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Connec-tions between people can be enabled bytechnology, but trust is dependenton the passage of time and the contiguity of bodies.
Telephone Switchboards,
construction of the first
regular telephone line
from Boston to Someville,
Massachusetts was com-
pleted. By the end of
1880, there were 47,900
telephones in the United
States. The following year
telephone service between
Boston and Providence
had been established. Ser-
vice between New York and
Chicago started in 1892,
and between New York and
Boston in 1894. Transconti-
nental service by overhead
wire was not inaugurated
until 1915. The first switch-
board was set up in Boston
in 1877. On January 17,
1882, Leroy Firman re-
ceived the first patent for a
telephone switchboard.
A switchboard (also called
a manual exchange) was
a device used to connect a
group of telephones manu-
ally to one another or to an
outside connection, within
and between telephone ex-
changes or private branch
exchanges (PBXs). The
user was typically known
as an operator. Public
manual exchanges disap-
peared during the last half
of the 20th century, leaving
a few PBXs working in of-
fices and hotels as manual
branch exchanges.
The electromechanical
automatic telephone ex-
change, invented by Almon
Strowger in 1888, gradually
replaced manual switch-
boards in central telephone
exchanges. Manual PBXs
have also for the most part
been replaced by more so-
phisticated devices or even
personal computers, which
give the operator access to
an abundance of features.
In modern businesses, a
PBX often has an attendant
console for the operator, or
an auto-attendant avoiding
the operator entirely.
The switchboard is usually
designed to accommodate
the operator to sit facing
it. It has a high backpanel
which consists of rows of
female jacks, each jack
designated and wired as
a local extension of the
switchboard (which serves
an individual subscriber) or
as an incoming or outgoing
trunk line. The jack is also
associated with a lamp.
On the table or desk area
in front of the operator are
columns of keys, lamps
and cords. Each column
consists of a front key and
a rear key, a front lamp
and a rear lamp, followed
by a front cord and a rear
cord, making up together a
cord circuit. The front key is
the “talk” key allowing the
operator to speak with that
particular cord pair. The
rear key on older “manual”
boards and PBXs is used to
physically ring a telephone.
On newer boards, the back
key is used to collect (re-
trieve) money from coin
telephones. Each of the
keys has three positions:
back, normal and forward.
When a key is in the nor-
mal position an electrical
talk path connects the front
and rear cords. A key in the
forward position (front key)
connects the operator to
the cord pair, and a key in
the back position sends a
ring signal out on the cord
(on older manual exchang-
es). Each cord has a three-
wire TRS connector: tip and
ring for testing, ringing and
voice; and a sleeve wire for
busy signals.
When a call is received, a
jack lamp lights up on the
back panel and the op-
erator responds by placing
the rear cord into the jack
and throwing the front key
forward. The operator now
converses with the caller
and finds out where the
caller would like to be con-
nected to. If it is another
extension, the operator
places the front cord in the
associated jack and pulls
the front key backwards to
ring the called party. After
connecting, the opera-
tor leaves both cords “up”
with the keys in the normal
position so the parties can
converse. The supervi-
sion lamps light to alert the
operator when the parties
finish their conversation
and go on-hook. When the
operator pulls down a cord,
a pulley weight behind the
switchboard pulls it down to
prevent it from tangling.
On a trunk, on-hook and
off-hook signals must pass
in both directions. In a one-
way trunk, the originating or
A board sends a short for
off-hook, and an open for
on-hook, while the termi-
nating or B board sends
normal polarity or reverse
polarity. This “reverse bat-
tery” signaling was carried
over to later automatic
exchanges.
The first regular telephone
exchange was established
in New Haven in 1878. Ear-
ly telephones were leased
in pairs to subscribers. The
subscriber was required to
put up his own line to con-
nect with another. In 1889,
Almon B. Strowger a Kan-
sas City undertaker, invent-
ed a switch that could con-
nect one line to any of 100
lines by using relays and
sliders. This switch became
known as “The Strowger
Switch” and was still in use
in some telephone offices
well over 100 years later.
Almon Strowger was issued
a patent on March 11, 1891
for the first automatic tele-
phone exchange.
The first exchange using
the Strowger switch was
opened in La Porte, Indiana
in 1892 and initially sub-
scribers had a button on
their telephone to produce
the required number of
pulses by tapping. An asso-
ciate of Strowgers’ invented
the rotary dial in 1896
which replaced the button.
In 1943, Philadelphia was
the last major area to give
up dual service.
In 1877, construction of
the first regular telephone
line from Boston to Somer-
ville, Massachusetts was
completed. By the end of
1880, there were 47,900
telephones in the United
States. The following year
telephone service between
Boston and Providence had
been established. Service
between New York and
Chicago started in 1892,
and between New York and
Boston in 1894. The first
switchboard was set up in
Boston in 1877. 1875
– 1
900
The First Directory consisted of a single
sheet listing the names of
50 subscribers, according
to lore. By November,
the network had grown to
391 subscribers, identified
by name and address —
phone numbers did not
yet exist. And the phone
book, although skimpy,
had already taken the
form in which it would
become the fat doorstop
of today, with advertise-
ments and listings of
businesses in the back
— 22 physicians and 22
carriage manufacturers,
among others. Custom-
ers were limited to three
minutes a call and no
more than two calls an
hour without permission
from the central office.
Alexander Graham Bell
was granted a patent on
his telephone in 1876. In
early 1878, he installed
the first telephone ex-
change, in New Haven,
Connecticut. The first
telephone “book” - actu-
ally just a single 14 cm.
x 21 cm. sheet - was
issued in New Haven in
1878. Below is a 1978
facsimile of that sheet.
To the right is the same
text, suitable for com-
puter searching.
Nov
embe
r 197
8
Rotary Telephone is
a device mounted on or
in a telephone or switch-
board that is designed
to send interrupted
electrical pulses, known
as pulse dialing, corre-
sponding to the number
dialed. The early form of
the rotary dial used lugs
on a finger plate instead
of holes. A patent was
filed on August 20, 1896
by employees of Almon
Strowger, namely, A.
E. Keith and the broth-
ers John and Charles
Erickson. The Patent No.
597,062 was granted on
January 11, 1898.
The modern version of
the rotary dial with holes
was first introduced in
1904 but only entered
service in the Bell
System in 1919. The
device was phased out
from the 1970s onwards
with the onset of Touch
Tone dialing, which uses
a telephone keypad
instead of a dial. Some
telephone systems in the
US no longer recognize
rotary dialing by default,
in which case it would
have to be ordered from
the telephone company
as a special feature, to
support older customer
equipment.
1910
- 19
20
Today the dial is a key
pad or “dial pad”, gener-
ally with 12 keys num-
bered 0-9, *, and # that
perform an equivalent
signalling function to that
of a rotating disk dial.
From as early as 1836,
there were various sug-
gestions and inventions
of dials for sending
telegraph signals. After
the first commercial
telephone exchange was
installed in 1878, the
need for an automated,
user-controlled method of
directing a telephone call
became apparent. The
first telephone dial pat-
ent was jointly issued to
Connolly and McTighe in
1879. There were numer-
ous competing inven-
tions, and 26 patents of
dials, push-buttons and
similar mechanisms for
signalling which tele-
phone subscriber was
wanted by a caller were
issued prior to 1891.
Most inventions involved
highly complex, and
expensive, mechanisms
and required the user to
perform complex manipu-
lations.
New technology seems to work best when helping people interact across time, rather than across spaces
Calligraphy
is the art of writing (Media-
villa 1996: 17). A contempo-
rary definition of calligraphic
practice is “the art of giving
form to signs in an expres-
sive, harmonious and skillful
manner” (Mediavilla 1996:
18). The story of writing is
one of aesthetic evolution
framed within the technical
skills, transmission speed(s)
and materials limitations of
a person, time and place
(Diringer 1968: 441). A style
of writing is described as a
script, hand or alphabet
Modern calligraphy ranges
from functional hand lettered
inscriptions and designs to
fine art pieces where the
abstract expression of the
handwritten mark may or
may not supersede the leg-
ibility of the letters (Mediavilla
1996). Classical calligraphy
differs from typography and
non-classical hand-lettering,
though a calligrapher may
create all of these; characters
are historically disciplined
yet fluid and spontaneous,
improvised at the moment of
writing (Pott 2006 & 2005;
Zapf 2007 & 2006). Callig-
raphy continues to flourish
in the forms of wedding and
event invitations, font design/
typography, original hand-
lettered logo design, religious
art, various announcements/
graphic design/ commis-
sioned calligraphic art, cut
stone inscriptions.
600
BC
-720
AD
QWERTY Keyboard Typewriter is a mechanical
or electromechanical device
with a set of “keys” that,
when pressed, cause charac-
ters to be printed on a medi-
um, usually paper. For much
of the 20th century, typewrit-
ers were indispensable tools
for many professional writ-
ers and in business offices.
By the end of the 1980s,
word processor applications
on personal computers had
largely replaced the tasks
previously accomplished
with typewriters. Typewrit-
ers, however, remain popular
in the developing world and
among some niche markets,
and for some office tasks.
The QWERTY layout of
keys has become the de
facto standard for English-
language typewriter and
computer keyboards. Other
languages written in the Latin
alphabet sometimes use vari-
ants of the QWERTY layouts,
such as the French AZERTY,
the Italian QZERTY, and the
German QWERTZ layouts.
The QWERTY layout is not
the most efficient layout
possible, since it requires a
touch-typist to move his or
her fingers between rows
to type the most common
letters. A popular story sug-
gests that it was designed
and used for early typewrit-
ers exactly.
187
5 –
1900
Sound might be a better commu-nication meium than vision in the way that it attrack and hold our attention through time.
Cassette Tape,often referred to as audio
cassette, cassette tape,
cassette, or simply tape,
is a magnetic tape sound
recording format. Although
originally designed for
dictation, improvements
in fidelity led the Com-
pact Cassette to supplant
reel-to-reel tape recording
in most non-professional
applications.[1] Its uses
ranged from portable audio
to home recording to data
storage for early microcom-
puters. Between the early
1970s and late 1990s, the
cassette was one of the
two most common formats
for prerecorded music, first
alongside the LP and later
the Compact Disc.[2] The
word cassette is a French
word meaning “little box.”
Compact Cassettes consist
of two miniature spools,
between which a magneti-
cally coated plastic tape is
passed and wound. These
spools and their attendant
parts are held inside a
protective plastic shell. Two
stereo pairs of tracks (four
total) or two monaural audio
tracks are available on the
tape; one stereo pair or one
monophonic track is played
or recorded when the tape
is moving in one direc-
tion and the second pair
when moving in the other
direction. This reversal is
achieved either by manually
flipping the cassette or by
having the machine itself
change the direction of tape
movemen.
The mass production of
compact audio cassettes
began in 1964 in Hanover,
Germany. Prerecorded
music cassettes were
launched in Europe in late
1965. The Mercury Record
Company, a U.S. affiliate
of Philips, introduced M.C.
to the U.S. in September
1966. The initial offering
consisted of 49 titles.
Sony even made the WM-
10 which was smaller than
the cassette itself and
expanded to hold and play
a cassette. In 1970s In-
dia, they were blamed for
bringing unwanted secular
influences into traditionally
religious areas. Cassette
technology created a boom-
ing market for pop music
in India, drawing criticism
from conservatives while at
the same time creating a
huge market for legitimate
recording companies and
pirated tapes.[8] In some
countries, particularly in the
developing countries, cas-
settes still remain the domi-
nant medium for purchasing
and listening to music.
1930
-194
0
we’re are filling up the world with amazing devices and systems - on top of the natural and human ones that were already here - only to dis-cover that these complex system seem to be out of control : too com-plext to under-stand, et alone to shaoem or redi-rect.
Editor-in-chief
Paul Hauge
Contributing Editors
Emerson Velazquez
Chris L.
Christina Yea
Yvonne Kang
Lily Ou
Conor Hunter
Manny P.
Text and Images Resources
In the Bubble
Wire Magazine
A handwriting Manual
Apple
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