5 July 2006

Agroclimatic zones of India

Region: North IndiaState : Jammu & KashmirAbbrivation Agroclimatic Zone

AZ1 Low Altitude Subtropical

AZ2 Intermediate

AZ3 Valley temperate

AZ4 Dry Temperate

AZ5 Cold Arid

State :Himachal Pradesh

AZ6 High hills Temperate Wet AZ7 Sub Montaneb and low hills subtropical AZ8 Mid hills subtropical AZ9 Sub Montaneb and low hills subtropical

State : Punjab

AZ10 Undulating Plain

AZ11 Central Plain

AZ12 Western Plain

AZ13 Western

AZ14 Sub montane undulating

State: Haryana

AZ15 Eastern

AZ16 Western

State: Rajasthan

AZ17 Arid Western Plain

AZ18 Irrigated North Western Plain

AZ19 Transitional palin zone of Island drainage

AZ20 Transitional plain zone of Luni Basin

AZ21 Semiarid eastern plain

AZ22 Flood prone eastern plain

AZ23 Sub humid southern plain and alluvial hill

AZ24 Southern humid plain

AZ25 South eastern humid plain

State: Uttaranchal

AZ26 Hill

AZ27 Bhabar and Tarai

State: Uttar Pradesh

AZ28 Western Plain

AZ29 Mid Western Plain

AZ30 South Western Semi arid

AZ31 Central Plain

AZ32 Bundel Khand

AZ33 North Eastern Plain

AZ34 Eastern Plain

AZ35 Vindyan

Region: East & North east India

State : West Bengal

AZ36 Hilly

AZ37 Tarai

AZ38 Old Alluvial

AZ39 New Alluvial

AZ40 Laterite and red soil Zone

AZ41 Coastal Saline

State :Assam

AZ42 Basic valley

AZ43 Upper Brahamaputra

AZ44 Hill

AZ45 Coastal Brahamaputral

AZ46 AZ47

AZ47 Lower Brahamaputra valley

State :Arunachal Pradesh

AZ48 Alpine

AZ49 Temperate Sub Alpine

State :Meghalaya

AZ50 Sub tropical Hill

State: Manipur

AZ51 Sub tropical plain

State: Nagaland

AZ52 Mid Tropical Hill

State Tripura

AZ53 Mid Tropical Plain

State: Bihar and Jharkhand

AZ54 Northwest Alluvial Plain

AZ55 North east Alluvial plain

AZ56 South Bihar Alluvial Plain

AZ57 Central and northeastern plateau

AZ58 Western Plateau

AZ59 South eastern plateau

State:Orissa

AZ60 North western plateau

AZ61 North Central plateau

AZ62 North eastern Coastal plain

AZ63 East & southeastern coastal plain

AZ64 North eastern ghat

AZ65 Eastern gaht highland

AZ66 Southeastern ghat

AZ67 Western undulating

AZ68 West central table

AZ69 Mid Central table land

Peninsular India

State:Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh

AZ 70 Chattigarh plain zone including Chattisgarh districts

AZ71 Bastar Plateau

AZ72 North hill zone of Chattisgarh

AZ73 Kymora plateau and Satpara hill

AZ74 Vindya Plateau

AZ75 Central Narmada Valley

AZ76 Gird

AZ77 Bundelkhand

AZ78 Satpura plateau

AZ79 Malwa Plateau AZ80 Nimar Valley

AZ81 Jhabua hills

State: Gujarat

AZ82 East Gujarat heavy rainfall

AZ83 South Gujarat

AZ84 Middle Gujarat

AZ85 North Gujarat

AZ86 North Western Gujarat

AZ87 South Saurashtra

AZ88 North Saurashtra

AZ89 Ghat and Coastal

State:Maharashtra

AZ90 South Konkan Coastal

AZ91 North Konkan Coastal

AZ92 Western Ghat

AZ93 Submontane

AZ94 Western Maharashtra Plain

AZ95 Scarcity

AZ96 Central Maharashtra plateau

AZ97 Central Vidarbha

AZ98 Eastern Vidarbha

State: Karnataka

AZ99 North East transition

AZ100 North east dry

AZ101 Northern dry

AZ102 Central dry

AZ103 Eastern dry

AZ104 Southern dry

AZ105 Southern transition

AZ106 Western transition

AZ107 Hill

AZ108 Coastal

State: Kerala

AZ109 Northern

AZ110 Southern

AZ111 Central

AZ112 High Altitude

AZ113 Problem area

State: Andhra Pradesh

AZ114 North Coastal

AZ115 Southern Costal

AZ116 Northern Telengana

AZ117 Scarce rainfall zone of Rayalseema

AZ118 Southern Telengana

AZ119 High altitude and tribal

AZ120 Krishna Godavari

State: Tamil Nadu

AZ121 North eastern

AZ122 North western

AZ123 Western

AZ124 Kavery delta

AZ125 Southern

AZ126 High rainfall

AZ127 High altitude and hilly

Climatic Conditions , By: C.P.Mohan

No ratings yet. Rate  Agro Climatic Conditions in India

Agriculture is closely dependent on the endowment of natural resources and environmental conditions of soil and climate. India is a land of many climates and varieties of soils, affording scope for much diversity in agriculture. It is therefore meaningful to understand the physiographic and agro climatic conditions of India and the various other factors that largely determine the cropping patterns in different regions of the country. Such understanding shall go a long way in optimizing farm production by selectively adopting appropriate cropping patterns and agronomic practices to suit the region. It is also important to gain perceptive knowledge and a pulse feel of the market drivers that promote diversification based on demand and changing dietary regimes of the society. This note is an attempt to put together information on the above aspects.

The climatic, edaphic ( determined by soil) and socio-economic diversity of the Indian crop-production scene is dotted with many cropping patterns. With a geographic area of 328.76 million hectares, stretching between 8oN and 36oN latitude and between 68oE and 98oE longitude, its altitude varying from the mean sea-level to the highest mountain ranges of the world, India presents a range and diversity of climate, flora and fauna, with a few parallels in the world. The country presents a paradox of containing in it the station with the highest mean

annual rainfall in the world (Cherrapunji in Assam ) and also dry, semi-desert area in Rajasthan. The variability of rainfall is most important in all the states, but especially where rainfall is low. In parts of Rajasthan and the Deccan , the variability is more than 100 per cent of the mean. Years of drought account for a frequent a history of crop failures, whereas the years of flood also cause very considerable loss of agricultural production. Temperatures also vary greatly, both geographically and seasonally. Northern and central parts of India in January have temperature comparable with those in Europe in July, though with a greater daily range, but in these places in the pre-monsoon months the maximum temperatures of over 40oC are reached over a large area. Frost may occur in winter in the plains, as far south as a line drawn through Madhya Pradesh and may be heavy in Kashmir and areas north of Punjab .

Socio-economically, the peasantry ranges from the relatively affluent farmers in Punjab, Western UP etc who operate with a high input intensity in agriculture to the subsistent farmers of eastern and central India . They even today, sometimes practice shifting cultivation. Between these two extremes, various intensities of cultivation are practised. The outstanding fact on the socio-economic is the smallness of holdings, the average farm-size in most areas being lower than that is in most tropical countries. Crops production, therefore, presents such an enormous diversity owing to differences in latitude, altitude and variability of rainfall and edaphic diversity.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS General India is a land of many rivers and mountains. Its geographical area of about 328 M.ha is criss crossed by a large number of small and big rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty rivers of the world. The rivers and mountains have great significance in the history of Indian cultural development, religious and spiritual life. A major part (72%) of India ’s population of 1027 millions (2001 census) is rural and agriculturally oriented for whom the rivers, land and climate are the source of their prosperity.

PhysiographyThe classification of the country based on the physiography is one attempt that will help us to understand the division based on the physical characteristics. Physiographically, India may be divided into seven well defined regions. These are: The Northern Mountains , comprising the mighty Himalayan ranges;

II. The Great Plains, traversed by the Indus and Ganga Brahmaputra river systems. As much as one third of this lies in the arid zone of western Rajasthan. The remaining area is mostly fertile plains;

III. The Central Highlands , consisting of a wide belt of hills running east-west starting from Aravalli ranges in the west and terminating in a steep escarpment in the east. The area lies between the Great Plains and the Deccan Plateau; IV. The Peninsular Plateaus comprising the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats , North Deccan Plateau, South Deccan Plateau and Eastern Plateau; V. The East Coast, a belt of land of about 100- 130 km wide, bordering the Bay of Bengal land

lying to the east of the Eastern Ghats ; VI. The West Coast, a narrow belt of land of about 10- 25 km wide, bordering the Arabian Sea and lying to the west of the Western Ghats, and VII. The islands, comprising the coral islands of Lakshadeep in Arabian Sea and Andaman and Nicobar Islands of the Bay of Bengal . ClimateThe presence of the great mountain mass formed by the Himalayas and its spurs on the North and of the ocean on the South are the two major influences operating on the climate of India . The first poses an impenetrable barrier to the influence of cold winds from central Asia , and gives the sub-continent the elements of tropical type of climate. The second, which is the source of cool moisture-laden winds reaching India , gives it the elements of the oceanic type of climate.

India has a very great diversity and variety of climate and an even greater variety of weather conditions. The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. It is, therefore, necessary to avoid any generalization as to the prevalence of any particular kind of climate, not only over the country as a whole but over major areas in it. The climatic condition influences to a great extent the water resources utilisation of the country.

RainfallRainfall in India is dependent in differing degrees on the South-West and North-East monsoons, on shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on violent local storms which form regions where cool humid winds the sea meet hot dry winds from the land and occasionally reach cyclonic dimension. Most of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of South West monsoon between June to September except in Tamil Nadu where it is under the influence of North-East monsoon during October and November. The rainfall in India shows great variations, unequal seasonal distribution, still more unequal geographical distribution and the frequent departures from the normal. It generally exceeds 1000 mm in areas to the East of Longitude 78 degree E. It extends to 2500 mm along almost the entire West Coast and Western Ghats and over most of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. On the West of the line joining Porbandar to Delhi and thence to Ferozpur the rainfall diminishes rapidly from 500 mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme west. The Peninsular has large areas of rainfall less than 600 mm with pockets of even 500 mm . TemperatureThe variations in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent. During the winter seasons from November to February, due to the effect of continental winds over most of the country, the temperature decreases from South to North. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest months of December and January varies from 29 degree centigrade in some part of the peninsula to about 18 degree centigrade in the North, whereas the mean minimum varies from about 24 degree centigrade in the extreme South to below 5 degree centigrade in the North. From March to May is usually a period of continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest temperature occurs in North India , particularly in the desert regions of the North-West where the maximum may exceed 48 degree centigrade. With the advent of South West Monsoon in June, there is a rapid fall in the maximum temperature in the central portions of

the country. The temperature is almost uniform over the area covering two thirds of the country which gets good rain. In August, there is a marked fall in temperature when the monsoon retreat from North Indian in September. In North-West India , in the month of November, the mean maximum temperature is below 38 degree centigrade and the mean minimum below 10 degree centigrade. In the extreme North, temperature drops below freezing point.EvaporationEvaporation rates closely follow the climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the summer moths of April and May and the central areas of the country display the highest evaporation rates during this period. With the onset of monsoon, there is a marked fall in the rate of evaporation. The annual potential evaporation ranges between 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country. Monthly potential evaporation over the Peninsula increases from 15 cm in December to 40 cm in May. In the North-East, it varies from 6 cm in December to 20 cm in May. It rises to 40 cm in June in West Rajasthan . After the onset of monsoon potential evaporation decreases generally all over the country.

Rivers

India is blessed with many rivers. As many as 12 of them are classified as major rivers whose total catchment area is 252.8 million hectare (M.ha). Of the major rivers, the Ganga - Brahmaputra Meghana system is the biggest with catchment area of about 110 M .ha which is more than 43 percent of the catchment area of all the major rivers in the country. The other major rivers with catchment area more than 10 M .ha are Indus ( 32.1 M .ha.), Guava ( 31.3 M .ha.), Krishna , ( 25.9 M .ha.) and Maharani ( 14.2 M .ha). The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 M .ha and Subernarekha with 1.9 M .ha. catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the country.

Water Bodies

Inland Water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks & ponds; beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies cover all area of about 7 M .ha. Of the rivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the First place with the total length of rivers and canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of rivers and canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh are Jammu & Kashmir and Madhya Pradesh. Among the remaining forms of the inland water resources, tanks and ponds have maximum area ( 2.9 M .ha.) followed by reservoirs ( 2.1 M .ha.).

Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in Southern States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. These states along with West Bengal , Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, account for 62 percent of total area under tanks and ponds in the country. As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra , Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh account for larger portion of area under reservoirs. More than 77 percent of area under beels, oxbow, lakes and derelict water lies in the states of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam . Orissa ranks first as regards the total area of

brackish water and is followed by Gujarat, Kerala and West Bengal . The total area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the country with five states namely Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West Bengal accounting for more than half of the country's inland water bodies.

Surface Water Resources

The annual precipitation including snowfall, which is the main source of the water in the country is estimated to be of the order of 4000 cu.km. The Country has been divided into 35 meteorological sub-division based on rainfall s. The Resources potential of the country, which occurs as natural run off in the rivers is about 1869 cu.km. as per the basin wise latest estimates of Central Water Commission, considering both surface and ground water as one system. Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the major contributor to total water resources potential of the country. Its share is about 60 percent in total water resources potential of the various rivers. Based on 199l census, the per capita availability of water works out to 220 cubic metre cu.m.). Due to various constraints of topography, uneven distribution of resource over space and time, it has been estimated that only about 1122 cu.km. of total potential of 1869 cu.km. can be put to beneficial use, 690 cu. km. being due to surface water resources. Again about 40 percent of uitlisable surface water resources are presently in Ganga-Brhamputra-Meghna system. In majority of river basins, present utilisation is significantly high and is in the range of 50 percent to 95 percent of utilisable surface resources. But in the rivers such as Narmada and Mahanadi percentage utilisation is quite low. The corresponding values for these basins are 23 percent and 34 percent respectively.

The distribution of water resources potential in the country shows that as against the national per capita annual availability of water as 2208 cu. m . the average availability in Brahmaputra and Barak is as high as 16589 cu m. while it is as low as 360 cu.m. in Sabarmati basin. Brahmaputra and Barak basin with 7.3 percent of geographical area and 4.2 percent of population of the country has 31 percent of the annual water resources. Per capita annual availability for rest of the country excluding Brahmaputra and Barak basin works out to about 1583 cu.m. Any situation of availability of less than 1000 cu. m . per capita is considered by international agencies as scarcity conditions. Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, East flowing rivers and West flowing rivers are some of the basins which fall into this category.

Agro-climatic Zones

The Planning Commission after examining the earlier studies at the regionalisation of the agricultural economy has recommended that agricultural planning be done on the basis of agro climatic regions. For resource development, the country has been broadly divided into fifteen agricultural regions based on agro climatic features, particularly soil type, climate including temperature and rainfall and its variation and water resources availability as under:

I. Western Himalayan division

II. Eastern Himalayan division

III. Lower Gangetic plain region

IV. Middle Gangetic plain region

V. Upper Gangetic plain region

VI. Trans-Gangetic plain region

VII. Eastern plateau and hill region

VIII. Central plateau and hill region

IX. Western plateau and hill region

X. Southern plateau and hill region

XI. East coast plain and hill region

XII. West coast plain and hill region

XIII. Gujarat plain and hill region

XIV. Western plain and hill region

XV. Island region.

AGRO -ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

Another classification that is relevant in understanding the cropping patterns and agricultural practices of the country is that based on the ecological features of different regions. This classification also takes into account the period for which crops can be grown naturally in the region. The classification is given below:

Arid Ecosystem 1. Western Himalayas, cold arid ecoregion, with shallow skeletal soils & length of Growing Period (GP) <90 days

2. Western Plain, Kachchh and part of Kathiawar Peninsula , hot arid ecoregion, with desert & saline soils & GP <90 days

3. Deccan Plateau, hot arid ecoregion, with Red & Black soils & GP <90 days

Semiarid Ecosystem

4. Northern Plain and Central Highlands including Aravallis, hot semi-arid ecoregion, with Alluvium derived soils & GP 90-150 days

5. Central (Malwa) Highlands, Gujarat Plains & Kathiawar Peninsula , hot semi-arid ecoregion, with medium & deep Black soils & GP 90-150 days

6. Deccan Plateau, hot semi-arid ecoregion with shallow and medium (with inclusion of deep) Black soils & GP 90-150 days

7. Deccan (Telangana) Plateau and Eastern Ghats , hot semi-arid ecoregion, with Red & Black soils & GP 90-150 days

8. Eastern Ghats , TN uplands and Deccan (Karnataka) Plateau, hot semi-arid ecoregion with Red loamy soils & GP 90-150 days

Subhumid Ecosystem

9. Northern Plain, hot subhumid (dry) ecoregion, with Alluvium-derived soils & GP 150- 180 days

10. Central Highlands (Malwa, Bundelkhand & Satputra), hot subhumid ecoregion, with Black and Red Soils & GP 150-180 (to 210) days

11. Eastern Plateau (Chhatisgarh), hot subhumid ecoregion, with Red & Yellow soils, & GP 150-180 days

12. Eastern (Chhotanagpur) Plateau and Eastern Ghats , hot subhumid ecoregion, with Red & Lateritic soils & GP 150-180 (to 210) days

13. Eastern Plain, hot subhumid (moist) ecoregion, with Alluvium-derived soils & GP 180 - 210 days

14. Western Himalayas, warm subhumid (to humid with inclusion of perhumid ecoregion with Brown forest and Podzolic soils, & GP 180-210 + days

Humid-Perhumid Ecosystem

15. Bengal and Assam Plain, hot subhumid (moist) to humid (inclusion of perhumid) ecoregion, with Alluvium-derived soils & GP 210 + days

16. Eastern Himalayas , warm perhumid ecoregion, with Brown and Red hill soils, & GP 210 + days

17. North-eastern Hills (Purvachal), warm perhumid ecoregion, with Red and Lateritic soils & GP 210 + days . Coastal Ecosystem

18. Eastern Coastal Plain, hot subhumid to semi-arid ecoregion, with Coastal Alluvium- derived soils & GP 90-210 + days

19. Western Ghats & Coastal Plain, hot humid perhumid ecoregion, with Red, Lateritic and Alluvium- derived soils and GP 219 + days

Island Ecosystem

20. Islands of Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweeo hot humid to perhumid island ecoregion, with Red loamy and Sandy soils and GP 210+ days

SOIL TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION

As in the case of physiographic characteristics, climate etc, the country has a vast diversity in the soil types. The soil groups and its distribution is given in the table below:

Soil Groups of India with Extent And Distribution

 

S.No.Soil Group Extent

(km2)Distribution (States)

1 Red loamy soils 2,13,271 Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa

2 Red Sandy Soils 3,30,590 Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh

3 Laterite Soils 1,30,066 Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Goa, Assam

4 Red and Yellow Soils 4,03,651 Madhya Pradesh, Orissa

5 Shallow Black Soils 31,532  Maharashtra

6 Medium Black Soils 4,30,383 Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat

7 Deep Black Soils 1,12,060 Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat

8 Mixed Red and Balak Soils 1,62,255 Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh

9 Coastal Alluvium Soils 54,403  Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa

10 Coastal Sands 4,534  Orissa

11 Deltaic Alluvium Soils 87,045  Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal

12 Alluvial Soils Khadar (recent alluvium) Bhangar (old

3,56,720 Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam

Alluvium)

13 Alluvium Soils (highly calcareous)

13,611  North-eastern states, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar

14 Calcareous sierozemic soils 45,080  Punjab

15 Grey Brown Soils 1,01,572 Gujarat, Rajasthan

16 Desert Soils Rhegosolic 1,54,423 Rajasthan

17 Desert Soils Lithosolic    

18 Terai Soils 28,919  Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal

19 Brown Hill Soils (over sandstones and shales)

81,242  Uttar Pradesh, Bhutan Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh

20 Sub-montane Soils (Podsolic) 76,695  Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir

21 Mountain Meadow Soils 59,790  Kashmir including Ladakh

22 Saline and Alkali Soils 17,377  Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

23 Peaty and Saline Peaty Soils 2,720  Kerala

24 Skeletal Soils 79,151  Madhya Pradesh

25 Glaciers and Eternal Snow 29,335  Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY BASED ON TYPOLOGY

While the agro climatic zones as described above have been used for macro planning, another attempt to closely look at cropping patterns with emerging changes in the cropping patterns was made based on three decisive parameters, viz. Net Sown Area (NSA), Land Available for Cultivation (LAC) and Net Irrigated Area (NIA) in the region[1]. The various state regions were delineated into different Typologies by taking into consideration the above parameters. It may be appreciated that the develop0ment strategies for agriculture shall depend on availability of land resources of varying types which is indicated by the LAC, the status of water and or moisture availability which in turn points to the potential productivity and growth as indicated by the NIA and the existing level of cultivation which is the NSA.

Various typologies emerge on examination of above parameters. The details of the classification based on the typologies of resource use by state regions is given in table below:

Typology Region

Type State Regions

A MountainousAll Regions of Assam and Other Eastern States, Himachal Pradesh, and Western U.P  Hills ( Uttranchal).

B Hilly

Chhotanagpur Hills, (Bihar )  Southern Gujarat Hills,  Northern Hills of M P, Konkan, SW Hills ( Maharashtra) and West Coast  Hills (Karnataka and Maharashtra,  Hills of Orissa,,  Nilgiris (TN ) and Darjeeling (WB).

C Plateaus

Bihar Plateau (Bihar), Highlands of Kerala, Keymore and Vindhya Plateaus (MP), Satpura Hills  and Plateau (MP), Bundelkhand, Arid and Malwa Plateau (MP), Vidarbha (Maharashtra), Northern Plateau and Hills of Orissa  and Hills of Rajasthan.

DPlains - Irrigated

North and South Coastal Andhra, Telangana, Bihar Plains, North Gujarat, Plains of Haryana, and Punjab, North Rajasthan, Coastal, Delta, Kanyakumari and Central Plains of Tamilnadu, NW U.P. Plains, Barind and Rarh Plains and Alluvial Plains of W. Bengal

EPlains – Arid/

Semi Arid

Rayalaseema and Southern Telangana,  South and Middle Gujarat, and Saurashtra, Northern and Central Plains of Karnataka, Chhatisgadh (MP), Central Plains of Maharashtra, Southern and Northern Arid Rajasthan Dharmapuri-Salem of Tamil Nadu, Eastern, Central and Western UP Plains and Coastal Plains of  W. Bengal,

F Coastal Coastal Andhra, Kerala, Orissa and Delta of Tamil NaduAnalysis of Typologies. These typologies and issues related with development of these regions are as follows.

Typology A

Mountainous covering Himalayan states in the Western and Eastern plains. High altitudes and slopes, large forests areas, perennial rivers leading to floods, soil erosion, silting up of down stream rivers. Inadequate roads and communication infrastructure and Jhum cultivation resulting in soil erosion are characteristics of this typology. Paddy dominated crop System.

Main issues are use of land according to slopes, soil erosion control, forest protection, and infrastructure building.

Typology B Hilly covering central, Southern and Eastern regions with high rainfall (> 1000 mm ), severe runoff, different quality forests and cereals based cropping due to shallow to medium soils. Under developed infrastructure of roads and markets.

Arresting of runoff, water harvesting, soil conservation, fodder and livestock development and logistic support for marketing are the main issues of growth.

Typology C Plateaus covering plateau and hills regions of Bihar , MP ( Vindhya, Satpura and Malwa), Orissa north, and hills of Rajasthan, normally having high rainfall with hill mounds and valleys interspersed with rivers and nallahs having surface runoff. Tanks form significant source of irrigation. Coarse cereals and pulses dominate cropping. Infrastructure for supplies and logistics is poor.

Main issues are control of runoff erosion, strengthening of tank irrigation, wasteland development covering fruits, fodder and fuel, and improvement of communication support.

Typology D

Plains-Irrigated represents the most important crop production area. Irrigation by Gangetic network and peninsular rivers in the South supplemented with tube-wells and shallow wells to fertile alluvial soils giving rise to extensive cultivation of paddy and wheat as well as high value crops like sugarcane are the main features. The infrastructure of marketing and transport is well developed and urbanization is higher (urban population 22%) compared to other types. Productivity levels of crops is quite high.

Reclamation of problem soils, water management through conjunctive use of canal and ground water, are the major issues.

Typology E Plains-Arid/semi-arid covers areas of Central AP, Saurashtra and middle and north Gujarat, North and Central Karnataka, Central plains of Maharashtra, Southern and North arid Rajasthan, UP plains and Dharmapuri -Salem of Tamil Nadu having rainfall around 800 mm . Low land productivity and poor soil fertility giving rise to low value cereals based cropping are characteristics of the regions of this type.

The major development issues are lack of long-term investment is land and water resources, horticulture, livestock and fodder.

Typology F Coastal represents regions of East and West Coasts covering coastal AP,

Kerala, Orissa and delta of Tamilnadu usually having high irrigation. Rice and horticultural crops dominate along with large fishery activity.

Development of infrastructure for fish processing, packaging and export, and distribution of fish seed and training of personnel in production and management of brackish water aquaculture are the prime issues of development.

Strategies

Development of state regions varies in their context of location specific problems and with resource base of the regions. Other activities of crops, livestock, forests,

fodder, horticulture, and fishery are compliments to or dependent on the pace of resource development, particularly, if land and water problems of land use and management, across the typologies do differ with the complexion of resource endowment and the con-committal investment needs. One has to list the strategies and involvement pattern, evaluate with reference to short and long tern prospects of and their development linkages, and prioritize the strategies. This would be task of regional planning bodies under the auspices of Panchayat Raj Institutions. Note, however, they are bound to be necessarily fine tuned in consonance with the

problem focus and decision environs. The strategies could be broadly classified as follows:

1. Land development and management is basically meant to alter the land characteristics in order to render resource utilization productive, viable and sustainable. The component strategies include development of wastelands, reclamation of problem soils such as usar, diara. khar. chaur. saline, alkaline and sodic soils, management of farming along slopes in hilly regions and soil conservation. One has to refer to these strategies on the regional context.

2. Water resource development and management handles issues of water resource development as a productive infrastructure in terms of river dams. tanks and tube-wells for which large investment is necessary, management is related to on-farm and in system water management effecting maximum efficiency in water distribution and delivery duly recognizing the need for maximum conservation and fair degree of equity. This could be a complement to the strategy.

3. Integrated watershed development mainly for the rainfed lands in medium to high rainfall regions. The components are soil conservation, water harvesting, designing suitable farming systems of integrated crop, livestock, horticulture and forestry activities. They vary in their importance with the needs of resources of regions. Infrastructural development for long-term investment, employment and income during the gestation period and assets structure are prerequisites for sustainable development. The degree of integration and its pattern depends much on policy intervention and participatory development.

4. Crops and crop development is based primarily on crop research and improvement through genetic engineering and biotechnology besides the traditional approaches in plant breeding and crop selection responsive to various stresses of moisture, biotics and environment. There is another dimension of crop choice and substitution to suit the resource pattern for optimum crop mix, choice of high value crops of horticulture and floriculture, the growing export needs of trade, and with focus on productivity and environment.

5. Horticultural development involves large investment in horticultural crops of export importance such as fruits and spices, flowers and orchids, high value vegetables, coffee and tea plantations in new areas of developed land resources. There are issues of crop complementarity, and substitution under irrigated cropping systems, crop introduction, establishment and management in rainfed areas and watersheds. Plant improvement, biotechnology and nursery management, large waiting periods, financing development are the areas of focus for R & D and information support as well.

6. Livestock development becomes significant in relation to income elastic demand for livestock products such as dairy, poultry and meat and domestic market has huge potentials. The pattern of livestock development depends upon crops and the complementarities with fodder availability and development, and in scope for trade. The components are determined on the basis of land and water resources and the pattern of their utilization. Management focus warrants for R & D on animal breeding, animal nutrition and feeding, and animal health care, and institutional support for effective introduction and organization of activities.

7. Fisheries development is confined to inland fisheries- both freshwater and brackish water

aquaculture, in the state regions. Marine fisheries are excluded by choice in our concern for development. The vast stretches of water bodies spread over riverine and coastal areas provide opportunities. Reclamation of derelict water bodies along river courses and tanks improvement offer scope for development of inland fisheries. There are certain environmental and social issues emerging which must be addressed. Establishment of hatcheries, distribution of seeds and information about fishery management, production and marketing and technology transmission are the operational issues for detailed study and policy formulation.

8. Farming system is a composite intervention package of all strategies discussed so far. Its uniqueness for special emphasis lies in its distinctive focus on optimization of the land use and water resource, with respect to income or employment or both. A high level management orientation and institutional support is involved. There are two variations in the approach, One is based on an activity which is the major around which complementary activities are specified. Paddy based farming system of paddy crops, ducks and fishes, and dairy based farming system of cows, fodder, feed grains and vegetables, are some of the examples. Another is resource based and depending upon demand and prices for products, supply responds in a mix of crop and non-crop activities, with no constraints on activity mix, It manifests in as a long run solution of growth and development of the regions. There can be options for farming systems choice for decisions in response to preference functions of farm family households, Intensive R&D is required.

9. Forest development has three dimensions of protecting and qualitative upgradation of existing forests; establishment of new forest cover to widen the base of forestry of regions; and introduction of forest components as silvipasture or agro and/or social forests. Regional needs would determine the components of forest development strategies.

10. Infrastructure development could be grouped under three categories which are (i) commodity improvement and value addition such as processing, packaging and storage, (ii) supportive road and communication services, and (iii) facilitating information and inputs delivery system, including finance and trade. Infrastructure supports all the nine strategies specified above in varying.

The analysis of the strategies for agricultural development based on the typology of the State Regions has special significance from the point of view of financial commitments and the inter departmental cooperation that is required at the State and district levels. This understanding, therefore has special significance for the banking community as well as other development functionaries.

References:

i. Basu, D.N. and Guha, G.S (1996). Agro-climatic Regional Planning in India –Vol I & II, New Delhi : Concept Publishing Company. ii. Bhalla, G.S and Singh, Gurmail (2001) Indian Agriculture: Four Decades of Development, New Delhi , Sage Publications. iii. Deshpande, R.S, Bhende, M.J, Thippaah, P and Vivekananda, M(2004) State of the Indian Farmer Vol. 9: Crops and Cultivation, New Delhi , Academic Foundation

iv. --------, Handbook of Agriculture, New Delhi , ICAR v. Hazra, C.R. Crop Diversification in India . http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e06.htm vi. http://www.krishiworld.com for material on cropping patterns. vii. http://wrmin.nic.in/resource for material on physiography.viii. Velayutham & Bhattacharyya, (2000) NBSS&LUP, ICAR, Nagpur : http://www.faidelhi.org/general/statistics/soil-group.htm for material on Soil groups and distribution.

Hand out relevant for Programmes on Financing Agriculture prepared by C P Mohan, Deputy General Manager and Member of Faculty, Reserve Bank of India , College of Agricultural Banking , Pune http://www.cab.org.in/default.aspx