Reviews 60

Career s ForumThe relationship of corporate change management strategies and processes, and the role and impact of employees in the change process Aloma Fennell 71Careers Digest 75Information and Resources 79News 79Forthcoming Conferences 81

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ost of the time it is hard to predict outcomes, developments or

events in the world with a high degreeof accuracy. This applies in our personallives and on a larger scale with theeffects of new technologies or politicalchanges. Indeed, a Greek colleague—Professor Panayiotis Georgoussis—wrote many years ago it is difficult topredict even what one might say in 30seconds time. A recently published textModern Science: How technology willshape our world (Australian Geographic,Sydney, 2002) also noted that ‘prediction is ahazardous exercise’.

In one of its chapters, Modern Science deals with thefuture of work, which has relevance for readersinterested in the future of career development. Somewell-known features of future work environmentsthat are considered are scenarios where employees arebecoming self-reliant and multi-skilled. Portfoliocareers, lifelong learning and the end of nine-to-fivejobs document a more challenging future lifestyle,where only the quick-witted, the well connected andthe just plain lucky might be able to forge anexistence. The existence of mobile workers whochange jobs rapidly is described and almost lauded,and the text highlights an example of informationtechnology workers who ‘… can be confident ofgetting work anywhere in the world until at least2010’ (p. 64). Of course, even that prediction is nowwrong in Australia, which does not have a short-age of IT graduates (Australian Careers,www.jobsearch.gov.au/joboutlook, October 2003). Inaddition, the text reports on the trend towards‘casualisation’—casual, part-time or contract workers.

It is towards this issue that I would liketo draw your attention.

Part-time or casual work is now abasic reality of working life for many,but how many people had everconsciously planned for or wanted part-time or casual work as a component oftheir future careers? Some workers nowneed to construct portfolios of part-timejobs to meet a range of economic,vocational, personal, family and socialcommitments. Others relish the chanceto work part-time. However, the role of

such part-time work in theories of career developmentis almost non-existent. Indeed, it is hard to find theword ‘part-time’ in the indexes of some careertextbooks, yet in Australia there are about 2.7 millionpart-time workers out of a total workforce of 9.5million (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001 CensusCommunity Profile Series, Catalogue No. 2006.0). Mostof the net growth in employment in Australia since1988 has been in part-time and casual employment.

Part-time workers are defined as those personswho worked less than 35 hours a week in all jobs,while casual workers are the 1.8 million Australiansworking full-time or part-time hours, with nosecurity of continuing employment, as well as thoseworkers for whom each ‘engagement with theiremployer constitutes a separate contract ofemployment’ (ABS, Labour Force Australia, July 1999).Casuals consist of more than one-quarter of totalemployment, account for one in seven full-timeemployees and almost two-thirds of part-timeemployees are casuals.

Part-time and casual work is a familiar componentof our modern working world and features in the

2 A u s t r a l i a n J o u r n a l o f C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t Vo l u m e 1 3 , N u m b e r 1 , Au t u m n 2 0 0 4

EDITORIAL

M

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lives of others around us. You may have noticed thelarge number of part-time or casual employees at thelocal shopping centre, the bank, the health fund, fastfood outlets or possibly even in increasing numbershired in offices and some professions. However, thefull-time casual employees are camouflaged mainly bytemporary recruitment agencies. Some casualemployees may remain with an employer over manyyears. This trend decreases workers’ security andstability.

Official statistics confirm the number of personsemployed part-time has increased considerably overrecent decades. This modern drift—or is it a push—towards part-time employment is a continuation of alonger-term development. Part-time employment inOctober 1978 represented only 16 per cent of totalemployment. In September 2002 part-time workaccounted for 28 per cent of total employment inAustralia (ABS, Labour Force Australia, Cat. No.6203.0, October 2001; Year Book Australia, Cat. No.1301.0, 2003). Will more than half of the Australianworkforce be employed on a part-time basis inanother 25 years?

In many instances part-time or casual work hasbeen of mutual benefit to employer and employee.There is a body of research that shows some part-timework (but not too much) has beneficial effects forsenior high school students. While some might thinkthat people employed part-time are likely to wantpermanent work, the majority of part-time workersin Australia (78 per cent in September 2002) did notwant to work additional hours. The 22 per cent ofpart-time workers who would prefer to work morehours have been considered as persons whose labouris not fully utilised (Source: ABS, Australian LabourMarket Statistics, Cat. No. 6105.0, April 2003). On myestimates, this human queue of 22 per cent who mightlike to work more hours would wind its way almostfrom Sydney to Newcastle.

Part-time employment is now a stable componentof some careers and a consistent feature of manypeople’s total lives. More than half of part-timeemployees, or around 1.5 million work more than 16hours and make up a sizable proportion of ourworkforce (Community Profile Series, op. cit.). Howthey should be treated in an industrial sense isultimately a matter for the community, government,employers, unions and the relevant industrial courts.

Paradoxically, full-time workers will make most ofthe decisions.

There is an argument that part-time employmentis a natural response to increasing competition anduncertain seasonal operating requirements. It iswidely recognised that part-time employment hasbeen used to suit the operating hours and conditionsof many businesses. But what sort of workplace andworkforce are we constructing when part-timeworkers now make up a substantial proportion ofsome organisations’ work force, particularly whenthese same workplaces are operating in relativelystable circumstances? It is a new ball game!

In all likelihood, the motivation for manyorganisations in using part-time workers is to reducecosts and minimize their long-term commitments,almost as if people do not matter. An editorial by AlanKohler (‘Blame India for that jobless recovery’,2/10/03) in the Sydney Morning Herald emphasised theaspect of labour cost reduction. He noted thatconglomerates like American Express, GeneralElectric, McKinsey, HSBC, Ford, Motorola andothers had moved parts of their specialist intellectualoperations overseas. He indicated that India isproducing two million English-speaking graduates ayear, and an Indian PhD costs less than $US10,000 tohire. Kohler was not talking about serving french friesor making sneakers cheaply, but intellectual skillssuch as fraud detection, quantitative analysis,mortgage processing and design engineering. It willtake more than a great deal of self-reliance, multi-skilling and portfolio experience to overcome sucheconomic advantage. Pity the poor person naivelydeciding about his or her career on the basis of somestable stereotypes about the world, careers and thefuture. Career development theory and practice isstruggling to keep pace with these sorts of changes inthe modern workplace in Australia.

The market for labour has changed and careerdevelopment principles and practice may need anoverhaul. Overall, the picture is quite complex and itseems unlikely that the future of employment andcareers will return to a more stable and secure footing.Whether it should is not for one person to say. But onecan confidently predict that within the next 30seconds, the situation is unlikely to be reversed.

James A. AthanasouUniversity of Technology, Sydney


Editorial

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Julie, how did you come into careerwork?

Ihad been teaching secondary schoolhumanities subjects for many years

and had updated my qualifications bycompleting a graduate diploma inMathematics Education while on familyleave. I had a taste for ongoing learningand was keen to plan ahead. I decided Ihad a long working life ahead of me andit was time to make sure I was doingwork I enjoyed. I did a lot of thinkingabout what I liked about myenvironment and the aspects of my job I loved.

At this stage I’d never heard of Myer Briggs,Holland’s SDS etc, but I still intuitively followed aclassic career development model—identified myskills, interests and abilities, looked for a job that fittedthese and searched for possible tertiary qualifications. Iloved working with young people in a schoolenvironment, but wanted something that gave me amore positive interaction with them. I was definitely‘over’ giving detentions for students being out ofuniform and admonishing students every day.

Careers counselling seemed exactly the job I mightbe good at and could see myself doing for the future.Subsequently, I applied for the graduate diploma inCareer Development at Deakin University and wasvery fortunate to be accepted. I was working full-time,still in the classroom, so it was a steep learning curve,

with the learning not able to be appliedin context, but I loved it.

At the end of my course I again hadgood fortune when I saw a careers jobadvertised at Mill Park SecondaryCollege, at the new (still not complete)Senior Campus. In the past in Victoria,and still the case more often than not,most careers positions were filledinternally, often as a filler to a teacher’sallotment, so careers positions wererarely advertised externally. Again I hadgood fortune when the school employed

me, despite the fact I had no experience and manyother candidates were veteran careers teachers fromother schools. I’ve been at Mill Park, and doing careercounselling, with some teaching, since 1997. I love myjob and believe that careers counselling is the best job ina school. Careers counsellors have such positiveinteractions with parents and students, supportingthem through the good times and the bad. We are in aposition to help them develop a plan with a range ofoptions, no matter how bleak they feel their situation is,and help them leave our office feeling better than whenthey arrived. Now that’s job satisfaction!

Do you have a particular philosophy or orientationthat characterises your work as a career practitioner?I have a strong commitment to issues around accessand equity, so I aim to expose the students here to as


INTERVIEW WITH JULIE RYAN

Julie Ryan is career adviser at Mill Park Secondary College and president of the CareerEducation Association of Victoria. She has a background in secondary teaching andmathematics education. Recently, Julie agreed to a brief interview with the Australian Journalof Career Development.

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many career development opportunities as I can. I alsotry to create a ‘no brick wall’ mentality, so that youngpeople can see there are many pathways to any careergoal and that self-reflection, planning and researchare the keys to creating opportunities. Still, I can’tignore happenstance, so I will often encourage ayoung person to take the plunge into the unknown (ora path that was not their first choice) as an excitingstep to begin the journey.

Is there one particular career theory that guides yourwork?I use a range of career theories—Super, Holland,Krumboltz—applying ideas that suit the particularsituation and young person I’m dealing with. In aglobal sense, my careers work emphasises lifelonglearning and the importance of continual self-reflection and research in making decisionsthroughout life. I use local career developmenttheories from people like Mary McMahon, PeterTatham and Wendy Patton, and research onoutcomes for local young people from researchers likeRichard Teese, which add to my ability tocontextualise much of my day-to-day work.

Who has been influential in your work? I have been inspired by my careers colleagues, and bythe members and committee of the Career EducationAssociation of Victoria (CEAV) who are passionateabout finding positive outcomes for young people. Iwas so impressed by the support the CEAV gave me asa raw, first year career teacher, that I felt I had to bepart of this fantastic career community. As with mostthings in life, I have gained far more than I have givenin my involvement with the CEAV, now including anational role as the CEAV representative on the CareerIndustry Council of Australia.

You work at a school. Can you tell our readerssomething about the careers service in your school? I teach five hours a week outside of my careersallotment and in my school manage a VictorianGovernment initiative called Managed IndividualPathways (MIPs). This is a process of pathwaysexploration for all Year 10, 11 and 12 students. I havedeveloped the program here and it is delivered by ateam of staff through a weekly pastoral lesson. Likecareers programs in other schools, it delivers a careerdevelopment process based on activities most of us

were already doing with senior students. But it bringsa much higher profile to careers education in theschool community than before, and targeted fundingis given to each government school to do it.

I have an ‘open door’ policy, so students can see meat recess, lunch and in their spare periods. In a school of600 VCE students, it is difficult to have one on oneinteraction with each student and this remains mygreatest regret in terms of the effectiveness of what I do.

Like most other careers teachers, I run universityand TAFE application process training for students,have a guest speaker program, organise study skillssessions and motivational speakers, deliver the MIPsprogram, run parent information evenings, overseethe transition of Year 10 students into post-compulsory education, do six month exit tracking ofall Year 10–12 students, and administer workplacement for the Vocational Education and Training(VET) students completing one of the six VET inSchools certificates we offer as part of the VCE.

My role also involves working with ‘at risk’students, finding creative ways to keep them at school,or if that is not successful, working with local agenciesto place them in work or further training. I amresponsible for collecting data on all exit students.

In my region, we are lucky enough to have beenpart of the Whittlesea Youth Commitment, aprogram developed through the Dusseldorp SkillsForum national initiative, to nurture students throughtheir school to work transition. This reinforces stronglinks with community agencies, Centrelink, JobPathways Program etc. Our aim is to help everyyoung person to stay at school, go on to furthertraining or full-time work. The VictorianGovernment has recently introduced a similarcommunity–school links program across the state—Local Learning and Employment Networks.

How does the Career Education Association ofVictoria operate? What are its role and key functions? The CEAV is over 28 years old and currently has amembership of nearly 600. Considering there is onlyone careers teacher per school, this demonstrates thatalmost all careers teachers across the three sectors—state, Catholic and independent—belong to theorganisation. (There are some schools with twomembers, as a separate staff member often does VETco-ordination.) We have an executive officer(currently Linda Baron) who works full-time, funded


Career Profile

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in part by the Department of Education and Training,but mainly by the membership of the CEAV. We runthe major professional development activities forcareers teachers in Victoria, with a three-dayresidential New Careers Co-ordinators Conferenceevery February (most recently hosted by theUniversity of Ballarat). We run personal developmentthroughout the year for all careers teachers on a rangeof topics and hold a biennial conference—our next isin Ballarat in early December. We also act in anadvocacy role representing careers co-ordinators’concerns at a state and national level.

Can you also tell our readers about your role with theCareer Education Association of Victoria?I am the president, so I fulfil the usual duties: chairingmeetings; presenting workshops and conferencepresentations for careers teachers; advocacy for careersteachers on a range of issues; and developing andmaintaining strong links with other stakeholders inthe secondary school system.

The CEAV represents all careers teachers acrossthe three sectors—government, private and Catholic.The CEAV operates as the result of a team effort, andI’m only the nominal head of the team.

Linda Baron, our full-time executive officer, is theheart and soul of the organisation. She organises allpersonal development and conferences, keeps us allup-to-date on key issues and has a huge commitmentto the career development field. She has followed onfrom other executive officers who were similarlypassionate and have made the CEAV a very strongand proactive organisation.

From your vantage point as President, what do yousee as the future needs of our profession? I speak particularly about the school sector. Thegreatest need is access to qualifications for ourmembers, that is specialist, high-quality educationprograms that can give people skills, confidence andbroad knowledge on how to best conduct careereducation in their settings. There are, in my state andindeed nationally, very limited (and often costly)opportunities for teachers to gain a careersqualification.

We believe the job is vital in schools, and that someagreed and achievable qualifications should bemandatory and available. Such an important role in

terms of young people should have some status inschools. Careers is rarely a leadership position, somany very good people leave the role reluctantly, topursue their own career.

Where do you see careers work heading in the future? In the current climate in Victoria, the government hasa strong commitment to positive outcomes for youngpeople, either by encouraging retention at school untilthe end of Year 12 (or its equivalent) or by a smoothtransition into the workforce, ideally with somefurther training involved. Schools are being asked tobe more involved in the managing of these transitionsand in following up on outcomes, even after a youngperson has left school. In schools there is a heightenedawareness of the need to teach young people tomanage their own career development (though thisterminology is not necessarily used).

If this higher awareness for career planningcontinues, we can hope for future groups of youngpeople who understand and utilise a basic careerdevelopment model throughout their lives. Thisaugurs well for the careers counselling profession, asyoung people and school managers accept and supportcareers education as an intrinsic part of the educationprocess. Or am I only dreaming? Policies come andgo, funding directs so many programs and most of uslearn to live within the limitations of the currentstrategy. One thing we do well is adapt to change!

And finally, can we say something about Julie Ryanoutside her careers role? I have two daughters and two stepsons, ranging in agefrom 16–21, with only the youngest still at school.They’re following a range of pathways and I canassure you that being a careers counsellor has not beenany advantage when dealing with my own children.Add to this the fact that my partner is also in a careersposition in a school and you can imagine how the fourkids are enthralled by our conversation at home! Thethings I enjoy most in life are my family, my job, music(especially blues), dancing and our beach house—theocean being one of the essential elements in my life.

Julie Ryan, on behalf of the Australian Journal ofCareer Development may I thank you for thisinterview and taking the time from a busy scheduleto respond to these questions.


Career Profile

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s career practitioners, exploring what work will suit our clients for the next stage of their life is

our job. However, finding a passion or working outwhat career best suits a person’s skills and values is theeasy part. The most challenging part is exploring howthe person can get there, and, above all, how theymight sabotage themselves along the way.

It is not difficult for many clients to conclude thatthey would like to earn lots of money, work withcomputers, or have a loving relationship. But if theyreally want to achieve these goals, they may have toface the fact that they are scared of failure andfrightened to do further study, more interested insurfing the Internet than working, or too shy or hurtto reach out in their personal life. So their decision-making process will need to address these emotionalissues. Howard Figler eloquently summed this up:

Emotions are the genie in the bottle of career

development, the winds whipping around inside a

client, while she or he wears the polite mask of

reasonableness. For career counsellors to be fully

effective, they must unbottle the emotions that often

accompany clients’ struggles towards career goals.

(1989, p. 3)

This statement is supported by a recent empiricalstudy by Multon, Heppner, Gysbers, Zook and Ellis-Kalton (2001) on psychological distress as a variable incareer counselling. They found that 60 per cent oftheir sample (as opposed to 13 per cent in a normalpopulation) who presented for career counselling in anaturalistic setting were psychologically distressed.

McMahon and Patton (2002) are among manywriters who argue for an expanded definition of


CASE STUDY

MANAGING THE PRESENCE OF PERSONAL ISSUES IN

CAREER COUNSELLING: USING TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

WITH POSSIBLE SELVES

Fran Parkin, Massey Univer sity

Geoff Pl immer, FutureSelves

Research indicates that career counsellors who integrate a client’s personal issues into careercounselling are rated more highly in terms of effective outcomes (Kirschner, Hoffman & Hill,1994; Nevo, 1990).The challenge is how to address the personal and feeling component ofclients’ lives within career counselling contexts, where there is limited time and money.Thispaper presents a working solution. It argues for the use of the possible selves construct, as aframework for career counsellors to work with their clients in the processes of careerdevelopment, and transactional analysis as a framework for the processes of career counselling.

A

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career counselling to include whole life issues. Theynote that as clients have to adapt their needs to anincreasingly complex world, the concept of career hascontinued to broaden to acknowledge all aspects of anindividual’s life. Perhaps most importantly, studiesinto the effectiveness of career counselling have shownthat clients who sought career counselling were moresatisfied when both personal and career issues wereaddressed (Kirschner, Hoffman & Hill, 1994; Nevo,1990).

Therefore, both career issues and interventions arebecoming more diverse and complex. This in turnmeans that career theories must deal with atremendous amount of ‘noise’ in the career decision-making process, and they must deal with issuesquickly. This means screening out irrelevant or ‘toohard to work with’ issues, and focusing on areaswhere there is likely to be a gain. More complexityand diversity also means counsellors must be cautiousabout which variables, such as self-efficacy, values orinterests, are likely to be the most relevant.

The concurrent needs for coping with the diversityand complexity of client issues, and the need forefficiency, mean that career theories are often of toohigh a level to usefully help in individualcircumstances (Taylor & Giannantonio, 1990). Someestablished career theories, such as Super’s lifespan/life space approach effectively describe careerdevelopment, but are poor on how to help people(1992). Others, such as Krumboltz’s cognitivebehavioural approach are heavily focused onusefulness, but imply lengthy interventions and highlevels of practitioner skill (1994). Others, such asHolland, traditionally place a great emphasis oncategorising people, but are poor at dealing withconfidence, emotional or decision-making problems(1985). What is needed are approaches that allow forindividual differences and variance in life experience,but which still provide a coherent framework to assist career counselling—rather than high-leveldescriptions.

An effective and useful intervention may need tocover a lot of ground in an environment whereindividual and counselling circumstances are likely tovary dramatically. Making decisions about what tofocus on, and how to do so, is likely to be difficult.Career practitioners are being challenged to do morethan administer tests and hand out brochures. Modelsand processes based on sound theory are required.

THE DISTINCTION BETWEENCAREER PROCESSES ANDINTERVENTION PROCESSESPractitioners need to recognise and address issues suchas future goals, motivation, interests and otherstalwarts of career interventions, but they also need toattend to client processes within the interventionsetting, and to the different voices—or selves—thatthe client will attend to during and after theintervention. The distinction between the processes ofcareer development and the processes of careerdevelopment intervention needs to be more clearlyrecognised. These two issues are easily muddied.

Clients can present an authentic self to apractitioner that is rational, capable of sustainedlogical thought, committed to change and with highmotivation. Between counselling sessions, or after,other equally valid and authentic selves can come intoplay that may be, for instance, irrational, self-doubtingor hedonistic.

Therefore, to be effective, practitioners need toattend to the processes of career development and tothe process of the intervention itself. The possibleselves construct is a good way of working with thewhole person in a manner that deals with motivationand personal goals, as well as underlying issues such asemotion. We argue below that possible selves theoryprovides a good framework for career developmentprocesses. We later argue that transactional analysisprovides a simple complementary technique fordealing with intervention processes.

THE POTENTIAL APPLICATION OFPOSSIBLE SELVES THEORYPossible selves theory is a set of constructs that concernall the thoughts, images and senses a person has abouttheir future (Markus & Nurius, 1986). It defines theself-concept as multi-faceted and includes bothcognitive and affective aspects of the self. Itincorporates ‘information concerning emotions,values and goals, as well as images, defining detail andstrategies’ (Nurius, 1989, p. 290).

Possible selves are schematic cognitiverepresentations of what people expect, hope or fearthat they may become, and therefore are guidedstrongly by expectancies about outcomes. Possibleselves can maintain general themes, but can alter inresponse to changes in the life course and other issuesof context (Cross & Markus, 1991). Therefore, a


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possible self as ‘successful’ can evolve from a morespecific self-representation, such as being a goodstudent, a good employee or a good parent.

More classical modernist depictions of the self viewthe individual in relatively monolithic terms, byemphasising stable personality based traits (Markus &Nurius, 1986). Contemporary, modern theories of theself recognise greater plasticity in self-concept,situational influences, capacity for change and the selfbeing made up of a number of sub self-concepts(Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Markus & Nurius, 1986).Possible selves represent the future tense of thesemultiple selves.

This construal of the self as multi-faceted andchanging represents post-modern influences on afundamentally modernist set of constructs. Possibleselves are empirically measurable and the relativestability of the core self-concept is recognised, as is therole of human agency.

We argue that possible selves have strongapplicability to a career intervention because of theirrelationship to wellbeing and motivation (Ruvolo &Markus, 1992); coping with transitions (Linville,1985); and resistance to setbacks (Cross & Markus,1994). Possible selves also have a strong connectionwith good career counselling practice in their link toa positive future focus (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996;Spokane, 1996). They represent highly personalisedgoals. Possible selves are also changeable, thus theycan help with adaptability (Savickas, 1993).

A possible selves approach has been shown to workwell with a client-centred approach (Martz, 2001).Because of links between possible selves andcognition, a possible selves approach to careers also sitseasily with cognitive behavioural approaches to careerdecision-making outlined by authors such as Mitchelland Krumboltz (1987), and Corbishley and Yost(1989).

A possible selves approach addresses the diversityand complexity of career development processes, butit is not prescriptive about the processes of careerinterventions. At this point, we suggest twoapproaches for managing the integration of bothcareer development with career interventionprocesses. The first is a practical adaptation of thepossible selves construct.

‘FUTURESELVES’: A PRACTICALAPPLICATION OF POSSIBLE SELVESTHEORY‘FutureSelves’ is an Australasian program, designedto look holistically at people’s lives and their futurepotential. It consists of a computerised questionnairethat covers skills and interests, career options, values,self-beliefs and life style. The instrument hasreasonable test-retest properties (0.73), and itsconcurrent validity with life satisfaction, self-esteemand optimism/pessimism demonstrated reasonableconcurrent validity (between 23–27 per cent of thevariance is explained by possible self responses)(Plimmer, 2001). However, its practical strength is notas a measurement tool but as a gateway foraccelerated, holistic counselling with clients (Plimmer,2001). It is an instrument to help, not a tool to judge.

Clients go through a computerised inventory,receive a graphic output and then use this as aframework for career counselling. The computerisedquestionnaire asks clients to write about their hopesand fears. Then clients are presented with a series ofitems which identifies and rates the strength of theirhopes and fears, asks how likely they are to becomereal, and whether that self has occurred yet. Thesehopes and fears are then presented graphically to theclient, with the level of hope/fear plotted on the y-axisand the likelihood of it occurring plotted on the x-axis.

From this clients and counsellors see a constellationof hopes and fears rated as likely or unlikely to takeplace. For the sake of convenience, likely hopes areclassified as opportunities, unlikely hopes as dreams,unlikely fears as dreads, and likely fears as threats. Allhopes and fears are separated into two categories of

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‘past and/or present self’ and ‘neither past nor presentself’ by an icon next to each on the graph.

Counsellors always need to be aware that any wayof gaining information carries risk of bias anddistortion. However, computerised instruments oftenhave less distortion than face-to-face interviews, andhave advantages in processing and presentinginformation in new and novel ways (Richman,Kiesler, Weisband & Drasgow, 1999). ‘FutureSelves’works as a gateway by presenting large amounts ofinformation at the item level in a manageable,compelling format about the client’s careerdevelopment process.

Clients and counsellors, rather than psych-ometricians, then draw connections between theseindividual hopes and fears through discussion ofpersonal meanings and interconnections. Therefore,it is a customised graphic tool designed to focus onwhat is unique about the person, rather than placepeople within normatively based constructs.‘FutureSelves’ is designed to provide a practical meansof applying possible selves theory to managing careerdevelopment processes, and to allow practitioners toattend more to their relationship with the client andthe client’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours outsidethe counselling room. We argue that transactionalanalysis provides a means of integrating possibleselves into the career counselling process.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:MANAGING PRACTITIONER/CLIENTPROCESSESTransactional analysis provides a simple, organisingframework for counsellors to deal with thecomplexity of what goes on between counsellor andclient (Stewart & Joines, 1987). Although it can becomplex, in a simple form it complements a possibleselves approach because it offers a framework forpractitioners to manage the intervention process.

Transactional analysis is well researched with goodeffectiveness outcomes (Novey, 2002). Although it haspsychodynamic origins, it is a useful model forcapturing issues also dealt with in cognitivebehavioural approaches. Transactional analysis’popularity has declined in the United States; however,it has become a major approach for change in Europeand parts of Asia.

Transactional analysis covers the counselling basicsby eliciting from practitioners a non-judgemental

approach, attention to client experience and the wholeperson—including the shifts that occur within peopleas different selves, or ego states, come into play. Itrequires attention to the relationship betweenpractitioner and client, by placing the onus on thepractitioner to monitor both the client and his or herego states. It provides a way of managing bothwithin—client processes and client–counsellorprocesses.

At the heart of transactional analysis are three egostates, each with a set of related behaviours, thoughtsand feelings that manifest a part of our personality atany one time. The parent ego state describes thoughts,feelings and behaviours, which draw from pastauthority figures. The adult ego state describesresponses to here and now events, and captures theresources of being an adult. The child ego statedescribes thoughts, feelings and behaviours that arepart of childhood or earlier experiences.

Being a relational model, transactional analysis alsolooks at the different ego states we use incommunicating with others. This is called functionalanalysis, which further divides ego states into how werelate to others (Stewart & Joines, 1987). The parentego state is divided into the controlling parent, that setslimits and may be critical and the nurturing parent thatis supportive. The child ego state is divided into theadapted child that lives in response to the perceivedneeds and demands of others and the natural child thathas free access to its own needs.

The goal of transactional analysis is to keep theclient’s adult in charge of decision making. But to dothis, awareness of influences or messages from theirchild and parent will need to be evaluated.Transactional analysis provides a framework to assesswhich ego state is present, and which ones may latercome into play as hindrances to progress.

Working out which ego state a person is respondingfrom involves sensitivity and curiosity. Careercounsellors need to watch body language and non-verbal signals, as much as the overt verbal message. Inworking with a client’s dreads or fears, there is a strongchance the adapted child is engaged, which may beanxious or scared. In exploring the basis of the fear, wemay need to engage our nurturing parent to make itsafe to express vulnerability. If the client is talkingabout their hopes and dreams, they may be operatingfrom their natural child. Career counsellors actingfrom a nurturing parent role may also be appropriate.


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The appeal of ‘FutureSelves’ and transactionalanalysis is that they are both simple to use. However,they also both come from more complex, well-researched theoretical bases. They also work welltogether.

CASE STUDYBelow is an example of the application of the possibleselves approach. The computerised inventory(‘FutureSelves’) was administered, and a contractagreed to, for two counselling sessions within atransactional analysis framework, based on thefeedback provided by the inventory.

Application of possible selvesThe ‘FutureSelves’ program was used. It generatedfour charts in the areas of career options; skills andinterests; lifestyle; and personal values and attributes.For reasons of length, only two of these charts arediscussed in this article.

Client’s background details: (Pete)• 48 years old• European New Zealander• ‘Self-made’—worked in a variety of roles, latterly

in social services area• Considering applying for a senior position in

current social services organisationIn the free text section where clients write their

own high level hopes and fears, Pete wrote:HOPES: ‘Hope to be happy, successful, lead a balancedlife.’

FEARS: ‘Fearful that I will commit myself tosomething that I can’t handle. Might end up stressedand life out of balance.’

Pete was upfront about his fears but equallydetermined in the hope that he wanted to apply forthe job and that others were encouraging him hewould do it well.

SKILLS AND INTERESTS: Pete’s graphic response tothe skills and interests area is shown in Figure 1. Theskills and interests showed only three skills that hehad hoped to use that were also very likely. He hadused all of these skills before. He had a very largenumber of skills that he had strong and very strongfears around that were also likely or very likely to beneeded. Some of these he had used before, but many

such as ‘negotiating’, ‘organising’ and ‘leading people’he indicated were not part of his past or present self.

LIFESTYLE: Pete’s response to the lifestyle section isset out in Figure 2. Pete showed many strong hopesthat were likely or very likely. Most of them were partof his past or present self. His fears, most of which herated likely or very likely, were about a lack of freetime and stress. He expressed other strong fears abouthis health and relationship.

Pete reported he felt relieved to be given theopportunity to express some of his fears. He said hewas having a bad day, and that while his confidencewaxed and waned, he generally thought he could dothe job and would apply for it. He thought it would beuseful to talk about why his fears had surfaced.

Application of transactional analysisWhile Pete expressed many fears (which may haveoriginated in his child ego state), in observing Pete’sbody language and general presentation, the careercounsellor noted his composure. It seemed his adultwas also functioning strongly. Using adult-to-adulttransactions, the career counsellor asked Pete to reporton why he thought the fears had surfaced and whatthey were about. Pete was able to be analytical andphilosophical and said he had a tendency to‘catastrophise’.

The counsellor was aware the frightened child thathad presented in the figure was part of Pete, but Peteneeded to move on and find strategies to manage hisfears and realise his hopes. At times, the transactionschanged into the nurturing parent of the careercounsellor, and the natural child of Pete, as heexplained that he was conscious of his lack of tertiaryeducation and age. Because of the contract and setting,the career counsellor was conscious of connectingwith Pete’s adult as much as possible. Pete reported hehad taken some important steps to overcome his fears.He had enrolled in a course to develop his skills inmanaging, leading and motivating people.

The career counsellor challenged Pete about howhe had managed to achieve the successes he had, if hefelt fearful about so many skills (nurturing parent–adult). He acknowledged a tendency to be hard onhimself and that he did have many of the skills, buthe wanted to feel more confident about them. Afterfurther discussion about his fears, Pete set himself the


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Case StudyH

op

e/F

ear

Very Unlikely Unlikely Likely Very Likely

Likelihood category Past and/or Present Self Neither Past or Present Self

Very Strong Hope

Strong Hope

Hope

Fear

Strong Fear

Very Strong Fear Oral communicationTeamwork

9–5 work

Variety

ListeningHow things work

Written communicationsCreative work

Setting things upPlanningCreativityMultitaskingMaking decisions

Team development Giving feedbackLeading people Negotiating Organising Goal setting

Ho

pe/

Fea

r

Very Unlikely Unlikely Likely Very Likely

Likelihood category Past and/or Present Self Neither Past or Present Self

Very Strong Hope

Strong Hope

Hope

Fear

Strong Fear

Very Strong Fear

Good partnerLearnSpiritual lifeFreedomClose familyVaried lifeNice community

Not challenged

Lose touchUnhealthyUnhappy relationships

No free time Stress

Better life Successful family Owning home Money Alternative culture

Involved in a club

Simple lifeSecure with life

FIGURE 1: SKILLS AND INTERESTS

FIGURE 2: LIFESTYLE

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goal to approach a colleague in another organisationto mentor him in areas such as organising andplanning. He also decided to ask for feedback abouthis existing skills from the colleagues who wereencouraging him to go for the new position.

In talking about his lifestyle, the career counsellornoted the large number of very likely strong hopesthat seemed sometimes to contradict his strong fears.Working with Pete’s adult as he looked at the visualmaterial, he was able to acknowledge some irrationalfears and commented that when he looked at hisfuture overall, he felt much more positive and hopefulabout his potential.

Pete went away with some concrete goals and asense that he needed to continue to think positivelyabout himself and what he had to offer. While bothparties were conscious there was a lot of historical childmaterial in the charts, by consciously encouraging Peteto use his adult, the career counsellor was able to workreasonably quickly and sensitively towards a positiveoutcome for Pete. Pete eventually got the job and saidthe two one-hour sessions enabled him to ‘get a grip’on himself and go for what he wanted.

CONCLUSIONThis article proposed a model of possible self andtransactional analysis based counselling, becausetogether they provide an efficient means forcounsellors and clients to manage the myriad of issuesthat arise in contemporary career developmentsettings. Possible selves, and a particular applicationof that set of constructs—‘FutureSelves’, was arguedas a means of managing issues in the careerdevelopment process. It was argued that transactionalanalysis is an effective means of managing processeswithin the intervention.

The ‘FutureSelves’ approach, in particular the useof computer-assisted questioning and graphs, alloweda wider range of issues to be acknowledged andaddressed within the first session than wouldotherwise have been the case. These issues includedspecific goals and fears. The inter-relationshipsbetween each specific item were determined by thecounsellor and client, rather than predetermined by apsychometric scale. This meant the intervention wasquickly personalised, and it was dealt with at a level ofdetail that reflected the idiosyncrasies of the client’shopes and fears.

Within two sessions, a number of fears and goalswere identified quickly, and strategies developed. Inthe first session the client held in-depth discussion ofthe fears reported in the computerised questionnaire.The case study generated strong emotional materialthat required addressing. Of course there are settingswhere issues are not complex, and more simpleinterventions may be more valid.

The case study indicated that, for this client,responding to the computerised questionnaire led toengagement in the counselling process, andconsequently accelerated the process of disclosure andcounselling generally. Combining possible selves withtransactional analysis provides career counsellors withthe chance to try something new. Our experience is thatit improves effectiveness with clients, and enhancescareer counsellors’ existing styles, without taking awayfrom what they already do well. Career counsellors,who may have limited time and a degree of anxietyaround addressing personal issues, can use possibleselves within the structure of transactional analysis tofacilitate sound goal setting and decision-making.

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Career decision making is about choice and, whilethe direction may change several times in a

lifetime, at various points in our lives we are in theprocess of evaluating our choices and making new

ones. We take in information all the time aboutourselves, our circumstances and the world around us.This information feeds into a decision-making processand where we ‘sit’ in that process can be defined in

THE IMPACT OF WORKQUALITY AND QUANTITY

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OFCAREER DECISION STATUS

JOANNE K. EARL and JIM E. H. BRIGHT,

Univer sity of New South Wales

A study is reported that investigates the relationship between career decision status, quantityand quality of work experience obtained by university students. Career decision status is theterm used to capture an individual’s level of decidedness and comfort with their careerdecisions and the reasons underlying this state ( Jones & Lohmann, 1998). Measures of careerdecision status were collected from students enrolled in the third year of a Computer Scienceand Engineering degree over two phases: at the beginning of their third year (Time I); and atthe beginning of fourth year (Time II). In between phases, some students completed paidintensive training placements as part of their course requirements, others gained non-degreerelevant work experience and others did not work at all. Information was collected on thequantity of work undertaken and quality of work in terms of satisfaction, met expectationsand relevance to course of study. Decidedness about career choice was a function ofsatisfaction and met expectations at work, rather than the number of hours worked.Decisiveness was a function of relevance of work to university degree, rather than the numberof hours worked.

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terms of our career decision status. Patton and Creed(2001) describe career decision status as ‘more specificaspects of career maturity’ (p. 338) and it is consideredhelpful in understanding issues inhibiting careerdecision-making. Its origins have been traced back tothe work of Parsons (1909) who classified people aseither career-decided or career-undecided. Sincesubsequent research (e.g. Williamson, 1937) failed todemonstrate that certainty of vocational choicepredicts scholastic achievement, Parsons’ view hasbeen reconceptualised towards assessing the degree ofand reasons for career uncertainty (Hartung, 1995).The accepted contemporary view is ‘a finite numberof relatively discrete problems prevent people fromreaching closure for educational and vocationaldecisions’ (Osipow, Carney, Winer, Yanico & Koschier,1987, p. 4). Chartrand et al. (1994) propose careerindecision be viewed as a developmental problemwithin the career maturation process relating to a lackof information about self or the world of work.

Until recently, the term career decision status hasbeen used interchangeably with the concept of careermaturity (Levinson, Ohler, Caswell & Kiewra, 1998),which is not surprising given the developmentalnature of the construct. In order to distinguishbetween the two terms, Prideaux and Creed (2001, p.10) describe career maturity as an unfolding of abilityto make career-related decisions, while careerindecision is a stumbling block within thatdevelopmental process. Alternatively, career maturitycould be thought of as a continuum, while careerdecision status describes the state of that decision interms of how definite (i.e., decided) an individual isand how comfortable they feel about their decision.

Measures of career decision status attempt to clarifycertainty and indecision (Career Decision Scale;Osipow et al., 1987), or comfort and decidedness(Career Decision Profile; Jones, 1989, 1999) pertainingto career decision-making. Initially thought of as uni-dimensional, it has been expanded over time to amulti-dimensional concept. More contemporarymeasures (i.e., Career Decision Profile; Jones, 1989)describe the status of the decisions made, and thereasons underlying these pertaining to knowledgeabout self (i.e. self-clarity); knowledge about the worldof work (i.e. knowledge about occupations andtraining); the ability to make decisions generally (i.e.

decisiveness); and the salience of the career decision(i.e. career choice importance). Osipow (1999) definesthe difference between the Career Decision Scale andthe Career Decision Profile as the latter enables a ‘moreprecise “diagnosis” of the causes of career indecisionthan do the earlier measures’ (p. 150). Little is knownabout the factors contributing to career decision status.We need to understand whether levels of careerdecidedness and comfort increase by maturationalone, or fluctuate depending on changes incircumstances or exposure to new experiences. Pattonand Creed (2001) suggest that demographic andcontextual factors need further exploration. Thisstudy investigates the influence of quantity andquality of work experience on the development ofcareer decision status. We examine whether thequantity of work experience makes a biggerdifference to determining career decision status thanthe quality of work experience, in terms ofsatisfaction, met expectations and relevance touniversity degree.

Career Decision Status, Volume and Pattern ofWork ExperienceFew studies exist that measure the impact of volume,pattern and type of work on the development ofcareer decision status. It seems logical that workexperience should influence career decision-making,since it serves to increase knowledge pertaining to theworld of work and one’s capacity to deal with thatwork. This premise underlies the incorporation ofwork experience into high school and universitycurricula. Recent findings (Vickers, Lamb & Hinkley,2003) from research utilising longitudinal datainvolving Australian high school students highlightsthe role of part-time work experience in securingemployment, although reducing chances ofcompleting high school education.

The influence of work experience on the careerdecision-making process is worthy of furtherinvestigation, but any conclusions drawn to date arelimited by how work experience has been measured.Creed and Patton (2003) in a recent study involving367 secondary school students across five years of highschool found no relationship between workexperience and career decision status. In that study,work experience was measured dichotomously, with

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students categorised as either with or without workexperience excluding any reference to quantity orquality of experience gained. In a longitudinal study,Niles and Herr (1989) explored the impact of part-time employment on career certainty, butparticipants—aged in their mid-20s—were asked torate their part-time high school work experienceretrospectively. In their study, Niles and Herr (1989)had participants rate their experience on a four-pointscale ranging from 1 (always had a part-time job whilein junior or senior high school) to 4 (never had a part-time job while in junior or senior high school). Recentresearch (Earl & Bright, 2003) investigated the effectsof work experience on the development of careerdecision status in a group of university students (Years1 and 3). The authors found students with workexperience reported significantly higher levels of self-clarity, occupational training and knowledge, thanthose without work experience. Quantity of workexperience was a greater determinant of careermeasure scores than pattern of work (i.e. full-time vspart-time or casual) or breadth of experience (asmeasured by number of employers and different jobs).

In the absence of more extensive research, it isworthwhile considering findings from the relatedarea of career maturity. Ohler, Levinson and Barker(1996) compared disabled and non-disabled groups,and found that quantity and type of work experiencehad a different effect on career maturity scores acrossthe two groups. They found that quantity of workexplained variance in career maturity scores withinthe disabled group (N = 76), while type of workexperience explained variance in the group withoutdisabilities (N = 106). In a study utilising 10th–12thgrade college students, Loughlin and Barling (1998)reported that role stressors (i.e. role ambiguity, roleconflict and role overload) were the best predictors ofcareer maturity scores in part-time workopportunities, not quantity of work. Loughlin andBarling (2001) compared the experience of ‘non-standard jobs’ (temporary, part-time or contractwork) to standard jobs. They theorised ‘non-standardjobs’ have been unfairly stigmatised and theexperience provided had been marginalised. Theysuggest there is no evidence to support the elevatedstatus attached to full-time work. Nevertheless,evidence does exist to suggest there are differences

between full-time and part-time work, and the valueattached to each. The argument that satisfactiondiffers between full-time and part-time employees hasbeen supported empirically (Miller & Terborg, 1979).

Our hypothesis is that students with workexperience will have higher levels of comfort anddecidedness in relation to career decisions, since thisprovides them with the opportunity to further explorethe world of work and examine their own capabilitiesin relation to career goals. It is further hypothesisedthe quality of work experience will be responsible forthe greatest change in career decision status scoresover time. The more satisfying work experience isconsidered to be, the more consistent the experienceis with the choice of degree, the more expectationsabout the world of work are met, then the more likelystudents will be decided and comfortable in theircareer decision-making. In a review of careerindecision research, Prideaux and Creed (2001)highlight the need for longitudinal research designsto determine the developmental vs contextual natureof career indecision. Our study collects career decisionstatus measures over two phases, with interveningwork experience between each phase, enabling us toexamine the development of the measures across timeand to determine the impact of work experience.

METHOD

DesignThe research design utilised a longitudinal designover a ten-month period. During Time I (beginningof students’ third year in the course), baselinemeasures of career decision status were collected, aswell as biographical information about workexperience to date. Time II was measured at thebeginning of students’ fourth year of study. BetweenTime I and II students participated in various workexperience programs. Some students obtained degreerelated paid work experience as part of an intensivetraining placement which was part of a courserequirement towards a degree in Computer Scienceand Engineering. Other students obtained non-degreerelated paid work experience or no work experienceat all. The study design capitalised on naturalallocations to work experience groupings rather thanany artificial assignment to conditions.

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ParticipantsIn Time I of the study, 282 third year students wereinvited during class to participate in the study and 255students completed questionnaires (i.e. a response rateof 91 per cent). Some ten months later, Time II of thestudy took place. Approximately 336 students wereapproached during a fourth year lecture to participatein Time II of the study. 190 of these students returnedquestionnaires, and of these 105 students hadpreviously participated in Time I of the study.Response rate for Time II was 57 per cent and thislower than optimal response rate is most likely theresult of self-selection, since the experimenter wastargeting people who had already participated atTime I. Between Times I and II, 61 students hadgained work experience. In addition to collectingquestionnaires from the original participants in TimeI, 85 additional participants completed questionnairespertaining to work experience gained over theequivalent period, but these questionnaires were notincluded in analysis that follows.

Thirty-one females and 74 males participated inboth Time I and Time II of the study. Females rangedin age from 19.75 years to 30.08 years, with a mean ageof 21.17 years (SD = 1.81). Males ranged in age from18.92 years to 27.83 years, with an average age of 20.84months (SD = 1.34). Twenty-two females and 124males participated in Time I, but not Time II.Females participating in Time I only ranged from19.58 years to 29.42 years, with a mean age of 22.36years (SD = 3.17). Males participating in Time I onlyranged from 18.08 years to 38.50 years, with anaverage of 22.28 years (SD = 3.19).

MaterialsThe following questionnaires were administered:biographical questionnaire, Career Decision Profile andCareer Decision Scale. The purpose of each set ofmaterials and a more detailed description follows.

Biographical QuestionnaireBiographical information was collected fromparticipants regarding age, gender and workexperience (in the ten months since original testing).Information was collected on name of employer, roleemployed and number of hours worked. Satisfactionwith job ranged from 1 (not at all satisfied) to 7(extremely satisfied). How well the job matched their

expectations was scored 1 (much worse than expected)to 7 (much better than expected). How relevantstudents believed the work was to their universitydegree was rated 1 (not at all relevant) to 7 (extremelyrelevant).

Career Decision ProfileThe Career Decision Profile is a 16-item inventorydesigned to measure career decision status. Each itemis answered on an eight-point Likert scale from 1(strongly disagree) to 8 (strongly agree). Thedecidedness subscale consists of two items aimed atmeasuring how decided an individual perceiveshimself or herself to be in choosing an occupation.The comfort subscale consists of two items designedto measure how comfortable he or she feels aboutprogress in the process of making a choice. The reasonsubscale is measured across four domains, eachconsisting of three items: self-clarity; knowledgeabout occupations and training; decisiveness; andcareer choice importance. Jones (1989) reported test-retest reliability ranging from 0.66 for decidedness, to0.76 for the comfort subscale. Internal reliabilityranged between 0.69 for reasons and 0.85 fordecidedness (Jones, 1989). In the study reported here,reliability coefficients for Time I and II were:decidedness (0.77 and 0.79); comfort (0.66 and 0.80);self-clarity (0.83 and 0.78); occupational training andknowledge (0.53 and 0.66); decisiveness (0.80 and0.84); career choice importance (0.53 and 0.68). TheCareer Decision Profile has been recognised byresearchers as returning a more precise ‘diagnosis’ asthe cause of career indecision (Osipow, 1999; Stead &Watson, 1993). The subscale ‘knowledge ofoccupations and training’ enables a measure of careerexploration omitted from other measures of careerdecision status.

Career Decision Scale The Career Decision Scale (Osipow et al., 1987) is ameasure consisting of 19 items. The first two itemsmeasure certainty about choosing a university majorand a career. Items 3 to 18 measure career indecision.Responses are recorded on a 1 to 4 Likert scale, with1 indicating low similarity of the student to the item,and 4 indicating high similarity to the item. Item 19requires an open-ended response to clarify answersprovided earlier in the questionnaire. This item was

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excluded from our study. In a review of careermaturity measures by Levinson et al. (1998), theCareer Decision Scale was considered to have soundtest-retest reliability (0.70–0.90), and very goodconstruct and concurrent validity. Various authors(Chartrand & Robbins, 1990; Meier, 1991) havedescribed the scale as the most widely knowninstrument for the assessment of career indecision.Stead and Watson (1993) describe it as being uni-dimensional. Internal reliability coefficients in Time Iof our study were 0.82 for indecision and 0.74 forcertainty. In Time II, the internal reliabilitycoefficients for our sample were 0.88 for indecisionand 0.73 for certainty.

RESULTSAnalysis was conducted to determine whether resultswere different for those people participating in TimeI and Time II, versus those participating in Time Ionly. T-tests were conducted comparing the results ofcareer measures for those people participating at TimeI only (N = 255) to those people participating in bothTime I & II (N = 105). There were no significantdifferences across the two groups on either the CareerDecision Profile or the Career Decision Scale variables.From this point forward, all analysis refers only to thesample participating at both Time I and II (N = 105).

Descriptive data pertaining to the measures ofcareer decision status are presented in Table 1. Pairedt-tests produced significant differences betweendecidedness (t = 3.109, SD = 3.01, p < 0.01),knowledge about occupations and training (t = – 3.15,

SD = 5.11, p < 0.01) and decisiveness (t = – 3.30, SD =4.78, p < 0.05).

Correlations were performed to test our hypothesisabout the relationship between quality and quantityof work and career decision status. The correlationmatrix showing the relationship between workquantity, work quality and the career measures can befound in Table 2. Contrary to our expectation,quantity of hours did not relate to the career measuresof self-clarity (knowledge of self) or knowledge ofoccupations and training (knowledge about the worldaround us).

Quantity of hours worked were significantlyrelated to the career measures of decidedness andcertainty. All quality measures (i.e. satisfaction, metexpectations and relevance) were significantly andpositively related to decidedness and comfort, andsignificantly but negatively correlated with indecision.Relevance of experience significantly correlated withself-clarity, decisiveness and certainty.

To fully determine the effect of quantity andquality of work experience, hierarchical linearregression was conducted with the career measures atTime II treated as the dependent variable. To controlfor the effects of career measures at Time I, these wereentered at Step 1. In Step 2, quantity and qualityvariables were each entered separately (i.e. quantityand satisfaction, or expectations, or relevance). Wefound that satisfaction (Standardised coefficients Beta = 0.20, t = 2.05, p < 0.05) and met expectations(Standardised coefficients Beta = 0.22, t = 2.43, p <0.05) influenced decidedness, while relevance

TABLE 1: CAREER DECISION STATUS SCORES ACROSS TIME I AND II (N = 105)

Variable Time I Time IIMean SD Mean SD

Decidedness 12.02 3.10 11.11 3.24Comfort 9.50 3.47 9.81 3.39Self-clarity 10.56 5.42 11.71 5.30Knowledge of occupations and training 11.47 4.17 13.07 4.25Decisiveness 13.80 5.06 15.44 4.96Career choice importance 17.82 3.83 17.57 3.98Certainty 4.88 1.47 5.02 1.27Indecision 34.23 8.50 32.76 8.32

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influenced decisiveness scores (Standardisedcoefficients Beta = 0.25, t = 2.34, p < 0.05). Previousrelationships reported between quantity of hoursworked and the career measures probably existbecause quantity and quality are significantlycorrelated. As per our hypothesis, quality of workexperience was a more significant predictor ofdecidedness. Comfort was not influenced by hours orquality of work experience. Although, it could bepossible that those students who were more decisivesimply selected work experience more relevant totheir course, this is unlikely since decisiveness wascontrolled for at Time 1. A more likely explanation isthat by undertaking work that was relevant, studentscould be more decisive in their career decision-making (i.e. they gained confidence from having theircareer choice affirmed).

To determine whether quality and quantitymeasures interacted, a hierarchical linear regressionanalysis was conducted in three steps. The careerdecision measures were controlled for at Time I byentering into the regression analysis in step 1. Hoursworked and measures relevance, or expectations, orsatisfaction separately in step 2, and the product of hrsx separate quality measures (e.g. satisfaction x hours)

in step 3. No interaction effects were found betweenthe quantity of hours worked and the different workquality measures.

DISCUSSIONOur findings suggest that work quality and quantitycan result in changes in career measures over time. Byutilising a longitudinal design, we are able to drawconclusions not only about the relationships betweencareer measures, quantity and quality of workexperience, but to track changes in career measuresover time. Limiting our findings to those studentsparticipating in both phases of our study, we foundevidence to suggest that quality of work (in terms ofsatisfaction and met expectations) predicteddecidedness, and that relevance of work influenceddecisiveness over time. Our findings provide supportfor the earlier cross-sectional research by Loughlinand Barling (1998).

Conclusions of our studies are somewhat limitedby our measurement of satisfaction and metexpectations. Although not possible in this study,ideally we would have preferred more in-depthinformation about each of the work assignmentsundertaken by students and measurement of the

TABLE 2: INTERCORRELATIONS BETWEEN CAREER MEASURES, WORK QUANTITY AND QUALITY AT TIME II (N = 105)

Comfort 0.62**

Self-clarity 0.25** 0.37**

Knowledge 0.24* 0.52** 0.51**

Decisiveness 0.41** 0.48** 0.47** 0.35**

Choice importance 0.28** –0.06 0.10 0.04 0.34**

Certainity 0.49** 0.59** 0.49** 0.38** 0.51** 0.05Indecision –0.48** –0.56** –0.49** –0.61** –0.59** –0.25* –0.55**

Quantity 0.26** 0.15 0.11 0.07 0.08 –0.03 0.21* –0.16Satisfaction 0.26** 0.19* 0.02 0.06 0.14 –0.03 0.15 –0.22* 0.55**

Expectations 0.27** 0.20* –0.01 0.01 0.16 –0.01 0.11 –0.21* 0.51** 0.94**

Relevance 0.24* 0.24* 0.20* 0.15 0.25* 0.01 0.21* –0.22* 0.62** 0.79** 0.77**

* p < 0.05, two-tailed ** p < 0.01, two-tailed

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different aspects of work quality. For example, insubsequent studies it is recommended that jobsatisfaction be measured using more robust measuresof job satisfaction such as the Job Descriptive Index(Balzer et al., 1990). While utilising natural allocationsto the work experience groups has its advantages, onedisadvantage is being unable to control for differencesin people who self-nominate for work. For example,it may have been that those people undertaking workexperience were significantly more motivated thanthose who did not. Residency status may haveprecluded other students from obtaining paid workexperience, despite their best efforts. As students werenot randomly assigned to the work experience groupsthen this must be considered a limitation in our studydesign. As in previous research of this type, workexperience was rated retrospectively, although thereis some benefit to rating the experience in situ whilethe student is still participating. Planned research bythe authors will investigate the influence of measuresin situ with graduates now in employment utilisingmore detailed measures of work quality.

REFERENCESBalzer, W. K., Smith, P. C., Kravitz, D. A., Lovell, S. E., Paul,

K. B., Reilly, B. A., & Reilly, C. E. (1990). User’s Manual: Job

Descriptive Index (JDI) Job in General (JIG) scales. Bowling

Green, OH: Bowling Green State University.

Chartrand, J. M., Martin, W. F., Robbins, S. B., McAuliffe, G. J.,

Pickering, J. W., & Calliotte, J.A. (1994). Testing a level

versus an interactional view of career indecision. Journal of

Career Assessment, 2(1), 55–69.

Chartrand, J. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1990). Using

multidimensional career decision instruments to assess career

decidedness and implementation. The Career Development


Creed, P. A., & Patton, W. (2003). Predicting two components of

career maturity in school based adolescents. Journal of Career

Development, 29(4), 277–90.

Earl, J. K., & Bright, J. E. H. (2003). Undergraduate level, age,

volume and pattern of work as predictors of career decision

status. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55(2), 83–8.

Hartung, P. J. (1995). Assessing career certainity and choice status.

(Report No. EDO-CG-95-19). Greensbro, NC: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services. (ERIC

Digest No. EDOCG9519).

Jones, L. K. (1989). Measuring a three-dimensional construct of

career indecision among college students: A revision of the

Vocational Decision Scale—The Career Decision Profile.

Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36(4), 477–86.

Jones, L. K., (1999). Career Decision Profile. Raleigh, NC: North

Carolina State University.

Jones, L. K., & Lohmann, R. C. (1998). The Career Decision

Profile: Using a measure of career decision status in

counseling. Journal of Career Assessment, 6(2), 209–30.

Levinson, E. M., Ohler, D. L., Caswell, S., & Kiewra, K. (1998).

Six approaches to the assessment of career maturity. Journal

of Counseling and Development, 76(4), 475–82.

Loughlin, C., & Barling, J. (1998). Teenagers’ part-time

employment and their work-related attitudes and

aspirations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(2), 197–207.

Loughlin, C., & Barling, J. (2001). Young workers’ work values,

attitudes, and behaviours. Journal of Occupational and

Organizational Psychology, 74, 543–58.

Meier, S. T. (1991). Vocational behavior, 1988–1990: Vocational

choice, decision-making, career development interventions,

and assessment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 39, 131–81.

Miller, E. H., & Terborg, J. R. (1979). Job attitudes of part-time and

full-time employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 380–6.

Niles, N., & Herr, E. L. (1989). Using secondary school behaviors

to predict career behaviors in young adulthood: Does ‘success’

breed ‘success’? Career Development Quarterly, 37(4), 345–54.

TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF SIMULTANEOUS REGRESSION ANALYSIS FOR VARIABLES PREDICTING CAREER DECIDEDNESS

Model Unstandardised Standardised t SigCoefficients Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 7.69 1.40 5.50 0.000Work Quantity 2.03E-03 0.001 0.19 1.98 0.05Work Quality 0.32 0.13 0.24 2.44 0.02

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Prideaux, L., & Creed, P. A. (2001). Career maturity, career

decision-making, self-efficacy and career indecision: A

review of the accrued evidence. Australian Journal of Career

Development, 10(3), 7–12.

Stead, G. B., & Watson, M. B. (1993). How similar are the factor

structures of the Career Decision Scale, the Career Decision

Profile, and the Career Factors Inventory? Educational and

Psychological Measurement, 53, 281–90.

Vickers, M., Lamb, S., & Hinkley, J. (2003). Student workers in

high schools and beyond: The effects of part-time employment on

participation in education, training, and work (LSAY Research

Report No. 30). Camberwell, Vic: Australian Council for

Educational Research.

Williamson, E. G. (1937). Scholastic motivation and the choice

of a vocation. School and Society, 46, 353–7.

Ohler, D. L., Levinson, E. M., & Barker, W. F. (1996). Career

maturity in college students with learning disabilities. Career

Development Quarterly, 44(3), 278–88.

Osipow, S. H. (1999). Assessing career indecision. Journal of

Vocational Behavior, 55, 147–54.

Osipow, S. H., Carney, C. G., Winer, J., Yanico, B., & Koschier,

M. (1987). Career Decision Scale (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL:

Psychological Assessment Resources.

Parsons, F. (1909). Choosing a vocation. Boston: Houghton-

Mifflin.

Patton, W., & Creed, P. A. (2001). Developmental issues in career

maturity and career decision status. The Career Development

Quarterly, 49(4), 336–51.

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This paper reports on the introduction of anelectronic professional practice portfolio to

leisure sciences students. It is based on and expands apresentation given at the 2002 Teaching and LearningForum, Focussing on the student, Edith CowanUniversity, Perth (Colyer & Howell, 2002). Theframework for the electronic portfolio is informed bythe work of Barrett (1998, 2000, 2001). This projectadopted Barrett’s (2001, p. 5) definition of an electronic

portfolio that focuses ‘on growth and developmentover time, implemented through selection, reflectionand inspection of class work, along with goal-settingand self-evaluation’. The term ‘e-Portfolio’ is used tosignify the particular model applied in this case study.Reference to generic electronic portfolios or othermodels uses ‘electronic portfolio’.

Much of the research and development of portfoliosfor learning and assessment has occurred in higher

AN E-PORTFOLIO FORLEISURE SCIENCES

STUDENTS: A CASE STUDYAT EDITH COWAN

UNIVERSITY

SUE COLYER and JULIE HOWELL,

Edith Cowan Univer sity, Western Austral ia

The benefits of an electronic portfolio as an educational tool, as well as a career tool, forleisure sciences students are discussed, and concerns with electronic portfolio implementationare raised.This paper also outlines briefly the prototype of the e-Portfolio developed forleisure sciences students. Responses from student evaluations indicate the range of students’confidence at the commencement of the project and at the conclusion of the unit. Whilestudents were confident about the portfolio process generally, their confidence in presentingan electronic version remained low. Some suggestions for assisting students are provided.Research suggestions for the application of the electronic portfolio for career planning anddevelopment are also discussed.

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education, especially in teacher education (Baltimore,Hickson, Greorge & Crutchfield, 1996; Fisher, 1993;Tanner, Longayroux, Beijaard & Verloop, 2000). Thee-Portfolio project focused on students preparing forprofessional careers in the diverse leisure industry. Dueto the scope, variety of work and career developmentopportunities in this industry through employment orvolunteer contributions—ranging from children’svacation care to elite sport events management—aportfolio application is most relevant to students.

PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE IN THE

LEISURE SCIENCES

Benefits of student practicum portfoliosThe Leisure and Sport Management program atEdith Cowan University (ECU) prepares students towork in the community recreation and sport sectorsof the leisure industry, including leisure facilitymanagement, sport management and outdoorrecreation. The respective courses have establishedprofessional practice components throughout,culminating in a full industry-based practical unit inthe final semester. The 2001 Graduate DestinationSurvey showed 71 per cent of ECU leisure sciencesgraduates were working full-time, and 29 per centwere working part-time, with nobody looking forwork (Edith Cowan University Careers AdvisoryService, 2001).

In 1998, a paper portfolio approach to studentpracticum was adopted to focus students on work-based learning outcomes, rather than just a variety ofwork experiences in the industry. This portfolioapproach was based on Cooper’s (1997) model of apaper-based evidence portfolio. The evidence mayconsist of letters of reference, samples of work (e.g.,brochures, reports), extracts from a reflective journaland similar hard copy material. The current portfolioapproach at ECU encourages and assists leisuresciences students to identify gaps in existing skills andexperience in relation to existing leisure industry jobs;their acquisition of graduate attributes (recentlydeveloped by the University); and the students’ owninterests.

Leisure sciences students graduating prior to 1998were presented with a transcript of their practicumrecord, listing their placements and number of dayscompleted. They were required to accumulate a

minimum of 80 days by the end of their three-yearcourse. Some students accrued more than 200 days.The present portfolio structure of professionalpractice has moved students’ motivation away from acompetition to complete the greatest number offieldwork days to focus them on their professionaldevelopment needs. The new structure has alsocontributed substantially to students obtaining jobs.Anecdotal reports suggest that organising evidence ofskills, existing work record and educationqualifications into a portfolio assists both graduatesand potential employers.

In changing work environments (Handy, 1989;Kimeldorf, 1997) individual portfolios will becomethe means by which job seekers demonstrate whatthey can bring to a job. Career portfolios match thisnew way of working, with the advantages ofdemonstrating talents across a broad range ofassignments (Kimeldorf, 1997). For the students,learning how to build a portfolio early in their careershas many benefits, from self-assessment againstuniversity and industry standards (e.g., graduateattributes and job selection criteria) to setting personallearning outcomes, strategies and performanceindicators (Cooper, 1997). The collection of materialsderived from student practice becomes the foundationresource file from which the professional portfolio isbuilt (DeGraaf & Jordan, 1996). Work by DeGraafand Jordan (1996) in leisure studies and the leisureindustry extends the role portfolios may have in anindividual’s career development. They saw theresponsibility of career development initiatives as‘helping students identify the types of experiencesneeded, as well as documenting these experiences’ asthe main focus of maintaining a resource file orportfolio (p. 38).

A specific outcome of student practice is thesuccessful completion of course work requirements. Itis anticipated that students who establish the habit ofmaintaining and developing their portfolio will takethis habit into their careers. DeGraaf and Jordan(1996) noted that assisting students to plan for anddocument their career progress and planning is a taskfor educators. This paper-based portfolio project wasthe first step along this path for ECU leisure sciencesstudents.

There is much discussion about student portfoliosand the benefits to learning (Barrett, 1998, 2001;

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Burns, 1999; DeGraaf & Jordan, 1996). However, thediscussion on the benefits of organising careerdevelopment materials in a portfolio is predominantlyanecdotal—even in teacher education, from whichmost of the portfolio discussion has emerged (Peca,1999). Although the portfolio literature mentions‘career development’ it does so from a narrowperspective based almost exclusively on jobapplications and interviews.

McMahon and Patton (2000) saw a new potentialin careers work to assist individuals to manage theirown career development in a constantly changingworld. The career development processes include theprovision of information, counselling, curriculum andprogram interventions—such as career education,structure experience (e.g., work experience)—and theco-ordination of events including career fairs(McMahon & Tatham, 2002).

There is limited research on career developmentinitiatives that complement the portfolio experienceand possibly contribute to lifelong learning. Oneexception has been the professional portfolio course atLa Salle University, where the program has a strongcomplementary career focus (Serembus, 2000).

Electronic PortfoliosThe increased need for portable evidence todemonstrate knowledge and competencies, means the‘shoe box under the bed’ approach to storingprofessional practice and career material is no longeradequate. Electronic media offer opportunities tocreate a different type of portfolio, which can be usedfor collation, development, and flexible presentationof documents and other non-print materials. Theelectronic portfolio is a product that provides both ‘aprocess and a place’ (Shaklee, Barbour, Ambrose &Hansford, 1997, p. 2).

The underpinning philosophy for ECU’s e-Portfolio project follows Clarke’s (1995) guidelines tofocus attention on the students’ initial understandingof the process and its purpose; encouraging studentownership and individual expression; providing somestructured aspects to balance the open-ended natureof portfolios; and evaluating portfolio processes andstudents’ responses. The strength of a portfolio (asassessment for professional practice) lies in itscollaborative teamwork between students, lecturerand placement supervisor. It provides a common

framework within which learning and achievementare discussed. It is also a student-centred andempowering process (Baltimore et al., 1996;McLaughlin, Vogt, Anderson, DuMez, Peter &Hunter, 1998).

The electronic portfolio is a place (database) whereevidence is organised and stored until required.However, it may consist of more than an electronicstorehouse for a résumé and copies of evidence, suchas scanned letters, photographs and video clips. It caninclude self-directed, self-evaluation exercises toidentify gaps in current knowledge, skills andcompetencies against job requirements (usingadvertisements and job descriptions). Students can acton this information to address skills and attributesthat they are lacking. Students can write theirlearning outcomes, with objectives and strategies forachieving them. These additional features reinforceBarrett’s (2000) view that a portfolio is a process, aswell as a product, representing critical thinking,reflection and goal setting for ongoing professionaldevelopment, leading to a tangible document for aspecific application.

An electronic portfolio offers a range ofpossibilities. It may be used to create a systematic storeof all relevant evidence (artefacts) for easy access,selection and presentation; as a career managementtool, and to address issues of access. It is easy totransfer parts of the portfolio in a fast and efficientmanner, especially to distant and remote locations.Figure 1 shows the structure of the e-Portfolioprocesses described.

At the process level, the portfolio author:(1) identifies the focus of the portfolio. There are

many types of portfolios—this section helpsidentify the focus individuals will use whenorganising their electronic portfolio. It ensures theelectronic portfolio is tied to purpose, progress andachievement. For example, ECU graduateattributes form an ideal starting point for anelectronic portfolio. Alternatively, job selectioncriteria may be used to provide an initialframework for a student’s electronic portfolio.

(2) interprets the artefacts in the database. Reflectionand self-evaluation by the portfolio author arenecessary to determine which artefacts meet his orher needs and are quality examples ofachievements. Interpreting the evidence identifies

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gaps in knowledge, skills or artefacts and clarifiesthe next steps.

(3) makes notes for future action and completes thedesired task. At the heart of the portfolio is theknowledge it is part of lifelong learning. Oncegaps are identified, personal professionaldevelopment is encouraged. Planning futuredirections (and acting on long- and short-termgoals) is the focus at this stage.

(4) publishes evidence from the portfolio andcontinues to develop and maintain the artefacts.The product loop represents the production of theelectronic portfolio using multimedia options forpublication and presentation. This part of theprocess focuses on media options for publishingand presenting sections of an electronic portfolio.

CautionsWhile electronic portfolios have great advantages,some contentious issues arise from their growingpopularity, especially web-based portfolios. TheInternet allows students to make web-based portfoliospublic. Open access creates possibilities of plagiarism

and misrepresentation by and of students (Wheeler,1996; Wolfe, 1999). Public displays of student workmay not be as motivating as some suggest and maylead to privacy problems. Security and confidentialityare also issues for web-based portfolios that are notopenly published, especially for reflective portfolios.Other disadvantages may include high costs ofcompilation and assessment (Wheeler, 1996).

Portfolios may be a distinguishing, promotionalstrategy for a university and a cost-effective methodof collecting student materials (Rogers & Rogers,1999). However, the disadvantages of institution-stored electronic portfolios include the large storagespace required, especially as increasing numbers ofstudents develop electronic portfolios. Other issuesinclude equity of access to computers, software andthe Internet, and adequate technical support (Faye,2000). The current ECU e-Portfolio project set up aweb page for student access to activities, samples andinformation to develop an electronic portfolio, butstudents were encouraged to store their electronicversions on disk and their own computers.

4. publish present

Product

Process

select type of portfolio

1. identify focus

identify skills

2. interpret evidence

3. plan future directions

organise for ease of retrieval

STOREHOUSE

FIGURE 1: THE E-PORTFOLIO AS PROCESS AND PRODUCT

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The use of portfolios as assessment tools raisesmany issues and contrary views about theireffectiveness as evaluation tools (Burns, 1999; Centra,1994; Seldin, 1991). Gwa-Dong, Chen-Chung, Kuo-Liang, & Ming-Song (2001) warned that teachers mustdiligently strive to observe student portfolios andcomprehend student learning processes to guidestudents to develop their portfolios. An electronicportfolio as an assessment tool is not discussed in thispaper.

Currently for ECU, assessment is less of a concernthan instilling the importance of the process andencouraging the use of multimedia platforms andsoftware options that enhance, rather than addpressure to, the development of an electronicportfolio. ECU’s e-Portfolio project encapsulates twoof the major changes in portfolio development:defining a portfolio and presenting artefactseffectively in electronic form.

Multimedia for the Electronic PortfoliosThe multitude of electronic applications available forcreating electronic portfolios can be overwhelming.However, the portfolio author needs to remember thevalue added by creating an electronic portfolio shouldexceed the efforts expended. ECU’s e-Portfolio usedtechnology conservatively to keep the processessimple, heeding Barrett’s advice that ‘when learningnew tools, use familiar tasks; and when learning newtasks, use familiar tools’ (1998, p. 2).

An exploratory survey found that leisure sciencesstudents’ familiarity with technology varied greatly,ranging from students with no computer experience,to those with web authoring and multimediadevelopment backgrounds. Student access tocomputers, scanners and software packages alsovaried greatly.

Storing the evidenceA key aim of the e-Portfolio project was to provide aframework in which professional practice materialscould be stored and linked with career portfoliomaterials. Many methods can be used to storeelectronic portfolio artefacts during the developmentstages: on the student’s personal hard drive; a superdisk or zip drive; or on a CD. Electronic portfoliomultimedia elements can include images, sounds,video, text and mixed media. However, for their first

project, students were encouraged to develop only textand scanned images in the initial stages of theirportfolio development, unless they already had skillsto add other components to their electronic portfolio.

Publishing Electronic PortfolioAt the publication/presentation stage of the portfolio,the software should allow students to create hypertextlinks between the learning outcomes and artefacts.This can be achieved through custom-designedsoftware purchased for this purpose or throughsoftware adapted by the portfolio developer. Althoughthere are some very good commercial electronicportfolio programs on the market, they often reflectthe developer’s style or their structure can constrainthe user. Barrett (2000) found that many electronicportfolio authors want the freedom to create theirown portfolio structure using presentation software.Students in the ECU project with limited computerskills or confidence were encouraged to present theire-Portfolio using one or more of the followingoptions: a series of hyper-linked Microsoft® Worddocuments provided as part of the course (see Figure2); Acrobat® PDF; Macromedia® Dreamweaver®;and Microsoft® PowerPoint®.

Students can use computers to produce asophisticated storehouse for artefacts and elaboratedisplays to highlight evidence. However, it is thequality of the artefacts that will attain the student agraduate position, while the reflection and self-evaluation opportunities will assist with planning forthe future. This is the process part of the e-Portfolio.For example, a student may have a learning outcome

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Brief Description of My ProjectLog of Hours

Reference from AgencyLearning OutcomesTable of EvidenceList of Evidence

Explanation of how evidence relates to intended outcomes

Evidence 1Evidence 2Evidence 3Evidence 4Evidence 5Evidence 6

return to home (cover page)

FIGURE 2: CONTENTS PAGE FROM THE E-PORTFOLIO

TEMPLATE

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‘to be able to produce a leisure program brochureusing a desktop publishing program’. A hyperlinkwould take the reader to a PDF of the brochure andother related evidence prepared by the student as partof his or her placement activities.

The process focuses on growth and developmentover time, and provides strategies for selection,reflection and inspection of evidence of skills andcompetencies, along with suggestions for implementinggoal setting and self-evaluation techniques. The actionincludes identifying and addressing gaps in careerdevelopment. This process is needed to develop astrategic career plan before graduation that willstrengthen a student’s career pursuits.

As Figure 1 demonstrates, the e-Portfolioemphasises a combination of process and production.The difference between the ECU approach and othermodels (including commercial packages) is that itincludes both stages of development. The idea of themodel is to provide a step-by-step approach to theprocess that is easy to follow and remember. Just likeany skill, planning, collecting and publishing artefactswill become second nature with practice.

Editing the evidence requires a deepunderstanding of the purpose of the portfolio,reflecting on the quality of artefacts and designing themost effective presentation. The reflection processwould ideally include the comments of lecturers andsupervisors. While editing the evidence, studentsdevelop the ability to select items for specific purposes.

Preparing the studentsSome of the students were familiar with the portfolioapproach; others were not. They were introduced tothe paper-based portfolio approach in a first year unit(Leisure Leadership and Programming). In the firstfour weeks of the Leisure Facility Planning unit, theprofessional practice, and the portfolio requirementsand processes were explained to the students, withsupporting documents in a professional practiceguide. In week one, the electronic portfolio conceptwas explained to the students. In week two, they sawa demonstration of the e-Portfolio in development.They could access the website and download thedocuments, such as the step-by-step worksheet toidentify learning outcomes against job descriptions.Students were also provided with a disk thatcontained a basic e-Portfolio shell with in-built

hyperlinks, so they only needed to enter theirmaterials to build their e-Portfolio.

Several of the students expressed high levels ofanxiety about the demands of acquiring sufficientcomputing skills to produce an electronic version oftheir portfolio. Other students appeared confident,suggesting creative options for presenting theirrésumé, learning outcomes and evidence todemonstrate their achievements. Some students couldsee the clear relationship between their placement andthe portfolio to assist their career development: ‘Thecareer planning (e-Portfolio) benefits for many otherjobs I may chose’.

As part of the university’s week four formativeteaching evaluation, the students in the e-Portfoliotrial completed an additional section of an evaluationsurvey to reveal their reactions to the portfolio and theoption to present the portfolio in an electronic form.The students identified their discipline stream, andthen responded to a series of statements reflectingtheir confidence in the developmental sequence fromunderstanding the processes for developing learningoutcomes, to presenting the portfolio electronically.They responded on a 7-point Likert scale, where 1indicated strong disagreement with the statement and7 indicated strong agreement. Both the median and

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mean (including the standard deviation) are used asindicators of central tendency and dispersion. Furthercomparisons of difference are not made due to thesmall size of the ‘post test’ survey.

Student confidence at the introduction of the e-PortfolioTwenty-one students were enrolled in the unit andparticipated in the short survey. Their majordiscipline areas were: Leisure Sciences (10); SportManagement (4); Leisure Management (3); SportsScience (2) and two from other disciplines (Marketingand Tourism).

Table 1 shows the students’ initial level ofconfidence in developing and presenting theirportfolios. The responses to the first statement aboutunderstanding the process for developing theirlearning outcomes for the fieldwork (professionalpractice) placement show that students were unclear

(M = 4). The students grouped at each end of the scaleaccount for the wide deviation around the mean andthe extreme reactions to the concepts of the portfolioand its electronic form. Throughout the sequence ofresponses, the deviation increases to the finalstatement, although 52 per cent indicated moderate tostrong confidence in presenting some or the entireportfolio in electronic form (M = 4).

These results suggest that by the fourth week thestudents did not fully understand what was requiredfor their professional practice portfolio, although somehad not completed the preparatory stages. There wasa moderate to strong level of confidence that theywould successfully complete their professional practiceplacement (statement 3). There were lower levels ofconfidence about presenting the portfolio in full orpartial electronic format (statements 5, 6 and 7).

A summative survey, administered just prior to theexams, produced a low return rate—only seven

TABLE 1: STUDENT CONFIDENCE LEVELS WITH PORTFOLIO PROCESSES AND PRESENTATION (n = 21)

Strongly Stronglydisagree agree M X SD1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I understand the process required to 1 3 - 11 4 - 2 4 4.05 1.47develop my learning outcomes for my professional practice.

I have completed the ‘steps’ exercise to 1 2 7 4 3 2 2 4 3.95 1.68develop my learning outcomes for my professional practice.

I feel confident about successfully - 2 2 - 3 8 5 6 5.4 1.61completing my professional practice placement for this unit.

I understand the requirements for the 1 3 3 3 5 5 7 5 4.3 1.68presentation of my portfolio in paper-based format.

I feel confident about using part of the 2 4 4 3 2 5 1 3 3.86 1.85electronic form of the portfolio for my portfolio presentation.

I feel confident about preparing my portfolio 4 4 1 3 5 3 1 4 3.7 1.95for presentation using the electronic form of the portfolio.

I will present all or some of my portfolio 3 2 2 3 2 6 3 4 4.4 2.09in the electronic format.

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students from the initial group of 21. Their responsesshow a shift from those of the first survey in terms ofdisplaying increased confidence with the portfolioprocess, but lower confidence in producing theportfolio electronically. Table 2 shows a comparisonbetween the week four evaluation survey and the unitcompletion survey.

Student confidence with the overall portfolioprocess increased, as would be expected once studentshad experienced the process of developing their ownportfolios. However, their confidence to prepare anelectronic version of the portfolio was reported lowerand with great dispersion around the mean level ofconfidence. About one third of the class presentedtheir portfolio in electronic form. This low return ratemay have produced the wide dispersion of responsesin the end of unit survey, capturing those most andleast confident with the electronic portfolio option.

Some of the student feedback offered explanationsfor this increased lack of confidence even after theportfolio had been completed: ‘I required moreinformation on what content was needed rather thanhow to present it’; ‘I didn’t understand from thebeginning about the e-Portfolio’; ‘I understood what

went into the portfolio, just not how to transform theportfolio into the electronic format’; and ‘We shouldhave gone into a lab with a practice portfolio’.

The main issues identified by the students and thestaff seemed to be related to: too little informationabout the e-Portfolio; technical problems movingtemplates between PCs and Macs; lack of time topractise under supervision; access to software andhardware; and coping with another learning andassessment component in the unit.

DISCUSSIONECU’s e-Portfolio project revealed a number of issuesto be addressed when introducing processes andpractices that are unfamiliar.• Introduce the paper-based portfolio model,

process, and content first.• Use clear examples of the content of the portfolio,

using samples of previous student work, not only amodel.

• Demonstrate the way an electronic portfolio processcan be created and applied. The difficulty with thisproject was that the e-Portfolio structure wasevolving only just ahead of the students’ progress.

TABLE 2: COMPARISON OF STUDENT CONFIDENCE LEVELS PRE- AND POST-SUBMISSION OF PORTFOLIOS

Statement Pre Pre Pre Post Post PostM X SD M X SD

n = 21 n = 7

I understood the process required to develop my 4 4.05 1.47 5 5.6 0.98learning outcomes for my professional practice.*

I completed the ‘steps’ exercise to develop my learning 4 3.95 1.68 5 5.3 1.11outcomes for my professional practice.

I felt confident about successfully completing my professional 6 5.4 1.61 5 5.4 0.98practice placement for this unit.

I understood the requirements for the presentation of my 5 4.3 1.68 7 6.3 0.95portfolio in paper-based format.

I felt confident about using part of the electronic form of the 3 3.86 1.85 3 3.6 1.9portfolio for my portfolio presentation.

I felt confident about preparing my portfolio for presentation 4 3.7 1.95 3 3.3 1.8using the electronic form of the portfolio.

I presented all or some of my portfolio in the electronic format. 4 4.4 2.09 2 3.3 2.75

* Note: The statements were written in past tense for the post-portfolio survey

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• Build up to the new process. This was difficult inthis project due to a short timeframe of thesemester (14 weeks).

• Ensure consistent access to reliable computerequipment that supports the electronic portfoliomodel. As the e-Portfolio framework was evolvingwith the students, the technology was inadequateor difficult to apply at a particular stage, andtechnical support was not always available. Theseproblems should not exist in future application ofthe e-Portfolio.

• Ensure that there are clear links betweenprofessional placement and the application of theportfolio (electronic or paper-based).Directions for further research are suggested by the

need to pursue students who have graduated and areworking in the industry. Investigations of their use ornon-use of their portfolios in obtaining employmentand planning their careers would help to close the gapin our current knowledge, which comes mainly fromanecdotal evidence. Formal research of the applicationof the career development portfolio is long overdue,especially with the emergence of the electronicportfolio.

REFERENCESBaltimore, M. L., Hickson, J., Greorge, J. D., & Crutchfield,

L. B. (1996). Portfolio assessment: A model for counselor

education. Counselor Education and Supervision,

36(December), 113–21.

Barrett, H. C. (1998, October). Electronic portfolios and standards.

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Barrett, H. C. (2000). Electronic portfolios = multimedia

development + portfolio development: The electronic portfolio

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Barrett, H. C. (2001). ICT support for electronic portfolios and

alternative assessment: The state of the art. Paper presented at

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Burns, C. W. (1999). Teaching portfolios and the evaluation of

teaching in higher education: Confident claims, questionable

research support. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 25, 131–42.

Centra, J. A. (1994). The use of the teaching portfolio and

student evaluations for summative evaluation. Journal of

Higher Education, 65, 555–70.

Clarke, A. (1995). Professional development in practicum

settings: Reflective practice under scrutiny. Teaching and

Teacher Education, 11(3), 243–61.

Colyer, S., & Howell, J. (2002). Beyond the shoe box: Developing

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G. Swan (Eds.), Focussing on the student. Proceedings of the

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system as a pedagogical tool. Schole: A Journal of Leisure

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Faye, A. N. (2000, August). E-portfolio: More than an electronic

resource. Paper presented at the IVEET Conference

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27–32.

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L. (2001). Web learning portfolios: A tool for supporting

performance awareness. Innovations in Education and

Training, 38(1), 19.

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Business School Press.

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all your job skills and experiences. Princeton, NJ: Peterson.

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M. G., & Hunter, A. (1998). Portfolio models: Reflections across

the teaching profession. Norwood, MN: Christopher-Gordon.

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higher education. Catalyst for Change, 28(3), 8–11.

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Rogers, G. M., & Rogers, J. W. (1999). Building a better

portfolio. ASEE Prism, 8(5), 30–2.

Seldin, P. (1991). The teaching portfolio. Boston: Anker.

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professional portfolio. Nurse Educator, 25(6), 282–7.

Shaklee, B., Barbour, N., Ambrose, R., & Hansford, S. (1997).

Designing and using portfolios. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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Piloting portfolios: Using portfolios in pre-service teacher

education. ELT Journal, 54(1), 20–30.

Wheeler, P. (1996). Using portfolios to assess teacher

performance. In K. Burke (Ed.), Professional portfolios: A

collection of articles. Cheltenham, Vic: Hawker Brownlow

Education.

Wolfe, E. W. (1999). How can administrators facilitate portfolio

implementation? High School Magazine, 6(5), 29–33.

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CAREER MATURITY OFAUSTRALIAN AND SOUTHAFRICAN HIGH SCHOOL

STUDENTS:DEVELOPMENTAL AND

CONTEXTUALEXPLANATIONS

WENDY PATTON, Queensland Univer sity of Technology

MARK B . WATSON, Univer sity of Por t El izabeth

PETER A. CREED, Gr iffith Univer sity

The present study investigates the career maturity of 1090 high school students in Years 8 to12 in Australia (n = 656) and South Africa (n = 434). Scores on the Australian version of theCareer Development Inventory were analysed.While a developmental explanation for careermaturity was supported, gender differences between countries and differences at schooltransition points were found.The relevance of school career education programs to preparestudents for career decisions is discussed.


The career maturity construct is central to thedevelopmental approach (Super, 1957, 1990) to

understanding career behaviour. It refers, broadly, to

the individual’s readiness to make informed, age-appropriate career decisions and cope with careerdevelopment tasks (Savickas, 1984). Crites’ (1971)

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model of career maturity proposed that it consists ofaffective and cognitive dimensions. The cognitivedimension is composed of decision-making skills,while the affective dimension includes attitudestoward the career decision-making process.

Theoretical assumptions would suggest a strongrelationship between age and career maturity,however, research findings have been varied. Anumber of researchers have found such relationships(Herr & Enderlein, 1976; Neice & Bradley, 1979; Post-Kammer, 1987; Thompson & Lindeman, 1981;Wallace-Broscious, Serafica & Osipow, 1994). Thisdevelopmental increase across age has also beenreported with non-American samples, for example inIsrael (Fouad, 1988), Australia (Lokan, 1984; Patton& Creed, 2001), Canada (Alvi & Khan, 1983), SouthAfrica (Watson & van Aarde, 1986), Nigeria (Achebe,1982), and Lebanon (Moracco, 1976).

Several researchers have commented that careermaturity may be more usefully differentiated by yearof schooling rather than age, due to the influence ofthe educational milieu as the primary agent of careerdevelopment behaviour and the year-related careerdecisions students are required to make (Watson &van Aarde, 1986). More recently, however, Powell andLuzzo (1998) demonstrated that neither age nor yearwas related to career maturity.

Research exploring the impact of gender on careermaturity is also far from equivocal. The greatmajority of studies has found that females of anumber of age groups have higher scores on careermaturity measures than males (Alvi & Khan, 1983;Herr & Enderlein, 1976; King, 1989; Lokan, 1984;Luzzo, 1995; Westbrook, 1984). In other studies(Fouad, 1988), females were higher on some subscalesonly. However, Achebe’s (1982) study in Nigeriareported males scoring higher than females. Notably,however, South African research has failed to findgender differences in the career maturity of highschool students (Watson & van Aarde, 1986).

The career maturity construct is undergoing arenewal of interest (Patton & Lokan, 2001); inparticular researchers are questioning its broadapplicability. In criticising the construct’s focus on theindividual, its ties to developmental stage models, andits lack of inclusion of contexts of time and culture,Vondracek and Reitzle (1998) suggest the assumptionof identifiable age-related maturational regularities in

career maturity might be affected by other variablessuch as historical time, cultural and economic context,and the individualisation of educational pathways.However, despite this theoretical critique, and a morefar reaching theoretical debate (Savickas, 1994),Vondracek and Reitzle emphasise the practical utilityof career maturity data, particularly for work withadolescents, a view echoed by Raskin (1998). Inaddition, Ohler and Levinson (1994) emphasise therelevance of assessing career maturity in preparationfor developing counselling and education programsfor adolescents.

INTRODUCING CONTEXTVery little work has been conducted outside theUnited States in exploring the relevance of careermaturity. Notable exceptions include studiesconducted in Nigeria (Achebe, 1982), Israel (Fouad,1988), Lebanon (Moracco, 1976), India (Gupta, 1987),Canada (Alvi & Khan, 1983; Lokan, Boss & Patsula,1982), and more recently, Australia (Patton & Creed,2001). Even fewer are comparison studies acrosscultures. A considerable body of work has emanatedfrom South Africa, which has consistently shown thatblack high school students (Hickson & White, 1989;Watson & van Aarde, 1986) and first year universitystudents (Reid-Van Niekerk & Van Niekerk, 1990;Watson, Stead & De Jager, 1995) are less career maturethan their white counterparts.

What is being explored further is the nature of theapplicability of the career maturity construct topopulations other than the sample of origin: ahomogeneous group of white, middle-class, Americanadolescent males experiencing continuous vocationaldevelopment during a time of full employmentduring the 1950s. Research by Schmitt-Rodermundand Silbereisen (1998) has demonstrated that careermaturation is influenced by differences in social andpolitical systems, reflecting the relevance of thedevelopmental contextual theoretical model ofVondracek, Lerner and Schulenberg (1986). In thisregard, Stead and Watson (1998) have also suggestedthat, due to the unique features of South Africansociety, the career maturity construct may beinappropriate.

In a time of global change in the world of work andin understandings and constructions of career, relatedchanges are occurring in the youth labour market and

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in adolescent educational and career pathways. Giventhe key role of the career maturity construct in careerdevelopment, research needs to clarify the place ofcontext within career behaviour. The present studysought to contribute to this understanding through anexamination of career maturity in a group ofadolescents from similar socioeconomic backgroundsin two countries. Prior to describing the study, keyfeatures of the educational and youth labour marketcontext in each country will be examined.

AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH AFRICABoth countries are witnessing significant changeswithin the educational context and the youth labourmarket. In Australia, despite a sharp rise during the1980s which peaked at 77 per cent in 1992, retention ofstudents into post-compulsory schooling has fallen to71 per cent in 1996 (Sweet, 1998). Similarly, in SouthAfrica, there is a 60 per cent attrition rate between theend of primary and the end of senior high school(Statistics South Africa, 2000). Only 45 per cent ofSouth African youth attained a Year 12 pass in 1998,down from 57 per cent in 1994. Such a trend is ofparticular concern as it has occurred in a context ofdeclining full-time employment opportunities andincreasing evidence about the disadvantages of earlyschool leaving.

In addition to high youth unemployment, dataindicate that worldwide most work for young peopleis short term and part-time. In Australia, theproportion of 15 to 19 year olds with a full-time jobfell from 32 per cent in the mid-1980s to 17 per cent byAugust 1996. In addition, almost 15 per cent of 15 to19 year olds are neither in full-time work nor full-time education (Sweet, 1998).

Further, where previously there were a smallnumber of relatively clearly defined trade andprofessional pathways, there are now a large numberof skill areas with multiple entry points. As such, thereis an increasing demand for advice in the broad arrayof training opportunities and job pathways available.Such a demand places new pressures for provision ofcareer development services in schools and in the post-compulsory education and training sector(MCEETYA, 2000). However, in both countries,while many policy reports emphasise the need for acomprehensive career education program as a part ofthe core secondary school curriculum, there has been

a decline in real support for career education inAustralia (Patton, 2000), and in South Africa(Akhurst & Mkhize, 1999).

In exploring context, it is also relevant to highlightthe different school transition points in the twocountries. Although Herr and Enderlein (1976) notedthe relevance of curriculum and school on the level ofcareer maturity of adolescents, very little work hasattempted to explore this issue further. Students inAustralia choose subjects which are crucial in eventualpost-school options in Year 10; in South Africa thisdecision is made in Year 9.

THE PRESENT STUDYThe present study chose one school in each country,matched as closely as possible for socioeconomic status(SES). This variable has been hypothesised to berelated to career maturity (Super, 1990), althoughmost studies have found only a minor or nocorrelation between career maturity (CM) and SES inschool age adolescents (Crites, 1978; Jordaan & Heyde,1979; Super & Nevill, 1984). SES was controlled for inthe present study through careful selection of schoolswhich were predominantly white and middle class. Itwas hypothesised that, although a developmentalpattern would be evident across both schools, theinfluence of transition points in each school would beevident. It was also hypothesised that genderdifferences would be evident, with females scoringhigher on career maturity than males.

METHOD

ParticipantsThe total number of participants included in the studywas 1090 secondary school students enrolled in Years8–12 across two high schools, one in the south-easternpart of Australia and the other in South Africa. Therewere 656 (60 per cent) students from Australia, madeup of 353 (54 per cent) females and 303 (46 per cent)males. These Australian students had a mean age of15.07 years (SD = 1.51). There were 434 (40 per cent)students from South Africa, made up of 232 (54 percent) females and 202 (46 per cent) males. The SouthAfrican students had a mean age of 15.30 years (SD =1.39). The two schools were selected as they wereconsidered to be matched on socioeconomic andgeographic grounds. Both schools were suburban-

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based in medium sized cities, and each was establishedas middle level socioeconomic status due to locationwithin the respective cities.

InstrumentThe Australian version of the Career DevelopmentInventory (CDI-A; Lokan, 1984) was used to measurecareer maturity. The CDI-A has 72 items and isdesigned for students in Years 8–12. It measuresseveral aspects of career development, includingcareer planning orientation, awareness and use ofresources, knowledge of the career developmentprocess, knowledge of the world of work, andknowledge and use of decision-making principles.Four subscales, two composite scales and a total scalescore can be calculated for the CDI-A. The foursubscales are reported in this study. These are CareerPlanning (20 items), Career Exploration (16 items),World of Work Knowledge (24 items), and CareerDecision Making (12 items). Sound psychometricproperties have been reported (Lokan, 1984), whichare similar to those reported for the American versionof the inventory (Pinkney & Bozik, 1994). Internalreliability coefficients calculated in the present studyfor the subscales were 0.93, 0.76, 0.80 and 0.70respectively.

ProcedureSchools were selected in both countries to matchparticipants as closely as possible. Survey formscontaining the CDI-A and asking questions aboutage, grade and gender were administered to studentsin Years 8–12 across the two secondary schools thatparticipated in the study. The classroom teachers, whohad been provided with instructions regarding theadministration protocol, administered the surveyforms.

RESULTSA MANOVA was used to assess the effects of Gender,Grade and School on the Career DevelopmentInventory subscales. All multivariate main effects weresignificant (p < 0.001), as were the multivariateinteraction effects for School by Year and School byGender (p < 0.001). At the univariate level, significantmain effects for Gender were found for World ofWork Knowledge, F(1, 1070) = 24.73, p < 0.001, andCareer Decision Making, F(1, 1070) = 7.20, p < 0.01.

Significant main effects for Grade were found forCareer Planning, F(4, 1070) = 19.67, p < 0.001, CareerExploration, F(4, 1070) = 20.44, p < 0.001, World ofWork Knowledge, F(4, 1070) = 22.19, p < 0.001, andCareer Decision Making, F(4, 1070) = 17.44, p < 0.001.One significant main effect for School was found forCareer Decision Making, F(1, 1070) = 15.79, p < 0.001.Significant interaction effects for School by Gradewere found for Career Planning, F(4, 1070) = 6.03, p < 0.001, Career Exploration, F(4, 1070) = 3.79, p < 0.01, and Career Decision Making, F(4, 1070) =4.70, p < 0.01. Significant interaction effects for Schoolby Gender were found for Career Exploration, F(1, 1070) = 5.81, p < 0.05, World of WorkKnowledge, F(1, 1070) = 41.71, p < 0.001, and CareerDecision Making, F(1, 1070) = 81.66, p < 0.001.Summary data are reported in Tables 1 and 2.

For the Australian school, females scored lowerthan males at Year 8 for Career Planning, higher thanmales overall and at Year 10 for Career Exploration,higher than males overall and at each Year for Worldof Work Knowledge and Career Decision Making.For the South African school, no gender differenceswere identified for Career Planning or CareerExploration, while females scored lower than malesoverall and at Years 9 and 10 for World of WorkKnowledge, and lower than males overall and atYears 9–11 for Career Decision Making. See Table 1for t-values and levels of significance.

There were no differences between Australianfemales and South African females on CareerExploration. Australian females scored lower thanSouth African females at Year 9 for Career Planning,higher than South African females overall and at allyears for World of Work Knowledge, and higherthan South African females overall and at Year 8 forCareer Decision Making. Australian males scoredhigher than South African males at Year 8 and lowerthan South African males at Year 9 and 12 for CareerPlanning, lower than South African males overall andat Year 9 for Career Exploration, lower than SouthAfrican males overall and at Years 9–10 and 12 forWorld of Work Knowledge, and lower than SouthAfrican males overall and at Years 9–12. See Table 1for t-values and levels of significance.

Australian students (males and females combined)scored lower than the South African students at Years9 and 12 for Career Planning, lower than the South

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African students at Years 9 for Career Exploration,and lower than the South African students overall andat Years 9 and 10 for Decision Making. There wereno differences for World of Work Knowledge. SeeTable 2 for t-values and levels of significance.

In relation to differences across Years forAustralian (males, females and total) and SouthAfrican (males, females and total) students, where

significant differences were found on the post hocANOVAs, students in the higher grades reportedhigher scores in almost all instances. The oneexception was that Year 8 Australian students (males,and males and females combined) scored higher onCareer Planning than those in Year 9. Thesedifferences are indicated in Tables 1 and 2.

TABLE 2: SUMMARY DATA FOR CDI-A SUBSCALE SCORES OF CAREER PLANNING, CAREER EXPLORATION, WORLD

OF WORK KNOWLEDGE AND CAREER DECISION MAKING FOR TOTAL SCORES FOR EACH SCHOOL FOR YEARS 8–12

Australian High School South African High SchoolYear N M SD N M SD t1

CDI-A Career Planning8 195 57.97a,b,c 13.62 88 55.48a,b,c 12.63 1.469 83 52.64a,e,f,g 12.67 98 60.01d 11.94 –.03***

10 172 64.60b,e 12.17 114 62.34a,e 12.06 1.5511 107 60.88f 12.46 97 60.89b,f 12.48 –0.0112 99 64.05c, g 11.96 37 68.59c,d,e,f 10.03 –2.06*

Total 656 60.43 13.28 434 60.63 12.51 –0.26CDI-A Career Exploration

8 195 33.74a,b,c 8.39 88 33.69a,b 9.98 0.049 83 30.89d,e,f 8.62 98 35.51c 8.03 –3.73***

10 172 37.80a,d 7.72 114 36.11 8.91 1.7111 107 37.50b,e 8.48 97 38.42a 8.92 –0.7612 99 39.76c,f 8.63 37 40.35b,c 8.58 –0.36

Total 656 35.96 8.76 434 36.36 9.10 –0.72CDI-A World of Work Knowledge

8 195 13.80a,b,c 4.79 88 13.25a,b,c 3.17 1.149 83 13.80d,e 5.10 98 14.43d,e 2.99 –1.00

10 172 15.26a 5.23 114 15.31a 3.34 –0.1011 107 16.77b,d 4.72 97 15.90b,d 3.22 1.5512 99 16.91c,e 4.92 37 16.89c,e 2.47 0.03

Total 656 15.13 5.11 434 14.96 3.31 –0.69CDI-A Career Decision Making

8 195 5.72a,b 2.64 88 5.23a,b,c,d 2.22 1.649 83 5.18c,d 2.95 98 6.56a,e 2.47 –3.37**

10 172 5.75e,f 3.00 114 7.05b 2.28 –4.16***

11 107 6.99a,c,e 3.05 97 7.56c,e 2.40 –1.4812 99 7.09b,d,f 3.27 37 7.49d 2.04 –0.84

Total 656 6.07 3.01 434 6.72 2.46 –3.88***

Note 1: t1 = t-values and levels of significance for differences across the two schools.Note 2: Means in the same subscale column that share the same subscript differ significantly at p < 0.05 on the Tukey honestly

significant difference comparison.Note 3: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

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DISCUSSIONThe findings of the present study for year illustratedevelopmental differences in career maturity andgenerally reflect the developmental assumptions forthis construct. In both countries, students in higherschool grades scored higher on the four subscales ofCareer Exploration, Career Planning, World of WorkKnowledge, and Career Decision Making thanstudents in lower grades. These data are supportive offindings reporting monotonic progression of careermaturity scores in adolescent samples across a numberof countries (Achebe, 1982; Alvi & Khan, 1983; Fouad,1988; Herr & Enderlein, 1976; Lokan, 1984; Moracco,1976; Neice & Bradley, 1979; Post-Kammer, 1987;Wallace-Broscious et al., 1994; Watson & van Aarde,1986), thereby suggesting the broad applicability ofthe career maturity construct across different nationalcontexts.

In relation to gender, the present data of the SouthAfrican sample generally support contentions fromprevious South African research (Watson & vanAarde, 1986) of no gender differences in high schoolstudents, particularly on attitudinal career maturity.A small difference was found in which females werelower than males on the career maturity knowledgesubscale at Years 9 and 10. However, in the Australiansample, females reported higher scores on World ofWork Knowledge and Career Decision Makingsubscales than males at all year levels.

In examining gender scores across the twocountries, an interesting finding emerges. Australianfemales and males scored lower on career planningand career exploration than South African femalesand males in Year 9. On world of work and decisionmaking knowledge, Australian males scored lowerthan South African males in Years 9, 10, and 12, andAustralian females had higher scores than SouthAfrican females in all years other than Year 9. Thesefindings are supportive of a discussion of the inclusionof context in the analysis of career maturity. A possibleexplanation for this finding is that the time formaking subject choices in South Africa is at Year 9. Itcan also be argued that at the South African schoolthere is a systematic, sequential career educationprogram implemented at all levels. This was not thecase in the Australian school, where career educationtends to occur at specific educational transition points.Perhaps the combination of the program and the

intensity of subject selection prompt a more intensivefocus on the part of the South African students.

This explanation does not account for the genderdifferences between countries on the two knowledge-based subscales. The higher scores for South Africanmales over Australian males in Years 9, 10 and 12 maybe accounted for by the more extensive careerprogram they receive. However, this does not explainwhy the Australian females generally have higherknowledge-based scores than the South Africansample as a whole and than Australian males. Apossible explanation may be that there are less genderstereotypical expectations in Australia which promptsa greater proactivity in career knowledge searchbehaviour. Lokan (1984) also suggested that thehigher scores on knowledge may be a reflection ofgender differences in academic achievement recordedin secondary school. However, this explanation doesnot apply in South Africa, as the females scored lowerthan males on the two knowledge-based subscales. Inaddition, South African females in Year 9 had lowerscores than their counterparts in Years 11 and 12 onknowledge subscales. Given that Year 9 is a specificdecision point, such a finding is cause for concern, butmay also reflect the ‘distance’ Year 9 is from the ‘real’end of school career decision points. Suchexplanations need to be explored further.

Overall, the grade level data are indicative of adevelopmental progression with lower year levels

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reporting lower scores on all four subscales. In thepresent study it is relevant to consider practicalconsiderations such as planning activities conductedaround school transition points. At Year 9 theactivities conducted for these South African studentsas part of their program clearly are contributing tocareer maturity, as measured on all four subscales.Herr and Enderlein (1976) emphasised the relevanceof school and curriculum in influencing the rate andlevel of career maturity. Timing of educationalinterventions and decisions are clearly relevant,therefore supporting the call for more attention tothese factors in exploring career maturity (Vondracek& Reitzle, 1998). In pursuing this discussion further,it is interesting that a similar finding did not occur forthe equivalent timing point in Australia—Year 10. Itis hard not to come to the conclusion that the careereducation activities undertaken to prepare Year 10students for the important educational and careerchoices made at this time are inadequate, particularlywhen compared with the comprehensive programoffered at the South African school.

In the present study, macro differences betweencountries appeared to have minimal effect onadolescent career maturity, therefore supporting thedevelopmental explanation of career maturity. Theexistence of gender differences in both countries, andthe difference in these effects, would suggest the needto further explore gender and cultural considerationsin relation to career maturity development. It couldalso be argued that the young people in both countrieshave a similar educational experience and a similarperceived occupational opportunity and exposure tooccupational alternatives. What is interesting is thatthese data suggest the relevance of school transitionpoints in the development of adolescent careermaturity. In addition, the data implies that differentialpreparation by the two schools for these transitionpoints impacts on career maturity differentially. Thecontribution of the school curriculum to the careerdevelopment of adolescents is crucial and schools needto pay more attention to career education offerings.Further research, using a pre-post data collectionprocess with experimental and control groups, needsto be conducted to provide data on the relationshipbetween career education and the development ofcareer maturity.

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instruments, and the research. In W. B. Walsh, & S. H.

Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology (Vol. 1, pp.

263–303). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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CAREER EDUCATION FORMUSLIM GIRLS: DEVELOPING

CULTURALLY SENSITIVEPROVISION

BARRIE A. IRVING and VIVIENNE BARKER,

Canterbur y Chr ist Church Univer sity College , UK

Research undertaken in England during 1999 identified that ethnic minority groups havediverse career needs, and while this is generally recognised few initiatives had been instigatedto address them. If the career education needs of Muslim girls are to be effectively met, ashift away from a predominantly ethnocentric provision, based on western values, is required.This article explores the impact of religion and culture on Muslim girls’ career choices, andprovides a rationale for the development of culturally appropriate career education for thisgroup. An overview of the ‘Muslim Girls Careers Education Pack’ developed by the authorsduring 2002 is provided, initial findings from an ongoing evaluation are discussed, and issuesconcerning the introduction and management of differentiated provision are considered.

The impact of rising fears of Islam in manywestern nations; the September 11th atrocities in

the USA; an ongoing ‘war on terror’; and conflict inIraq is further distancing Muslim girls, their familiesand communities who live in the west from themajority society. Increasingly, the provision of amainstream educational curriculum, and careereducation in particular, that embodies western culturalvalues and traditions may have only distant meaningfor the lives of many Muslims. There is a distinctabsence of differentiated career provision that activelyengages with, and is sensitive to, diverse culturalpractices and/or religious beliefs. If public schooling is

to accommodate diverse cultural communities, andensure the career needs of all students are met, areview of current practice is required.

For Muslims, Islam is a central tenet. It is based ona collective sense of being, provides a blueprint forhow Muslims should lead their lives (Parker-Jenkins,1995), and has a profound influence on the careerchoices of Muslim girls (Haw, 2000). Confronted withissues of multiple forms of discrimination from societydue to their gender, ‘race’, social class, and religiousbeliefs (Jawad, 2003), Muslim girls face significantchallenges when constructing meaningful futurepathways. Career education provision for Muslim

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girls needs to reflect this positioning, if it is to enablethem to fully explore future possibilities within thecontext of their religious-cultural mores. For suchprovision to have wider currency, the development ofmeaningful and critical dialogue between careereducators and parents, family members andrepresentatives of local Muslim communities will helpto expose differences, facilitate discussion, contributeto understanding, and, at times, result in an acceptablecompromise.

It is within this context that we developed a careereducation pack to enable educators to effectivelysupport the career aspirations of Muslim girls. Thepack explores the religious-cultural considerationsinfluencing the choices of Muslim girls, and providesculturally relevant career education material for useby career educators. While the Muslim girls’ careereducation pack (Irving, Barker, Jones & Woolmer,2002) was developed to meet the needs of careereducators in England, many of the issues identifiedalso reflect the challenges faced by Muslim girls livingin contemporary Australia and New Zealand. Thesubstantive content and teaching materials are notcountry specific, and can be adapted for use anywhere.Where differences do occur, it is due to the varyingeducational systems in these three countries, ratherthan an underlying philosophy and approach.

CAREER, CULTURE AND CHOICE:ACCOMMODATING DIVERSE NEEDSRecent research carried out by Rolfe (1999) into theequal opportunities policies of English careers servicesfound they tended to present equality in relation tothe notion of sameness, with little evidence ofdifferentiation. The dimensions of race, culture,gender and disability were contained within all-inclusive policy statements, resulting in strategies thatsought to ensure a simple equality of provision—generally translated as all students having the right toreceive the ‘same’. Parker-Jenkins, Hartas, Irving &Barker’s (1999) study on career provision for ethnicminorities in state-funded schools found that auniversal curriculum was offered, rather thandifferentiated career education programs. Thiscurriculum reflected western values, which highlightthe centrality of the individual in regards to post-school education, training and employment choices.Few opportunities were identified that would enable

Muslim girls to explore their future within a religious-cultural context.

In England recently, a Connexions service has beenintroduced, with a shift in emphasis towards youngpeople deemed to be at risk of social exclusion.(Connexions is a new initiative in England, attemptingto bring together a range of youth support agencies,including careers guidance, under one umbrellaorganisation. See Irving and Marris, 2002 for furtherdiscussion of this.) Connexions incorporates careereducation for young people in secondary educationand is targeting support towards those at risk to:

(H)elp them overcome personal barriers (which lead

them into anti-social activities such as crime, drug

taking and teenage pregnancy), thereby enabling

them to compete fairly for the economic benefits

which accrue from participation in a competitive

labour market (Irving & Marris, 2002, p. 134).

Little evidence within the Connexions initiativesuggests the structural causes of social exclusion willbe effectively addressed. The primary emphasiscontinues to be placed on helping the individual takecontrol of their own life, and overcome their owndisadvantages. The emerging career educationframework in New Zealand is likely to have a similaremphasis (Ministry of Education, 2002). Yet for manyMuslim girls, the issues run much deeper.Stereotypical images of Muslim girls as having wastedacademic potential, being forced into early orarranged marriages, or being prevented fromcontinuing in education or employment (Archer,2002) continue to perpetuate negative attitudestowards Muslim culture. This is not to deny Arthur’sassertion that:

Although an individual may wish to pursue available

choices, there may be severe and long-lasting

consequences for going against the expectations of

significant others in one’s culture of origin. For

example, values of religion, ethnicity or notions of

appropriate gender roles may determine styles of

dress, food, social activities, occupational selection, and

choice of friends and marital partners (2002, p. 11).

Often the major challenges encountered byMuslim girls when pursuing their aspirations are notof their own choosing, nor as a result of perceived

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oppressive cultural practices (Barker & Irving, inpress). The challenges are likely to have occurredthrough discrimination, or ignorance of their cultural-religious values and beliefs (Parker-Jenkins, Haw &Irving, 1998). Teachers tend not to have highexpectations of Muslim girls’ abilities (Parker-Jenkins,Haw, Irving & Khan, 1997) and feel that culturalconstraints will act to limit any aspirations they mayhave (Ghouri, 1997; Mirza, 1992). The trend inEngland has been to provide universally applicableprograms, to cater for the majority, as shown in thenational careers education curriculum framework(Department for Education and Employment &National Association of Careers Guidance Teachers,2000). A similar pattern is evident in the currentcareer education frameworks in Australia (Enterprise& Career Education Foundation, 1999) and NewZealand (Ministry of Education, 1997). Theseframeworks rely on career educators (or the students)adding a cultural dimension to programs andactivities. However, these may not sit easily withpredetermined objectives or learning outcomes.

There is also an implicit assumption that teachershave the knowledge, skills and resources to adaptthese programs appropriately and sensitively for usewith pupils from minority cultural or religiousgroups. Yet if this knowledge is lacking, there couldbe a reluctance to engage with those from differentcultures, with teachers feeling it is better to saynothing than possibly to cause offence (CitizenshipFoundation and me too, 2002).

The dominant career education model applied inwestern nations demonstrates a monoculturalapproach—emphasis is placed on developing anunderstanding of self as individual, rather than self ascollective. This rests on the premise that individualsneed to become empowered to self-manage their ownindividually defined futures, if they are to succeed ina competitive economic environment (McCowan &McKenzie, 1997). The embedded dominant westernvalues explicitly encompass views concerningindividual aspiration, choice, opportunity, and success,yet it is generally presented in isolation of any widercultural or community considerations. Self-determination, individual choice and success is oftenin conflict with the emphasis placed by some cultureson a duty towards religion, family and community(Coelho, 1998). Thus a ‘colour-blind’, culture-free,

client-centred approach to career education thatemphasises self-interest and self-insight could be seento be less inclusive than one in which the cultural andreligious milieu is addressed sensitively and affordedvalue (Gothard, B., Mignot, P., Offer, M. & Ruff, M.,2001). As Lievano (2000) noted in her critique ofcareer guidance in Spain,

… schools do not consider, least of all promote, the

implementation of a multicultural model … The

materials used are also monocultural—usually

reflecting only the mainstream culture. References to

minority groups—if they exist at all—are often

negative, or strongly stereotyped. (pp. 2–3)

Parallels can be drawn with the English educationalsystem. The national curriculum has perpetuated thetransmission of a dominant culture, which isfundamentally European (National Institute of Adultand Continuing Education, 1997), white andProtestant (Gundara, 2000), offering little guidance toyoung people about how mutual respect and equitymight be enhanced (Tomlinson, 2001). It does notexplicitly provide opportunities for pupils from ethnicminority backgrounds to explore, understand andexperience reinforcement of their particular culturalidentities. The current system provides limitedopportunities for students from minority groups, suchas Muslims in England, to engage fully and effectivelywith the provision on offer. Parker-Jenkins (1995)cited the difficulties experienced by schools includingan Islamic perspective within the curriculum, and theconcern expressed by some Muslim headteachers ofthe need to challenge stereotypes (particularlyregarding the academic potential of Muslim girls) andto explore issues of Islamic identity. Similar questionsmight also be posed with reference to the growingimmigrant populations from South-East Asia and theIndian sub-continent in Australia (Marginson, 1997)and New Zealand (Cheyne, O’Brien & Belgrave, 2000).

Broadening of the definition of career in careereducation to incorporate multiple pathways throughlife, whether these be in education, training,employment or alternative lifestyles (Irving & Raja,1998), will help shift attention towards a deepercultural understanding of self-esteem and collectiveworth. Continued emphasis on participation in theformal labour market does little to build the self-

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esteem or sense of social value of those who choose notto participate, due to religious, cultural or otherconsiderations. Schools and career educators need tocommit to adopt diverse approaches by providingintegrated and differentiated sessions, in whichMuslim girls are able to locate the concept of careerwithin a religious and cultural context. Therefore,providing Muslim girls with opportunities to considerthe feasibility of managing the boundaries betweentheir culture and the mores espoused by the dominantculture.

Widening the debate beyond the classroom,referring to the role of home–school liaison teachers inBritain Bastiani (1997) pointed to the importance of notonly raising awareness in schools of cultural, linguisticand religious differences within multicultural settings,but also of working actively to engage parents in theeducation process. He noted that:

An exploration of the communication problems

generated by cultural differences exposes the

limitations of the official view that the needs of

minorities are ‘simply’ a matter of providing

translations of existing materials … (p. 18)

This is reflected in Bhatti’s (1999) text, whichreported many Asian girls wage their own battleagainst racism and stereotypical images unaided byparents or career teachers. Their parents’ separationfrom secular schools (in terms of their understandingof the system and the day-to-day lives of theirdaughters) coupled with a benign trust in teachers tomeet their daughters’ educational needs, left someAsian girls with total responsibility for navigatingtheir own destinies. Providing literal translations ofexisting information for Muslim parents on careereducation provision for their daughters is unlikely tofacilitate a dialogue between schools, parents/familiesand their children concerning career-related issues.Written information concerning career educationmust be presented within an appropriate culturalcontext to ensure it resonates with Muslim parents. IfMuslim girls are to successfully manage any culturaldivides, the voices of parents and family membersmust be heard and their concerns acknowledged.

Career education should adopt a holistic approach,acknowledging the insufficiency of career educatorsrelying on one-to-one counselling interviews as the

means of acquiring a cultural understanding of youngpeople. In the counselling context, Lazo (1996)suggested that listening to clients, attending to theirbehaviour and asking clients directly about theirculture has limited value. Sue, Ivey and Pedersen(1996) argue that multicultural counsellors need to seekopportunities to expand their awareness of cultural-identity issues through, for example, becominginvolved with the family, cultural group orcommunity. If career education is to be inclusive,culturally sensitive, relevant, and transparent to allinvolved, career educators must create opportunitiesthat enable local Muslim communities to participate.The development of culturally sensitive educationalresources and materials focused on the needs ofMuslim girls must be regarded as a priority. The directinvolvement of representatives from Muslimcommunities in the development and delivery of careereducation programs and practice will assist with this.

CAREER EDUCATION FOR MUSLIMGIRLS: ACCOMMODATINGDIFFERENCEBuilding on earlier research (Parker-Jenkins et al.1999; Irving, Barker, Parker-Jenkins & Hartas, 2000)we instigated a project to develop a culturally sensitivecareer education pack for use with Muslim girls. Thisincluded curriculum framework, lesson plans andmaterials that may be used in schools or within theMuslim community, together with a ‘Careers guide forMuslim parents and family members’ (Irving et al.,2002). Career advisers (both Muslim and non-Muslim)working with Muslim girls have been involved indeveloping and piloting the pack, and consultation hasbeen provided by an educational consultant with wideranging experience in Muslim/Islamic issues, and by aMuslim Trust, which provides specialist advice onIslam to educational institutions.

A holistic framework, based on the premisesoutlined below, was utilised to inform the project andguide our developments (Irving, Barker, Parker-Jenkins & Hartas, 2003, p. 118):1. There are common influences which affect all

clients living in a western society, whatever theirown cultural and religious backgrounds;

2. How clients are affected by, and interpret, theseinfluences is unique to their own cultural setting;and

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3. For each client individual characteristics, includingthe perceived relative importance of personalcharacteristics versus cultural-religious affiliation,act to influence them.The career education pack developed (Irving et al.,

2002) reflects the second premise, as this aspect islacking in current career education provision. BaronessUdin also acknowledges this lack of provision in herletter of support for the initiative (included at the frontof the pack). She commented that:

There has always been a considerable gap in the

provision and advice available to Muslim girls …

Any reference to ‘culture’ must ensure it recognises

the importance of parental and family involvement,

as well as the possible impacts of Islamophobia that

will inevitably arise in the workplace in later life.

Primarily, the pack is focused on female Muslimstudents in their final period of compulsory schooling,from Year 9 (age 13) to Year 11 (age 16). The contentsare designed for use by both Muslim and non-Muslimcareer educators, and the pack is comprised of fouraspects:1. Notes for teachers, career counsellors, Connexions

and community workers.2. The career education program, lesson plans and

supporting materials.3. Profiles and photographs/overhead projector slides

of Muslim women.4. The Careers Guide for Muslim Parents and Family

Members.Throughout the pack, Islamic beliefs and values

are not regarded as a hindrance or barrier to careerprogression for Muslim girls. Nor is Islam regardedas a constraint, preventing Muslim girls fromconsidering continued education, training oremployment. Ultimately, it is designed to provideMuslim girls with opportunities to consider key issuesof relevance to themselves, within the context offamily, religion, community and culture. It also seeksto enable Muslim girls to actively engage their parentsand families in discussion about their future.

The notes for teachers, career educators,Connexions and community workers seek to providethese professionals with a broad introduction to Islam,

highlighting ways in which these beliefs may impacton the lives and decisions of Muslim girls. A range ofsuggestions is given on how the career educationprogram, lesson plans and supporting materials mightbe used in practice. The lesson plans, materials andexercises aim to bridge western expectations implicitin mainstream schooling, and the cultural-religiousdimensions embedded at home. Topics are varied, andin Year 9 include: self-awareness; decision-making;and value of work. For Year 10: two sessions on careerchoice; qualities and skills; and identifying sources ofhelp. In Year 11, the topics include: decision-makingpost-16; my rights in Islam; and coping with change.As discussed earlier, these materials seek to enableeducators to deliver culturally sensitive andappropriate career education sessions in a confidentand cohesive way.

The profiles of Muslim women in a range of worksituations, supported by visual pictures, is a means ofillustrating a range of occupations Muslim women areengaged in, highlighting there are few limitations onthe opportunities they can aspire to. These alsoprovide Muslim girls with opportunities to exploreand discuss the women’s profiles within the context oftheir own experiences of religion, culture and workroles. Finally, a Careers Guide for Muslim Parents andFamily Members can be used as an integral part of theprogram, or as a freestanding resource. A letterintroduces the guide, written by Muslims (from theAdvisory Group) for Muslims, outlining the processof career education in schools, and its value. Theguide seeks to identify key issues that may arise forMuslim parents, family members and communities astheir daughters move through Years 9, 10 and 11.Four loose-leaf inserts are included in a separatefolder, allowing schools or career educators to addlocalised information and other supporting materials.The leaflets that come as standard are focused on:choosing Year 9 options; work experience; completingand continuing in education; and training andemployment options after 16. After a short overviewof each topic, frequently asked questions are discussedand supported by possible courses of action. The aimis to include parents and family members in the careereducation process, and provide positive suggestions asto how issues or concerns might be resolved.

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DELIVERING DIFFERENTIATEDPROVISION: CHALLENGES ANDOPPORTUNITIESDuring 2003, an evaluation of the pack wasundertaken in England to ascertain its use, value andrelevance, with a final report to be produced at the endof the 2003. Early indications suggest the sessions inthe pack have proved to be a particularly useful careereducation resource. It has enabled the girls tounderstand career education and discuss issues withinan Islamic context. Facilitators of those sessionsreviewed reported the students were enthusiastic,interested and able to relate the contents directly totheir personal experiences. Some educationalprofessionals working within multicultural settingshave highlighted several practical and conceptualissues, which are outlined and discussed below.

Some non-Muslim teachers and career educatorsexpressed anxiety their lack of knowledge of Islamwould disqualify them from delivering these lessons.Many overcame this concern as they interpreted theirrole as using the materials to facilitate raising issuesand stimulating discussion. They managed theprocess by enabling the girls to express theirunderstandings of Islam and the Muslim culture andto share differing experiences of being a Muslim. Theteachers raised questions with the girls concerning theinfluences on their career decision-making, andhelped them to consider how they might engage in adialogical approach with their parents, the school andtheir communities.

Where schools are committed to a differentiated,culturally diverse approach towards career education,non-Muslim staff can gain confidence by engagingwith, and receiving support from, Muslim parentsand communities. Connecting with real people in realcommunities (Beane & Apple, 1999; Irving, 2000) mayhelp career educators to gain a deeper understandingof the lives and experiences of Muslim girls withinIslam. The strengthening of links between school andcommunity might also lead to an extension ofsupportive networks available to Muslim girls.

Finally, some schools, in which Muslim girls are ina minority, anticipated that differentiated provisionwould make the girls feel singled out, while non-Muslim pupils would feel left out. This is a key issue,

as the withdrawal or targeting of particular pupils forspecial treatment has been raised in other contexts(Gillborn & Youdell, 2000; Moore, 1999). There areserious limitations when special stand-alone unitshave been added on to the curriculum to compensatefor the cultural and racial under-representation in thecurriculum (Coelho, 1999). Students may learn theexperiences and views of specific minority cultures areof secondary value when compared with thedominant perspectives promoted in the mainstreamcurriculum (Apple, 2000). This is particularly relevantto curriculum where the aim is to present amulticultural view to all pupils of particular subjectmatter. If Muslim girls are singled out and required toattend separate culturally appropriate sessions as anappendage to the mainstream curriculum, this mayperpetuate ignorance, be regarded with suspicion andpotentially reinforce stereotypical views.

We strongly suggest that within career education,broad issues of race, culture and religion should beconsidered and discussed in mixed ethnic groups.This should be as part of a core program that enablesall to share their experiences of living in amulticultural society, to explore issues ofdiscrimination, and discuss how this impacts on theirlives. In addition, giving Muslim girls opportunitiesto explore career and life decisions through the use ofculturally sensitive materials in supportiveenvironments which reflect their own cultural-religious milieu, will assist them in clarifyingopportunities that can be contextualised in relation totheir own family and community setting. It will alsohave a significant part to play in helping Muslim girlsidentify strategies that help them to progress, ormediate, their own intentions and aspirations.However, participation in such sessions must be withthe consent of both the girls and their families toensure that they are regarded as culturally meaningfuland appropriate.

For differentiated provision to be a success, itrequires a high degree of sensitive management andcollaborative agreement among the entire schoolcommunity. This will ensure that the recipients arenot seen by the majority of the population as eitherreceiving special treatment or socially excluded, andthus stigmatised within the school. It is essential to

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ensure that all teachers, career educators, pupils,parents and the members of the wider communityfully understand and recognise the value of thisapproach. It is also important for the Muslimcommunity to feel that such a move is more than anempty gesture, or an attempt to appease minoritycommunities (Smith, 1993). Through effectivecommunication and informed dialogue, thewithdrawal of pupils for appropriate reasons maycome to be seen in a positive light through thedemonstration that all pupils are equally valued,rather than negatively interpreted.

CONCLUSIONIf career education provision for Muslim girls, andother culturally cohesive groups, is to be regarded asinclusive and socially just, it requires us to go beyondthe liberal arguments that all pupils should receive thesame curriculum and resources (Corbett, 2001; Irvinget al., 2000), irrespective of difference or need. A trulyinter-cultural curriculum must transcend a desire forsameness, thereby bridging the artificial divides thattend to separate out ethnicity from gender and soforth (Gundara, 2000). As Parker-Jenkins, Hartas &Irving (in press) note:

what is being argued for here is a right for all ethnic

groups to be equal and different, to participate in the

majority world but not at the expense of their own

collective sense of being, as reflected in their cultural

and/or religious affiliations.

The package developed for Muslim girls and theirfamilies, along with the supporting materials, adoptsa holistic approach and seeks to enable those withresponsibility for the delivery of career education toincorporate culturally sensitive approaches. Our workalso identifies the potential impact of culture andreligion in relation to Muslim girls’ careerprogression, and highlights the importance ofengaging the girls and their families in a shareddialogue through which choice and decisions may bemediated and agreed. It contributes to the individualagency of Muslim girls by providing enhancedopportunity for family involvement, and seeks toavoid any pre-judgement of future decisions thatmight already be planned.

It is clear that the populations of England,Australia and New Zealand are becomingincreasingly multicultural, reflecting a diverse ethnicmix. Career educators must be prepared to movebeyond individualistic curriculum models andsimplistic notions of equality of opportunity if they areto respond positively to this change. The materialsdeveloped for use with Muslim girls and their familiesgo some way to demonstrating how career educationcan begin to meet diverse religious-cultural needs inan equitable and socially just way.

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EXTENDING THE USE OFCONSTRUCTIVIST

APPROACHES IN CAREERGUIDANCE AND

COUNSELLING: SOLUTION-FOCUSED STRATEGIES

JUDI H. MILLER, Univer sity of Canterbur y

This article focuses on the use of constructivist approaches by career counsellors. A threephase solution-focused model is presented that will enable career counselling practitioners touse brief, positively oriented strategies in an integrated manner with their clients. In addition,possible ways counsellors might integrate systems thinking in solution-focused careercounselling are described.The adoption of such strategies by career practitioners is mostrelevant when working with the complex issues brought by career clients, many of whomattend only one counselling session.

During the last decade, professional literature oncareer guidance and counselling has drawn

attention to the challenges facing theorists andpractitioners working in this field. These challengesinclude a redefinition of career guidance (Herr, 1997);adaptation to socio-political changes (Savickas, 1996);a reduction in the perceived gulf between careertheory and practice (Brown & Brooks, 1996; Harmon,1996; Osipow, 1996; Savickas & Walsh, 1996); anddeveloping closer links between personal and career

counselling (Collin & Watts, 1996; Herr, 1997;Savickas, 1995).

In their attempts to redefine the words ‘career’ and‘career guidance’, academic writers have beenconcerned about the strong influence of psychologyon traditional career theories and approaches, and onthe narrow dominant paradigm of the original trait-and-factor approach (Brown & Brooks, 1996; Herr,1997; Savickas, 1996). This paradigm is perceived tobe out of step with the issues now being raised in a

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rapidly changing world of work. Savickas (1996)considered ‘it seems unlikely that the discipline’sdominant paradigm will suffice to address the careerdevelopment and workforce preparation needs oftomorrow’s citizens’ (p. 3). Similarly, Patton andMcMahon (1999) noted trait-and-factor counselling‘does not help us to understand the increasinglycomplex issues brought about by today’s world ofwork, such as job-related phobias, sexual harassment,job burnout, dual-career families, unemployment,and job seeking’ (p. 229).

Attempts to make career guidance more relevantand responsive to current complex issues havepromoted the adoption of career models with anemphasis on the uniqueness and wholeness of thechooser, rather than on what is to be chosen (Herr,1997). There is a growing body of literature whichencourages career guidance practitioners toincorporate the same socio-political and constructivistapproaches that have influenced the field of personalcounselling (Brown & Brooks, 1996; Granvold, 1996;Killeen, 1996; McMahon & Patton, 2000; Peavy, 1992;Savickas, 1993, 1996). Early writings have beentheoretical in nature, but recent articles have endorsedsubjective experiences of career and included wayspractitioners might incorporate constructivistapproaches in their work (Savickas, 1995; Cochran,1997, 1998).

One approach, in the constructivist framework,which has been promoted for use by career counsellorsis narrative counselling (Gysbers, Heppner & Johnston,1998; Monk, Winslade, Crocket & Epston, 1997; Patton& McMahon, 1999). Another personal counsellingapproach in the constructivist framework is solution-focused counselling (de Jong & Berg 1998; de Shazer,1985). However, this approach has only recently beenexplored for its career counselling possibilities(McMahon, Adams & Lim, 2002). In this paper, it is myintention to support and extend their limited discussionof available techniques and to examine the wayssolution-focused counselling and systems theory can fitinto the career counselling process. Further, I shallillustrate the ways specific solution-focused strategiescan enhance career counselling.

Constructivist counsellingThe constructivist approach is based on the premisethat the subjective frame of reference of human

beings is the only legitimate source of knowledge(Brown & Brooks, 1996). Thus, while events occuroutside human beings, it is only through a person’sunderstanding of her environment and herparticipation in these events that she is able to defineherself and her environments (Brown & Brooks,1996). Defining oneself involves interaction betweenyour sense of identity and how others perceive you.This is essential for the construction of your ownreality in your own terms. Therefore, building onthese general theoretical ideas, constructivist careercounselling involves the exploration of the personalmeaning ascribed by the client to a career problemand the co-construction of possible new meaningsfrom which goals can be developed and outcomesachieved (Granvold, 1996; Patton & McMahon, 1999).

This approach is appealing because it enablesclients and counsellors to consider the specificmeaning of career for each individual. It is notaccepted without some hesitation, however. Killeen(1996) considered the approach is predicated on formsof career that are secure, stable and progressive;whereas new career realities include tendencies suchas uncertainty, insecurity, reduced likelihood ofpromotion and non-standard employment contracts.Furthermore, Patton and McMahon (1999) noted thetraditional use of assessment tools by careercounsellors would need to change, if counsellors wereto adopt narrative approaches. The first concern maybe addressed by constructivist counsellors adoptingmore flexible definitions of career (Killeen, 1996). Thesecond concern may be addressed by constructivistcounsellors using qualitative assessment instrumentssuch as autobiographies and card sorts whichencourage clients to use their own language to telltheir own career stories and uncover their subjectivecareers (Patton & McMahon, 1999).

The place of systems theory in constructivistcounselling Central to the constructivist approach is the conceptthat human behaviour can only be understood incontext. Therefore, it is imperative the client’s wholecontext is considered during counselling. Careercounselling which uses a systems theory frameworkaddresses this imperative by taking into account thediversity and complexity of the influences on humandevelopment (Patton & McMahon, 1999). The basic

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tenets of this framework are: that people live withinorganisational structures comprising of mutuallydependent parts (systems and subsystems); that thebasic needs of a system are to adapt, survive andmaintain itself; that change in one part of the systemwill effect change in another part or parts of thesystem; and that structures and rules operate tomaintain the system and to generally resist change(Okun, 1984).

Okun (1984) discussed three main interactingsystems. The individual system, which comprised ofbiological, psychological and social components; thefamily system, which comprised of several subsystems;and the career system that comprised individualneeds, values, aptitudes, interests and skills. WhileOkun’s framework still maintained a somewhattraditionally narrow view of career, it highlighted theidea that the size of the career system had to be offsetby that of the family and individual systems. Drawndiagrammatically as a series of interconnecting circles,this framework enabled counsellors to discuss withclients the concept that change in one sub-systemwould bring about change in other sub-systems(Miller, 1999). In keeping with theoretical writingabout career education of the 1980s, Okun’s work didnot give any prominence to the meaning-making thatoccurs as part of the relationship between client andcounsellor. However, in the personal counsellingliterature this aspect was readily acknowledged. Intheir work describing the relationship between clientand counsellor, Ivey, Ivey and Simek-Downing (1987)noted that in a counselling interview the cultural andhistorical backgrounds of both participants areinteracting. Their simple diagram has provided thebasis for more extensive systems frameworks thatinform counsellor-education programs (Ivey, Ivey &Simek-Downing, 1993; Manthei & Miller, 2000).

Recently, Patton and McMahon (1999) offeredsystems theory as a framework in which interactionswithin and between the systems of clients and careerpractitioners are considered. Within theircharacterisation of the individual system, gender, age,self-concept etc, are influential, whereas in thecontextual system, peers, family, government policies,employment opportunities etc, are influential. Thereare also process influences operating and these includechance and change over time. Similar to other careerdevelopment theorists and practitioners, Patton and

McMahon (1999) have endorsed the narrativeapproach as the best to access meaning-making forclients and counsellors. They have suggestedcounsellors need a clear understanding of their ownnarratives—formed through interaction with theirown past, present and future system of influence—and recognition that when they work with clients,they become part of the client’s system of influence.

It is well accepted that personal counsellinginvolves the interaction of both the client’s andcounsellor’s systems of influence. Similarly, the viewthat using a constructivist approach has implicationsfor the way career counsellors work has been clearlyexpressed. Peavy (1992) suggested there are fourfactors for career counsellors to consider if they are tobe helpful to clients: relationship or alliance with thecounsellor; the self-helpfulness of clients; meaning-making; and the opportunity for clients to reconstructpersonally meaningful and socially supportablerealities. The challenge for the career practitioner ishow to bring such theoretical ideas into practice. AsAthanasou (2000, p. 50) asked ‘how does suchunderstanding of oneself, plus understanding of theintrapersonal influences, plus awareness of systems-based influences and the constructions of a story ofone’s life really act to bring about change?’.

Constructivist counselling approaches for careerpractitioners There is a growing amount of literature promotingthe narrative approach as a favoured constructivistframework for personal and career counsellors(Cochran, 1998; McLeod, 1996; McMahon & Patton,2000; Monk et al., 1997; Patton & McMahon, 1999;Savickas, 1995). Further, Cochran (1998)demonstrated how the use of the meaning-makingresources of narrative can transform careerinformation into meaningful stories, and Savickas(1995) described the way a life-theme approach can beused with clients who require counselling for careerindecision.

Solution-focused and solution-oriented counsellingis another well documented constructivist approachin the personal counselling field, but it is not as wellrecognised for its potential in career counselling (Berg,1994; de Shazer, 1985; Durrant, 1995; McMahon et al.,2002; Manthei, 1997; Miller, 1996; O’Hanlan &Weiner-Davis, 1989; Talmon, 1990). Developed by

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Steve de Shazer and successfully implemented by anumber of counsellors, solution-focused and solution-orientated counselling acknowledges contextualdifferences and social constructivism; is futureoriented; and encourages clients to incorporate apositive approach in using their own resources forchange. McMahon et al. (2002) noted that solution-focused approaches incorporate the constructivistprinciples of collaboration, constructivism and anorientation towards competency and change.

There are a number of similarities betweensolution-focused and narrative therapies. Both requirethe counsellor to be client-centred and to use theclient’s frame of reference in their work. Both involvecounsellors adopting flexible ideas about careers andcareer counselling, and both involve clients andcounsellors working together to construct meaningfuloutcomes. One important difference between the twois that solution-focused work removes the need for thecounsellor to know the cause and/or history of theclient’s problem. Narrative approaches requirecounsellors and clients to use past-oriented stories tobuild new, enabling stories for the future. While thepast actions of the client are discussed in solution-focused work, they are used to highlight clientstrengths and successes rather than life-stories.Furthermore, while in narrative counselling thecounsellor often suggests alternative stories (albeitconstructed from language used by the client) to helpclients make sense of their past, in solution-focusedcounselling the counsellor always engages a curiousstance to help the client move from a past-oriented(problem) to a future-oriented (solution) orientation.Thus, in solution-focused career counselling, less timeis spent on exploring the developmental career historyof the client, and more time is spent exploring andextending those times when progress towards thecareer goal was positive. This efficient use of timeensures that if the client only visits the careercounsellor once, movement towards client-definedgoals has already begun.

Principles of Effective Solution-focusedCounsellingSolution-focused approaches enable clients to worktowards pertinent career goals. An essential elementof these approaches is the paradigmatic shift inthinking by client and counsellor away from problems

(what is going wrong) and towards possibilities andhope (what is wanted) (Friedman & Fanger, 1991).Solution-focused counsellors consider it is easier toconstruct solutions than to dissolve problems, and itis useful to consider problems as inappropriatesolutions. Such an emphasis often means thecounselling process moves quickly to goal setting andsolution finding, and there is little time spentexploring client problems. Other principlesinfluencing their practice include the notion that inclient-centred work the counsellor must believe in theclient’s expertise in his or her own life, the agency ofthe client to make desired changes, and the client’scompetence to access relevant resources. Such anemphasis means there is little time spent forming arelationship between counsellor and client.

Similar to other constructivist approaches, thesolution-focused approach acknowledges the powerof language to influence interactions, meanings andactions. Solution-focused counsellors adopt a stance ofcuriosity, and ask many positively focused questionsto demonstrate their respect for the client’sresourcefulness and competence to succeed. Suchquestions are regarded as the essential element inchanging the interaction from being problem-focusedto being solution-oriented. To replace problem-saturated questions with solution-focused questions,a counsellor changes ‘what’s wrong?’ to ‘what’swanted?’ or ‘that must be difficult’ to ‘how easy isthat?’ Insoo Kim Berg (de Jong & Berg, 1998) poses akey question, which highlights the agency of theclient: ‘How did you do that?’. Each of theseprinciples enables solution-focused counsellors towork with clients to quickly broaden the context ofthe client’s view of himself, develop client self-helpfulness and resourcefulness, and encouragecounsellor redundancy.

AN OVERVIEW OF SOLUTION-FOCUSED PRACTICEThe frameworks and techniques used by solution-focused counsellors are well documented (Berg, 1994;de Jong & Berg, 1998; Quick, 1996). McMahon et al.(2002) alluded to the concern that the availability ofbooks outlining deceptively simple solution-focusedtechniques may encourage use by inexperiencedcounsellors with little regard to the constructivistprinciples on which they are based. Such a caution is

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appropriate, since many of the techniques offeredinclude seemingly simple questions that can be re-used over time by the counsellor. However, consistentwith constructivist thinking each time a counsellorasks one of these questions it has a different meaning,because the context—the interaction betweencounsellor and client—has changed. Counsellors needto ground their practice in constructivist principles inorder to recognise the subtle solutions that emergefrom these interactions. Simply asking the questions is insufficient. Counsellors need to be confident that they can work with clients’ responses to their questions, because these responses providedirection for the client and counsellor as they co-construct possible steps towards achieving client-defined goals.

The solution-building processWhile each solution-focused counselling session isunique to the counsellor and client, there are threedistinct phases that provide direction to the interviewprocess. The initial phase includes clarification of theclient’s definition of his or her problem and search forpreferred solutions (goal setting questions). The nextphase is the bulk of the session, and involves clientsidentifying aspects of their life that are working well;what is happening when the problem is absent orunder the control of the client (exception questions);imagining how life would be different if the problemwere suddenly solved (miracle questions); andassessing their progress towards a self-identified goal(scaling questions). The final phase involves thecounsellor acknowledging the client’s commitment tochange and constructing a homework task that willencourage success, based on the client’s strengths,successes and goals.

Phase One

Pre-session changeIn solution-focused counselling, it is assumed theclient has the ability to find his or her own solutions.It is also assumed when a client makes anappointment to visit a career counsellor, he may havebegun to change and work towards finding analternative to his situation. Therefore, counsellors askpre-session change questions such as, ‘since the timeyou made an appointment to see me, what things haveyou noticed that you think will be helpful?’ to help

clients begin to find these solutions. If the clientcannot identify any change in response to this type ofquestion, the counsellor can move to problemclarification. If the client identifies areas in whichclarity has emerged or some thoughts about possiblestrategies to address his situation, the counsellor canuse these ideas to help the client set goals. Thus, if aclient came to career counselling because she couldn’tchoose between two tertiary training courses, and inresponse to this question she said, ‘I realised that Ididn’t know what jobs were available for graduates’,the counsellor could explore whether having suchinformation was the client’s goal for counselling orpart of the solution to her career concern.

Problem Clarification and Goal-settingSimilar to other career counselling, solution-focusedcareer counselling starts with some form of problemclarification. The counsellor is interested in what hasbrought the client to see the counsellor and how theclient would describe her career concern. Examples ofquestions at this stage include: ‘What brings you heretoday rather than some other time?’; and ‘Whatwould you like to get out of this career counsellingsession?’. In solution-focused career counselling, theemphasis moves quickly from problem to solutiontalk. This occurs when the counsellor asks the clientexception and goal-setting questions. Solutions arebuilt from the client responses. Thus, if a clientseemed ‘stuck’ about career plans, a typical positiveexception question would be, ‘Have there ever beentimes when you were more certain of what you wouldlike to do?’.

Suppose the client said, ‘Yes, in my last year at highschool I wanted to be a teacher’. The counsellor wouldhelp the client explore details about this exception toelicit successful strategies that the client might applyto this new situation. Follow-on questions that wouldassist this process could include: ‘What did you dodifferently then?’ (self-helpfulness); and ‘What wouldothers say was different for you then?’ (contextualmeaning). Typical goal-setting questions that canassist clients describe their short- and long-term goalsare: ‘How will you know that coming to see me was agood thing to do?’; ‘When will you know that youdon’t need to come for career counselling any more?’;and ‘What will you be doing differently when youreach your goal?’. The client’s behaviour isemphasised in these questions, since changes in

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behaviour are easier to observe than changes infeelings or emotions.

Phase Two

Miracle QuestionsIf the client is able to identify positive exceptions, thenext task is to explore in detail the difference betweenwhat is perceived to be the problem and what ishappening when the problem is absent. If a clientcannot identify positive exceptions, the counsellor canask the ‘miracle question’ (de Jong & Berg, 1998; deShazer, 1988). There is a debate among solution-focused academics on whether the miracle question isthe essential defining strategy for solution-focusedwork, and, if it is, whether it has to take the form firstadvocated by de Jong and Berg (1998). Nevertheless,the main effect of the question is that clients areencouraged to imagine themselves in their owncontext when the problem that brought them tocounselling is absent. The assumption accompanyingthis question is that clients will be freed from their‘stuckness’ and be able to consider alternative ways ofdealing with their issue. Responses to the questionabout what the client would be doing differently insuch a miracle scenario help the counsellor and clientbuild a picture of the client’s goals and competencies.

Helpful LanguageDuring this phase, counsellors can include some of thefollowing words and phrases in their questions topromote solution building by clients: ‘Suppose…’—to help clients imagine alternative futures; ‘Whatwould you be doing instead?’—to be used when theclient can only describe his preferred future in termsof what would not be happening: ‘I wouldn’t bewasting my time at work’; ‘When you have madethese changes…’—to encourage hope that success willoccur; and ‘How will you know…?’—to encourageself helpfulness.

Useful imagesDuring this phase, counsellors can encouragesolution-building by paying attention to those actionsthat are working for the client, and by writing goals,successful strategies, and any changes the client hasmade on a large piece of paper or on a white-board.This continuous exposure of the client to her strengthsand resourcefulness also helps encourage hope andself-helpfulness.

Use of scalesSolution-focused counsellors like to emphasisemovement by the client towards self-defined goals.For these goals to be motivating, both the client andcounsellor need to feel confident the client will besuccessful in achieving them. On a white-board thecounsellor can draw a ten-point scale to help the clientestablish goals, check progress, check commitmentand check optimism. Such a scale can form the focusof the entire counselling session.

Scales for goal settingIf the client states her reason for coming to counsellingis that she can’t decide what career to pursue, thecounsellor can draw a simple scale for decision-making. The client and counsellor can determine thelabels given to the ends of this scale together. Thisinteraction allows the client’s meaning of the problemto emerge. For instance, the scale might be:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10No options Too many options

Or it might be:1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Stuck/confused Clear about what to do

The scales are useful because the labels help toestablish the primary concern for the client at the timeof the counselling interview. One end of the scaleneeds to indicate something that is problematic andthe other end needs to indicate a situation with fewproblems.

Once the scale is drawn, sensitive questioning bythe counsellor can help clients choose where they fitat the time of the interview. Clients can use the samescale to indicate the point that describes when theyfirst made an appointment for career counselling, andanother point to indicate where they would like to beon the scale. To aid this process, the counsellor mightask, ‘Where would you have put yourself on this scalebefore you made the appointment to come here?’, and‘Is there a point on the scale that you would ratherbe?’ (goal clarification). Each of these points will bemeaningful to the client, and to help the client explorethis meaning the counsellor remains curious and asksthe client to describe what he is (or would be) doing ateach of these points. Questions that aid this processinclude: ‘What words would you use to describe that

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point on the scale?’; ‘I’m curious, what makes this a‘3’ for you?’; and ‘What words describe what youwould be doing differently at that point?’.

The following example may help clarify the scalingprocess. Suppose a client uses the second scale above.She may indicate a ‘3’ describes her situation now, a‘2’ describes where she was before the counsellingsession, and a ‘9’ describes her preferred future. Thisclient may use phrases such as, ‘I feel lost’, and ‘I can’tconcentrate on anything’ to extend her meaning for a‘2’. Further, she may add, ‘I want to do something’ tothese descriptors to explain her difference at a ‘3’, andshe may use terms such as, ‘I would be confident’, and‘I would have a plan’ to describe her ‘9’. Allowing theclient to view the resulting image of the scale gives herthe opportunity to notice what she is doing differently,when things are working for her, and to use thisinformation to build achievable solutions. Strategicquestions at this point include: ‘So, how have youmanaged to move from a ‘2’ to a ‘3’?’; ‘So, how haveyou managed to make that change?’; and ‘Whatwould be the first step you could make to movetowards a ‘9’?’.

Scales to determine motivationScales can also be helpful when the counsellor wantsto check the motivation or confidence of the client thatthe goal is achievable. Questions associated with thisinclude: ‘On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being not verykeen and 10 being very keen, how keen do you thinkyou are to try this?’; or ‘On a scale of 1 to 10, wherewould you put yourself in your ability to decide?’; or‘Where would you need to be to make a decision?’.

Incorporating systems thinkingIn this middle phase of solution-focused careercounselling, clients can be encouraged to incorporatesystems thinking in both their problem clarificationand solution-building work. In this way, they can startto build solutions that take account of the diversityand complexity of influences on their lives. A practicalway a systems theory framework can be used in careercounselling is a variation of the scaling questionprocess. Such a process can allow the client to examinepast and present contextual influences and the possibleeffect of such influences as lifestyle and employmentmarket trends on their preferred future (Patton &McMahon, 1999).

Consistent with the solution-focused counsellingprinciple of keeping language simple, a counsellor canuse simplified diagrams of systems frameworks tohelp clients focus on sites of influence that are relevantto their past, present and preferred careerdevelopment. This ensures the client’s worldview isrespected in any career plan. An example of thisapproach could use a simplified diagram of Okun’s(1984) model. If the client identified that he wasundecided about enrolling in a training course thatwould mean moving away from friends and family,the counsellor could ask him to draw how these sub-systems were influencing his decision by using size todepict importance. The client might draw a picturesimilar to Figure 1.

In Figure 1, the client appears to apply moreimportance to his need to stay close to friends andfamily over that of his career development. Once sucha diagram is drawn, it can be used in much the sameway as the points on a scale. It is easy for thecounsellor to be curious about whether or not theclient is happy about the appearance of this diagram,about how it has looked at other times, about how theclient would rather have this appear, and about whatthe client would need to do to work towards that.

Another approach could involve the use of asystems framework such as that described by Pattonand McMahon (1999). The client could use herframework to guide her drawing of her own systemof influence. Thus, she could draw a framework thatmade sense to her. She might include in her individualsystem those characteristics she perceived as relevantto her present career concerns. Similarly, she couldprovide detail about relevant social andenvironmental groups and the nature of theirperceived influence on her. Again, the counsellor can

Individual

Career

Familyand

friends

FIGURE 1: EXAMPLE OF A CLIENT’S SIMPLIFIED

DIAGRAM OF CURRENT SYSTEM OF INFLUENCE

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ask scaling questions to assist the client to determinewhether these perceived influences are helpful or nothelpful, whether there have been times (exceptions)when unhelpful influences have been different (morehelpful), and what it would take for the client to usehelpful influences to move towards her goal.

Suppose an 18-year-old male client describedhimself as outgoing and social, very fit, healthy andwell co-ordinated, with an interest in several sports,strong in mathematics, science and music, and hopingfor a career that would bring financial security. Thisclient could be asked to draw a simplified diagram ofPatton and McMahon’s (1999) systems framework,using colour and size to depict those characteristicsthat in the past and present have influenced subjectchoices and career ideas. He could then consider waysin which belonging to particular social groupsinfluenced him. He and his career counsellor couldcollaborate on depicting the perceived effects ofrelevant environmental influences. He may draw adiagram (Figure 2) in which capital letters signify theimportance of individual characteristics to him, andthe size of circles depicts his idea of the way he isinfluenced by relevant social groups.

Phase Three

Constructing meaningful homeworkIn solution-focused counselling, there is anassumption that clients will work towards achievingtheir goals outside the counselling session. To helpfocus this work, counsellors finish counselling sessionswith a formal procedure. It is recommended thecounsellor take a short break to quickly review thingsthe client has said during the interview—especiallyexceptions, strengths, successes, goals andmotivation—in order to construct a meaningfulmessage for future goal-achievement work. Duringthe break, career clients can look through somerelevant career information and counsellors canconsider the other aspects below.

The readiness of the clientProchaska, DiClemente and Norcross (1992) havedemonstrated the clients’ stage of readiness to changeis integrally related to the likelihood that they willsuccessfully achieve their goals. In solution-focusedcounselling, client readiness is similarly taken intoconsideration when considering the type of homework

that will enable the client to experience success. If aclient indicates on a scale she is only mildly motivated,then she is not ready to work on solution finding at thistime and the assignment of ongoing work will notenhance her sense of success. This client may becomplimented for coming to counselling and invitedto return when she feels ready. If the client ismotivated, then the counsellor can suggest that she payattention to what she is doing when she is movingalong the goal scale, and if the client is very motivated,she can be encouraged to make some changes. Theimportant factor in suggesting a task is that it makes itpossible for the client to easily gain a sense of successthrough its achievement.

Write down all the strengths of the clientCounsellors are encouraged to congratulate clients onwhat they have said that is useful, effective, good orfun about things they have done and thoughts theyhave had, to keep them focused on making changestowards their own goals. Compliments are influential,however small. The counsellor makes a note ofrelevant strengths before and during the break to feedback to the client. These strength descriptions willalways be specific to the particular client. Generalillustrative examples might include making thedecision to do something; coming to counselling;recognising that relaxation helps make decisions

Individual

SPORTMUSIC

MONEYMATHS

Social

Family

School

Friends

Career context

FIGURE 2: EXAMPLE OF THE WAY A CLIENT COULD

USE A SYSTEMS FRAMEWORK TO DESCRIBE CAREER-RELATED INFLUENCES

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easier; being clear about wanting a career that usesparticular skills and training; and working hardduring the counselling session.

Re-phrase the client’s goalA task is more likely to be considered to be achievableif it is perceived as logical, reasonable and relevant.The way to ensure this is to link the relevance of thetask to the client’s goal. Thus, the counsellor willfollow the description of the client’s strengths with aphrase to connect the task with the client’s goal. Usefulphrases to use include: ‘Because you have said that youwant…’, and ‘since you have indicated that…’.

Suggest future workThe final stage of the solution-focused careercounselling interview involves the counsellorsuggesting the client attempt a homework task,activity or thought. This task should be small,achievable and should correspond to the client’sworldview. The focus is on doing something different,if what the client is doing is not working, and of doingmore of what is working. A client who indicated aninterest in and has some experience with computer-programming, but is concerned work in this area willrestrict her time with her new-born child, can beencouraged to explore scenarios in which sheperceived a better balance between home andemployment. Use of scales may have helped the clientdescribe these scenarios, and the task can be to noticewhat she is doing when she feels she has moved—even slightly—up the scale towards a preferredscenario. This noticing task would be linked to hergoal of finding balance in her life and would bedesigned to give her agency in discovering what shedoes that helps balance occur.

Examples of the final solution-focused message.

• ‘You have come here today because you are havingdifficulty focusing on possible subject choices fornext year. I can see this decision is difficult for you,however, you have already started working onmaking this decision (goal statement) by cominghere. This shows how committed you are to moveforward (strength). You have also told me whenyou have faced other difficult decisions in the past,you have written a list of pros and cons and thatthis has helped. This is wonderful, you already

have a way of making decisions that has beensuccessful (potential solution). You have also saidyou would feel more confident about this decisionif you have more information about the careersassociated with particular subjects (potentialsolution). So, you have made a good start onmaking this decision (strength). I have someinformation relevant to the subjects you haveconsidered. Since you want to make a gooddecision (linking phrase), I want you to take thisinformation and think about the pros and cons ofthe jobs listed and before you come back to see me,think of those jobs that might suit you.’

• ‘…Since you have said your goal is to have a morefocused idea of opportunities for work, and youhave said the times you have been able to do thishave been when you have read about certain jobs,I suggest you do more of this. I have a selection ofpossible career opportunities you can read.’

CONCLUSIONThis article addresses the challenge set by a number ofwriters that there be more emphasis on howconstructivist theory could be used in careercounselling practice. It endorses the use of solution-focused counselling by practitioners who want toemploy constructivist principles in the ways they areworking with career clients. A three-phase model isoutlined to help practitioners see how they could usethis approach. Pertinent strategies are described ineach phase, with particular emphasis on thosetechniques that help highlight client self-helpfulness.Further, possible ways that counsellors might applysystems thinking within the middle phase of solution-focused career counselling are described. Suchstrategies will enable career practitioners to increasetheir repertoire of what works.

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York: W. W. Norton.

Friedman, S., & Fanger, M. T. (1991). Expanding therapeutic

possibilities: Getting results in brief psychotherapy. Toronto:

Lexington Books.

Granvold, D. K. (1996). Constructivist psychotherapy: Families

in society. The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 77,

345–59.

Gysbers, N. C., Heppner, M. J., & Johnston, J. A. (1998). Career

counseling: Process, issues and techniques. Needham Heights,

MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Harmon, L. W. (1996). A moving target: The widening gap

between theory and practice. In M. L. Savickas, & W. B.

Walsh (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling theory and

practice (pp. 37–44). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

Herr, E. L. (1997). Career counselling: A process in process.

British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 25(1), 81–93.

Ivey, A., Ivey, M., & Simek-Downing, L. (1987). Counseling and

psychotherapy: Integrating skills, theory and practice (2nd ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Ivey, A., Ivey, M., & Simek-Downing, L. (1993). Counseling and

Psychotherapy: A multicultural perspective (3rd ed.). Boston,

MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Killeen, J. (1996). The social context of guidance. In A. Watts, B.

Law, J. Killeen, M. Kidd, & R. Hawthorn (Eds.), Rethinking

career education and guidance (pp. 3–22). London: Routledge.

Manthei, R. J. (1997). Counselling: The skills of finding solutions to

problems. Auckland: Longman.

Manthei, R., & Miller, J. (2000). Good counselling: A guide for

clients. Auckland: Pearson Education.

McLeod, J. (1996). The emerging narrative approach to

counselling and psychotherapy. British Journal of Guidance

and Counselling, 24, 173–84.

McMahon, M., Adams, M., & Lim, R. (2002). Transition in

career counselling practice: What can solution-oriented

counselling offer? Australian Journal of Career Development,

11(1), 22–6.

McMahon, M., & Patton, W. (2000). Beyond 2000: Incorporating

the constructivist influence into career guidance and

counselling. Australian Journal of Career Development, 9(1),

25–9.

Miller, J. H. (1996). Career counselling and solution-building:

What are the possibilities? Workshop presented at the New

Zealand Association of Counsellors Canterbury branch

conference, Christchurch, New Zealand.

Miller, J. H. (1999). Systemic career and brief solution-focused

counselling. Workshop presented at the New Zealand

Association of Counsellors conference, Christchurch, New

Zealand.

Monk, G., Winslade, J., Crocket, K., & Epston, D. (1997).

Narrative therapy in practice: The archaeology of hope. San


O’Hanlan, W. H., & Weiner-Davis, M. (1989). In search of

solutions: A new direction in psychotherapy. New York: W. W.

Norton.

Okun, B. F. (1984). Working with adults: Individual, family and

career development. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Osipow, S. H. (1996). Does career theory guide practice or does

career practice guide theory? In M. L. Savickas, & W. B.

Walsh (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling theory and

practice (pp. 403–10). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

Patton, W., & McMahon, M. (1999). Career development and

systems theory: A new relationship. Pacific Grove, CA:

Brooks/Cole.

Peavy, R. V. (1992). A constructivist model of training for career

counselors. Journal of Career Development, 18, 215–29.

Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992). In

search of how people change. American Psychologist, 47(9),

1102–14.

Quick, E. K. (1996). Doing what works in brief therapy: A strategic

solution-focused approach. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Savickas, M. (1993). Career counseling in the postmodern era.

Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly,

7, 205–15.

Savickas, M. (1995). Constructivist counseling for career

indecision. Career Development Quarterly, 43, 363–73.

Savickas, M. (1996). Public policy and career counseling for the

twenty first century. The Career Development Quarterly, 45,

3–4.

Savickas M. L., & Walsh. W. B. (Eds.). (1996). Handbook of career

counseling theory and practice. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

Talmon, M. (1990). Single session therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

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During the 1940s and early 50s, Abraham Maslowand Carl Rogers spearheaded a new movement

in psychology that challenged the traditional positivist,empirical and deterministic frameworks theorised byFreud (psychodynamic) and Skinner (behaviourism).The existential-humanistic approach was based on anepistemology that grew out of the twentieth centuryphilosophy of ‘phenomenology’, whose mainproponents included the German philosophersEdmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger.

Prior to WWII, the science of psychology, and itspractice of counselling and psychotherapy, slavishlyadopted a positivist paradigm in its research anddevelopment of theory. It was hoped this approachwould garner the same spectacular successes thatoccurred in the sciences of physics and biology duringthe late nineteenth century. The early medicalisationof psychology by Freud, and the initial large scalefunding of its research in the United States—directedtowards veterans of WWII—meant that as a science,psychology was heavily orientated toward pathology.

In contrast the existential-humanistic approach isbased on the notion that, given appropriate social andenvironmental conditions, people will always displaya tendency towards ‘actualisation’. As a result, theexistential-humanistic movement remained, and stillremains today, outside mainstream psychology. In thepreface, Cain provides a number of reasons whyexistential-humanistic therapists are under-

represented among the wider practitioner populationin the United States (pp. xix–xxiii). I would like tofurther add to Cain’s common sense arguments andadd a number of reasons concerning the relativelypoor uptake of existential-humanistic theory withinclinical settings.

Psychology students are generally unable to graspthe monumental thinking contained in Heidegger’s(1962) Being and Time (and to a lesser extent Merleau-Ponty’s various works) because of their lack oftraining in philosophy. There is also the issue of thefundamental demolition of experimental psychologies‘truth-claims’ by phenomenological and socialconstructionist epistemologies. For example, the fieldof social psychology, like the science of psychologygenerally, has been dominated by empiricist-positivistmodes of inquiry. As a result, alternative perspectiveshave been largely ignored (Gergen, 2002; Jost &Kruglanski, 2002) and more often feared because oftheir implication for decades of experimental workcarried out thus far:

I have suspected that if experimentalists did not feel

that Gergen’s critiques were both insulting and

hopeless, they might have more readily incorporated

his critiques into their work. No one compelled by

dissonance theory can imagine that a paper, no

matter how well reasoned, is going to lead an

experimenter to reject the value of his or her life’s

BOOK REVIEWS

HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES:

HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

Edited by Cain, D. J . & Seeman, J . (2002). Washington, DC:

Amer ican Psychological Association.

ISBN 1-55798-787-4, pp. 701, $US59.95

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work and simply quit experimenting. (Pratto, 2002,

pp. 194–5)

For many clinicians, cognitive-behaviouralapproaches to therapy are relatively straightforwardin their understanding and administration; whereasexistential-humanistic therapies emphasise relation-ships over technique, require greater levels of internaltrust, and a willingness and commitment on the partof the counsellor to truly understand and ‘be with’ theclient’s subjective experience of life.

The success of the existential-humanisticmovement has been the almost seamless transition ofits theory into practice. In contrast, many other areasof academic psychology struggle to be of anyinstrumental use to the counsellor and society ingeneral (Gergen, 2001). Carl Rogers developed whatbecame known as the ‘client-centred’ approach, atheory emphasising the relationship betweencounsellor and client. According to Rogers, positivetherapeutic change is effected through three ‘coreconditions’. They are ‘relating’, ‘listening’ and‘understanding’ (Thorn, 2003, p. 45). The counsellorseeks to treat the client with ‘empathy’, ‘genuineness’and ‘unconditional positive regard’. This form of‘attending behaviour’ enables the client to work moredeeply and effectively through their problems and toactualise their potential, in short, encouraging themto become more ‘authentic’. For Friedrich Nietzsche,a major contributor to existential philosophy, theauthentic-self was not some inner self somehowoccluded by a false, superficial one, but a self that oneshould strive to ‘become’. The self-estranged personis not distanced from a self he actually possesses, butfrom a goal he should be pursuing (Nietzsche cited inCooper, 1999, p. 96).

Humanistic Psychotherapies: Handbook of research andpractice is a definitive text that represents a majorcontribution to the field of existential-humanisticpsychology. For career development researchers andpractitioners, it contains state-of-the-art information oncounselling and other aspects of human relations. Thetext is highly useful given the further successfulapplication of existential-humanistic concepts andtheories to an array of contexts outside the counsellingand psychotherapy room—for example, classroomteaching, child-care, conflict resolution, humanresource management, sports coaching and social work.

The text is divided into six main parts, beginningwith a thorough chapter by one of the editors, DavidCain, identifying the primary concepts andcharacteristics shared by existential-humanisticapproaches. Part two provides an overview of researchwith a particularly important chapter by Robert Elliottitled ‘The effectiveness of humanistic therapies: Ameta-analysis’ in which he concludes:

Clients who participate in humanistic therapies

show, on average, large amounts of change over time.

Post-therapy gains in humanistic therapies are stable;

they are maintained over early (<12 months) and late

(12 months) follow-ups … In randomised clinical

trials with comparative treatment control clients,

clients in humanistic therapies generally show

amounts of change equivalent to clients in non-

humanistic therapies, including CBT. (Elliott, 2001,

pp. 71–2)

David Rennie’s chapter ‘Experiencing psycho-therapy: Grounded theory studies’ provides anexcellent analysis of a client’s ‘phenomenal’ experiencein therapy. It also gives the reader a deeperunderstanding of the processes involved in conductingqualitative research in counselling:

Inquiry in humanistic psychotherapy has involved

the development of research approaches consistent

with its values. A major value is the emphasis this

type of inquiry places on the experience of therapy.

Qualitative research methods are in harmony with

this emphasis. (Rennie, 2001, p. 117)

Part three reviews the major therapeuticapproaches under the existential-humanistic rubric,including client-centred, gestalt, experiential,existential and process-experiential. Russell Walshand Brian McElwain’s chapter ‘Existentialpsychotherapies’ presents a fundamental review of themain existential concepts of intersubjectivity;becoming; existential anxiety and guilt; temporality;and authenticity. Part four explores some of thevarious existential-humanistic modalities, includingcouples and families, group work, play therapy andrelationship enhancement.

Part five presents an analysis of the evolving theoryof empathy; the self in psychotherapy; emotions in

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humanistic psychotherapy; therapist relationalvariables; client variables and therapeutic outcomes;and humanistic psychotherapy for people withschizophrenia. It concludes the text by providing thereader with two chapters analysing and synthesisinghumanistic psychotherapies. Julius Seeman’s ‘Lookingback, looking ahead: A synthesis’ gives the reader anopportunity to focus away from the minutiae ofhumanistic counselling skills explored in-depth thusfar, and to begin to view humanistic psychotherapies intheir broader theoretical and philosophical contexts.

Texts of this magnitude often suffer in variablequality from chapter to chapter, and general continuity.However, the standard of each chapter in this book isconsistent throughout, and maintains a strong thematicstructure. Overall, the reader is left with a strong senseof the importance concerning the relationship betweencounsellor and client in effecting successfuloutcomes—a fundamental yet all too forgotten aspectof good counselling practice—and most importantlyhow to manage these subtle and often complex micro-skills. The book contains many case studies andtranscripts of counselling sessions to assist withpractical understanding of theory and research.

The only concern I have with this text is its largelyNorth American authorship (of the 33 contributorsonly four were based outside the US). This commentis not intended to disparage the North Americancontributors in any way. However, the book wouldhave greatly benefited with scholarly input fromcontinental psychotherapists whose concepts, theoriesand practice of counselling and psychotherapy tend toalign much more closely with the long anddistinguished tradition of existential philosophy, suchas ‘Logotherapy’ and ‘Dasein analysis’. This wouldhave given the text greater intellectual tension, as wellas providing readers with a fascinating understandingof the contrasting positions within the broaderexistential-humanistic movement.

This text will prove useful to career developmentresearchers and practitioners wanting to enhance theirknowledge with the most up-to-date existential-humanistic research and practice—a movementwithin psychology that underpins much counsellingand psychotherapy today.

REFERENCESCooper, D. E. (1999). Existentialism (2nd ed.). Malden, MA:

Blackwell Publishers.

Elliott, R. (2001). The effectiveness of humanistic therapies: A

meta-analysis. In J. Cain (Ed.), Humanistic psychotherapies:

Handbook of research and practice. Washington, DC:

American Psychological Association.

Gergen, K. J. (2001). Social construction in context. Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gergen, K. J. (2002). Beyond the empiricist/constructionist

divide in social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology

Review, 6(3), 188–91.

Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and Time (J. A. R. McQuarrie,

Trans.). New York: Blackwell Publishers.

Jost, J. T., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). The estrangement of

social constructionism and experimental social psychology:

History of the rift and prospects for reconciliation.

Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(3), 168–87.

Pratto, F. (2002). Integrating experimental and social

constructivist social psychology: Some of us are already doing

it. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(3), 194–8.

Rennie, D. L. (2001). Experiencing psychotherapy: Grounded

theory studies. In J. Seeman (Ed.), Humanistic

psychotherapies: Handbook of research and practice.

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Thorn, B. (2003). Carl Rogers (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.

Matthew McDonaldUniversity of Technology, Sydney

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Career development programs areprograms that assist individuals to

make informed choices relating to theirwork and career options. Such programscan be incorporated into primary schoolcurriculum, can offer expert assistance touniversity students, and can guideindividuals who have lost a job or thosewho are trying to find more satisfyingwork. They can provide useful andplanned learning experiences at variousstages in the individual’s lifespan. Theymay be incorporated into educationalinstitutions, government programs, businesses andorganisations, on-line learning, and so on. Theyshould be made readily available to individuals at apoint of transition in their lives, and definitely at timesof crisis (such as retrenchment). Ideally, trainedprofessionals should deliver them.

Readers of the AJCD will appreciate this book,filled with well-researched and informative articles byexperienced practitioners with a range of knowledgeand skills, many of them Australian. Althoughrelevant for Australian career practitioners, it offersan international perspective, and the chapters dealwith the theory, policy and practice of careerdevelopment programs; specific examples ofprograms at different life-stages; and programs forspecial groups—including athletes, dancers, thosewith disabilities and the unemployed. I particularlyenjoyed learning more about outplacement programs.

This is a challenging book to read from cover tocover, but acts as a useful resource. Some articles willrelate directly to the reader’s individual interests,while others will expand awareness of the field.

The editors are both academics atQueensland University of Technologyand are involved with the research anddissemination of career developmentinformation. They have authoredCareer Development and Systems Theory.A new relationship, and their mostrecent collaboration is Ideas for CareerPractitioners: Celebrating excellence inAustralian career practice. Thisparticular collaboration has grown outof their desire to communicate bestpractice to career professionals.

Career Development Programs begins with twoarticles written by the editors that provide anoverview of career development practice and theimplementation of programs. Career practice is youngin the development of its theory and practice inAustralia; no formalised system is in place to ensurethe provision of career guidance and counselling.Access to advice and support depends on geographicallocation, personal financial resources, individualeligibility for funded support programs, availableorganisational support, and so on. The authors believethat what is needed is recognition of career guidanceas part of a lifelong process, plus recognised trainingfor career development professionals to ensure bestpractice. The importance of this has increased becauseof the changes in the world of work, which place moreresponsibility on individuals to manage their owncareers as part of an ongoing process.

This book provides a good summary of bestpractice in relation to career development programs.It focuses on the needs of clients and their activeinvolvement, and is widely accessible at different

CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS: PREPARATION

FOR LIFELONG CAREER DECISION MAKING

Edited by Patton, W. & McMahon, M. (2001).

Melbourne: ACER Press.

ISBN 0-86431-392-6, pp. 196, $49.95.

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WORKING IDENTITY: UNCONVENTIONAL

STRATEGIES FOR REINVENTING YOUR CAREER

Herminia Ibarra (2003). Har vard Business School Press,

ISBN 1-57851-778-8, pp. 215.

In Working Identity, Ibarra insists thatpeople seeking meaningful career

transition must act, rather than analyse,their way towards change, ‘Doing comesfirst, knowing second’. Ibarra cautionsthat her book will not benefit everyone,but rather individuals who possesssufficient, existing professionalexperience upon which they can draw toexperiment with new vocationalpossibilities. In doing so, the authorcounsels that effective career explorationis likely to be an extended process. ‘Get afeel for a new line of work … but delay commitment.Practice telling and retelling your story. Over time, itwill clarify.’

According to Ibarra, ‘Changing careers meanschanging our selves’, hence, the reference to workingidentity in the book’s title. By way of facilitatingpersonal and professional transformation, the authorboldly asserts she has identified ‘common patterns atthe heart of even the most disparate of career changes,and a corresponding set of identifiable—if

unconventional—strategies behind whatcan look like chance occurrences anddisorderly behavior’.

Ibarra set out to test her hypothesisvia a series of in-depth interviews withprofessional subjects at varying stages ofcareer change. This initiative resulted inthe 39 case studies which punctuate herbook and which—coupled withreferences to the works of assortedauthors, psychologists, psychoanalystsand ‘management gurus’—serve toenhance its readability.

So how successful is Ibarra in delivering on herclaim to offer an innovative career model, in directcontrast with the efforts of other career practitionerswho, in her view, are conventional in nature andutilise an inflexible approach which ‘cautions usagainst making a move before we are ready, before weknow exactly where we are going’? I have to say I’mintrigued to meet these professionals to whom shealludes whose adherence to limiting careerdevelopment theories is so unwavering!

depth. However, this book is a valuable resource, andinteresting reading for anyone who wants to expandtheir awareness of career development programs, andhow to design and use them.

Laura SummerfieldEnterprise and Training Company

Coffs Harbour, NSW

life-stages, involving other stakeholders in thecommunity. It includes a multi-faceted approach toprogram development and maintenance, whichcovers a range of learning styles and experiences, withreview and monitoring.

Since this book was released there has been anincrease in career development programs availableon-line, and it may be time for a publication or seriesof articles that look at this phenomenon in greater

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At times, Ibarra herself comes across as beingunnecessarily proscriptive. ‘You cannot discoveryourself by introspection; major career transitionstake three to five years.’ At other times her adviceappears self-contradictory. ‘Take action, and then usethe feedback from your actions to figure out what youthink, feel, and want. Don’t try to analyse or plan yourway into a new career.’

Nonetheless, Working Identity provides a welcomereminder of the twisted, sometimes tortuous, andlengthy path that may lie before career-transitioningclients. As such, it reinforces our need to considerdiffering personal learning styles and motivations thatmust be accommodated within our practice: clientswith a tendency towards recurring self-reflection maywell benefit from being introduced to strategies thatare less reflective and more action-oriented in nature,thus facilitating their experience of other phases of thecareer transition process. Yet surely this is not to saythat there is no value to be gained from their moreanalytic efforts?

By extension, which of our career-change clientsmight best be assisted if we refuse to steer themtowards a single strategy? Must we not insteadadvocate a fusion of interdependent strategies, anappropriate combination of action and analysis,driven as much by personal preference as by any one

career development creed? Is it not the case that actionundertaken without complementary reflection, oranalysis without attendant action, will most likely runa greater risk of perceived failure, than if bothstrategies had been employed in tandem? Insummary, why is there the need to polarise this debate(other than, perhaps, as an effective means of creatinga marketing niche for publication of a new book)?

Interestingly, and despite Ibarra’s central assertion,a second read of the case studies suggests that manyof her subjects did in fact incorporate the twininitiatives of activity and reflection as they traversedtheir career transition. Pierre, the first of the book’ssubjects profiled, seemingly chose to initiate a wholeseries of steps and projects—not as a result of anyrandom or serendipitous events—but for quitespecific and pre-planned reasons.

In summary, Ibarra has written an eminentlyaccessible book that should prove interesting to careerprofessionals. In particular, career-transitioners whopossess enough experience to relate to the individualcase studies subjects should profit from readingWorking Identity.

Seymour MaddisonCareers and Employment Service

University of New South Wales

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‘In the 21st century it is no longer possible for you

and others to continue to get ahead merely on the

quality of your technical and professional skills. Your

success as a leader will depend on your people skills.’

(Dicker, 2001)

These three publications deal with crucial aspectsof people skills effectiveness: assertiveness,

delegation and conflict resolution.

Making Assertiveness HappenChapter one defines ‘assertiveness’, ‘non-assertion’and ‘aggression’. Activities are given at the end of thechapter, which include a questionnaire that assessesassertiveness and scenarios, which help people torecognise the different types of behaviour (i.e.

assertiveness, non-assertion, aggression). Chapter twogives skills and tools for composing assertivenessscripts. Activities include writing an assertivenessscript for particular situations and for a chosen‘problem’ area.

Chapter three gives skills for developingassertiveness such as inner dialogue intervention;modifying non-verbal behaviour; positivevisualization; and self-esteem building techniques. Itcontains a number of activities that relate to each ofthese categories. Some activities involve writing lists;a practical relaxation exercise; self-evaluation; andwriting affirmations. Chapter four looks atassertiveness in specific situations. It covers such topicsas giving feedback, managing adverse reactions andnegotiating outcomes. The chapter contains a variety

MAKING ASSERTIVENESS HAPPEN

Burns, R. (2001). ISBN 1-87588-934-5, pp. 108.

MAKING DELEGATION HAPPEN

Burns, R. (2001). ISBN 1-87588-942-6, pp. 112.

MAKING CONFLICT RESOLUTION HAPPEN

Dicker, L. (2001). ISBN 1-87588-936-1. pp. 118.

Warr iewood, NSW: Business + Publishing

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of activities, which include worksheets, practicalexamples of situations and making appropriateresponses to them. A number of comparative tablesare also used.

Chapter five covers strategies, tools and activities.It summarises all the theory from the previous fourchapters and gives an outline of a course that could bedesigned around the content. It also includes a numberof examples of overheads and handouts that could beused to facilitate the course and other related activities.

The checklists and scripting were particularlyuseful and clear. My only quibble is with the so-called‘bill of rights’. I doubt whether this has much utility ina workplace. I suspect it would end up like so manycorporate mission statements plastered on walls whichincite cynicism among most staff rather thaninspiration.

Making Delegation HappenThis book covers such topics as the personal andorganisational benefits of delegation, effectivedelegation, how to delegate, which tasks should notbe delegated, techniques for effective delegation,evaluating success and tools for developing effectivedelegation skills. Each chapter includes activities,which are a little different to the previous book, inthat they are in the form of checklists and comparativetables.

A great deal of the subject matter is set out in pointform which makes it easier to follow and absorb. Likethe previous book, the last chapter is a summary of theprevious five chapters. It contains examples ofoverheads, checklists and more activities that could beutilised in workshops and training courses.

The author uses organisational examplesjudiciously. Delegation is positioned very appropriatelywithin the context of staff development, as well aspersonal and organisational effectiveness. Issues suchas resources, authority, support, employee motivation,clarity of instructions and timeframes are oftenneglected considerations that are well covered. Thesummaries and tables are very helpful reminders thatpeople could refer to regularly on an ongoing basis.

Making Conflict Resolution HappenThis book covers developments in conflictmanagement, fundamentals of understandingconflict, strategies to resolve conflict at work and

setting up programs. The ‘Dicker model ofoperational style or mode’ is used to assess one’scompetency as a manager. It describes four styles ofmanager: traditional well-organised; strong peoplefocus; active dominant; and creative visionary. Avariety of conflict resolution strategies areadumbrated including negotiation, conciliation,mediation and arbitration.

This publication is based on the premise that mostconflict is a consequence of individual differencesrather than mistakes. The author places conflictmanagement in the context of dealing with diversityand change. He also points to understanding ratherthan labelling and dismissing ‘difficult’ fellow workers.

Joint problem solving through empowerment,participation, trust and delegation is advocatedlinking this publication with Burns’ titles. Theimportance of effective communication is alsohighlighted; including the exercise of powerassertively that shows relationships with Burns’assertiveness publication.

Interestingly, the author devotes a significantamount of space to change management and improvingaspects of the workplace environment, along humanresource best practice. A common method utilised tooutline content is in ‘sequential step form’, i.e. step 1,step 2 etc, often in the form of questions. Bullet pointsare another commonly used method.

This book is different to the other two titles in thatall the activities are contained in the final chapter. Agreat proportion of the activities are checklists, someare in question form for self analysis. I would like tohave seen some flow charts to illustrate the stages ofconflict resolution procedures with ‘if … then’ points,so that readers could more easily follow the processand have a clear idea about what to do if barriers areencountered.

Overall, all three publications are quite practical,thorough and readable. They could each form thebasis for personal development especially formanagers. However, individuals may still find themhelpful particularly in the workplace. The materialsin these publications could also form the basis forgroup instruction, staff development and generalpresentations. In fact Making Assertiveness Happenseems to this reviewer to be a training programconverted into a book.

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series goal of writing to assist change agents toimplement programs across the domains they address.Making Assertiveness Happen is the easiest to read anduse, and when I had a friend read it she agreed that itwas extremely helpful. However, all threepublications reviewed are excellent in their coverage,usefulness, intelligibility and commonsense.

Robert PryorCongruence Pty Ltd

It appears these days that every second consultantwants to put his pet ideas into a self-help book. Themost popular book of which I am aware in a similararea to these publications is Robert Bolton’s PeopleSkills. Bolton’s book has a lot more about listeningskills than Burns and Dicker. He also deals withassertiveness and conflict resolution. For a specificallywork context, my view would be that Burns andDicker have produced publications that would bemore useful than Bolton’s book. In this reviewer’sopinion, the authors have succeeded in their stated

FRAGMENTED FUTURES:

NEW CHALLENGES IN WORKING LIFE

Watson, I . , Buchanan, J . , Campbell , I . & Br iggs, C . (2003).

Leichhardt, NSW: The Federation Press

ISBN 1-86287-471-9, $49.50.

Working life has changed, and notfor the better: a simple message,

and one that is issued numerously andvariously throughout this book. Muchof what is said in this title is familiar tomost of us. Increasingly, in my work asignificant proportion of time is takenup in dealing with and overcominglabour market issues similar to thoseindicated by Watson et al.: stress due towork volume pressures; demands forgreater productivity; constant change;and uncertainty about the future. Inattempting to help my clients see the positives andpossibilities, I have mentioned my owntransformation to ‘dependent contractor’ status tohighlight one alternative way of operating in the newworld of work.

I talk about my own experience more cautiouslynowadays, and especially since reading FragmentedFutures, sensing that I, along with many others, mayhave been duped, rather than having made a real and

considered decision to adopt a particularmode of employment. I remind myselfthat less than ten years ago I was doingprecisely the same work, but as a full-time paid employee, with all theassociated benefits and without all of thetime-consuming administrativeactivities and costly marketing exercisesthat have since replaced my formerleisure hours and spending power. Also,I am constantly reminded that many ofmy clients are not professionals, and thealternatives for them are generally far

less attractive than those I have been afforded. In anycase, many are ill-equipped to constantly navigateshort-term contracts, establish and update networks,and retrain themselves in their own time and at theirown expense.

So, although much of what I have read in this jointAustralian Centre for Industrial Relations Researchand Training/The Federation Press publication is notnews, it has indeed been thought-provoking. It

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develops several themes and issues first introduced afew years ago in Australia at Work, with clearlydeveloped arguments that are enhanced by evidenceof thorough research, and backed up by appropriatelysourced statistics and anecdotes. Along the way, Ifound definitions of my existing work/life vocabularyelucidated and expanded, which have provided mewith a more cohesive way of thinking and talkingabout modern workplace issues.

I have learnt that modern workplace stresses aredamaging in all sectors of the labour market—fromthe more affluent members to those in dire need.There are negative implications for the health ofindividuals, families and for society as a whole. Andthe answer? Four main things are identified asnecessary for workers to be happy and for a society tobe considered successful: meaningful work; fair andreasonable pay; reasonable security; and qualitypersonal relationships. This holistic approach placesFragmented Futures within an emerging sub-genrewhich includes Clive Hamilton’s Growth Fetish andBarbara Pocock’s The Work/Life Collision.

This work views the source of the problem to befragmentation—a process that is neutral, in itself, butwith the potential for positive or negative outcomes.The outcome for our society so far has been negative,characterised by inequality, inflexibility and socialcontrol.

If a positive outcome was equally viable, why hasthe wrong path been taken? The authors are carefulnot to accuse, however, they do emphasise that achange for the better must begin with a good socialpolicy, the goal of which must be to ‘humanise workand give workers more flexibility and choice’.

Chapter two is devoted to a retelling of the historyof employment in Australia since federation,exemplified by ‘harvester man’ (the status quo whichexisted from 1900–1980), and ‘TINA’ (There Is NoAlternative), which saw the introduction of marketregulation in 1980. The latter has resulted inunderstaffing and work intensification—too muchwork being done by too few workers, leading to highburnout rates for those who are employed, while thosewho don’t have jobs are less likely to find them.

The following chapters scrutinise the last twodecades in greater detail to offer explanations for thesephenomena, which have become entrenched since theeconomic growth period following the 1990–1991

recession. This period of ‘jobless recovery’ wascharacterised by constant restructuring anddownsizing, accompanied by the loss of permanentjobs, along with a simultaneous rise in casual andtemporary employment (which are, in turn,responsible for much of the under-employment thathas become endemic). These changes have had amajor effect on particular groups, notably migrantsfrom a non-English speaking background andyounger workers.

Evidence for a hollowing-out in occupationalgrowth can be found in the increase in both highly-skilled and professional workers (usuallyaccompanied by higher pay rates and longer workinghours) and low-skilled jobs (which are generallyshort-term, casual and low paid). The middle-rangejobs have disappeared, and there is little in the way ofskills formation or ongoing development for workersat each end of the spectrum, leading to even greaterfragmentation as the gap between the two extremeswidens.

Changes to the way work is organised, combinedwith the weakening of unions and the loss of workers’ability to draw strength from belonging to cohesivegroups have further exacerbated these problems—anargument well-exemplified in a case study of thecontract cleaning industry.

The chapter ‘Whatever happened to life-longlearning?’ exposes a number of gremlins in thecurrent system of work skills training (both cognitiveand behavioural). More is required and undertaken,but employers are offering less in the workplace.Wishing to remain competitive, many of us find weare organising our own training—in our own timeand at our expense. Others who are unable to do thisfind that they are unable to find work: this is the coreof the paradox known as the ‘skills shortage’, asituation that neither the public or private sectorseems prepared to accept as their responsibility.

Two later chapters provide some weighty evidenceon the matter of the retirement myth and a future ofeconomic instability, which will frighten many of usbaby-boomers into rethinking our futures.

The book concludes with more questions thananswers, however these questions are underpinned bysome fairly big statements, which hinge on the notionthat a new framework is required, new paradigmsneed to be drawn, from which a new, more

Book Reviews

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meaningful debate can begin. At its core, this debatewill have the notion of diversity (with the promise ofchoice) as opposed to inequality (in which choice isconstrained). The challenge, from my point of view,will be not to begin the debate, as this has been ragingfor some time, but to identify a person or groupprepared to give life to this new paradigm, and to leadus out of the lethargy that has become endemic inconversations about contemporary working life.

REFERENCESHamilton, C. (2003). Growth Fetish. St Leonards, NSW: Allen &

Unwin.

Pocock, B. (2003). The Work/Life Collision. Leichhardt, NSW:

The Federation Press.

Julie FarthingCareer and Employment Consultant

Career Dimensions, VIC

This comprehensive spiral-boundpublication is brimming with

practical ideas for careers and workeducators and counsellors, ranging fromcreating a personal collage to tellingstories, from mentoring, usingtimelines, origami or motivationexercises through to surveys for careerand worklife research.

Each of the 48 ideas, some of whichare computer assisted, is divided intolearning objectives, setting recom-mendations, time and materialsrequirements and step-by-step outlines, plus follow-up activities. The majority of the ideas conclude witha list of resources or references for further reading.

The appendices alone make this a valuableresource—with copyright granted for trainingpurposes photocopying, and the ideas guide chartcontributes to the user-friendliness of the publication.

This book updates and surpasses the ideas informer publications produced and distributed toschools by what was once called the Department ofEducation, Training and Youth Affairs.

Sandy Maynes’ ideas for young alumnae to speak at

careers expos is a good example of thepractical nature of the whole resource,while Donna Tangen’s workshop forparents would be a timely idea for thoseworking with younger children—oftena neglected area of careers education.The arrangement of the entries inalphabetical order by contributor namealso makes for ease of use and reference.

A single comprehensive list ofreferences at the back of the book, usingthe various categories in the ideas guide,would have been a helpful addition, but

the omission does not in any way detract from its highquality and wide ranging utility.

I have no hesitation at all in recommending thisresource as a welcome addition to any careerpractitioner’s library and suite of strategies, andcongratulate the editors and the contributors, all ofwhom are recognised in Australia as leaders in theirfield of specialisation, for this outstanding publication.

Ruth ChapmanSwinburne University of Technology

IDEAS FOR CAREER PRACTITIONERS: CELEBRATING

EXCELLENCE IN AUSTRALIAN CAREER PRACTICE

McMahon, M. & Patton, W. (Eds) (2003). Bowen Hil ls , QLD:

Austral ian Academic Press,

ISBN 1 875 37845 6, pp. 204, $44.00

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CAREERS FORUM

This section of the journal is set aside to provide a forum for the sharing of relevantinformation and stimulating discussion and debate. Ideas about successes and problems inpractice can be exchanged. Where applicable, the contributors would welcome returncorrespondence, either directly or through Careers Forum.

THE RELATIONSHIP OFCORPORATE CHANGE

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIESAND PROCESSES, AND THE

ROLE AND IMPACT OFEMPLOYEES IN THECHANGE PROCESS 1

ALOMA FENNELL

Keywood Pty Ltd

BACKGROUND TO THIS PAPERThis paper is neither a technical report nor anacademic paper. Instead, it is a collection ofexperiences that my colleagues and I have sharedwhile working with and in a number of organisationsundergoing change. It is a statement of ideas andpropositions arising out of observations andexperiences centring on the controversial questions ofthe processes of change and the barriers to change inthe organisational setting.

The material to be presented was gathered after aseries of consulting assignments with majorAustralian organisations, and is centred on the matterof the instigations to change and the management ofchange. In working with these organisations, I startedcollecting material from my work here in Australiaand overseas, and compared this work with numerousbooks, research and discussion papers. Thus, thiscollection of ideas is primarily on the topic of change

management—specifically, the impact of corporatechange on employees and, in turn, on the success ofthe change itself. This report is the first in a series ofreports that will be presented, in a book, which iscurrently a work in progress.

It is important to point out that this paper is biased.It is biased towards those employees who have sufferedthe most from corporate change—whether thissuffering is of their own doing or as a direct result ofthe organisational strategies and processesimplemented. Clearly, there are many people who haveembraced corporate change, but this paper is not aboutthem. It is also important to note that I am mindful thatcontext plays a large role in the change process—among other factors the size and culture of theorganisation; the diversity of its workforce; the role ofthe mass media in reporting corporate change; andpersonal support networks. We do not have the luxuryof time to discuss these factors in any great detail, butat the same time their powerful influence and impactupon corporate change is noted.

People have been writing about change for centuries,

the concept is not new. We trained hard, but it

seemed that every time we were beginning to form

up into teams, we would be reorganised. I was to

learn later in life that we tend to meet any new

situation by reorganising; and a wonderful method

it can be for creating the illusion of progress while

producing confusion, inefficiency and demoral-

isation. (Petronius Arbiter, 210 BC, cited in Egan &

Seigal, 1989)

1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at the First New South Wales State Conference of the Australian Psychological Society,

Newcastle, May 2003.

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What is the difference now? In my view, very little.Any difference perhaps lies in the rapidity of changein the whole environment, yet we do not seem to havelearnt very much at all. Within this context, corporatechange is nothing new. In Australia, workplacechange has been occurring for decades.

In the nomenclature of human resources, we referto those leading the change at the coalface as change-agents, change managers, change-drivers,transformation managers, employee engagementmanagers. Whatever the titles may be, there is animplicit understanding that the change for employeesis a movement from the old structures andinefficiencies to increased productivity, innovationand more challenging work.

However, corporate change is rarely aboutemployees. Typically, corporate change is based uponproduct and market strategies, profitability, marketshare, and shareholder value. Cultural differences(during mergers and take-overs) and the role andimpact of employees are rarely examined or evenacknowledged. The full promises of benefits for theorganisation undertaking change are not alwaysrealised. Indeed, in these areas a number of excellentstudies calculate that ‘50–70 per cent of acquisitionsactually destroy shareholder value instead ofachieving cost/or revenue benefits’ (Gadiesh,Buchanan, Daniell & Ormiston, 2002). The majorityof the studies point to people issues (Gale, 2003) asbeing prominent in any analysis of such failure(people issues in the new terminology, ethics in moretraditional discourses). We need look no further thanin our own backyard to witness the recent spate ofcorporate failures due to change and the resultantissues of ethics.

OBSERVATIONSDecisions in regard to corporate change are businessdecisions. It is not the intent of this paper to determinewhether or not these decisions are right or wrong,good or bad decisions, only to acknowledge that theyare business decisions. Once the business decision hasbeen made, there is often a sense of urgency about itsimplementation.

As one of my colleagues noted, in the corporateworld the pace of change is relentless and it is all aboutfast tracking. Company A got through their changeprocess in 18 months; we will do it in 12 months. If

we did it in 12 months last time, we will do it in 9months this time, and on it goes.

Communication experts create the messages,waxing lyrical about the benefits of change to thecustomers and the shareholders. Levels ofmanagement are summarily informed through CEObriefings, videos and emails. The human resourcesteam has carriage of the re-alignment of employeeswith the challenge of change.

Typically, the CEOs are not required to live withthe consequences of their decisions, merely to visitthose consequences onto others. To put it simply andbrutally, ‘they shift the requirement for action to levelsof management, passing the fears off and rolling it likea gigantic stone downhill upon the peasants beneath’(Bing, 2001). Invariably some people must be thrownonto the fire and it is up to the middle managers, withthe support of human resources, to do it.

The message embedded in the corporate literatureaccompanying the change process is consistent fromone CEO to the next. The theme is that some newprocess, structure or intervention will enable thebusiness to be more effective in business terms, and willhave positive outcomes for the people in the business, interms of improved work satisfaction and conditions.

The employees are gathered up around the TVmonitor to hear the message from high, participate inteam briefings with their managers—when they will beadvised of some of the proposed changes. This caninvolve the restructuring of roles, new methods of work,re-locations, voluntary and forced redundancies. Theyare also often required to consult with psychologistsand/or attend change management workshops to assistthem to cope with the proposed changes.

APPARENT PROBLEMSIn times of change, organisations invariably expectassistance for a reasonably smooth passage to theirdesired destination. The employees expect a smoothpassage towards predictable, or at least, knownterritory. The problem is organisations think theyknow what they want; employees claim thatorganisations do not know what they want, and thatemployees know that what they want is an impossibledream, one which is incompatible with theorganisations’ lack of interest in their pursuits.

Change is difficult and can be quite stressful. On theone hand, employees are being told that change is a

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constant, a part of life, ever present, like breathing.Unlike breathing, employees are not in control of thatchange, they are only able to manage the change inaccordance with the message being delivered.

Many employees have been through this processbefore and they are a little change weary. They knowthat often the reality of change is quite different to themessage being delivered, and that difference is notimproved job satisfaction, but rather increasedpressure, inconsistencies and increased dissatisfaction.

Many have seen change occur with the expansion oftechnology: computers, pagers, mobile phones, emailsand the Internet; and have witnessed heightenedexpectations for productivity, speed and efficiency,thereby increasing pressure on the individual workersto constantly operate at peak performance levels(Lifepositive.com, 2003). Couple this with roleintensification—where the nature of the work anemployee engages in can be so vastly different in itscomplexity to their previous role (usually involvingfractions of other roles), and where, due to the oftendwindling numbers of co-workers, they are left withthe perception they are now doing the job of three orfour retrenched workers—and it is not difficult to seeemployee resistance to change might act as a barrier tothe change process.

The change management workshops, generallyconducted once the change processes have gatheredsome momentum, are questionable in their benefits.These popular and ubiquitous workshops typicallyoffer a miscellany of stress management techniques,recommendations for career development, and ways torecognise and overcome resistance to change. Theworkshops rarely provide any assurances, guarantees,or hope that if the individual adopts the techniques orbehavioural changes presented, the workplace will beless stressful. Often, the reverse is the case.

Team leaders and middle managers are often in a‘meat in the sandwich’ situation. They have been givena summary of the change; they did not participate inthe top-level decisions and are often not in the fullpicture. Many of these managers are inexperienced inpeople management and have little support. And whatis it that they have to do? Calm the troops andaccelerate their own activities still further.

A recent Canadian study (Higgins & Duxbury, 2002)found the typical middle manager puts in an average of30 hours per week of what is called voluntary overtime.

In fact, middle management is now considered one ofthe worst jobs to have. They are often the first roles tobe downsized when an organisation is restructuring fora leaner environment. Those that are left have to bementors, change agents, counsellors, and HRadministrators, with little, if any, support. Their rolesare not only broader they also carry increasedresponsibility. The support should be coming fromHR, but HR departments are also becoming leanerwith greater emphasis on IT and a call centreapproach, redirecting people to the Intranet for policyanswers to their problems. While the HR departmentengages in the rhetoric of the importance of work/lifebalance, the employees feel that if you want to getahead and if you want to keep your job, you better bethere when they need you.

All of this is occurring within a context of changedemployment contracts—from full time worker statusto performance contracts and contractor status. Whilethe shift in the employment contract is fromdependence to independence, the HR rhetoric does notappear to have changed at all. One need only scan therecruitment notices in the press to confirm thisparadox. Job advertisements continue to stresscompany loyalty, career development and careeropportunities. The business of change is businesschange, short-term and often shortsighted.

More often than not, it is the case that the messageand the reality are at great odds with each other. Muchincongruence is present, especially between themessages and the actions, and what we are left with isa very stressed workforce. Is it any wonder employeesare confused and somewhat distrustful?

THE PEOPLE ISSUESAs organisations have to be faster at making decisions,they tend to make downsizing decisions in terms ofpositions. Invariably, people are advised that somejobs will go, but rarely does this type of announcementaccompany clarity about which jobs these are andprecisely when they will go.

Some of these decisions are wrong decisions. Theyare often ill advised by the external suppliers, and theyare often unsure as to what to do and when to do it.The decisions include: what positions are going togo?; what positions are going to stay?; what positionscan we make money on? While it is not necessarilyabout the employees, it is difficult for the employees

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not to take it personally, especially when people havebeen with the company for a number of years.

Employees rarely have any control over the change;they receive little information and are often simplyleft in a state of limbo. At the same time seniormanagement requires business as usual. Employeesoften feel powerless and alienated. There is muchuncertainty, insecurity, fear and smouldering anger.

The responses from many of the retrenched peopleare hauntingly similar, as one confided:

There is a sense that you have done something wrong

if you get laid off. I don’t think anyone escapes that.

Even if, in their rational minds, they say, ‘I was good,

it just happened to be the job I was in’. There’s

something deep down that says, ‘You weren’t good

enough, there’s something wrong, you pissed

somebody off, you didn’t play the game’. (Noer, 1993)

Michael Pusey (2003b) noted that in response to thequestion of how people’s quality of life is faring in theface of change and uncertainty,

the worry is about job, jobs, jobs. The dominant

mood is one of anger and it is most keenly felt by

those who have fared worst, yet significantly, it is still

the majority view. People experience their own work

as something more than a tradeable commodity. For

them it is largely about identity, meaning and

personal independence and making a contribution—

and so about something that satisfies inner social

needs. Intrinsic motivations matter as much as or

more than extrinsic rewards. The market appears to

these folk to only recognise the latter and so pays in

the wrong currency.

Add to this the cruel irony that real wages foremployees have been dropping, while executivesalaries continue to rise. Research by Bob Gregory tellsus that in 1996 young men aged between 25 and 34were already bringing home, in real terms, $75 lessper week than their fathers had in 1976 (Pusey, 2003a).

People who can afford to will leave the organisation.Those who stay find there has been little (if any)knowledge transfer, yet they are required to pick upthe pieces. These people are the ‘survivors’. This veryterm, common in the HR terminology, implies somecatastrophe has taken place within the organisation—as indeed it has.

Many executives think surviving employees will beso relieved to still have a job that they’ll eagerly getdown to business. But often, nothing could be furtherfrom the truth. Often, any relief felt by employees issoon overwhelmed by many less pleasant emotions,including pain, guilt, loneliness, depression and jobinsecurity (Caudron, 1996). This is not necessarilyunrealistic fear or paranoia; often these fears arereality based. In Australia, there are about 320,000people made redundant each year. The outplacementbusiness is a high growth area of the economy.

The ongoing adjustment to change is relentless andits impact is cumulative. From what employees hear,they are important, but they are not necessarilyrequired. They are often caught in the line of ‘friendlyfire’ and are the victims of ‘collateral damage’.Employees say that no one is speaking up on theirbehalf, they feel alienated and anxious—oftenbecoming prisoners of their own fears and insecurities.

As for the survivors, they now question whethermanagement can be trusted. Add to this the physicaland mental exhaustion that comes from over-work(companies are vastly more accomplished atdownsizing people than they are at downsizing theworkload) and you’re left with an organisation in crisis.

The myriad pressures, hassles, fears anddepressions resulting from these traumaticdislocations are summarised under the generalreading of stress. A survey conducted by theAustralian Council of Trade Unions suggested that

…stress is among the five top-ranked workplaceinjuries and that other physical and psychologicalworkplace injuries are often caused by stress. Unlikea fall from a ladder, stress can be hard to detect. Yetit does exist. Just ask the 4,527 people who werecompensated for mental stress injuries in theworkplace in 1999-2000. (Murphy, 2002).

There are a number of common day-to-dayconcerns expressed by the employees. While there area number of themes, the general cluster of concernsand dreads can be gathered under the four headingsof: job insecurity; unfairness; risk-taking andmotivation; and depression, stress and fatigue.

WHERE TO FROM HEREIf we continue to take a one size fits all, short-termapproach to change management, without

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considering the whole gamut of employee dimensions(dimensions that allow us to recognise and measureemployee concerns), we are in danger of not beingable to achieve the change objectives, or generate theoutcomes required. Instead, particularly in thefinance, banking and insurance sector, we aregenerally left with a conservative culture, which ishierarchical, competitive and engaging in lots ofavoidance. Surely this is way off the mark of the goalor intention of the change objectives.

Now is the appropriate time to begin to questionthe process and strategies we have been utilising.Now—when we are facing another major round ofredundancies, with the global economy sliding andthe devastating impact of SARS on the airline,tourism and hospitality sectors. If ever there was atime to reflect upon our fundamental values and themoral issues involved when an organisationdownsizes due to an immediate downturn—knowingfull well that an upturn is just around the corner, thattime is now.

Perhaps it is time to ask where are the HR practicesto realise the solution to the problems presented? Is HRon the right track? And, where exactly is it headed?How do we begin to craft our processes for the futureto align with changes in the business, and helpemployees maintain their dignity? Clearly this areaneeds further analysis: ‘Industry is a world in itself, forwhich we must be critics, historians, biographers andsecretaries’. (Luce, 1929, cited in Wasik, 2003)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would like to thank Roger Goes for his ongoingenergy, contributions and support. Dr Chris Clarkefor his critique, advice and editorial assistance. Trevor

Pickering for his role as a constant sounding board,providing a practitioner’s perspective and support.Many other people through their generosity of ideasand spirit have contributed to this paper. My sincerethanks go to them.

REFERENCESBing, S. (2001). Cutbacks for the queasy. Fortune Magazine,

April 30, p. 39.

Caudron. S. (1996). Teach downsizing survivors how to thrive.

Personnel Journal, 75(1), 38–48

Egan. L. D., & Siegal. J. P. (1989). The manager’s book of

quotations. New York: AMACOM.

Gadiesh, O., Buchanan, R., Daniell, M., & Ormiston, C. (2002).

The leadership testing ground: Mergers may be the truest

test of great leaders. Journal of Business Strategy, March/April,

12–14.

Gale, S. F. (2003). Memo to AOL Time Warner: ‘Why mergers

fail.’ [Electronic version]. Workforce, February, p. 60.

Higgins. C., & Duxbury. L. (2002). The 2001 national work–life

conflict study: Report one. Ottawa: Health Canada.

Lifepositive.com. (2003). Stress at work, job stress and work related

stress. Retrieved April, 2003, from

http://www.lifepositive.com/Mind/psychology/stress

Murphy, C. (2002). All stressed up and nowhere to go. Australian

Financial Review, 3 May, p. 80.

Noer, D. M. (1993). Healing the wounds: Overcoming the trauma

of layoffs and revitalizing downsized organizations. San


Pusey, M. (2003a). Eating yourself for the benefit of others.

Australian Financial Review. May 9, 2003, p. 6.

Pusey, M. (2003b). The Experience of Middle Australia: The dark side

of economic reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wasik, B. (2003). Dismal beat: The march of personal-finance

journalism. Harper’s Magazine, March, p. 81.

CAREERS DIGEST

EMPLOYMENT OF PEOPLE WITHDISABIL IT IES

ERIC Digest no. 247 by Michael E. WonacottERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and

Vocational Education, 2003

Successful employment remains a critical issue forpeople with disabilities, although legislative

mandates and a gradual change in attitudes across ourculture have brought about some improvement. TheAmericans with Disabilities Act of 1990 has clarifiedthe legal rights of both individuals with disabilities

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and employers; at the same time, however, bothgroups still face important issues in employment, suchas the disclosure of disabilities and the provision ofreasonable workplace accommodations. Likewise,successful employment experiences require a matchbetween the skills of individuals with disabilities andthe skills needed for jobs.

AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACTFederal legislation addressing people with disabilitiesbegan with the National Civilian VocationalRehabilitation Act of 1920. The Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibiteddiscrimination and mandated accommodations inmultiple dimensions of the lives of people withdisabilities (Hotchkiss 2003). ADA holds allcompanies with 15 or more employees to a singlestandard in the employment and accommodation ofworkers with disabilities (Schall 1998). A ‘triplestandard’ of qualification under ADA is intended tobalance the interests of both individuals andemployers: whether the individual can perform (1) theessential functions of the job with (2) a reasonableaccommodation and without causing (3) unduehardship to the employer. The ADA defines terms asfollows (Latham & Latham, 1997):• Disability: physical or mental impairment that

substantially limits one or more major life activitiesof the individual;

• Qualified individual with a disability: person whomeets legitimate skill, experience, education, orother requirements of an employment positionheld or sought and who can perform the position’sessential functions with or without reasonableaccommodation;

• Reasonable accommodation: any modification oradjustment to the work environment or job thatwill enable a qualified job seeker or job holder witha disability to apply or to perform essentialfunctions; includes adjustments to ensure aqualified individual has equal rights and privileges;

• Essential function: a function that is necessary forthe performance of the job;

• Nonessential function: a function that may bemarginal, modified, eliminated, transferred, orreassigned. Under ADA, individuals are considered disabled

if they have a disability, have a record of impairment,or are regarded as having an impairment. Major life

activities are things an average person can do withlittle or no problem (e.g., walking, speaking, working,learning). Covered employment practices includerecruitment, hiring, training, pay, benefits,promotions, leave, job layoffs and firing.

WORKERS WITH DISABILITIES AND

THE LABOUR MARKETHotchkiss (2003) analysed Current Population Surveydata to investigate the status of disabled workers (i.e.,workers with a disability as defined in ADA) in thelabour market ten years after the passage of ADA. Shefound that workers with disabilities, taken as a group,were about six years older than other workers,worked about four fewer hours per week, and weremore likely to be single and less likely to have a collegedegree. Before ADA, persons with disabilities wereless likely to participate in the labour force or to beemployed. After ADA, the discrepancy increased;however, controlling for labour force participation,the relative employment rates of persons with andwithout disabilities remained constant. Workers withdisabilities were more likely than other workers to beemployed in large firms. Although wages among allworkers with disabilities, as a group, declined incomparison to those of other workers, the wages ofADA-covered workers with disabilities did notexperience such a decline. Part-time employmentincreased for workers with disabilities, primarily dueto an increase in voluntary part-time employment,especially among workers with mental disorders.Workers with disabilities continued to bedisproportionately represented in low-growth, low-wage occupations, although somewhat less so thanbefore the passage of ADA. Compared to otherworkers, workers with disabilities were more likelyto experience voluntary job separation and less likelyto experience involuntary separation and, on average,spent three weeks longer in job searches.

Rojewski (1999) analysed 1996 data from theNational Education Longitudinal Study: 1988 on11,178 participants, two years after high schoolcompletion, including 441 young adults with learningdisabilities (LD) and 10,737 without. LD participantshad lower graduation rates, aspired to less prestigiousoccupations, were less likely to be enrolled in post-secondary education, and were more likely to beunemployed. Disabilities were associated with lowerrates of working or being in the labour force, but not

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with lower post-secondary participation higheducational aspirations in grade 12 and completion ofan academic or college prep high school programwere both predictors of two-year post-secondarystatus for all students; disabilities were not. Similarly,Goldstein, Murray, and Edgar (1998) conductedannual telephone interviews over five consecutiveyears to gather post-high-school status information onearnings and hours worked per week of graduateswith and without LD from three large mid-westernUS school districts. In the first five years followinggraduation, graduates with LD had higher annualearnings and worked more hours per week, whereasthe reverse was true in the second five years aftergraduation, presumably reflecting the higherlikelihood that those without disabilities were morelikely to participate in post-secondary educationimmediately or soon after high school. In addition,students with LD were less likely to participate in anyform of post-secondary education or to havegraduated from any post-secondary program tenyears after graduation (Murray et al., 2000). However,that lesser likelihood did not seem to matter much:there was little relationship between the post-secondary education status of students with LD andeither their employment or their earnings.

DISCLOSURE OF DISABILITIESUnder ADA, it is the individual’s right to choosewhen or even whether to disclose his or her disabilityor any related information; however, employerscannot be expected to provide reasonableaccommodation for a disability that has not beendisclosed (Payne 1997). Kerner and Kucinski (1998)advised disclosure of disability before an interviewonly when the disability required accommodation forthe interview itself and disclosure only after a job offerwas received when accommodation is required forperformance of essential job functions. ADAprohibits employers from asking about disabilitiesbefore employment, although they may ask formedical information and information onqualifications (Colorado Career Web 2001).Employers can request a pre-employment medicalexamination after making a conditional job offer tothe applicant, if all applicants are subject to the sameexamination. Job seekers were advised to script andrehearse disclosure of disability, minimising medicalterms, omitting their history of medical treatment,

and describing the disability briefly with stress onstrengths and willingness to improve and ability toperform with or without accommodations.

WORKPLACE ACCOMMODATIONSReasonable accommodations for workers withdisabilities can range from simple to complex, andfrom cheap to expensive (Colorado Career Web, 2001;Kramer, 2001; Latham & Latham, 1997; Payne, 1997);accommodations allow the worker with disabilities toperform the essential functions of the job and hencedepend on the worker’s disability and its effect onperformance of essential job functions.Accommodations may include providing written,step-by-step instructions for job tasks; flexible workand leave schedules; rearrangement of work stationsfor accessibility; alternative keyboards, voicerecognition software, and mobility or ergonomicassistive devices. A wealth of information onreasonable accommodations is available at threewebsites, among other sources: • The Job Accommodation Network (http://www.

jan.wvu.edu) is a free service offered by the Officeof Disability Employment Policy of the USDepartment of Labour that provides informationand consulting on job accommodations, self-employment and small business opportunities, andrelated subjects to employers, people withdisabilities, and others.

• The Office of Disability Employment Policy of theUS Department of Labour provides fact sheets andother publications (http://www.dol.gov/odep/pubs/publicat.htm) on a range of employment issues forpeople with disabilities, including jobaccommodations.

• DisabilityInfo.gov (http://www.disabilityinfo.gov/employment) is a comprehensive federal website ofdisability-related government resources; it providesinformation on job accommodations and identifiesresources for technical assistance.

JOB MATCHINGA recurring theme in employment of people withdisabilities is the need to match the individual’s skillswith employer needs. Describing the MarriottFoundation’s ‘Bridges … from School to Work’program, Donovan and Tilson (1998) reported thatsuccessful employment outcomes depended on thesynergy of matching needs with capabilities, with the

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employer’s needs coming first. Hotchkiss (2003)theorised that workers with disabilities and employersmay both put greater effort into matching workerskills with job requirements; Hotchkiss called forstrengthened mechanisms to help both groups findappropriate matches between jobs and skills. Similarmatching of individuals’ skills and interests withappropriate jobs was a feature of an exemplary school-to-work program (Project Forward 1997), andRademacher and Taymans (1998) described howenvironmental supports can increase the matchbetween the skills of adults with LD and jobs. Hughesand Kingsford (1997) advocated work sampling, aform of occupational exploration in which individualswith disabilities receive brief exposure to differentjobs, both to identify individuals’ skills and to helpthem identify appropriate jobs.

CONCLUSIONWith its definitions of individuals’ and employers’rights and obligations, ADA is not only a mandate butalso a statement of our moral and ethical values as aculture (Hotchkiss, 2003). However, individuals withdisabilities continue to enjoy less positive employmentexperiences overall than their peers. Persons withdisabilities and employers must apply ADA’s ‘triplestandard’ of reasonable accommodations forperforming essential job functions without unduehardship in practice to find individuals that matchjobs and jobs that match individuals.

REFERENCESColorado Career Web. (2001). A Job-Hunting Guide for Colorado

Citizens with Disabilities. Denver: CCW, Community

Colleges of Colorado (ED 462 595). Retrieved from

http://www.coloradocareer.net/Disabilities.pdf

Donovan, M. R., and Tilson, G. P. Jr (1988). The Marriott

Foundation’s ‘Bridges...from School to Work’ program: A

framework for successful employment outcomes for people

with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 10(1),

15–21.

Goldstein, D. E., Murray, C., & Edgar, E. (1998). Employment

earnings and hours of high school graduates with learning

disabilities through the first decade after graduation.

Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13(1), 53–64.

Hotchkiss, J. L. (2003). The labour market experience of workers

with disabilities: The ADA and beyond. Kalamazoo, MI: W. E.

Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.

Hughes, M., & Kingsford, M. (1997). A real job with prospects:

Supported employment possibilities for adults with learning

difficulties and disabilities. FEDA Paper. London, UK:

Further Education Development Agency (ED 406 551).

Kerner, T., & Kucinski, C. (1998). Quick results in your job search:

A job search manual for prospective and recent graduates with

and without disabilities. Springfield, MA: Office of Disability

Services, Springfield Technical Community College (ED 432

112).

Kramer, F. D. (2001, February). Screening and assessment for

physical and mental health issues that impact TANF recipients’

ability to work. Issue notes 5(3). Washington, DC: Welfare

Information Network (ED 451 415). Retrieved from

http://www.welfareinfo.org/physicalandmentalissuenote.htm

Latham, P. H., & Latham, P. S. (1997) Legal Rights of Adults

with Learning Disabilities in Employment. In P. J. Gerber, &

D. S. Brown (Eds.). Learning disabilities and employment (pp.

39-55). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed (ED 409 691).

Murray, C., Goldstein, D. E., Nourse, S., & Edgar, E. (2000).

The postsecondary school attendance and completion rates of

high school graduates with learning disabilities. Learning

Disabilities Research & Practice, 15(3), 119–27.

Payne, N. (1997). Job accommodations: What works and why.

In P. J. Gerber, & D. S. Brown (Eds.). Learning disabilities and

employment (pp. 255-273). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed (ED 409 691).

Project Forward: School-to-Work Outreach Project. (1997).

Exemplary model/practice/strategy. Minneapolis: Institute on

Community Integration, University of Minnesota (ED 412

351).

Rademacher, J. A., & Taymans, J. (1998). Issues in working with

older adults with learning disabilities: Transitions at any age.

Journal for Special Needs Education, 20(3), 9–18.

Rojewski, J. W. (1999). Occupational and educational aspirations

and attainment of young adults with and without LD two

years after high school completion. Journal of Learning

Disabilities, 32(6), 533–52.

Schall, M. C. (1998). The Americans with Disabilities Act: Are

we keeping our promise? An analysis of the effect of the

ADA on the employment of persons with disabilities. Journal

of Vocational Rehabilitation, 10(2), 191-203.

This project has been funded at least in part with federal funds

from the US Department of Education under Contract No. ED-

99-CO-0013. The content of this publication does not necessarily

reflect the views or policies of the US Department of Education

nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or

organisations imply endorsement by the US Government.

Careers Forum

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Careers Forum

UNIJOBShttp://www.seek.com.au/hes/An initiative sponsored by the AV-CC, to develop asingle Internet website for Australian university staffrecruitment. The site is powered by SEEKCommunications and run in association with HES(Higher Education Systems). The site offers a searchabledatabase of job vacancies and a résumé creator.

EDNA ONLINE’S CAREEROPPORTUNITY CATEGORYhttp://www.edna.edu.au/go/browse/0,highered,staff,22099A compilation of universities’ ‘Positions available’websites, as well as other higher education-related jobmatching websites.

Source: Higher Education Update—an EdNAOnline newsletter

THE NEW WORLD OF WORKEmerging trends in work and learning are identifiedin a new report, which is the first report to emergefrom the current high-level review of TrainingPackages. The report reviews recent research andanalyses the current and future context in whichTraining Packages will operate. It describescontemporary workplaces, changing needs of VETclients, new concepts of ‘skill’ and changing VETpedagogy. The High Level Review of TrainingPackages is available from ANTA’s website athttp://www.anta.gov.au.

JOB REVIEWhttp://jobreview.camrev.com.au/ Job Review is an international online employment sitefor education and health professionals. Search for jobsby location, keywords, job type and status. Free emailalert service is also available.

INFORMATION AND RESOURCES

NEWS

IBM WINS EXCELLENCEAND LEADERSHIP INDIVERSITY AWARDIBM was named a joint winner in the People withDisabilities category for a company with over 1000employees at the 2003 Victorian Excellence andLeadership in Diversity Awards. This is the secondyear IBM has won this award, which it shares withthe National Australia Bank this year.

The Victorian Awards for Excellence andLeadership in Diversity recognise, celebrate andultimately inspire employers to demonstrate theirleadership by showcasing their stories and sharingtheir successes in innovative workforce diversityinitiatives.

This year there were three major award categoriesincluding People with a Disability, Mature AgeWorkers and Indigenous Australians. This is thethird year the awards have been held and in past years

they have attracted over 400 participants frombusiness, government and the community who haveshared their commitment to workforce diversity.

For more information about the awards visithttp://www.work.asn.au/awards/finalists.html orh t t p : / / w w w . i b m . c o m / i s o u r c e / c g i - b i n /goto?on=AUST030607

Source: Natalie Harms, IBM Corporate Communication

CAREER TRANSITION RESEARCHSHOWS JOB SEEKERS WORLDWIDEFORCED TO SWITCH INDUSTRIES TOFIND RE-EMPLOYMENTDBM, a global human resources consulting firm,released the results of its annual Global CareerTransition Study, a report on job search trends frompeople who experienced a career transition in 2002.

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Careers Forum

During the year, DBM worked with more than66,000 people who participated in individual careertransition programs worldwide. This study is areflection of findings from a sample of individuals withwhom DBM worked in 42 countries, including 4434Australians. Respondents had a median age of 43 yearsand a reported tenure of 14 years in their prior position.Seventy-four per cent of those surveyed were male.

Job seekers are becoming more flexible with careeroptions and are casting a wider net, even more so thana year ago. The study reported that people areincreasingly required to switch industries to secure re-employment: 75 per cent of participants changedindustries in 2002, up 3 per cent from the prior year. Inaddition, pay cuts were a reality of the tough jobmarket for 65 per cent of those re-employed.Networking, at 54 per cent, is still the number oneway job seekers, worldwide, are finding newemployment opportunities.

The research also revealed that approximately 63per cent of all respondents found a full-time positionand 35 per cent secured a higher salary. Also, 83 percent of job transitions were due to corporatedownsizing or restructuring—a 2 per cent increasefrom the previous year. Only 2 per cent were due topoor individual performance.

Findings of the study include a startling contrast inregional differences between the US, UK andAustralia. US employees receive more than twice theseverance pay of their UK and Australiancounterparts (3.5 weeks per year of service in the US,versus approximately 1.5 weeks in the UK andAustralia). Across all regions, networking remains thebest method of finding a job. Consistent with troubleddomestic economies in the US and UK, workforcesize contraction was the main reason for retrenchmentand, although the Australian economy remainedreasonably robust, organisations were taking theopportunity to restructure in light of global changesin workforce size.

Additional Australian/ US / UK variations include:Australia US UK

Years of service with previous employer 10 6 20Severance allowance (weeks) 16 21 30

Average salary difference between new/former job +4% –10% +8.5%Reason for separation— Reorganisation/Restructure 55% 23% 2%Reason for separation—Reduction in workforce 9% 52% 82%Found a job through networking 63% 63% 43%Found a job through print advertising 16% 4% 25%Found a job through a search firm 8% 5% 21%

Source: Roger Marshall, Spectrum Communications,

[email protected] or Jacqueline Allen, DBM

[email protected]

SCHOOL LEAVERS CAN DO WELL INTHE WORKFORCEMany early school leavers progress well in the firstfew years after leaving school, according to the latestreport from the Longitudinal Surveys of AustralianYouth (LSAY). The findings question the widespreadbelief that students who leave school before Year 12struggle to make a successful transition to theworkforce. To read the full article see: http://www. acer.edu.au/mediacentre/ENews/July03/LSAY31_July03.htm

GRADUATE STARTING SALARIESREMAIN STRONGThe 2002 Graduate Starting Salaries report, from theGraduate Destination Survey, was released on 8 July2003. The Graduate Careers Council of Australia’sannual report on the earnings of new universitygraduates shows that in 2002, bachelor degreegraduates aged less than 25 and in their first full-timeemployment started work on a median salary of$35,500 per year. This was 14.1 per cent higher thanthat of the general population aged 20–24.

Source: Graduate Careers Council of Australiamedia release, 8 July 2003.

http://www.gradlink.edu.au/content/view/full/888/?PHPSESSID=bf230e230758fb2df447ccf68dbe23da

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RELEASE OF REPORTS ON EFFECTSOF HIGHER EDUCATIONCONTRIBUTION SCHEME ON ACCESSTO HIGHER EDUCATIONThe Department of Education, Science and Training(DEST) is releasing two reports and other analysis onfactors effecting access to higher education, includingthe effect of the Higher Education ContributionScheme.

DEST media release, 8 August 2003.http://www.dest.gov.au/directory/

media/mr_080803.htm

DBM PREDICTS LEADERSHIP

GAP WITH IMPENDING EXODUS

OF 60 MILLION BABY BOOMERSDBM has revealed that 94 per cent of human resourceprofessionals polled in a recent career transitionsurvey believe their organisations have not adequatelyprepared younger generations to step into seniorleadership positions.

According to the survey results, the majority oforganisations are not prepared for the departure ofapproximately 60 million baby boomers who will beleaving the workforce over the next 15 years, resultingin severe manpower shortages and senior leadershipgaps.

The findings come from a DBM global marketingstudy conducted in major metropolitan areas, wherenearly 200 HR professionals were polled fromFebruary to June of this year.

Age was also found to be a critical factor in termsof re-employment, with older workers taking longerto find new positions. The study showed thatgeneration xers (aged 21 to 37 years) on average secureemployment within 3 months. This rises to 4 monthsfor baby boomers (aged 38 to 56) and for matureworkers (aged 57 and older) it is extended to 4.4months.

Source: DMB; www.dbm.com

RAY STACEYFoundation member, respected life and professionalmember, and valued friend of the AustralianAssociation of Career Counsellors. Ray will be deeplymissed by colleagues across Australia for hismentoring, support and commitment to career

development. As convenor of the highly successful1994 and 2001 AACC Conferences in Hobart, Rayworked tirelessly to deliver conferences of internationalstandard, but with an Australian perspective.

Ray was motivated by a belief in the potential ofthe many young people he assisted. He had awonderful sense of humour and was selfless in hisservice to the community.

Source: Peter Tatham, Mercury

FORTHCOMINGCONFERENCES

13–16 APRIL, 2004COOLANGATTA, GOLD COAST13th AACC conference—http://www.aacc.org

15–19 MAY, PERTH27TH NATIONAL CONFERENCE OFTHE AUSTRALIAN ASSOCIATION FORCOGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURTHERAPY (AACBT), SHERATONHOTEL, PERTH.For details contact Sarah Egan, AACBT on fax: (08)9266 3178, email: [email protected] orwww.aacbt.org

8–13 AUGUST, CHINA28TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSOF PSYCHOLOGY (ICP2004)PRESENTED BY THE CHINESEPSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY TO BEHELD BEIJING, CHINA.Conference Organiser, 10a Datun Road, Beijing100101. email: [email protected] orhttp://www.ICP2004.org

AUGUST 14–16, BEIJING, CHINASURVEY RESEARCH METHODSProfessor Peter Ph. Mohler and Dr Janet Harkness,ZUMA, Mannheim, Germany (Conveners), fax:+49-(0)621-1246-100; email: [email protected]

Careers Forum

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Careers Forum

CHANGE IN EDITORIAL POLICYThe Australian Journal of Career Development has nowadopted editorial policies requiring effect sizereporting. Appropriate indices of effect size orstrength of relationship should be incorporated in theresults section of the manuscript (see pp. 5, 25–6 of theAmerican Psychological Association Publication Manual,5th edition). This information allows the reader toassess not only the statistical significance, but also themagnitude of the observed effects or relationships andclarifies the importance of the reported findings.

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AJCD is published by:Australian Council for Educational ResearchPrivate Bag 55, Camberwell,Victoria, 3124Tel (03) 9835 7447 Fax (03) 9835 7499Email [email protected]

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ARTICLES

★ The impact of work quality and quantity on the development of career decision statusJoanne K. Earl and Jim E. H. Bright

★ An e-portfolio for leisure sciences students: A case study at Edith Cowan UniversitySue Colyer and Julie Howell

★ Career maturity of Australian and South African high school students:Developmental and contextual explanationsWendy Patton, Mark B. Watson and Peter A. Creed

★ Career education for Muslim girls: Developing culturally sensitiveprovisionBarrie A. Irving and Vivienne Barker

★ Extending the use of constructivist approaches in career guidance and counselling: Solution-focused strategiesJudi H. Miller

ISSN 1038-4162Austra l ian Counci l fo r Educat iona l Research

PRINT POST PUBLICATION NUMBER PP381667/00531

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CareerDevelopment

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AJCD 13(1) autumn 04