Airpower Airpower Thru the Thru the Cold WarCold War

Master OverviewMaster Overview

Vietnam I – A Chronology Vietnam II – Uses of Airpower Rebuilding the Air and Space Force

Vietnam II OverviewVietnam II Overview

Background During Vietnamization Airpower Functions in Vietnam Rolling Thunder Linebacker I Linebacker II Vietnam War Results Lessons Learned CFD Review

Uses of AirpowerUses of AirpowerBackgroundBackground

• Vietnam War was primarily a land war Vietnam War was primarily a land war • Most air power used in conjunction with Most air power used in conjunction with

ground opsground ops• North stayed above DMZ, so air superiority North stayed above DMZ, so air superiority

over the South was never a concernover the South was never a concern• In-country operations centered around: In-country operations centered around:

interdiction, close air support, airlift, recon, search interdiction, close air support, airlift, recon, search and rescue, and air refuelingand rescue, and air refueling

• After Gulf of Tonkin, airair units built up rapidly• US Air Force occupied 10 major air bases

All were built and defended by the Air Force Huge logistical effort

• Also flew from 6 bases in Thailand• Navy flew from carriers in Gulf of Tonkin• B-52s flew from Guam-- at times even from US

BackgroundBackground

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air PowerDuring VietnamizationDuring Vietnamization

Train the South Train the South Vietnamese Air Force Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF)(VNAF)

Support the South Support the South Vietnamese ArmyVietnamese Army

Forestall suspected Forestall suspected enemy attacks against enemy attacks against withdrawing American withdrawing American unitsunits

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power InterdictionInterdiction

• A major mission during SEA warA major mission during SEA war• Aircraft used: F-4 Phantom, F-100 Super Sabre, F-Aircraft used: F-4 Phantom, F-100 Super Sabre, F-

105 Thunderchief (Thud), AC-130 Gunships105 Thunderchief (Thud), AC-130 Gunships• Best known interdiction aircraft was the B-52: a Best known interdiction aircraft was the B-52: a

nuclear bomber modified to carry conventional nuclear bomber modified to carry conventional weaponsweapons Arc LightArc Light--Name for B-52 interdiction missions --Name for B-52 interdiction missions

F-100 SupersabreF-100 Supersabre

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power Close Air SupportClose Air Support

• Missions to support forces of the groundMissions to support forces of the ground• Aircraft used: A-4 Skyhawk, F-4, F-100, A-37 Aircraft used: A-4 Skyhawk, F-4, F-100, A-37

Dragonfly, A-1 Skyraider and AC-47 Gunships Dragonfly, A-1 Skyraider and AC-47 Gunships (Puff the Magic Dragon)(Puff the Magic Dragon)

• Gunships, cargo aircraft armed with rapid-fire Gunships, cargo aircraft armed with rapid-fire machine guns, were very effectivemachine guns, were very effective

• Forward Air ControllersForward Air Controllers (FACs) were used to (FACs) were used to locate the enemy and mark targets for faster locate the enemy and mark targets for faster flying jets flying jets

A-4 SkyhawkA-4 Skyhawk A-1 SkyraiderA-1 Skyraider

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power Close Air SupportClose Air Support

B-52 Arc Light aircraft were occasionally used for close B-52 Arc Light aircraft were occasionally used for close air supportair support

B-52 were used extensively in close air support at Khe B-52 were used extensively in close air support at Khe SanhSanh Flew 2,548 sorties and dropped bombs within 300 Flew 2,548 sorties and dropped bombs within 300

yards of of U.S. yards of of U.S. Marine perimeter Marine perimeter

B-52 credited with saving B-52 credited with saving Khe Sanh and repelling the Khe Sanh and repelling the Tet and Easter OffensivesTet and Easter Offensives

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power Tactical AirliftTactical Airlift

• Vital to successful US operations because Vital to successful US operations because of poor security on roadsof poor security on roads

• Aircraft used: UH-1 Hueys, C-7 Caribous, Aircraft used: UH-1 Hueys, C-7 Caribous, • C-123 Providers, and C-130 HerculesC-123 Providers, and C-130 Hercules• Missions often flown while under attackMissions often flown while under attack• Supplies often air-dropped because of Supplies often air-dropped because of

enemy fire and poor landing facilitiesenemy fire and poor landing facilities• A major factor in keeping Khe Sanh aliveA major factor in keeping Khe Sanh alive

C-123 ProviderC-123 Provider

C-7 CaribouC-7 Caribou

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power ReconnaissanceReconnaissance

• Aircraft used: RF-4C, RB-57 Canberra, and RB-66 Aircraft used: RF-4C, RB-57 Canberra, and RB-66 DestroyersDestroyers

• Aircraft were equipped with variety of cameras Aircraft were equipped with variety of cameras and sensing devicesand sensing devices

• Missions consisted of locating lucrative targets Missions consisted of locating lucrative targets and assessing battle damageand assessing battle damage

• A valuable part of repelling Tet and protecting A valuable part of repelling Tet and protecting Khe Sanh Khe Sanh

RB 66 DestroyerRB 66 DestroyerRB 57 CanberraRB 57 Canberra

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power Search and RescueSearch and Rescue

• An extremely important part of the air support An extremely important part of the air support mission throughout Southeast Asiamission throughout Southeast Asia

• Buttressed aircrew morale -- fliers knew every Buttressed aircrew morale -- fliers knew every effort would be made to save them if shot downeffort would be made to save them if shot down

• Aircraft used: HH-3 Jolly Green Giants and HH-53 Aircraft used: HH-3 Jolly Green Giants and HH-53 Super Jolly GreensSuper Jolly Greens

• By’73, USAF had rescued 3,883 AmericansBy’73, USAF had rescued 3,883 Americans

Uses of Air PowerUses of Air Power Air to Air RefuelingAir to Air Refueling

• Indispensable -- extended the range of combat Indispensable -- extended the range of combat aircraft and enabled many aircraft to return safelyaircraft and enabled many aircraft to return safely

• C-130s refueled helicopters, KC-135s refueled C-130s refueled helicopters, KC-135s refueled fixed wing aircraftfixed wing aircraft

• SAC tankers flew 195,000 sorties, unloaded 9 SAC tankers flew 195,000 sorties, unloaded 9 billion pounds of fuel and took part in 814,000 billion pounds of fuel and took part in 814,000 individual refuelings individual refuelings

                                 

C-130 RefuelingC-130 Refueling

KC-135 TankerKC-135 Tanker

Major CampaignsMajor Campaigns “Rolling Thunder”“Rolling Thunder”

• Officially began 2 March 1965Officially began 2 March 1965• ObjectivesObjectives

Interdict the flow of supplies from the Interdict the flow of supplies from the NorthNorth

Force the North to stop supporting the Force the North to stop supporting the Vietcong and quit the warVietcong and quit the war

Raise South Vietnamese moraleRaise South Vietnamese morale

RF-4 PhantomRF-4 Phantom

Rolling Thunder (con’t)Rolling Thunder (con’t)

• Strategic bombing and interdiction campaignStrategic bombing and interdiction campaign Strategic because it was aimed at the North’s will Strategic because it was aimed at the North’s will

to wage warto wage war Interdiction because the North had few large Interdiction because the North had few large

industries and got most of their material from industries and got most of their material from China and the Soviet UnionChina and the Soviet Union

• Employed mostly tactical aircraft -- F-105s, F-Employed mostly tactical aircraft -- F-105s, F-4s and F-111s -- B-52s used in ‘66 in the 4s and F-111s -- B-52s used in ‘66 in the Southern part of North VietnamSouthern part of North Vietnam

F-111F-111

F-105F-105

Rolling ThunderRolling Thunder RestrictionsRestrictions

Johnson administration controlled Johnson administration controlled campaign tightlycampaign tightly

Restriction imposed by civilians Restriction imposed by civilians included:included: Hanoi, Haiphong, China border – Hanoi, Haiphong, China border –

off limitsoff limits MIG bases and non-firing SAM sites--off limits MIG bases and non-firing SAM sites--off limits Dams, dikes, hydroelectric plants--off limitsDams, dikes, hydroelectric plants--off limits

White House selected targets, weapons and flying White House selected targets, weapons and flying routes -- with little military inputroutes -- with little military input

Rolling ThunderRolling Thunder

Graduated increases in bombing intensity Graduated increases in bombing intensity worked to advantage of North Vietnameseworked to advantage of North Vietnamese Gave them time to recover from damageGave them time to recover from damage Allowed them to establish the world’s most intense Allowed them to establish the world’s most intense

antiaircraft defense systemantiaircraft defense system Provided them the will to fight on and a sense they Provided them the will to fight on and a sense they

could survivecould survive By 1965, it became clear By 1965, it became clear

that Rolling Thunder that Rolling Thunder didn’t workdidn’t work

Rolling ThunderRolling Thunder

ImpactsImpacts South’s morale improved as the North suffered under South’s morale improved as the North suffered under

the bombingthe bombing North used frequent halts and restrictions to repair North used frequent halts and restrictions to repair

damage and resupply forces in Southdamage and resupply forces in South Criticism grew at home and internationally Criticism grew at home and internationally

Johnson ended Rolling Thunder prior to 1968 Johnson ended Rolling Thunder prior to 1968 electionselections

Campaign, America’s longest, was a failureCampaign, America’s longest, was a failure

Major Campaigns Major Campaigns “ “Linebacker I”Linebacker I”

• Easter Offensive (Mar 72) made it apparent Easter Offensive (Mar 72) made it apparent the North was not willing to negotiatethe North was not willing to negotiate

• Objectives of Linebacker Objectives of Linebacker Initially a close air support effort to aid retreating Initially a close air support effort to aid retreating

South Vietnamese forcesSouth Vietnamese forces Later, changed to an interdiction campaign against Later, changed to an interdiction campaign against

North VietnamNorth Vietnam A systematic campaign with little A systematic campaign with little

civilian control – civilian control – unlike Rolling Thunderunlike Rolling Thunder

B 52 StratofortressB 52 Stratofortress

Linebacker I (con’t)Linebacker I (con’t)

• Civilian casualties were a consideration but Civilian casualties were a consideration but didn’t determine how missions were flowndidn’t determine how missions were flown

• Haiphong harbor was mined for the first time Haiphong harbor was mined for the first time to restrict in-coming supplies for the Northto restrict in-coming supplies for the North

• Strikes were flown over Hanoi and Haiphong -- Strikes were flown over Hanoi and Haiphong -- B-52 strikes on Haiphong B-52 strikes on Haiphong began April ‘72began April ‘72

• ““Smart bombs’ were Smart bombs’ were used extensivelyused extensively

Linebacker I (con’t)Linebacker I (con’t)

• Linebacker I was the most successful US Linebacker I was the most successful US bombing campaign of the warbombing campaign of the war Had more impact on the North Vietnam in 9 Had more impact on the North Vietnam in 9

months than Rolling Thunder did in 4 yearsmonths than Rolling Thunder did in 4 years Successful largely because Easter Offensive Successful largely because Easter Offensive

was a conventional, mechanized attackwas a conventional, mechanized attack• Peace Talks resumed in July 1972 Peace Talks resumed in July 1972 • Nixon restricted Linebacker I attacks to below Nixon restricted Linebacker I attacks to below

the 20th parallelthe 20th parallel

Major Campaigns Major Campaigns “Linebacker II”“Linebacker II”

• Peace Talks stalled again in Dec 72Peace Talks stalled again in Dec 72• Nixon ordered Linebacker II to run Nixon ordered Linebacker II to run

concurrently with Linebacker Iconcurrently with Linebacker I• Purpose of Linebacker II was to force the Purpose of Linebacker II was to force the

North Vietnamese to negotiate and sign a North Vietnamese to negotiate and sign a peace treatypeace treaty

• Ran from 18 Dec to 30 Ran from 18 Dec to 30 Dec 1972 -- referred to as Dec 1972 -- referred to as the “Christmas Campaign”the “Christmas Campaign”

Linebacker II (con’t)Linebacker II (con’t)

• Very intense and logistically complexVery intense and logistically complex• Specific targets in Hanoi and HaiphongSpecific targets in Hanoi and Haiphong• B-52s used for the first time over HanoiB-52s used for the first time over Hanoi• By the end of Linebacker II, North Vietnam was By the end of Linebacker II, North Vietnam was

defenselessdefenseless 1,200 SAMs were fired1,200 SAMs were fired 80% of the North’s electrical 80% of the North’s electrical

systems and 25% of their POL systems and 25% of their POL facilities were destroyedfacilities were destroyed

Linebacker II (con’t)Linebacker II (con’t)

• North Vietnam returned to the bargaining North Vietnam returned to the bargaining table 30 Dec 72table 30 Dec 72

• All bombing ceased on 15 Jan 73All bombing ceased on 15 Jan 73• Peace treaty was signed on 27 Jan 73Peace treaty was signed on 27 Jan 73• Linebacker II was a successLinebacker II was a success

Some believe that if Rolling Thunder had Some believe that if Rolling Thunder had been conducted like Linebacker II, the war been conducted like Linebacker II, the war would have ended in ‘65 -- unlikelywould have ended in ‘65 -- unlikely

http://www.davka.org/what/theleft/peoplespeacetreatyvietnam.htmlhttp://www.davka.org/what/theleft/peoplespeacetreatyvietnam.html

VIDEOVIDEO Vietnam Vietnam

PostPostVietnamVietnam

The Vietnam War ResultsThe Vietnam War Results

U.S. reluctance to enter military conflicts that don’t U.S. reluctance to enter military conflicts that don’t directly threaten national interestsdirectly threaten national interests

Congressional restriction on President’s ability to Congressional restriction on President’s ability to commit U.S. military forcescommit U.S. military forces

Lessened public opinion of the government and Lessened public opinion of the government and the militarythe military

The all-volunteer military force The all-volunteer military force Increased emphasis on military resources, Increased emphasis on military resources,

training and weaponstraining and weapons

The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam WarLessons LearnedLessons Learned

U.S. can’t win a counterinsurgency war in another country--only the people of that country can

Force and technology are of limited value in a “people’s war”

Before committing force, national leaders leaders must base decisions on realistic assessments

More Lessons LearnedMore Lessons Learned

Know your enemy and know yourself

“Graduated Response” is an ineffective way to employ air power -- reduces surprise, flexibility and concentration of force

In a democracy, congressional and public support are critical, and difficult to get

Modern war is open to public scrutiny Let those who understand war conduct it

Review of CFD ModelReview of CFD Model

Distinctive Capabilities: Air and space expertise, capabilities and technological know-how that produces superior military capabilities

Functions: Broad, fundamental and continuing activities of air and space power

Doctrine: fundamental principles which military forces guide their actions in support of national objectives

Review of Distinctive CapabilitiesReview of Distinctive Capabilities Air and Space Superiority :  With it, joint forces can dominate enemy operations

in all dimensions -- land, sea, air and space.

Global Attack:  Because of technological advances, the Air Force can attack anywhere, anytime -- and do so quickly and with greater precision than ever before.

Rapid Global Mobility:  Being able to respond quickly and decisively anywhere we're needed is key to maintaining rapid global mobility.

Precision Engagement:  The essence lies in the ability to apply selective force against specific targets because the nature and variety of future contingencies demand both precise and reliable use of military power with minimal risk and collateral damage.

Information Superiority:  The ability of joint force commanders to keep pace with information and incorporate it into a campaign plan is crucial.

Agile Combat Support:  Deployment and sustainment are keys to successful operations and cannot be separated. Agile combat support applies to all forces, from those permanently based to contingency buildups to expeditionary forces.

CFD ModelCFD ModelTime Period Distinctive

CapabilitiesFunctions(missions)

Doctrinal Emphasis

Berlin Airlift      

     

Korean Conflict      

     

Vietnam      

     

Rapid Global Mobility Airlift Strategic Airlift

Theater Airlift

Theater attack, Of military targets

Air SuperiorityPrecision EngagementGlobal AttackRapid Global MobilityAgile Combat Support

Counterland Close Air Support Interdiction

Airlift Reconnaissance Search and Rescue Air Refueling Strategic Attack

Strategic attack and Strategic attack and nuclear deterrence nuclear deterrence prior to Vietnamprior to VietnamShift towards Shift towards deterrence through deterrence through strength and global strength and global attack attack

Counterland Close Air Support Interdiction

Airlift Reconnaissance Search and Rescue Air Refueling Strategic Attack

Air and Space Superiority

Precision Engagement

Agile combat support

Review of Air and Space FunctionsReview of Air and Space Functions

Strategic AttackStrategic AttackCounterairCounterairCounterspaceCounterspaceCounterlandCounterlandCounterseaCounterseaInformation Information

Operations (IO)Operations (IO)Combat SupportCombat SupportCommand & ControlCommand & ControlAirliftAirlift

Air RefuelingAir Refueling

SpaceliftSpacelift

Special OpsSpecial Ops

IntelligenceIntelligence

Surveillance and Surveillance and ReconnaissanceReconnaissance

Combat Search and Rescue Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR)(CSAR)

Navigation and PositioningNavigation and Positioning

Weather ServicesWeather Services

CFD ModelCFD ModelTime Period Distinctive

CapabilitiesFunctions(missions)

Doctrinal Emphasis

Berlin Airlift      

     

Korean Conflict      

     

Vietnam      

     

Rapid Global Mobility Airlift Strategic Airlift

Theater Airlift

Theater attack, Of military targets

Air SuperiorityAir SuperiorityPrecision EngagementPrecision EngagementGlobal AttackGlobal AttackRapid Global MobilityRapid Global MobilityAgile Combat SupportAgile Combat Support

Counterland Close Air Support Interdiction

Airlift Reconnaissance Search and Rescue Air Refueling Strategic Attack

Strategic attack and Strategic attack and nuclear deterrence nuclear deterrence prior to Vietnamprior to VietnamShift towards Shift towards deterrence through deterrence through strength and global strength and global attack attack

Counterland Close Air Support Interdiction

Airlift Reconnaissance Search and Rescue Air Refueling Strategic Attack

Air and Space Superiority

Precision Engagement

Agile combat support

Vietnam II OverviewVietnam II Overview

Background During Vietnamization Airpower Functions in Vietnam Rolling Thunder Linebacker I Linebacker II Vietnam War Results Lessons Learned CFD Review

Master OverviewMaster Overview

Vietnam I – A Chronology Vietnam II – Uses of Airpower Rebuilding the Air and Space Force

Airpower Airpower Thru the Thru the Cold WarCold War