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AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ATTEMPTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS IN WESTERN ETHIOPIA
Proceedings o f the Third Technology Generation, Transfer and Gap Analysis W orkshop, 12-14 N ovem ber 1996, Nekemt, Ethiopia
The W orkshop was Sponsored by UNDP and IAR
© Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), 1998
PO Box 2003 Tel: 251-1-612633 Fax: 251-1-611222 E-mail: [email protected]
The Ethiopian o f A gricultural Research Organization (EARO) encourages the fair use o f this publication. Proper citation is required
C ita tion :
Beyene Seboka and Aberra Deressa (eds.) 1998. Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer Attempts and Achievements in Western Ethiopia. Proceedings o f the Third Technology Generation, Transfer and Gap Analysis W orkshop. 12-14 N ovem ber 1996, N ekem t, Ethiopia
The views expressed in these proceedings are those o f the authors and not necessarily o f the EARO.
Contents
Acknowledgments iOpening address 1Agricultural technology adoption and production constraints in
West Wellega 2Livestock and crop production constraints and opportunities in
Illubabor Zone 6Agricultural technology generation, transfer and adoption in eastern
Wellega Zone 12Agricultural technology transfer and of adoption in Jimma agricultural zone 19Weed control in the western coffee growing areas of Ethiopia 22Agronomic research in southwestern of Ethiopia 29Transfer and adoption of improved technologies in southwestern Ethiopia 38Research recommendations for tef and sorghum production in western
Ethiopia 44Recommendation for spices production in humid areas of Ethiopia 47Recommended varieties and cultural practices for production of fruit
and tuber crops in southwestern Ethiopia 59Research achievements and transferable technologies in coffee agronomy 70Applicable research findings in production of Horro sheep 80Animal health research at Bako 87Dairy and beef technology development and achievements at Bako 92Research on feed resources of western Ethiopia 99Recommended agronomic practices for western Ethiopia 108Demonstration and popularization of improved crop varieties to
smallholder farmers in eastern Wellega and western Shewa 113Contributions of on-farm research in verification recommendation,
transfer and adoption of improved maize technologies in the Bako area 121Research achievements on some improved pulse and oil crops in
western Ethiopia 129Cultural practices, cropping systems and fertility management for maize production in western Ethiopia 133Research achievements in some horticultural crops in western Ethiopia 140Disease and pest control recommendations for western Ethiopia 145Insect pest control their recommendations and future needs for research in western Ethiopia 151
ACKNOW LEDGMENTS
Bringing this workshop to fruition would not have been possible without generous support from different institutions and individuals. We would like to take the opportunity to thank them all. If it was not for the generous support of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) the workshop probably would not have been organized at all. The generous support of IAR, Nazret Research Center and Nekemt Agricultural Development Department duly acknowledged. Finally, our sincere appreciation extended to the Chairpersons and Rapporteur for handling different sessions. The editors acknowledge Abebe Kirub of the Information Srivices of EARO for making this proceedings ready for publication and Kidanemariam Hagos for producing artwork for the cover.
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Opening AddressDejene Tolu,Head, Eastern Weliega Zone Agricultural Development Bureau
Dear Participants Ladies and Gentlemen
On behalf of the Eastern Wellega Zone Agricultural Development Department and on my behalf, it is indeed a great pleasure to participate on the opening ceremony of this workshop.
I believe this occasion will enable to evaluate yourselves and be evaluated by front-line agricultural experts regarding the relevancy and adoption of the research based technologies, i.e., what have been your contributions to the improvement of peasant agriculture? What lessons have been learnt from past research and extension interventions?, What are the future challenges?
In recent past, efforts have been made by various agricultural institutions in generating and transferring technologies to small scale farmers. However, the impacts of these efforts made either as joint venture or in isolated manner remained much below the expectation, due to various reasons. Of all, the lack of efficient technology transfer and weak linkages are cited repeatedly as major reasons. At present because of consolidation of Ethiopia's peace the global food aid is being reduced. This has happened not only for having stability in peace, but also the aggressive extension program of the government has enhanced and ensured the transfer of research recommendations to the farming communities. Peasant fanners, for instance, currently getting a bumper harvest per unit area from maize and wheat to the extent of saturating the local market by using locally generated technologies provided to them through this aggressive extension program. In this regard, the challenge we face today goes beyond the question of increased productivity and self sufficiency in the short term, therefore, research should be prepared to address the issue of sustainability in agricultural production.
By taking advantages of the existing conducive environment for rural-centered development, created by government you need to join hands and act harmoniously through appropriate platforms and on practical settings to be able to make agricultural performance synergistic effects of researchers, university scientists, front-line agricultural experts and input as well as credit facilitators.
I would believe the organization of this workshop by IAR is to further enhance the mutual deliberation of different actors involved in technology development and transfer, so that the key actors at each side of the spectrum may discuss the challenges, Options and opportunities for future research and extension interventions. Therefore, we have to take advantage from this workshop.
Without further taking your time, 1 would like to thank the Institute of Agricultural Research and the organizing committee for organizing this three-day workshop in Nekemte. I also thank the UNDP for sponsoring this workshop. Finally, I declare this workshop officially open and wish all the best in your deliberations.
Thank you!
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AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION AND PRODUCTION
CONSTRAINTS IN IN WEST WELLEGAWest Wellega Zone Agricultural Development Department
Introduction
West W ellega is one o f the potential zones o f Orom ia Region for both crop and livestock production. But the productivity is very low as a result o f traditional practices o f the small
scale farmers. In most cases farmers use oxen plow or hand hoes to till their land, they do not use selected seeds, fertilizers and improved practices due to poor extension services and unavailability o f agricultural technology. To change this condition different attempts had been made such as the present aggressive extension program.
West Wellega is a mixed farming system. It has undulating topography. The total area is estimated to 2,222,212.5 ha, out o f which 55.6% is arable. At present 38% are being cultivated, 10.49% forest land, 13.87% grazing land and the remaining 20.04 % includes other land uses and land that cannot be utilized for any planned production. The population o f this zone is estimated to be 1.5 million. 91% o f which live in rural area. The altitude o f west Wellega ranges from 1200 to 3000 m. The climatic zones are characterized as 9% dega, 56% weina dega and 35% kola. The annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 400 mm and 15 to 17 °C annual temperature. The m ajor crops tef, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, wheat, coffee and others. Coffee is the major cash crop. There are about 1.3 million cattle, 56,794 equines 395,427 sheep and goats and 578.039 poultry .
Even though west Wellega was known to have been covered by forest, this has been lost due to land clearing for cultivation, over logging, cutting for fuel wood, over grazing and high termite infestation. In this zone, farmers use limited improved agricultural inputs and because o f diseases such as trypanosom yasis and CBPP, the livestock productivity is very low. The large portion o f agricultural output is consum ed at the farm or villages level
Despite efforts m ade through extension intervention, improvement is not as expected because o f the lack o f integration o f agricultural disciplines such as livestock, forest and conservation o f natural resources for sustainable agricultural developm ent as well as the poor rem unerative market conditions for farmers.
Crop Husbandry
According to the 1996 crop year data, in west Wellega Zone cereals cover 62%, leguminous crops 4% and oil crops 2% o f the cultivated land.
The major insect pests (termites, stock borer, sorghum shoot fly, and weevils etc.), diseases (blight,
rust head smudge and CBD and different weed species are reducing agricultural yield in the zone.
The existing extension-support practices
■ Supplying improved varieties of crops such as maize, sorghum, tef and wheat.■ Supplying fertilizers■ Use of herbicides, and insecticides■ Improved cultural practices mainly site selection, use of recommended seed rate, rate of
fertilizer application, time of weeding, frequent field supervision, and post-harvest management.
About 10% of the farmers'who use these technologies obtained 3 to 4 times yield advantage over the local cultural practices. For instance, maize hybrids gave, 70 - 100 qha'1 yield on naturally fertile land, but on poor to medium fertile soils pqor performance and sterility were observed and low yield was obtained in 1995/96. The improved sorghum varieties (Birmash) has not been acceptance by farmers due to its short height, compact head and short maturity period. The improved tef variety DZ-354 has also got no acceptance by farmers, too, because of its sterility and lodging problem.
The major production constraints in field crops production are:
■ Management problems:► insufficient supply of inputs,► high price of technological inputs and low-price of farmers output,► lack of long term credit services► young farmers mobility from rural to urban,► lack of infrastructure for wide diffusion of technologies among the farmers, and► lack of strong liaison between researchers, extensionists and farmers.
■ Technical problem s that need efficient extension system :► reduced land productivity due to poor soil management and► limited expansion of extension services.
■ Technical problems that needs research priorities:► im proving the local crop species and► m onitoring and evaluation o f the released technologies on farmers field.
Vegetables, fruits and root crops are produced in the zone. The total area covered by these crops is lim ited to 3% o f the total cultivated land. The yield is very low too, because o f unim proved traditional practices and the lack o f improved seed supply. To overcome these problems, efforts w ere m ade to dissem inate horticultural production technologies through dem onstrations, supply im proved variety, and establishing seedling multiplication and distribution center.
But the program has not achieved the expected result due to limited capacity of the farmers to purchase the expensive improved seeds and lack of irrigation schemes.
To overcome there problems supply o f the improved varieties should be at reaisonable price, budgets should be available to expand the seedlings multiplication and distribution sites, irrigation scheme
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should be setup, and training should be available for capacity building:
Technology Adoption
Coffee Production
West Wellega is suitable for coffee production. Coffee is the major perennial cash crop in all Weredas. Through the area covered by coffee vary from year to year on average it is estimated to be 103314 ha.
As cffee production extension is being undergone, there is a high demand for new production technologies. Te west Wellega extension team is supplying seedlings of improved selections, helping to control CBD and recommendihg improved cultural practices.
Some of the important constraints in coffee production in west Wellega Zone ae; since the canopy of the coffee could not cover the surface for suppression Of weeds, the farmers are complaining on the spacing, there is no detail information on the specific agroclimatic zone for planting improved coffee selections, inadequate supply of chemicals and their high prices, and lack of skilled workforce and working materials.
Livestock
West Wellega’s economy is so closely linked with its livestock. Even though a significant look at feeding, breeding, handling and control, routine farm operation, maintenance of health as well as housing and hygiene are all important technologies to be enlightened and used to increase animal production in west Wellega zone, except limited technologies on livestock feeding and animal health there is still a heavy reliance on traditional livestock production system.
Technology adoption on animal feeds, feed production practices, efficient use and management option of animal feeds, and selection of balanced ration are all required in livestock production. But in west Wellega zone only under sowing is the technology disseminated and remained with no significant-success.
Livestock disease costs farmers a lot of money annually. Attempts should be made to aware fanners in practical and scientific information related to the most important disease affecting farm animals and their control measures.
The importance of hides and skins stands second to coffee in terms of generating cash for farmers. Improving the quality o f hides and skins in West Wellega zone is less emphasized.
The major production constraints in livestock production in the zone include;
■ Lack of carefully planned animal breeding and production strategy as well as the absence of an umbrella organization,
■ Lack of evaluation of the different potential local breeds,* Extension packages, breeding and production strategies, and credit facilities are all
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incomplete, and are coordinated only at institutional level,General lack o f systematic integration o f livestock, crop production, forestry and fishing, Absence o f appropriate and dependable vaccines, inefficient prevention and control o f disease and parasites,.Com m ercial livestock marketing is restricted to a few m ajor towns.The inadequacy o f infrastructure,Too little involvement in livestock production sector such as fattening, poultry, dairy, animal feed enterprise, m arketing, veterinary services, beekeeping and fishing,Absence o f credit facilities, andinsufficient services rendered from regional agricultural development offices as well as from breeding and production centers.
LIVESTOCK AND CROP PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS AND
OPPORTUNITIES IN ILLUBABOR ZONE
Introduction
Illubabor being one of the western zones of the Oromia Region, is boardered in Northwest and East by West Wellega Zone, on east by Jima Zone and on south by the region of South People, on the West by Gambella Region, The Zone has predominantly undulating type of topographic
features with no significant heights and depressions. The Illubabor Zone is endowed with various natural resources. The Zone has a total estimated area of 19,000 sq km of which 22% can be used for agricultural purposes. Even though, according to the FAO soil map, the major type of soil is Dystricnitosol, soils such as Orrtic Aacrisols, Vertisols and Dystric Cambisols are also found on some areas of the zone.
The Zone has two major basins, Abay and Baro basins. The major rivers crossing the Zone are Didessa, Sor, Birbir, Geba, Dabana and Barokela. The zone is one of the heavy rainfall areas in the country getting rainfall most months of the year with variable distribution from place to place depending on altitude difference. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1200 to 2800 mm. The annual temperature varies between 4 °C and 32 °C. Based on the topographic map there are four agroclimatic zones in the region, namely kola (1000 to 1500 m), woina dega (1500 - 1700 m), lower dega (1700 to 2200 m) above sea level.
The total population of the Zone is estimated at 913,071. It has been assumed that more than 90% of the population derive their livelihood from agricultural activities.
Features and Roles of LivestockLivestock production system of the Zone is traditional. In this system the cattle play very important role in the provision of traction power, while horses, mules and donkeys partially offset transportation problems in the rural areas where access road are rare. Sheep, goats and poultry are the main providers of cash income and home consumption for fanning families.
Livestock play an important role in the daily life of the pleasant sector which owns 95% of the total livestock. It provides meat, milk, egg, transport, traction power, manure, skins and hides. Moreover , domestic animals in general and cattle in particular are considered as bank and sources of security for the peasant. The cattle in the Zone are overwhelmingly dominated by he Horro breed which is indigenous to the country. They are better for beef production than dairy. The cows are low milk vielders per lactation and have relatively short lactation period, usually less than 6 months.
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Oxen are the only source of traction power. They are required for land preparation, intercultivation and threshing. There is no fixed time regarding the service year o f oxen and thus they are used until they get old. Normally, oxen are not sold during their service year, unless they are seriously ill. If an ox is to be sold, in most cases, it will get rest and left with the herds freely to graze, in rare case it will be separated from the herd and stall-fed to fatten it so that a fair prize could be earned. Rarely it may be slaughtered, to be shared among villagers. Female cattle are composed o f heifer calves, heifers and lactating or non lactating cows. First mating for heifers may commence at the age o f 3 to 5 years depending on health, feed and other environmental conditions.
As it is mentioned above, the local cows are characterized by a relatively low milk yielders (loss than 2 lit/day), short lactation period (less than 6 month) and very limited calving interval (greater than two years). Farm families are more interested in fast breeding and high milk producer, in order o f importance. These cows are not culled out unless they passed their productive age or if conditions dictated the owners to sale. During the first half or more o f a lactation period, cows are milked in the m orning and evening. Whole milk, skimmed milk and cheese are used as parts o f fam ily nutrition and for sales as well. Butter and some cheese are the most marketed milk byproducts as com pared to others.
Sheep, goats and poultry are often sold especially when cash is required urgently. The contribution o f sheep and goat to family nutrition is second to cash income. Basically, meat is not part o f the usual family dish, it is consumed in particula occasions such as holydays and traditional practices.
Donkeys, horses, and mules are used for transportation in rural areas where roads are rare. They are required mostly when taking farm products fuel wood and charcoal to local markets and when receiving farm inputs from delivery centers. Horses and mules are also used for transporting people. But these animals are not owned by most families. Hence, most farm families either hire or, in few cases, ask for cooperation to use horse and mules for transportation.
Generally in crop based livestock production system, the animal plays a very important role in all agricultural activities. The animal is every thing to the farmer. No animal means no crop and no fu tu re ..
Feeds and Feed Management
Almost all sources o f feed in the Zone is natural pasture supplemented with crop residues (stubbles and straws). The availability and composition o f feeds depends on seasons. In dry season, stubble farm s are available and marshy areas dry up. thus, enabling grazing on a relatively large area supplemented with crop residues and bushes. In the wet season, farms are under crops and marshy lands are waterlogged, which largely limit feed resources to the main pasture land supplemented with weeds, thinned crop stalks and other green chaff.
Before the land reform of 1975 individual fanners had the right to close o ff their grazing lands and grow natural grass (giving rest or allow to grow). After land reform, however, this practice had been adversely affected together with grazing methods. Since the tenure right o f farm families is limited to crop lands, none o f them have legal right to ask for and protect grazing lands. Even the protection o f tem porary fallow lands on individual holdings has become very difficult in several areas and farmers were forced to fallow plots o f land in the center o f cultivated farms. Mixed grazing is a
common practice in which several livestock classes irrespective Of their sex are tended on pasture \lands. Similarly they graze fresh crop stubbles inside. Stall feeding (including cut and carry is used to alleviate problems temporarly.
Livestock DiseaseAnimal diseases limit the yield of indigenous stock, restrict the introduction of productive animals, and constrain investment in this sector* In the zone, there are epidemics of infectious diseases with high rates of morbidity, which could be controlled with effective vaccination. Blacklegs, j pastevrolosis, anthrax, CBPP brocellosis are some of commonly seen bacterial diseases, while' African horse sickness, lumpy skin disease, foot and mouth, rabies, renderpest and new castle are observed viral diseases. Trypanosomiasis, babesiosis, cocidiosis are trichomoniasis are the common protozoal diseases. It is estimated that 40% of the Zone is infested by tse-tse fly. Endoparasites and ectoparasites are also widely distributed in the Zone.
Livestock disease which are to be prevalent in the Zoneare:
Bacterial diseases: blackleg (Aba gorba), pasteurollosis (Gororsa), anthrax (Aba sanga), contageous Borine pleuro pnemonia (Samba), brocellosis (Yewurja beshita), actinobacillasis, mastites (mixed) and salmonellosis.
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Viral diseases: african horse sickness, lumpy skin disease, foot and mouth disease, rabies, rinderpest (desta) and newcastle disease.
Prptozoal diseases: trypanosomiasis, babesiosis, cocdiosis, trichomosis and theleriosis
Fungal Diseases: footrot, ringworm, streptothichosis, episootic lymphangitis and actinocycasis
Endo Parasites: faxcolosis, paraphistomiasis, ascariosis, cysticercosis, strongilosis, dictycalus and theliazia
Livestock Technology Transfer and AdoptionIn line with national objectives of developing the livestock resource, services have given to the peasant farmers in different times with different approaches. Most of the services have focused on animal health care, breed improvement and feed resource development in order of importance.
The major animal health care services; are vaccination against infectious diseases and treatment against trypanosomiasis, and internal and external parasites. In this regard a number of animals are vaccinated'and treated which have saved and benefitted the farm families very well:
Apart from the regular program of the MO A, the national tse-tse fly control and trypanosomiasis
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study center stationed at Bedele is dealing with animal health improvement. Nevertheless, the activities are limited in certain areas and it has cleared tse-tse flies from small part of the Zone. The systems and methods used in controlling tse-tse fly has to continue by participating the community at large. With regard to improved animal breeds, attempts have been made to distribute, cross bred dairy heifers, bulls, rams, improved poultry stock. Improved beehives with their equipment have also been distributed.
In order to improve and develop the peasant dairy farm during the past regime, priority were given to Producers Cooperatives and Service Cooperatives. However, members did not trust that the properties belong to them. This led to a mis management of these animals.
Interruption of Producer Cooperatives and Service Cooperatives affected further continuation of the activities, and consequently the cooperatives’ animals were sold to individuals. This introduction of improved breeds created awareness and demand by the local farmers. But the production/multiplication activities of improved dairy heifers and bulls were limited. Hence, the peasant dairy farm development through improving the local breeds technology is not yet to be materialized at farmer level. Lack of multiplication centers remain the major constraint for further dissemination of these improved livestock breeds.
Regarding distribution of improved poultry stock, several improved pullets and cockerels have been given to the farmers. Even though the stocks are potentially productive, pop^management, lack of proper drugs and balanced feed are the major factors for under exploitation of the genetic potential of the stock.
In developing the potential resource of bee keeping of the Zone about one thousand improved beehives with their equipment have been distributed for Producers Cooperative and farmers in different times. Though the introduction of this technology has shown good result, the activities have also been interrupted with the dissolution of the cooperatives. Consequently, many of the beehives have been lost, broken, damaged by termites and a few of them are sold to individuals. The demand for this technology is very high at farmers level at present.
In developing animal feed resources, emphasis have been given to the demarcation, improvement and utilization of natural pasture and development of improved forage technologies.
Improved forage development technologies have been also introduced to the cooperatives and individual fanners. In order to realize this, strategies of Fourth Livestock Development Program (FLDP) have been adopted. This strategy includes backyard forage development, undersawing or inter planting forage strip development, improvement of excluded areas and fodder crop production. FLDP has distributed seeds of forage crops such as vetch, cowpea, desrhodtum, rhodes, cocks foot, phalaris, elephant grass, and fodder crops fodderbeet.
Most of the strategies in adopting this technology have been started and promising results are being achieved from collective holdings before the collapse of the cooperatives. At present, all the activities are carried out by individual farmers at demonstration level.
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Constraints and SuggestionsThe limitations to increased livestock developments can be grouped in to technical and nontechnical constraints.
Technical Constraints
The primary constraints to higher productivity are health, feed, genetic potential and management as well.
H e a lth : animal health is the major constraint limiting the development of indigenous stock, restricting the introduction of more productive animals and other technologies such as Artificial Insemination (AI). service and restricting investors in the development of this sub-sector. Shortage of vaccines and drugs are highly affecting the activities of veterinary services of the Zone.
FQ BdSl with the contifluos encroachment of crop productionin to grazing or pasture land as a result of population growth, available grazing land and consequently development of improved forage is declining and hence, feed shortage and nutrient deficiencies are becoming more acute.
LOW g e n e tic m akeup*, the genotype of livestock has evolved largely as a result of natural selection influenced By environmental factors. This has made the stock better conditioned to withstand feed and water shortages, disease challenges, harsh climates and poor management of the farmer.
K nO W hOW O f th e fa rm e r* includes feeding practices, sheltering, and all management aspects and adapting technologies and modem production systems in developing this sector are very much iimitted.
Non Technical Constraints
L a c k o f d e a r a n d s e c u r e d la n d te n u re s y s te m : during the past regime discriminatory allocation of land in favor of collective farming and absence of users’ right discouraged small fanners and investors from investing in livestock farming. Equally important was the mismanagement of grazing lands, and soil and water conservation.
inadequate services:
Absence Of infrastructures: such as roads force animals to move long distances with out stock routes., resting areas, watering and feeding points which results in substantial weight Josses of the animals.
Lack o f integrated agricultural development: Development strategies and endeavors are not sufficiently integrated both with in agriculture and other sectors. In the Zone the production of cereals, coffee, afforestation, livestock development and other activities are carried out independently.
Lack Of population policy: it is common knowledge that one of the crucial factors in resource utilization is population pressure. With growing population, the pressure on grazing land increase too.
Financial problems:
Insufficient budget
Insufficient skilled workforce: in the Zone there are S Veterinary Doctors, 16 assistant veterinarians, 48 animal health technicians, 6 animal breeding, 1 forage development and 8 livestock byproducts workers at the wereda level. The is tremendously low.
Weak research in livestock sector and extension linkage:
Structural instability:
Crop Production TechnologyIn order to introduce the modern agricultural technologies to the farmers, the agricultural Extension service started in Illubabor zone as an observatory in 1971. having three Weredas. Due to the previous different policies of the country this extension service was not continuing as it was expected. But it has been going on and off until the launching of the present extension package program.
Introduced Technologies
At the beginning the extension service in the Zone the first step was to make the fanner familiar with different teclmologies such as improved seed varieties, soil fertilizer and different improved cultural practices With the help of a half ha demonstration fields and trial plots on model farmers fields. These technologies includes: different soil fertilizer, different improved seed varieties, row planting and different pesticides and herbicides.
Constraints for Adoption of Crop Technologies
With the help of the above activities undey different extension programs different modem technologies were introduced and adopted/by the farmers. However, the adoption of these technologies were not occurred without constraints. The major constraints include: high price for inputs, distributing of improved seeds to the farmers without conducting adaptive trials. Less emphasis for composite varieties of maize which have got acceptance and high demand by the farmers post-harvest problem, lack of market, the problem of vertebrate pests shortage of trained development agents and week exchange of information between research and extension.
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AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY GENERATION, TRANSFER
AND ADOPTION IN EASTERN WELLEGA ZONE
' East Wellega Zone Agricultural Development Department ________________________________ _______________________ ______________________
Introduction
East Wellega Zone is bounded from east by West Shoa Zone, from north by Amhara Region, from south by Jimma and Illubabor Zones, and from west by West Wellega Zone. The total area of the Zone is 2,548,685 ha and estimated human population is 1,124,424. The average rainfall
ranges from 900 mm to 1800 mm and the altitude ranges from 1200 to 3000 m. The Zone has undulating topography with gentle slopes, in most cases. The agro-ecological zones constitute, highland 11.29%, mid-altitude 50% and lowland 38.71%. The soil type is almost Nitosols. The major crops grown On this soil are maize, tef, sorghum, barley, wheat and others. There are also different types o f livestock kept by the farmers. The total population of livestock estimated to be 1,535,148.
Although there are suitable agro-ecological features, the farming people of this zone are not benefited due to poor agricultural management and inappropriate method of production. In order to overcome the production problems faced by farmers different extension interventions were attempted in the past. At precent the Ethiopian Government has given great emphasis to the implementation of aggressive extension package program. As a result of this extension program agricultural production increased and the income of participating fawners improved. This initiated other farmers to participate in the extension program. To satisfy the high demand of these farmers new technologies are generated, transferred and adopted at a faster ratethan ever before in the last three years. The aim of this paper is to present the efforts made to transfer agricultural technologies during the last three years and constraints of production encountered during the course of action.
Technology Transfer and AdoptionDuring the last three years a number of agricultural technologies are transferred to farmers. Some of these technologies performed well under field conditions while others showed poor performance (Table). : -
Maize f +
The maize varieties included in the package are BH-660, BH-140, BH-540, PHB-343 5, PHB-3253from hybrids and Beletech and Kulani from composite. The recommended fertilizer rate for these *varieties is 100 kgha" DAP at the time of planting and 0.5 kgha ’of urea applied at kneeheight. Seed
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rate recommended is 25 kgha'1 and planted in rows between plants 25 cm and 80 cm between rows.'1
Wheat
The improved varieties of wheat included in the extension package are pavett-76, HAR-710, HAR- 1709 and ET 13. The recommended fertilizer rate for each variety is 100 kgha*5 DAP and urea at time of planting. Recommended seed rate is 150 kgha'1 for broadcast method of planting.TefThe improved tef varieties included in the extension package for the last two years are DZ-01-354, DZ-01-196 and cross 37. The recommended fertilizer rate for these varieties in 1995 was 1:1 ration, i.e. 100 kgha*' applied at planting time. In 1996 the fertilizer application rate is 1:0.5 (100 kg DAP and 50 kgha'1 urea applied at planting time. The recommended seed rate was 30 kg/ha with broadcasting. The yield obtained from each variety is indicated on table 1.
Comments on Technology Generated and Transferred
Maize
BH-660: the introduction of this new hybrid variety was started in 1994 by SG2000 project. Since its popularization this variety has get great acceptance by the fanners. Even though there is great demand by the farmers the seed supply is not satisfactory. But in extension package of 1996 this seed has lost its previous performance either due to seed impurity or quality seed. Sterility problem is also obscured. This may limit the demand of this hybrid in the fiiture.
BH-1402this variety is also introduced at the same time with BH-660 by SG2000 project and also it is included in the extension package program. Since then it has better performed in vegetative and yield at lower altitude than farmers own seed and other composites. But as farmers comment it has got very short height Which can easily expos it to wild animals, its ears open which expose to bird damage, and rain water and favors the growth of certain disease specially virus.
BH-540: this is hewly introduced variety and it is too early to comment.
PHB-3435: the popularization of this variety was started in 1993 by the Ethiopian Pioneer and included in extension package of the 1995. Even though this variety has yield advantage over the fanners variety, its seed price is expensive, ears open and exposed to rain water and bird damage, hig nutrient feeder when compared to other hybrids and had low yield performance. Therefore, it has no demand by farmers.
PHB-3253: newly introduced variety of Ethiopian Pioneer Seed Company. Its yielding (Opacity is not widely known. But when observed in the field it has got better stand than PHB-3435. In 1996
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this hybrid was included in the extension package program.
Beletech: this is a composite seed on popularization program for longer year. The seed o f this variety has the advantage o f being used for 2 or 3 years without significant yield reduction over the other hybrid seeds. It is early maturing variety and used as a remedy for short rainy season. But it is susptable to certain diseases, small cobe size and high extent o f sterility problem. Due to this and other factors it has no significant yield advantage over the farmers own variety.
Kulani: since this variety is newly introduced composite, except its good vegetative stand itsyielding advantage is not yet well known.
W h e a t
HAR-710: its perform ance especially around Jim ma-Horro was good in the first year o f introduction and its yield advantage over the farm er’s own variety was better. This variety has got performance in seed quality and market price. Although there is a demand by farmers, the promotion and popularization o f this variety was not expanded as expected.
HAR-1709: the promotion and popularization o f this variety was started in 1996. Its vegetative perform ance is not bad.
ET-13: this variety was introduced to the zone in from 1994 as an on-farm verfication trial and in 1995 through extension package. The variety has good field perform ance and yielding capacity as a result farmers have strong dem and for this variety.
K6295: this variety started to be popularized in 1995. It has showed better yield perform ance than that o f the farm ers’ variety but by now it is out o f the program for unknown reason.
Paven-76: it was introduced 1994. The yielding capacity o f this variety was good, but since it is susceptible to disease its grain quality was reduced. If not attacked by disease its yielding capacity' could be high and grain quality could be preferable.
T e f
Variety Cross 37 is the highest yielder (22 q h a 1) in Amuru Jarte wereda. The fertilizer recom m endation rate for te f needs further study at different soil fertility and different locality. Technical m anagem ent should also be specified accordingly
A g ro -c h e m ic a ls
Farm ers in the Zone understand 'he importance o f different agro-chemicals, which are being introduced through o f demonstration . However, o f these chemicals are very expensive resource- poor farmers.
14
Adoption Constraints■ Rapid increase of agricultural inputs prices and the decrease in price of agricultural produce,
■ Credit schemes are requiring dawn payment, which limit the purchasing power of farmers,
■ Credit from commercial banks includes only fertilizer thus, does not help fanners to use other inpiit technologies,
■ Slow pace in generating new technology,
■ Lack of pulses and oil crops varieties and production technology,
■ Untimely supply of agricultural inputs as well as seed shortage of some varieties,
■ Deteriorating seed qualty,
■ The improved farm tools could not meet farmers interest, especially moldboard plough, and
■ Soil conservation is not included in the extension package program.
ConclusionFrom past extension package program farmers had been obtained bumper harvest from crop technologies provided to them. For example, the highest yield obtained from improved maize hybrid is 60 to 102 qha'1. The average yield increment over the farmers yield is found to be 44 to 82 qha*1. In the case of wheat, all the varieties use in the package gave high yield (30 to 50 qha"1). The average increment over the farmers yield is 20 to 30 qha'1. This yield advantage increased the interest of farmer to adopt these new crop varieties.
The dissemination of these technologies should be pushed more to reach farmers so that the prevailing food shortage and economic development problem of the country will be solved.
Animals and Fisheries ResourceLivestock potential of East Wellega Zone is to be estimated as high as 1.5 million. And there are appreciable potential of apiculture and fisheries. But extension efforts made to improve this great wealth is very minimum. All development work of this sector is based on routine activities except feeds development extension which partially include package program using only one strategy^.
Table 1. Demonstration results of maize, wheat and tef
CropVarieties
No of demonstration (1994-1996) Average yield {qha ’)
94 95 96 94 95
Maize BH-660 133 363 4812 55 59BH-140 33 214 949 47 53BH-540 1 1 • 62PHB-3435 S 19 1153 42 50PHB-3253 3 544 39Kulani 165 "Beletech 99 75 46 35
Wheat Pavei»76 37 59 ' -5e+08 26 32HAR 710 3 26HAR 1709 • -
E T 13 23 38 28 31
Tef Dz-01-354 163 142 , 1e+07Dz-01-196 - 80 162 •
Cross 37 • 43 •
Dz-01-787 18 *
Source: Zonal progres report,
Technology Transfer and Adoption
Cattle, sheep and goats:
■ Small holders fattening extension using improved forage residues, bar salt and local brewers byproduct familiarized to farmers at lesser level.
■ Introduction of 50% cross dairy stocks to producers cooperatives of the past regime still arise strong demand from farmers as forage based dairy technology was widely known .
P o u ltry : improved poultry breeds have been familiarized to farmers. Also egg and dual purpose breeds disseminated to improve egg and meat production and the demand is strong, while there is supply problem
Apiculture: technology of honey production using modem hives is well introduced to farmers of potential areas, in the past where present extension activity is forced only to focus on teaching and demonstration due to high price and no supply sources of modem hives.
Fisheries: ' different productive fish types such as tilapia and common crop have been introduced to two artificial dams in addition to Fincha and Merti dams which have tremendous fish yield. Short supply and price increment on the harvesting materials like boats and nets are the major constraint for fishery production.
Anim al feeds: improved forage development technology generated by FLDP (MoA) has
already transferred to fanners and adopted to appreciable extent Using development strategies best fit to the existing farming system to support low quality natural pasture, forage development strategies like over sowing for grazing land improvement,: backward forage, forage strips development, and under-sowing or interplantihg by recommended varieties are widely introduced to fanners. Nowadays farmers are in a position to harvest forage seeds of tree legumes, vetch and cowpea. Importance of forage development extension is getting high demand specially at high and medium altitude areas, where sever food shortage manifested. Forage extension package activity started this year by interplanting vetch and cowpea varieties. It was done, under maize crop which unfortunately showed some performance failure due to technical reasons. Contractual forage seed production extension is becoming popular among the farmers because of the inviting prices set for each variety.
Livestock and Livestock Product Marketing
Regarding livestock marketing survey, data collection is regularly done. Extension technology to improve the quality of hides and skins seems to be loose.
Gaps in Animal Resource Technology Transfer
■ Misunderstanding the existing farming system and over looking the role of livestock in formulating development strategies; that is lack of animal resources development package,
■ Lack of integrated approach of expertise aimed at integrated development and■ Lack of extension guide or strategies for livestock and livestock products marketing.
Constraints of Livestock Development
■ Lack of resources identification and characterization work, which helps as baseline information for full exploitation of the genetic pool and national livestock breeding policy marketing,
■ Less development attention or focus towards this isub-sector,■ Poor management mainly aggravates feed shortage specially natural pasture due to extensive
cultivation, traditional animal breeding practices, poor and animal health services and lacking close linkage With feeds development to undertake extension activity.
Suggestions
■ In order to strengthen the veterinary service, vaccines and drugs should be available near by the concerned beneficiary zone. There should be zonal vaccine and drug stores.
■ Safe, economically sound, simple and integrated methodologies has to be derived and put in to action with the participation of communities in controlling tse-tse fly (trypanosomiasis) in collaboration with MoA, research centers, Beddele laboratory and others.
■ The construction of veterinary clinics should not be limited at wereda level. Health posts should be opened at development sites (service cooperatives). Researchers has to study in more detail animal health related problems.
■ The decline and/or degradation of grazing lands should be protected by policies and tows.■ In the attempts done in the development of forage pastures and seeds, the Bako research center
17
has to take a part in identifying planting time, land preparation and other cultural practices for the im provem ent o f feed resources.Researchers should to give attention for livestock sector in studying potential indigenous breeds and in preservation o f the gene o f pool.
V
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND OF ADOPTION IN
tM zone with the recerit inclusion of two Weredas from Illubabor. Mostofthe Weredas are based on coffee cultivation with good potentials for cereal production; The altitude of the zone ranges from 1000 to 3344 m. the rainfall is 1400 mm/annum and the temperature ranges from 10 to 30 °C and the major soil is said to be nitisol.
The climatic zones are about three namely; Dega, woina dega, and KdUa constituting about 20%, 75% and 5%, respectively.
The total land area is estimated to be about 1,927,199.56 ha of which annual crops accounts 435,001.56, perennials 125,251.5 and forest and bushes 515,654 ha. The perennial crops includes coffee, citrus, papaya and others.
The major crops grown in the zone are maize, tef, sorghum and wheat. Wheat is included from the interest of national extension package program otherwise it is not a major crop in the zone.For the sake of comparison and evaluating the transfer of technology in the zone the production of cereals under improved and traditional practices is as follows: maize 18 qha'1 5 qha"1 sorghum 10 qha"1 and 9 qha'1. The production obtained from the budget year of 1996/97 is shown on table 1 the highest yield obtained from varieties BH-669, ET-13 and C-37 for maize, wheat and tef respectively (Table 1).
The maize composite called beletech was very susceptible to leaf b light for which it gave the lowest yield even less than local varieties. As to the tef varieties, there was about two that were introduced to the farmers, DZ-OI-354 and Cr-37. Only on few plots that the? yield was obtained from these varieties. That is why farmers who grew these varieties did not able to pay their debt.
* Poor seed quality on maize especially PHB-3253 was also observed and PHB-3435 which the seedis broken and rotten. The maize varieties such as PHB-3253 and BH-140 do have a character of early maturing. The ear of maize stands up right which enable the water to get in and rotten the grain
+■ and initiate the development of fungus like Dipolodia toggrowen. BH-660 and the local variety donot have this problem.
Crop Production
it)
C offee
As it is known to all Jim ma is said to be the origin o f coffee which one could easily visualize the truth that coffee is widely found in the forest and appreciated with its good yield and quality.
In the zone there is 4 project (CIP) areas which is financed by EEC and the others budgeted from the governm ent. The total area o f under coffee is 60678 ha from which 42917 ha planted traditionally and the other 17761 ha planted to CBD. The yield obtained from mother trees, stumped resistant varieties and planted selections is 4.5, 5.6 and 7.3 qha 1 respectively.
The strategy to popularize improved coffee agronomy practices include to plantimg o f coffee varieties resistant to CBD, to growing seedlings on own nursery, appropriate field selection, recommend digging o f hole, temporary and permanent shade trees intercropping o f crops, picking red cherries, and stumping
Major constraints:
■ serious CBD yield loss,■ lack and expensive fungicides,■ lack o f inputs such as fertilizer,■ low price o f crop yield,■ introduction o f crop varieties to unverified/ un tested areas, eg. D Z -01-354, cross 37 and
Beletech,■ Poor seed quality such as PHB-3253 and 3435,■ lack o f post-harvest facilities,■ pest problem s and,■ untim ely supply o f inputs.
Solutions:
■ floor prices should be set■ pre-testing and verifying new technologies before introduction to new areas,■ proper post harvest m anagem ent and,■ soil conservation should be included in extension package too.
20
>
Table 1. Grain yield (q) of maize and wheat varieties in extension package program at different potential areas, 1996/97.
Wereda Maize Wheat
1BH 660 BH 140 PHB 3253 PHB 3435 ET-13 K 6290 Bulk K 62954A
Comma . 6 16 71.25 9.5 • •
Manna - '• 4.5 7.5 6
Qarsa 22.75 11.88 9.75 25.13 12 v 12.75 7.5
UKosa 19.5 42.25 88 - ■■ ■
Geera .. * - 91.5 - •
USaqa 5 8.5 8 72.63 - -
S/Chaqorsa 27.25 12.88 2 4 .1 3 , - 15 9 6
Sokoru * 8.75 16 ■ - • *
X.Afata 39.38 - -
O.Kadda 51.63 29 1.5 1.5 4.5
Deedo 42.5 ■ 7.89 6.75 6 3
Saxxamma 8 ■ v *■': ' ■ ‘ ■■ r/ . ■
Sigmo 1.25 * - 7.5 6 4.5
Source: Extension section of zone office
WEED CONTROL IN THE WESTERN COFFEE GROWING AREAS OF
ETHIOPIATadesse Eslietu, Pnulos Dubale and Bayissa MormenneJimma Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 192, Jima
Introduction
The western coffee grow ing areas characterised with high rainfall and high tem perature encourage the growth o f diverse weed flora ranging from soft annuals to hard-to-control perennial grasses and the sedges. As a result, coffee yield is seriously reduced and weed control is
one o f the major cultural operations which entails high cost Bayissa et alu 1988. Furtherm ore, it is believed that bean size and cup quality o f coffee are seriously affected by weed com petition.
Despite the limited workforce and facility devoted to weed research, useful information regarding cultural and chem ical weed control is available at Jima Agricultural Research Center (JARC). Nonetheless, manual weeding namely slashing and digging is still the common method practised by the small holder farmer and large scale coffee plantations. However, the use o f systemic herbicides against noxious weeds by the large scale plantations is steadi 1> growing
Good weed management and effective weed control require as much better understanding o f weed response to changes in cultural methods and the application o f herbicides. Hence, integrated weed management is the most promising alternative strategy because it emphasizes the proper utilization o f cultural, m echanical and chemical methods for economic and efficient weed control.
Weeds
W eeds in coffee are diverse (Table 1). The high rainfall and high temperature prevailing in the coffee growing areas and the existing conventional weed control methods used in coffee have encouraged a continuous and exuberant growth o f highly invasive and difficult-to-control weed flora. Although systematic survey and hierarchal classification is lacking, based on visual scoring and subjective type o f ranking different researchers have attempted to identify and categorize the major weed species in coffee ( f tu lo s , 1985; Bayissa e t a l . 1988; Lakew, 1987;)
According to surveys made so far, a total o f over 52 species from 8 families were identified. As weeds are a moving target in continuous evolution b> exposing only a small part o f themselves, an Actual Flora (AF) represents only a limited percentage o f the potential Flora (PF) i.e o f the seed bank. Hence, species listed here as coffee weeds do represent a small portion o f the potential coffee weeds o f the future.
2 2
Table 1. Common weed species of coffee in the major coffee growing areas of western Ethiopia.
Weed Economic
Botanical name Common name type importance
Digitaria abyssinica \ . Couch grass grass .. noxious {
Cyndonspp. Star grass grass noxious
Elusine indica Wild finger millet grass noxious
Hyperrhenia hirta grass important
Paspalum spp • grass important
Snowdeniaspp grass important
Phalaris spp grass important
Cyperus rotundas Purple nutsedge .sedge • noxious
Cyperus esculentus Yellow nutsedge sedge noxious
Bidens pilosa Black jack broad leaved important
Ageratum conyzoides Goat weed broad leaved important
Galinsoga parviflora Gallant soldier bread leaved important
Plantago lanceolate breadleaved less important
Cynoglossum lanceolatum bread leaved less important
Guizotia scabra - bread leaved important
Commelina spp bread leaved important
Sida spp bread leaved important
The economic classification as noxious, important and less important is based on the abundance and distribution of the species in coffee, the competitive ability of the species and how tolerant a species would be for different weed control methods.
Yield Loss Caused by WeedsYield loss due to weed competition should be assessed in a given crop/weed association. The amount of yield loss will determine how serious weeds are in a given crop. Yield has been the most sensitive indicator of weed competition. A .crop loss assessment was conducted for 3 years in order to determine the amount of yield lost due to weed competition. The result is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Coffee yield as affected by different weeding methods q ha1 clean coffee
Weed control 1993 1994 1995 Mean % loss of
method clean weeding
No weeding 2.00 1.67 4.40 2.69 65
3 slashing 3.54 2.43 7.98 4.65 40
5 slashing 3.75 3.15 9.50 5.46 30
10 slashing 4.47 4.20 11.28 6.65 14
1 slashing followed
by one time glyphosate application.
4.04 2.96 9.94 5.65 27
clean weeding 5.38 5.1 12.74 7.74
Weed Control
C ultu ra l
The value o f appropriate cultural practices for weed control cannot be over looked particularly in lieht o f heavy cost involved in the use o f herbicides and their limited availability. Cultural weed control m ethods alone may not solve the existing weed problem in coffee but may assist in increasing yield if they are applied according to instructions. Furthermore, they can be efficiently exploited in integrated weed management.
S lash ing and D igg in g
Slashing and digging is the main cultural weed control em ployed against coffee weeds (Paulos, 1995; Kassahun, 1994; Tadesse, 1994). Weed slashing is fast operation, useful for broad leaved weeds but with little advantage on perennial grasses and the sedges. According to Kassahun (1994) the majority o f coffee farmers used 2 slashing in a season to control weeds which is hardly adequate to suppress weed growth and increase yield. Research has shown that slashing couch grass beyond 4 weeks interval had no or little effect on yield suggesting that slashing interval is critical (Tadesse,1994).
Generally dependence on slashing and digging alone for weed control in coffee is inefficient, costly and detrimental to the coffee tree (Paulos, 1985; Bayissa et a l . 1988). Nevertheless, slashing and digging with proper tim ing could be vitally useful in integrated weed management approach.
C o ver C rops
A cover crop could be defined as a plant that provides ground cover to discourage weed emergence and subsequent growth. Because weed removal is interference with nature, a first steep in
minimizing this interference is to identify weed control method that will not contribute to soil degradation or adversely affect environmental quality. Land and crop management practices, such as total removal of weed flora that expose the soil for erosion or in any way degrade it are thus inappropriate for sustainable agriculture.
According to Paulos (1987) a suitable cover crop should have the physical characteristics to deprive the target weed of radiant energy, it should also have minimum negative effect on coffee tree, and should be soil conditioner. Furthermore, a cover crop should provide fast ground cover, adds organic matter rapidly tp the soil, reduce soil temperature, fix nitrogen, deep rooted to minimize competition with the crop and should not climb or smother the main crop. In this regard, it is evident that it may not be an easy task to select such a cover crop; Preliminary investigation however, has shown that noug at a rate of 20 kgha'1 was found to suppress weed growth in coffee Compared with chickpea, lentil, linseed and soyabean (Paulos, 1987). Nevertheless, along with the selection of a suitable cover crop, the level of fertilizer required for the coffee trees growing with the cover crop, the seed rate and the proper time of planting of the cover crop need close investigation. However, it is indispensable to note that the use of a cover crop alone does not waiTant the weed problem in coffee unless cover crops are prudently utilized in integrated weed management programme.
Mulch
The use of mulch to suppress weed germination and subsequent growth in a plantain crop such as coffee is well known. The effect of mulching may be attributed to various physical aspects, especially the preventing of light from reaching the weeds. The covering must be lighttight since it is mainly by hindering photosynthesis that the weeds under the material are killed and new growth prevented. Many non living materials have been used to cover the soil and thus prevent weed growth in the rows between the crop plant, or around trees or shrubs. Apart front suppressing weed growth, the application of mulch can improve soil moisture prevention, minimize erosion and adds plant nutrients to the soil.
The effect of some mulch materials on the control of couch grass was tested at JARC between 1978 and 1981. These mulch materials tested were com cob, coffee husk, elephant grass and enset leaf. The result indicated that the mulch materials tested did not show satisfactory control of couch grass. However, some nutritional contribution from some of the mulch materials to the coffee trees has been observed (Paulos, 1985). *
As a mater of fact, the use of mulch materials alone cannot solve the weed problem in coffee, but mulch can be satisfactorily utilized when integrated with other cultural and chemical control methods. Mulch could be easily obtainable by farmers due to the fact that ordinary grass or any crop residue canbe used as mulch for that matter.
Shading
Shade suppress weed growth by inhibiting the incoming light and thereby affecting photosynthesis. Shading may be accomplished either by planting permanent shade trees or by mutual shading in closed spaced coffee. As coffee is a C3 plant, it grows best under shade. On the other hand, based on their photosynthetic path way, coffee weeds could be further classified as C3, C4 and CAM plants which would make weed management easier. C4 weeds are well adapted to conditions of high
25
' irradiances (open sun) as opposed to C3 Weeds that can grow well under low light intensities (under shade).' On the other hand, CAM weeds could be prevalent under both conditions because Of their complementary photosynthetic1 and respiratory cycles which fall between the former two.
At Jima agricultural research center, a preliminary investigation was carried out to determine coffee weeds as C* anld Q or in simple understanding as shade tolerant and shade avoidant/ The : investigation was carried out in' 1990 under eight recommended coffee shade trees and ten locally constructed lath huts from bamboo. Thb result is presented in Table 3. " 1 *'
Table 3. Coffee weeds classified as C3 or C4 based on their growth urtder shade. r
■ Shade, tolerant Shade avoidant
Botariibal name Photosynthetic path way. - j - j
Botanical name'Photosynthetic path Vvay '
Bidenspilosa * , „ c3 Digitaria abyssinica c 4
Gal/nsogaparviflora Cynodonspp
Commetina benghalensis c3 Cyperus rotundas c4
.Ageratum conyzoides c3 Cyperus esculentus . 1 . C4
Plantago lanceolata V Eluisine M ica C4
Such classification of coffee weeds is important because it will be easier to determine the type of weed control to be used in shaded coffee. Moreover, the contribution of shading under tlie context of integrated weed management is immensely high.
Chemical Weed Control
Herbicides-have the potential to be the most effective and economical method of weed control in coffee compared with the cultural methods. Because they can be applied very quickly and may require little labour. Due to the abundance and widespread of perennial grasses and the sedges in coffee, the use o*f foliar applied systemic herbicides is mandatory.
Paulos (1985) reported that glyphosate gave outstanding control of the perennial grasses especially couch grass followed by dalapon. On another experiment, fluazifop-butle a selective herbicide proved to be effective against most grass weeds. Similarly paraquat a contact herbicide was found effective against broad leaved weeds but poorly controlled the perennial grasses. Recommended herbicides for controlling coffee weeds are presented in table 4.
m
Table 4. Recommended foliage applied herbicides from JARC.
Trade name Common name Formulation Recommended Target
Round-up Glyphosate 36% EC 2*4 litha*1 all weeds
Dowpon Dalapon 85% WP 7-8 kgha1 grasses
Fusilade super Fluazifop'butyl 25% EC 2-4 litha*T grasses
Gramoxone' Paraquat ' . 20% EC 1.5-2 Irtha’/ broadleaved
Integrated Weed Management
Integrated weed management (IWM) uses all available knowledge to manage,weeds so that they do not cause economic loss nor adversely affect the environment It implies the need to understand the biology and ecology of weeds, their interactions with crops, and the impact of environmental factors on their association with crops as well as with other organisms in their shared habitats. Hie
field tested in selected ecologies and adapted to the needs of the farmers who will use them. They must fit into crop production systems that are attractive to fanners. Soil degradation can be reduced by integrating techniques that minimize erosion, add organic matter to the soil, provide a favourable environment for microbial activity, increase control system, and prevent the establishment of dominant weeds which could become difficult or expensive to control. These can include cover crops, mulch, slashing and digging, shading, land preparation methods and herbicides.
As a matter of fact, coffee growing areas of the western Ethiopia are characterized with high rainfall and high temperature which encourage rapid and vigorous growth of vegetation. This unique environment favour dense weed growth and weeds in coffee are diverse which range from the easily controlled soft annuals to the more persistent perennial grasses and the sedges. Considering the whole range of weed species growing in coffee farms, the absolute reliance of any single method of weed control should not be encouraged. Coffee being a perennial crop is also suitable for the implementation of IWM. The high cost involved on the Use of manual weeding or solely dependence on herbicides may lead to the development of resistant weeds for that particular weed control method.
The current need therefore, should aim at developing a system of m^aging weeds whereby the crop is encouraged to pxert such pressure that crop growth is favored at the expense of weed growth. Integrated Weed Management is therefore achieved by the application of more than one kind of technology in a mutually supportive manner.
27
GapsUnused research recom m endations
Herbicides: herbicides are and will be attractive a> a solution to noxious weeds in coffee. Herbicide recommendations are available at Jima research center. Despite their useful advantages in alleviating the problem o f noxious weeds, they are not widely used by coffee farmers probably because: (a) inadequate knowledge o f which herbicides to use in a given situation; (b) Unavailability o f these recom m ended herbicides in the market in required quantities; (c) U n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f sprayers for the farmers to purchase, and (d) limited knowledge o f farmers or extensionists on herbicide handling and spray guidelines.
Area o f research missing: research information available on coffee weeds biology such as dorm ancy, germination pattern etc o f the major weeds is inadequate.■ research inform ation available on the major coffee weeds in relation to altitude, soil type,
rainfall pattern and distribution in sufficient.■ research information available on the physiology o f the major grass and the sedge coffee
weeds is inadequate.
R efe ren ces
Bayissa Mormene, Paulos Dubale and Damenu Tulu. 1988. Approaches to weed control practice in large scale coffee plantation in Ethiopia. Paper presented to the Ethiopian W eed Science Com mittee. April 1988, Addis Abeba.
Kassahun Soyeum. 1994. Farmers weed management in coffee based farming system o f the Jima Area. Paper presented on the Second Annual Conference o f Ethiopian Weed Science Society. 15-16 Dec. 1994.
Lakew Belaineh. 1987. M anagement practices and productivity’ o f the cultivars that are resistant to Coffee Berry Disease (CBD)within the coffee state farms, in Paulos Dubale (ed). Proceedings o f the First Ethiopian Symposium on Coffee, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. 20 - 23 August 1986. Institute o f Agricultural Research (In Press).
Paulos Dubale. 1985. A review o f weed control research in Ethiopia In: Tesedeke Abate (ed). Proceedings o f a review o f cropprotection research in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 4-7 February, 1985. Institute o f Agricultural Research.
______ . 1987. The effect o f cover crops on the control o f couch grass (Digitaria abyssinica) inA rabica coffee. Ethiopian Journal o f Agricultural Sciences. 9; 67-82.
Tadesse Eshetu. 1994. Effect o f clipping frequency o f couch grass (Digitaria abyssinica) on the growth o f young coffee. Paperpresented on the Second Annual Weed Science Conference. 1 5 - 1 6 Dec. 1994. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
28
AGRONOMIC RESEARCH IN SOUTHWESTERN
OF ETHIOPIATilahun Tadious and Tesfa BogaleIAR,Jima Research Center, P.O. Box 192 Jima Ethiopia______________________________________________________________________
Introduction
In southwestern of Ethiopia, maize being the major cereal food crops, .occupied the largest hectarage 55% (Benti, 1987,). Maize, increase from year to year due to its high productivity potential. It is used as food as "well as cash crop. It is also used as ingredient in the preparation of
local alcohol ic drinks. The mean temperature of the region ranges from 20 °c to 30 °c during hot season (February May) and from 10 to 20 °c during cold season. The annual rain fall varies between 800.and >2000. mm occurs in the high lands, particularly in Gore, Mocha and western Kefa (FAQ 1992). Current status of maize, production in the region is comparable to other major regions. The regional average yield ranges between 1.8 and 2.5 tha'1 (Benti, 1993). Poor crop management practices (cultural practice, yeed management, fertilizer etc.), lack of diseases and pests resistance varieties constitute one of the main reason for low yield in the region (Benti, 1993).
A combination of crop management and high yield varieties etc. increased seed yield of maize, by 100-150% (Benti, 1993; FAO, 1992). The largest gap in yield existing betiveen research and production can be narrowed down by using improved agronomic practice and high yielding varieties. This paper presents review of maize research that have been conducted under Jima and Metu.
Major AchievementsThe crop management research on maize were undertaken on four types of agronomic constraints observed on farmers’ fields which include weed, soil fertility, cropping systems and proper cultural practices and the following results were obtained.
Sowing Dates
Two maize varieties of late and medium maturity categories were sown at 15 days interval in three consecutive cropping seasons (1988-1991) (Table 1). The yarietie.s*w i:e linearly responded to sowing date and significant interactions were noticed. At earlier sowing dates difference among varieties were found to be significant but in the latest sowing .d tes the .varieties didn't show any clear mean yield difference.. In general the most optimum sowing date for maize in Jima and Metu areas is from late March to Mid April. Moreover, delayed sowing date for one montli for late maturing types (March 25 to April 24t resulted in yield reduction up to 1.5 q/ha/day (Table T )
21)
P lan t D ensity
There w ere three plant densities com pared on Meiko red brown soils (bottom lands) for two consecutive seasons (1968-1969). Although lower yield obtained in both seasons, considerable mean yield difference were observed (Table 2). The higher the density, the higher the grain yield obtained (Table 2 ). Beyond 7 plants/m 2 no significant increase in yield was observed. The recom m ended population density 44, 444 plants/ha (75 x 30 cm ) for Jima area.
E ffec t o f NP F ertilize rs on M aize Y ie ld a t J im a
Four different levels o f N itrogen and Phosphorus (o, 50 75 and 100 kg/ha.) were com bined and tested for three consecutive seasons (1970-1972 )at Melko on maize Hybrid variety H613B. In all seasons there was considerable mean yield difference (Table 3). The grain yield response due to phosphorus was curvilinear. There was constant mean yield produced at highest rate o f phosphorus, however, no difference was observed in the next higher rate. Another nitrogen and phosphorus rates (0,23,46,69 and 92 k g h a 1) were also tested by using the recently adapted com posite maize variety, UCB for three consecutive seasons (1979-1980) at Melko on red hill soils. There were significant yield differences observed due to both nutrients (Table 4) and thus significant interaction was observed between both factors. The yield responses were found cusrillinead. Thus, different results were obtained from the two sets o f trial. This is become at early seventies the trial field used was virgin rich in nitrogen content whereas at late seventies nitrogen was depleted due continuous cropping for at least ten years. Hence two possible recommendation o f nitrogen and phosphorus rates would be given for Jima area from both trials (for vergin and cultivated fields). The newly cultivated fields (less than six year continuous cropping) 69 to 75 kgha ! DAP is needed to maximize grain yield. The exhausted fields through continuous cropping should be supplemented with 46 and 69 kgha '1, nitrogen and phosphorus (P20s), respectively.
R es id u a l E ffec t o ff on M aize Y ield
This trial was conducted at M elko in 1971-1973 and after 10 years in 1981-1984. In the first case at the early stage residual effect o f P was obtained only with the highest rate o f 44 k g h a 1, the effect o f which lasted after 3 years (Table 5). Lower rates o f 22 and 33 kgha'' P had only direct effect (no residual effect). In the second case after 10 years all levels o f P tested including 11 kgha '1 had a residual effect for two years (Table 5 ). In the fourth year there was no significant P residual effect. Although the highest production index and VCR were obtained with the lowest rate o f 11 kg/P/ha, the highest extra yield o f 38 qha 1 year was obtained for P rate o f 44 kgHa . The extra yield obtained/year increased with increasing rate o f P. However, the use o f 44 kg/P/ha in the center could be recom m ended while further verification is needed to recommend for farmers.
E ffect o f P recu rso r C rop and NP Fertilizer on G rain Y ield o f M aize
Application o f 100 kg ha '1 o f DAP) increase maize yield on an average by 82%. Effect o f precursor has also significantly affected maize yield at Melko (Kelsa. 1 c>93) where use o f pulses and Irish potato have significant influenced maize yield.
/
30
Effect of Crop Residue, FYM and N fertilizer on Maize Yield
Of 60 kg h a 1 and use of soybean residue of FYM at the rate of 5 t hd have bought significant difference on maize grain yield (Table 6). When maize residue was used relatively lowest mean yield was obtained.
Influence of Tillage System and NP Fertilization on Maize Yield
Application of69/22 kg ha'1 of N/P significantly increased maize yield. Tillage also has significantly increased maize yield where the highest yield of 36.8 qha1 was obtained when tilled with tractor with application o f69/22 kg ha"1 N/P where as without fertilizer 27.9 q ha'! was obtained. Mulching had adverse effect on maize yield when compared with no mulching (Table 7).
Maize and Soybean Intercropping
Study Was conducted at Jima, the result indicated that higher Land equivalent Ratio (LER) for row intercropping as compared to broadcasting Inter cropping had an advantage of 36% at Jima. Strip cropping of 6,12 and 18 rows of maize with 7 rows of soybean was compared with sole of the two crops at Bako. Absolute yield of the two crop was depressed significantly better yield was obtained from strip cropping (12 rows of maize with 7 rows of soybean) than sole of both crops.
Relay Cropping of Maize
Of maize relay cropping refers to the growing of two or more crops simultaneously during part of the life cycle of each crop such that a crop is planted after the first has reached its productive stage of growth but before it reaches for harvest (Francis 1986). A studies conducted at Melko (Jima) & Gera indicated that food crops such as haricot bean & swteet potato can successfully be relayed with maize with out any effect on maize, The maize can be harvested either for green ears or for grain. The advantage of relay cropping was high (65%) for Melko and Gera. The best LER was obtained from bush type haricot bean.
Double Cropping
Experiments were carried at Melko Gera and Metu sub center. The gross return for south western region, a mono modal but long rainy season area was also favorable for double cropping. The maize was either for grain or for green eats. An improved Tef variety Was better than local one for double cropping. The advantage from double cropping goes up to 252% for the bimodal region. These results indicated that haricot bean, barley arid tef can succeed maize as double crops in the south western region. 1
Short-term Rotation
Study was conducted at Melko with and with out fertilizer (100 kg DAP/ha). In most cases maize yield was significantly increased by rotation. The effect of crop rotation was higher under un fertilized than fertilized condition. The best precursor for Melko was haricot ben and Irish potato and the worst was sorghum.
D e fo lia tio n E ffe c t on M a ize In te rcro p p ed w ith B ean
L eaf area loss caused by hail storm , insects, wind and diseases severely decrease grain yield o f maize. When maize leaves removed 50 - 100% level at silking 50% m aize yield decreased but the associate crop haricot bean yield increased from 31 - 50%. Therefore, the data indicated that if a significant loss by natural cause such as hail occurred a grower must decide to replace or relay with another crop.
Research Needs
■ strip cropping■ verification o f double or sequential and intercropping■ there is a need to develop guidelines for determining econom ic threshhold levels for weed
infestation■ integrated w eed m anagem ent■ methods and times o f application o f fertilizers■ verification m anure and crop residues, and■ verification different tillage versus fertilizer
T able 1 Maize grain yield q ha1. as influenced by sowing dates at Metu
Sowing dates VarietiesSeasons
1988 1989 1990 1991
1/4 76.4 85.0 65.6 52.2
8/4 82.1 94.4 67.0 64.0
1614 UCB 83.0 94.0 58.0 ♦
2414 73.0 37J0 56.2 28.1
2/5 76 38.2 58.9 33.7
10/5 81.5 35.0 42.0 31.1
18/5 73.0 23.0 26.8 38.5
26/5 41.0 8.0 23.5
Mean 73.3 58.1 47.4 38.7
1/4 76.6 84.6 62.0 48.8
814 Local 72.6 91.1 65.3 39.2
16/4 76.0 82.3 61.1 *
24M 77.7 49.6 59.1 24.4
2/5 85.4 44.7 49.6 38.5
10/5 84.9 38.8 39.8 28.5
18/5 62.9 18.6 26.8 29.4
26/5 30.8 7.0 16.1
Mean 70.9 58.5 46.4 31.7
32
Table 2. Optimum plant density studies on maUe grain.viekl (1968'1969) atMtfco Grain yMd qha'1
Plant populations (spacing:) 1968 1969 Mean
66,666 (75cm x 20cm) 29.1 42,2 35.7
44,444 (75cm x 30cm) 21.9 40.5 31.2
33.333 (75cm x 40cm) 16.3 37.6 27.0 ,
Mean 22.4 40.1 31.3
Table 3 Nitrogen and phosphorus rates trial maize (var. H613B) grain yield (1870*1972) at Melko on red hill soil grain yield (q ha1)
: " T 1 !r*h P^Oslkflha1) 'N
0 50 75 100 Mean
M»‘ r-
57.1 69.2 93.8 94.9 78.8
NM 63;2 76.3 84.0 97,0 80.1
N» 60.7 82.9 94.3 96.0 83.4
N)00 55.5 76.8 87.0 96.2 78.9
Mean 59.1 76,3 89.7 96.0
Table 4 Nitrogen and phosphorus rates trial maize ( var UCB) grain yield (1979-1981) at Melko on Nitosol red hill soil orain vield fafha'1)
PsOsikflha1)PN 0 23 46 69 92 Mean
N0 42.3 52.2 49.3 57.2 81.0 51.0
Nm 49.7 54.9 54.2 61.6 60.9 58.3
N« 61.1 48.7 54.7 64.3 58.5 57.5
NM 55.3 48.9 59.3 63.0 71.7 59.7
nm 57.8 81.1 63.6 64.1 64.6 62.2
33
Table 5 Presidual effect on maize yield at Melko 19 71 73 or 1981 -84 (qha)
1971-73 Effect of fertilizer in the significant periodKg/haP X X Check Years Q/ha/yr PI UCB
0 43.9 - • • • * •
22 55.9 82.5 52.0 1 30.5 139 23
33 67.2 98.8 52.0 1 46.8 142 23
44 72.8 72.8 43.9 3 28.9 197 33
Table 4B
1981-84 25.3
38.0 44.7 28.8 3 15.9 434 71.8
40.4 48.6 28.8 3 19.8 270 44.7
48.9 60.0 28.8 3 31.2 284 46.8
55.0 66.8 28.8 3 38.0 259 42.9
34
Table 6 Grain yield of maize influenced by crop residue and farmyard
ResiduefManure(QM)
1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 8 1 9 9 0 NXOM
No No *m N, N* N, N»M ean
Control
Maize
Soybean
CoMntung
Mean
31.25 48: 00
28.50 51. 00
31.00 57. 25
35.25 62. 00
37.20 50.6B
42.64 51.64
39.03 61.34
53.37 64.57
34.30 50.22
26.71 53.36
37.97 55.77
39.05 57.59
48.79 48*31
36.81 43.24
45.23 55.35
43.30 63.70
37.89 49.30
33.66 49.81
38.31 57.43
44.24 61.97
LSD 0.05 S, N OM S.XN S.XOM NX QM
NS 46.61 3.54 NS NS |\|S
Table 7 Grain yield of maize influenced by fertilizer and tillage
1 9 8 6 1 9 8 7 1 9 8 8 1 9 9 0 N X O MTillage*
Option (T) FqXjc Ft ... Fa F, . F* Ft F0 F,Fn
M e a n
F,
T0 M0 25.50 26,00 21.86 35.17 8.44 15.32 16.87 20.31 18.17 26.20
T0 M, 13.30 19.30 12.95 21.43 5.80 8.22 10.34 18.60 10.40 16.87
TT 31.50 32.80 34.64 43.54 22.73 35.59 22.70 35.20 27.89’ 36.77
TOX 24.80 28.00 28.65 31.85 20.23 32.38 22.65 31.21 25.07 30.85 ,
Mean
LSD 0.05 ' S
3.65 •F
2.03
T
3.60
SXF
NS
S X T
NS
F X T
NS
X T0 M0 - No-till without mulch, T0 M1 - No-till with mulch,
TT - Tilled with tractor, TOX - Tilled with oxen ploughs
XX FO. - Fertilizer nill and Fj - 46/69 kg ha1 N/P2 05
Maize Management for Kefa and lllubabor Regions
Sowing date: early varieties late April, medium varieties mid April and late varieties March to April.
Plant population: early varieties medium varieties 53,333 plants/ha and late varieties 44,444 plants/ha.
Spacing: early varieties —, medium varieties 75 cm x 25 cm and late varieties 75 x 30 cm.
Fe rti I izer: nitrogen 69 kg ha"1 (150 kg ha'1 urea) at knee height (5-6 and 7-8 leaf stage) by row drilling. Phosphorous 69 kg ha'1 (150 kg ha'1 DAP) at planting by row drilling.
W e e d in g : two to three times hand weeding after 2,4 and 6 weeks after crop emergence. Shelshalo: two times between row oxen Cultivation and once hand pulling (5-6,7-8 and 10-11 leaf stages)
Manure: 5 ton cow dung + 60 kg ha*1 nitrogen or 5 tone soyabean residues + 60 kg h a1 nitrogen.
Cropping system: maize/haricot bean, xx maize/sweet potato, x maize - tef, maize - sweet potato, xx - maize for dry seed, x - maize for green areas.
Crop rotation: pulse crops are good precursor.
Tillage: tilled with tractor with 69/69 kg ha'1 N/P20 5 was better than oxen plough with 69/69 kg h a 1 N/P20 5i
References
Benti Tolessa. 1993. The need and objective of the first national maize workshopBenti Tolessa. 1987. A review of maize research in Ethiopia, proceeding of the 19th, national cropimprovement conference A.A Eth.Kelsa Kena. 1993. Infulence of fertilizer on maize in major production national maze workshop 192 A A.ETH.FAO. 1992. FAO year book production vol:46
TRANSFER AND ADOPTION OF IMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES IN
SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIAGebre-Egziabher Ande and Birhanu MegersJtpta Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 192, Jima
Introduction
Extension requires research information to teach fanners and to solve their problems. On the other hand, research need feedback information from extension on the identification and prioritization of the most pressing problems which hinder agricultural production.
Research information is available at Jima Research Centre which can be disseminated to extension workers and farmers to raise agricultural production. Coffee cultiv&rs which are high yielding, good quality and resistant to disease, especially coffee berry disease (CBD) have been screened and developed (Merdassa, 1985, Mesfin, 1987. Chemical and mechanical weed control methods has been identified (Paulos, 1985). Information on nursery management practices, fertilizer rates and time of application is available (Mesfin, 1987, Yacob, 1986). Shade levels and coffee pruning (training) system have been established.
As far as field crops research concerned, high yielding varieties of maize sorghum, teff, soyabean and haricot bean have been developed and their cultural practice have been worked out (Benti 1988, Jima, 1967 to 78)
Horticultural crops such as fruits, spices and root crop varieties and their package practices is determined (Department of Horticulture, 1988/89, Jima, 1967 to 1978, Sirake, 1985).
Technology TransferFor sustainable technology development and delivery the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) has reorganized its structures and functions and established Research Extension Linkage Division in each center. The objective of the D iv is io n is to create strong link among Researchers, Extensionists and farmers. Facilitate efficient transfer and utilization of research recommendation. Identify training need and up grade technical ability of subject matter specialists, development agents and selected fanners. For effective transfer of research result into relevant message, the division has initiated six technology transfer mechanisms.
38
TrainingTraining and seminars have be used in transmitting research results and to achieve effective interaction among researchers, technology transfer workers and producers. Sine 1987, the division has organized regular training programme for extension subject matter specialists (Table 1).
Table 1. Training course 1987/96.
Year No of trainees Course title
1987 55 Coffee improvement, coffee Agronomy coffee nutrition, cpffee1988 15 processing, Fruits and spices production, roots crops production,1989 25 field crops improvement, field crops. Agronomy crop protection,1990 184 weed and weed management, Farming systems Research and1991 25 Research-extension linkage.1992 *
19931994 531995 -
1996 51
Total 408
DemonstrationThis is jointly conducted by researchers and extension workers on contact farmers* field. Since 1987 Demonstrations on coffee, maize, sorghum, teff, soyabean haricot bean, sweet potato and taro have been conducted in different agro-ecological zones. The programme have provided opportunity, for extension workers and farmers to see how new technology is useful and leam the difference between improved and local practices. The result indicated (Table 2) that the improved practice out yielded the local practices across locations.
Table 2. Mean yield 1q ha'1) of different crops on farm demonstration
Crop Nflof No of Improved Traditional Yield increase_________________________ years sites___________techoolofly technology over the local (%)
Coffee 4 4 8.2 3.4 82
Maize 9 61 41.4 23.1 79
Sorghum 1 4 20.0 16.5 21
Tef 7 45 8.7 8.0 8
Soyabean 4 24 9.0 5.5 64
Haricot Bean 3 9 17.0 13.8 23
S.Potato 2 2 200.5 102.2 96
Tafo 4 20 217.0 104.0 10B
Distribution of Improved SeedThe south western region need a large quantity of improved coffee, fruits spices, taro, maize and tef seeds tp maintain production. The demand of seed supply, however has never been and will not be met unless supported by the Research centres. The Nationally, mandated seed corporation has not yet started multiplying coffee, fruits, spices and root crops seeds. Therefore, to alleviate seed shortages, JRC has distributed large quantity of improved seed to farmers, government and non government organization (Table 3).
Table 3. Distribution of improved seed 1987/95 (q ha'1}.
Year Coffee* Fruits** Spices Taro Maize Tef
1987 32.4 ’ ; 2151 1652 55.0 52.0 -
1988 28.5 3222 394 79.5 395.0 6.0
1989 28.5 1592 1200 65.0 228.0 12.0 ;
1990 50.0 - 80.0 185.0 10.5
1991 22.7 1859 102 70.0 154.0 2.0
1992 7.2 1299 161 55.0 84.0 1.0
1993 4.9 307 50.0 180.0
1994 9.8 7262 14.0 69.0 2,0
1995 .. 28.7 7280 2.0 27.0
Total 212.3 24972 3464 * ’’ 398 .1374 40
* $36 Quintals were distributed from 1977-86r ** Seedling/cutting.
PublicationTo provide development agents and producers with research findings, IAR has published leaflets Bulletins, newsletters, Annual reports. Progress reports and conference papers which contained package recommendations to be distributed to users in south western Ethiopia. -
Research-Extension Liasion committee (RELC)RELC was established with the following objectives:
■ review and approve research projects, demonstration and extension activities,■ identify major production problems in the farming community,■ monitor and evaluate research programme, Demonstration and extension activities, and■ organize field days/field tour.
40
Advisory and Extension ServicesJRC has formed extension task force committee to help technology transfer workers and farmers on how to utilize the improved technology. This has been accomplished through:
■ working with local extension workers and giving them technical advise,■ . sorting out appropriate technologies and formulate the package practice for the fanners,■ conducting trials on varieties and inputs in small scale on farmers field, and■ providing technical advise to visitors (Extension agents Mid farmers) at the center.
Adoption of Improved TechnologiesThe rate of Adoption of improved technology is high in areas where training, demonstration* seed distribution, advisory and extension service have been conducted.
Even though the supply of inputs (improved seed, fertilizer and pesticides) is scarce many fanners demanded improved seeds and improved cultural practices for coffee, maize, teff, haricotbean, taro and sweet potato production.
In the large scale farms, recommended seed-bed preparation fertilizer rate, sowing rate and improved varieties, for maize, haricot bean, and soyabean production were widely practiced.
In the Coffee Improvement Project (CIP) area, recommended nursery management practices such as the use of fresh coffee bean for seed purposes, germination media, fertilizer rate, shade level and application of fungicides (Aldrin 40%) to minimize the damage of seedlings from soil bom pests were adapted (MoA, 1987). Planting CBD resistant cultivar with recommended hole size of seedlings, date of transplanting, planting density shade level, fertilizer rate and weed control measures are practised (MoA, 1987).
Table 4. CBD resistant coffee cultivars planted in the CIP area.
Location Area (ha)
CIP 38,989
CDD 2,458
Bebeka 6,468
Limu 7,709
Teoi 6,205
Total 61,829
Did and exhausted coffee trees were stumped to stimulate new growth and 2-3 verticals Were let to grow for high yield. So far 16,300 ha. of land was stumped in CIP areas (MCTO 1991 Table 4). To minimize yield lose due to CBD, fungicides, namely Daconil, Delan and Captafol were widely sprayed in the coffee growing regions. Time and frequency of spraying (5-6) rounds was properly followed, later on some of the farmers either spray two or three times or completely neglected due
/
to shortage and high cost of fungicides. For the last five years an average 6600 ha. of coffee/year Was sprayed with fungicides to control CBD (MCTD, 1987).
Gaps* Some of the technologies are technically difficult to apply or they do not address the real
problem or constraints faced by the farmers.■ Input (improved seed, fertilizer and pesticides) are scarce, credit to buy is absent and resulted
in low adoption rate.■ The link between JRC and MO A is loose. The existing linkage (RELC) became theoretical
rather than practical in otherwards the mechanism exists but it is not functional.■ Provision of resources to strengthen tlie linkage.
' , < < 1 v . -
Future Plan■ Maintain and monitor the link between research, extension and farmer.■ Training extension speciali$ts.■ Conduct bn Farm Demonstration■ Multiplication and distribution of improved seed to users.■ Collaborative activities (Research Review, workshop etc) with user organizations.■ Organize field day/field tour for policy makers, Agri. business men, extension workers and
fanners.■ Reproduction of visual aids and extension materials.
ConclusionTo date technology transfer is becoming a global issue for agricultural development. JRC through its various program has 'developed many technologies which can help to raise Agricultural production. For the dissemination of improved technologies IAR has re-organized its structure and established research-extension division at all its centers. The rate of adoption of improved technologies is very high in areas where training, demonstration, seed distribution and advisory and extension service have been conducted. The existing linkage of RELC should be strengthen. For the adoption of improved technologies, credit facilities to buy input should be available for small scale farmers.
References
Benti Tollesa 1988. Recommendation for increasing crop production and experience for technology transfer in the Western region, pp 142-153 In: Proceedings of 20*. National CropImprovement Conference. 28-30 March 1988. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia
Department of Horticulture, herbs and spices. Progress reports for 1988/86. IAR Progress report Addis Abeba.
Jima Research Station, progress reportfor the period 1967/68,1969/70* 1970/71,1971/72,1972/73, 1973/74. IAR Progress report Addis Abeba.
Merdassa Ejetai 1985. A review of coffee diseases and their control in Ethiopia, pp 179-195 In:; Proceedings of the First Ethiopian Crop Protection Symposium. 4-7 Feb 1985. Addis Abeba,
Ethiopia.
42
Mesfin Anieha 1987. Current recommendations and future strategies for coffee research programme, pp 405-410 In: Proceedings of the 19*. Nation Crop Improvement conference, 22-26 April 1987. Addis Abeba.
Ministry of Agriculture 1987, Coffee improvement Project Annual Report July 1985 to July 1986. Ministry of coffee and Tea Development (MCTD) 1987. Coffee Improvement Project Annual report. July 1986 to 1987.
Ministry of coffee and Tea Development (1991). Coffee Improvement Project Annual report July 1990 to July 1991.
Paulos Dubale 1985. A review of weed control research on coffee in Ethiopia.PP 197-212. In: Proceedings of the FirstEthiopian Crop Protection symposium 4-7 Feb. 1985; Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
Sirake Bayene 1985. Review of sweet potato and other minor root crops research in Ethiopia, pp 313-323 In: Proceedings of the l sl Ethiopian Horticultural workshop 1985. Addis Abeba.
Yacob Edjamo 1986. Review of Coffee Nursery trial at the Jima Agricultural Research Center, pp 217-229 In: Proceedings of the First Ethiopian symposium on coffee. 20-23 August 1986.
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TEF AND SORGHUM
PRODUCTION IN WESTERN ETHIOPIAGeremew Gebeyehu and Oiemeda Dabalima Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 192. Unuz
Te f and sorghum are among cereal crops which have major share o f hectarage and production in western Ethiopia. According to CSA (1995) (Tabic 1) te f is the first and maize is the second in Jima Zone, while m aize is the first and tef is the second in Ilubabor Zone in terms o f area
devoted to food crops in peasant private holding in 1994 Sorghum is the third at both locations.
Similarly te f is the first and m aize is the second in East Welega Zone, while in west Welega Zone maize is the first and sorghum is the second in private holdings^for the period 1994.(Table 2) Melko and Bako are centers in western Ethiopia where a number o f trials have been conducted on these crops for several years in the past. As the result o f this some varieties o f these crops have been recommended for this area. In this paper the characteristics o f these varieties have been summarized.
Table 1. Eastimate of area, production, and yield of major food crops for private peasant holdings in Jima and Ilubabor zones in 1994.
CropArea(000* ha)
Total production (000’ ha)
Mean(q/ha)
Jima Illubabor Jimma Illubabor Jimma Illubabor
Tef 76.41 48.41 316.58 311.77 4.14 6.44Maize 66.67 56.08 1037.67 1012.53 11.91 18.06Sorghum 29.26 21.38 468.87 399.91 16.02 18.00Beans 0.96 1.96 15.55 11.85 16.20 6.05
Source: CSA(I995)
Table 2. Estimate of area, production and yield of major food crops for private peasant holdings in east and west Welega in 1994.
CropArea (000' ha)
Total production1000' ha)
Mean(q ha ')
East Wellega West Wellega East Wellega West Wellega E ast Wellega
WestWellega
Tef 96.80 44.18 345.94 401.89 3.57 9.10Maize 58.00 92.30 908.02 1223.14 15.37 13.25Sorghum 12.83 48.48 131.44 566.58 10.24 11.69Millet 9.56 20.60 48.92 128.00 5.12 6.21
Source: CSA( I )
Research AchievementsIn different agro-epological zones of Ethiopia, different Research Centres have been identified to coordinate research activities on specific crop. Beside their specific centers, evaluations have been made on tef and sorghum and a reasonable number-of these crops have been recommended for this area. Four varieties of tef have been recommended fro Asosa, Welega and Bako areas. These are , Dz-Cr-37, DzCr-44, Dz-01-787 and Dz-01-354. The characteristics of these varieties have been given (Table 3). As the result of research work at Asosa, grain yield as high as 14 qha'1 has been reported for variety Dz-Cr-37(Mosisa et a i, 1992). Similarly, in 1994 and 1995 variety trial was conducted at Bako and the results indicate that Dz-Cr-44 and Dz-Cr-37 gave average grain yield of 12.16 and 10.61 qha'1, respectively against the local check which yielded 8.38 qha1. This result showed that Dz-Cr-44 and Dz-Cr-37 have 45 % and 27 % , respectively yield advantage over the local variety, Ejaji white. About two varieties have been recommended for Jima area. The varieties are Dz-Cr-255 and Dz-Cr-82. Dz-Cr-255 is not only recommended for Jima area and drought prone areas like Tedele and Asosa (Hailu et al., 1995). At Melko this variety gave 9% and 74% yield advantage over the local and the standard check (DZ-cr354) Dz-Cr-82 also gave 20% yield advantage as compared to the standard check (DZ-cr-354) when it is released.
Sorghum is one of the crops on which extensive research have been done in western Ethiopia. Sorghum varieties like Birmash, IS9302 and 85MW5334 have been recommended for this part of the country. (Table 4) Two years of yield trial at Bako revealed that Birmash is the well performing with grain average yield of 53.11 q/ha against the local check which gave 15.11 qha1. This variety has 21 per cent yield advantage over the local check. Similarly, the results obtained at'Jima is encouraging (Table 5), These varieties are resistant to major sorghum diseases in this area. The only problem faced with the production of these varieties is yield loss associated with bird damage.
Future Research DirectionThere are untouched research areas specifically on crop like finger millet indicating much work to be done in the future in Bako and Welega areas.
Even though sorghum is grown in this area, improved varieties of this crop are not grown by the farmers. There is a need to strengthen socio-economics and research-extension activities and investigate problems associated with growing of this crop varieties.
Sometimes crop varieties are grown beyond their adaptation zones. This always brings either total crop failure or high damage due to pest or crop diseases. It is important to carry out adaptive research trials before we take a variety to a specific locality.
Table 3. Yield performance, adaptation and agronomic traits of tef on farmers field.
VarietyRiF during growing (mm)
Altitude(m)
Plantheight {cm) Color
Days to maturity
YieldIqha1}
Dz-cr-37 134-500 1860 200C 67-90 white 82-90 14-16Dz-cr-44 400-600 1800-2400 85-100 white 125-140 17-22Dz-01-787 400-700 1800-2500 50-110 p. white 90-30 17-22Dz-01 354 300-700 1400-2400 53-115 p. white 85-130 17-22
Source: Seyfu (1993)
45
Table 4. Yield performance, adaptation and agronomic traits of released sorghum varieties.• -
VarietyMaturity(days)
Height(cm) Colour
Diseasereaction
AltitudeIn?)
Rainfall(mm)
Yield (q ha1)
Birmash 140-180 131-238 red resistant 1600-1900 >900 30-69IS9302 130-180 150-180 red resistant 1600-1900 >900 35-5085MW5334 162-175 139-200 red resistant 1600-1900 >900 40-
63*
Source: IAR(1995); * Grain yield obtained at Bah?
Table 5. Characteristics of sorghum varieties recommended for western Ethiopia in the national yield trial at Melko.
Variety Days to flowering Plant height (cm) Yield (q ha'1)
IS9302 107 170 45 60Birmash 121 159 41*50
ReferencesCSA (Central Statistical Authority). 1995. Agricultural sample surVey 1994/1995 (1987 E.C). Report on area
production of major food crops. Statistical Bulletin 132,Hailu Tefra, Mulu Ayle and Kebebew Assefa. 1995. Improved varieties of tef (Eragrotis tef) in Ethiopia.
Release of 1970*1995. Research Bulletin No 1. Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Ethiopia.
IAR(Institute of Agricultural Research). 1995. Sorghum production. IAR, Addis Ababa Ethioia. £Mosisa Worku, Behailu Atero and Yigzaw Desaleng. 1992. Dz-Cr-37. the most.adapted tef variety around
Asosa. IAR Newsletter(7) 1. .Seyfu Ketema. 1993. Tef (Eragrotis. tef): breeding, genetics, agronomy, utilization and role in Ethiopian
Agriculture. Institute o f Agricultural Research, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. ±
46
RECOMMENDATION FOR SPICES PRODUCTION IN HUMID AREAS
OF ETHIOPIAEdossa Etissalima Research Center. P. O. Box 192 . l i m a ___________________________.___________________ . __________________________
Introduction
Ethiopia is a home land for many spices and stimulant crops such as long pepper Bishops weed or 'Nech azemud1, Coriander arid Chat (Vahl.) Endi.) (Janson, 1981 and Parry, 1969). Further more, southwestern Ethiopia grow all indigenous and exotic spices due to favorable cljmatic condition (high and long rainy
season lasting from 8-10 months, high relative humidity, high average temperature and existing rain forest shade environments) Based on a series of experiments conducted, south western Ethiopia is found to be ideal and potential for turmeric, Cardamom, Ginger, Black pepper and Cinnamon production. They also fit traditional farming system of south western Ethiopia where mixed and multiple cropping are practiced since many of them need either shade or support. This paper high lights research achievements appropriate for production of spices in humid areas o f Ethiopia;
Korarima (Aframomum korarima P.)Korarima seeds are a part and parcel o f each and daily Ethiopian dish in preparation of curry powder for culinaiy purpose. Beside large domestic consumption, Ethiopia export to Sweden* Finland, Sudan, India, Egypt and Saudi Arabia (Janson 1981, Nigat 1987). It is a perennial herb that starts bearing after three years of planting and continue giving yield for a long time. It grows naturally (wild) at about 1000 — 2000 masl on shaded places as that of coffee under shade of bushy plants. Since it is indigenous to Ethiopia, some collection have been made and a total of sixteen accessions have been maintained at Jima.
Shade and Field Management in korarima PlantationThe shade level requirements for both korarima and cardamom were studied at Jima and Bebeka using artificial black polytheen screen. The shade levels used were: 0% (open field), 43%, 47%, 55%, 63% and 72%. In both experiments plants under 55% and 63% shade levels gave highest capsule yield and the one planted in open field did not survive at a l l .
Under 72% shade plant grow the height of 134.47 cm as compared to under 43% shade which grew the shortest height. All the number of leaf per pseudostem, fresh fruit length* dty fruit length and yield of korarima grown under different shade levels are shown in table 1. Whether it is under natural or artificial plantation the tree spp..that correspond to 55%-63% shade should be selected or pruned down to this optimum level. Similarly the korarima planted under less shade performed well in summer probably due to cloud cover and moisture available than planted under similar shade in winter. The tree spp. used for korarima shade also should retain their leaves during dry season. Shade create suitable micro climate in korarima and cardamom plantations and acts as a moisture and temperature regulator, thtis creating a microclimate which promotes optimum vegetative growth. The microclimate prevailing in shade garden creates a favorable environments for root development particularly when korarima rhizome produce very shallow roots at each nodes.As soon as the soil is directly exposed to open air, soil moisture content and soil temperature fluctuate considerably. Therefore, the root development of shallow rooting plant becomes limited if protective shade covering is missed or cut down.
47
Table 1. Performance of korarima plait under different shade levels at Jima
Shade level Plant ht No.ofleaf/ fresh capsule Dry capsule Wt of freuh Wt of dry Dry 1%) (cm) pseudo length (cm) length (cm)" capsula(g) capsule (g) capsule
stem ' yield (q________________________________ - __________________ ■ -■ ____________________________ ha1)
0 ,
43 89.05 16.07 25.38 3.82 25.35 4.31 £23
47 102.45 19.87 27.70 3.92 27.67 4.71 5.39
55 118.45 19.77 27.4Z 4.36 27.42 5.02 6.39 4
63 131.10 19.77 ■: 26.99 4.05 26.99 1.61 8.11
72 134.47 20.67 25-83 4.19 .25.83 5.01 5.69
. Mean . 115.10 19,23 . 26.66 4.07 26.65 4.77 5.56
Source: IAR, Jima Research Center Progress Report, 1985
The protective influence of shade in maintenance of soil fertility, moisture reserve, facilitating decay of organic matter, weed depressing is great, therefore digging, tillage, mulching* weeding requirement is little important in koraripia plantation intern these maintain natural ecological balance.
PropagationKorarima plant is propagated under natural conditions by producing adventitious roots when it goes as runner and touches the soil where shade is covered. In order to bring under artificial cultivation its propagative methods \yere Studied; by using seedling and cuttings at Jima. The result showed that using seedling gave the highest dry capsule yield • 21.76 qha'1 and using stem cut gave lower yield 15.17 qha1 probably due to the disturbance made during cutting.
HarvestingThe capsules are cut with half of the pedicle just at fully ripe (red in color) in order to prevent capsule splitting during,drying and to prevent the damage of the rhizome left behind.
Ginger (Zingber officinale R.) 'ZINGIBVVarietiesGinger cultivars were evaluated at Tepi for their fresh rhizome yield arid yield components for six seasons. Two . local varieties and seven introduced varieties were used. The variety (one of the local check) Mizan cultivated (Miz-cu-180/73) gave highest cumulative yield of 374.9 qha'1 followed by the introduced cultivar Mau.37.79 with fresh rhizome yield of357.8 qha"1. The variety, Maj. 190.73 collected from Maji area gave the least fresh rhizome yield 229:75 qha'1 (Table 2). The varieties Miz.cu. 180.73, Mau.37.79 and Mar.38.79 were selected for verification (Edossa et al 1995). Green ginger produces 20-30% of its weight of dried ginger.
The quality of ginger is assessed based on general appearance, size, physical form of rhizome, aroma, flavor and oleoresin yields 5-6%. The oleoresin yield of ginger varieties from Tepi are found to range from 6.01 to 8.22 and relatively yield higher and volatile oil content was obtained for Mar.3 8-79 and Tepi local. According to the Indian standard, the volatile oil content of ginger oleoresin is in the range of 16-35%, The volatile oil content of ginger cultivars were found to range from 28.9*43.7% (Table 2).Based on Indian standard, The physical characteristics, specific gravity and refractive index values for volatile oil from ginger oleoresin, at 20 °c are 0.8685 to 0.8803 and 0.4880 to 1.4970, respectively. These values obtained for the volatile oil from
48
The stem volatile oil which is responsible for the aroma of ginger is present in the range of 1.0 to 2.5% in dried rhizome. The volatile oil yield of ginger cultivars from Tepi is found to range from 1.83 to 2.5% and the specific gravities and refractive indexes of the oils are comparable with those standards (Table 2).
Tepi ginger .cultivars are comparable with the standard (Solomon et a/., 1993).
Table 2. Fresh rhizomes, Oteoresin and Essential oil yield, Volatile oil content of oleoresin, Physical characteristics of volatile oil and essential oil of ginger cultivars from Tepi.
olewesin** volatile oil* * Essential oil” Freshrhizome
cultivarYield
volatile oil content IK)
specific gravity Refractiveindex
yieldW
specificgravity
RefractiveIndex
yieldtqha” )
Sib.36179 6.94 36.02 0.8398 1.4931 2.20 0.8717 1.4910 296.83
Maw.37/79 7.52 37.24 0.8975 1.4924 1.83 0.8527 1.4925 357.83
Mar.38179 8.22 35.71 0.8787 1.4912 2.50 0.8786 1.4910 344.08
Mal.39/79 6.01 28.96 0,8686 1.4929 2.10 0.8786 1.4920 238.S0
Aus.14U79 6.98 . 33.28 0.8800 1.4920 1.90 0.8805 1.4920 239.25
Miz.cu.180/73 7.43 34.34 0.0845 1.4938 1.90 0.8587 1.4922 374.92
Miz.wi.190173 7.07 40,65 0.8825 1.4947 1.90 0.8773 1.4952 258.67
Maii,305/72 7.38 41.92 0.8807 1,4960 1.90: 0.8675 1.4947 229.75
Tepi local 7.00 43.76 0.8861 1.4949 2.00 0-6829 1,4948 335.08
Mean 7.16 36.877 2.Q2 5 -
297.21
Source: * Edossa et at, 1995, ** Solomon et al, 1993
Planting materialsLocal ginger cultivar was used to see the effect of three different ginger planting materials (unsprouted, sprouted and transplanted rhizomes) on the fresh yield and yield components at Tepi. The analysis indicated that different planting materials didn't show any significant difference on the fresh rhizome yield when combined analysis was made. But using sprouted rhizome gave mean yield of 194.2 qha"1 followed by using transplanted rhizome which gave six years mean yield of 172.59 q ha*1 and the third treatment using unsprouted rhizome gave 168.2 qha'1 respectively .
Planting Date
Farmer in south western Ethiopia plant ginger at the beginning of rainy season or leave under ground for seed purpose. From there, ginger rhizomes germinate (ratoon crop) for harvest irrespective of their yield. Trials were conducted at Tepi sub-center from the year 1987 to 1990 to see the different ginger planting dates on yield. Seven different planting dates were used at monthly intervals starting from fifth of March up to fifth of September .The results showed that planting on fifth of March gave the highest fresh rhizome yield followed by planting on fifth of April. The yield decreased continuously from March on wards.
49
Land Preparation
Trial was conducted to determine the best method of land preparation for ginger. The trial was conducted for five consecutive seasons and yields for. all the treatments had been recorded. The highest yield, 207.7 qha'1 was obtained from the treatment planting ginger on raised bed followed by the treatment planting ginger on open ridges after emergence with yield of 195.13 qha'1. The lowest yield 173.95 qha"’ was Obtained from the treatment planting turmeric on tide ridges.
Ginger Spacing
Trial was conducted at Bebeka for two seasons to determine ginger spacing for maximum rhizome yield. Three levels between rows and three levels between plants were compared factorially. In both cases as the distances decrease between row and plant the average yield tends to increase for all the range tested. Using 20 cm between rows and 15 cm between plants gave the highest rhizome yield.
Turmeric ( Curcuma domestica Val.) ' IRDtVarieties
In 1972 EC two varieties of turmeric were introduced from abroad for adaptability study (Table 3) at Jima, Metu, Bebeka, Tepi, Wenago, Awassa, Mugi and Bako. At all locations turmeric performs well and all locations are suitable for production. (Zenebe et al., 1987). Purseglove et al. 1981 also stated that turmeric can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m in areas which receive high rain fall. In south western humid regions, Tu.48.72 turmeric variety is disseminated at faster rate than any new and recently introduced crops in all over coffee regions and becoming another cash crop for subsistence farmers particular ifor 'Kafficho-Shakicho Timir' Zone.
Table 3. Turmeric varieties available at Jima and Tepi
Variety Origin
Tu.48.72 India
Tu.51.72 China
Chemical analysis was made for both cultivars for their oleoresin yield. The variety Tu.48.72 gave the highest oleoresin yield percentage. The yield, odor and flavor of the oleoresin extracted from the two samples were good (Table 4).
Table 4. Oleoresin yield of turmeric varieties at Jima
Varieties Oleoresin yield <%)
Planting Materials
When there is scarcity of turmeric rhizome planting material whole rhizome is cut in to pieces each having buds for planting. Trials was conducted at Jima to select the best yielding among the whole rhizome, Cut rhizome and finger or lateral rhizomes. The yield of each planting materials were taken and that using whole rhizome gave the highest fresh rhizome yield, 147.56 q/ha (Fantahun et al,1995).
When whole rhizome is used as planting material, it gives highest yield but during planting, turmeric rhizomes stored either in pile or in underground produce sprout due to early rain shower that make germination still other does not produce sprout. Due to these variabilities at the time of planting, selection of best yielding planting materials was made. The results showed that unsprouted rhizome planting materials gave highest fresh rhizome yield of 194,23 qha'1.
Harvesting Date
Farmers leave turmeric rhizome in the ground and harvest either after one, two or three years of planting as its price rises. Studies were made at Tepi to see the effect of extended harvesting on turmeric yield. The treatments used were harvesting after either one, two, three or four growth cycles. The first trial was conducted for four years and the second trial was for the same four years. The results showed that leaving turmeric rhizome tuber underground increased yield significantly with the highest fresh yield obtained from the last treatment harvesting after four years of planting.
Planting Date
As turmeric is tuber crop that produce sprouts when rain shower begin like potato. Study was made to select optimum turmeric planting date at Tepi for three seasons. There were seven different planting dates used at monthly intervals starting from the fifth of March up to fifth of Sept. The yield decreased in uniform pattern highest with the fifth of March (184.80 q ha"1) and lowest with fifth of Sept (11.20 qha '1) .
Land Preparation
Different land preparation methods for turmeric was studied at Jima with Tu.51.72 variety .The results showed that planting turmeric on raised bed gave highest rhizome yield 335.5 q ha ,
Planting Materials
FactOrially combined experiment with four different sizes of turmeric planting materials (2,4,6 and 8cm rhizome length) and six different harvesting dates at three months intervals starting from nine months after planting up to twenty four months after planting were conducted at Jima. The yield tends to increase as the size of planting materials increases and 301.7 q ha'1 rhizome yield was obtained from the largest length of rhizome (8 cm) used. The sizes of planting materials has significant effect on yield of turmeric. The time of harvest also showed significance yield difference and harvesting after 18 months of planting gave the highest yield, 390.2 q ha'1
Three different planting materials of turmeric (un sprout, sprouted and transplanted rhizome) were compared to see their yielding capacity at Jima. The results indicated that using unsprouted rhizome gave the highest rhizome yield 267.48 q ha'1.
51
Cardamom (EHeteria cardamomum M.) HEEL'or YE-SHAIKIMAM
Varieties
There are two botanical varieties namely; Mysore type and Malabar type recognized at their home land (Purseglove etal> 1981 and Rijkebusch, 1991). Both were introduced to Ethiopia in 1972 EC. After the introduction, multiplication of the materials at Jima, Bebeka and tep i were followed, adaptability and evaluation studies were continued at Jima, Metu, Mugi, Wonago, Tepi and Bebeka, at different agro ecology of south western Ethiopia for few years. Results from the evaluation study showed that Tepi and Bebeka areas are the ideal for cultivation (Zenbe et al, 1987). In all other areas cardamom plant failed to produce fruit although'the vegetative part was developed.
Propagation
Cardamom is propagated by using small portion of rhizome for small areas but by seeds for larger areas. It is propagated by seeds in areas affected by mosaic virus. This virus spreads rapidly when propagation is carried out vegetatively, is not present in seedsr-Propagation by seeds involves the use of nurseries and sowing the seeds as soon as possible after harvest in beds or in pots.
Shade Management and Shade Trees
Cardamom plant is a shallow rooted plant and thrives best in shade. It requires similar managements with korarima. In order to create suitable micro climate that conserve soil moisture and light amount, optimum shade is required. Cardamom plant needs a high rainfall of2000 mm-5000 mm per annum with a uniform distribution and no distinct dry seasons in its home country (Purseglove eta i, 1981). In Ethiopia, although southwestern part get the highest and long lasting rainfall, such a heavy rainfall with a uniform distribution does not occur in Ethiopia where cardamom is adapted. At Bebeka and Tepi from December to Febru is a dry period. Further large percent of the rain occurs at Bebeka from March to November. During these dry periods associated with high temperature, the available soil moisture becomes below the cardamom requirement which has negative effect on the growth and performance. When these dry season is prolonged, all the vegetative part will die out either partially or completely giving low or no yield.
Although specific mid proper types of shade trees are not yet selected at Bebeka and Tepi, the cardamom plant should be established in partly cleared forest or inter planted between coffee, banana,' ensat, etc. as inter cropping which is a typical culture of Gimira, Keffa etc., societies living there. Where this is not possible, shade trees are preferably a recommended leguminous types which include Leucaneria leucocephala, Glricidia maculala etc. both of which can be propagated by cutting (Purseglove eta i, 1981).
HarvestingCardamom come to bearing three years after planting, which may be 4 to 5 years after sowing and the first crop is usually small. At tep i flowering continuous from June to September with a peak period in July-Agust. The fruits (capsules) ripens irregularly 3 to 4 months after flowering, so that several pickings are required, which starts in November and ends in January The capsules are harvested just before they are fully ripe in order to prevent the capsules splitting during drying; Dried capsules are rubbed and winnowed to remove pedicel and other foreign material. The conversion (out-turn) of dried capsules is about 20 to 25% of the harvested fruits.
Chemical Characteristics of Ethiopian Cardamom
Complete detail of chemical analysis was made by Berhanu et a l (1993) for Car.82.72 oleoresin, essential oil, physical characteristics of oil and for other characters. Few are presented in (Table 5).
Table 5. Quality characteristics of cardamom samples from Tepi
Char.______________ ________________ Car.82.72____________________US Standard________
Moisture 8.8% Not > 11.o%
6.7 % Not > 7,0%
1.10% Not > 3%
16.9 % • ■
Protein* 7.4 % ' *Source wBerhanu et at., 1993
Although the oleoresin and volatile oil content yield of cardamom depend on post harvest handling, the row materials and solvent used during the analysis, Ethiopian cardamom gave low yield of volatile oil content for acetone extract as compared to the market (Table 6) but high value volatile content (58%) was obtained for hexane extracts which is in the range of commercial cardamom (52 to 58%).
%Table 6. Yield and volatile oil content of cardamom oleoresin with different solvents samples from Tepi
Cardamom_____________Solvent ____________Oleoresin yield(%)__________ Volatile oil content(%)
26.8
55.2
36.6
27.5
58.0
34.4____________'■Sourcev Berhanu et al., (1993)
The whole cardamom imported by the major consuming countries usually have the oleoresin contentJ yield in the range of 3.5 to 7%. The yield of both cardamom type from Tepi is with in the range, th e1 highest being tnat of Car.82.72 cardamom (Table 7),
Car. 14.79 Acetone 6.8
Hexane 5.2
Ethanol 7.9
Car.82.72 Acetone 6.9
Hexane 6.3
Ethanol 8.2
AshI.
Ash in soluble in HCI
Crude fiber
Table 7. Yield of cardamom essential oil samples from Tepi
Variety Yield (%) Importing countriesVolatile content {%)
Cv.J4.79 5.8 3.5 to 7
Car.82.72 6.10 3.5 to 7Source: Edossa, 1995,
The quality of volatile oil of Ethiopian cardamom oleoresin was found to be very similar with that »of Indian cardamom oil. The major components are 1.8-cineole and x-terpinyl acetate, comprising y 78% and 63% of the oil in the Car. 14.79 and Car.82.72 cardamom type (Berhanu et al., 1993). This component is the one that indigenous Ethiopian korarima lacks which plays important role in aroma and flavor. The major component of korarima oil is cineole (35-40%). Tlie essential oil yield and physical characteristics of Ethiopian cardamom are comparable with die value of exporting countries.
t
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) ' KUNDO-BERBERE'or YE-BAHtR KIMAM
Importance and Requirements
Black pepper is used in all Ethiopian domestic cooking although not cultivated. The dried fruit were imported probably through smuggling and is very expensive in local markets. However dried fruit of Schinus molle L. (pepper tree) is used as-a true pepper substitutes locally where true black pepper is not available or very expensive.
Pepper is essentially a crop of the wet tropics and requires a heavy and well distributed rainfall & high night temperature. It has been cultivated successfully as far as 20° N & S and it can be grown at altitude up to 1500 m, but thrives best at 500 m or below (Persglove eta l, 1981) on well-drained
- alluvium with a high humus content, virgin soils rich in humus & that well drained red lateritic soils or alluvial soils rich in humus.
Introduction of Black Pepper Cultivars
Five cultivars were introduced from abroad from 1979 to 1980 and multiplication was started. These cultivars were planted at Bebeka jima and Tepi for adaptation study. However due to lack of experience of handling the vine during the early years, the work and proper managements were insufficient. Later support and shade trees were planted latter and the vine started bearing lately.At Bebeka it grew vigorously with excellent performance. At Tepi it grow good but with less performance than Bebeka. At Jima it failed to grow. Therefore, evaluation of the germplasms was the first work with five cultivars at Bebeka.
Finally BP. 17.79 cultivar becomes only climber and fail to produce any y ield at Bebeka. Based on the yield recorded till know the variety Br.32.79, SL.3.80 and Pa.4.80 gave higher yield which are very satisfactory. Tlie yield potential 40-70 qha'1 fresh red cherry were recorded (Table 8). Therefor, in Ethiopia it is possible to cultivate black pepper successfully in more wider altitude than cardamom, from 1250 (Tepi) to extremely low lands of south western Ethiopia where high rainfall occur in a year. The performance of pepper at Bebeka is very higher than Tepi. At present the germplasm bank of the center contains about sixteen cultivars.
54
Table 8. Performance of nursery pepper cultivars at Bebeka
Cultivars Picking season Fresh yield* kgftree Fresh yield (qha’)
Start End(three years mean)
Br.32.79 Dec. March 1.797 62.5
S1.3.80 Dec. March 2.12 73.7
Pa.4.80 Dec. March 1.84 62.5
Ku.5.80 Dec. March 1.22 41.6
Mean 1.74 60.08* Spacing 2.4 x 1.2m
Propagation
Black pepper is now propagated solely by cuttings. Cuttings may be raised in a nursery or can be planted directly in field. Preparation of cuttings requires selection of orthotropic stems approximately with two to three nodes vines less than two years old are used. Stolens or layers from the base of the plants are also used. Preparing cuttings in a nursery enables a markedly higher success on field planting. The cuttings are planted in moist medium bed and covered with die plastic sheet during rooting.
Planting and Spacing
As black pepper is a climbing vine, support provision must be need. The simplest and oldest form of cultivation is planting cuttings at the foot of a tree or as a secondary crop in fruit trees. A more intensive cultivation is planting pepper in specially planted shade trees and the vines are tied and trained up the support. Support trees are planted a head of pepper the cuttings are planted around the support at 2-2.4 m x 2-3.0 m. Pruning is important to control height and to remove unproductive nodes with out lateral branches, leaving only stem with nodes each bearing as branch
Harvesting
Harvesting takes place from January to April at Tepi and from December to March at Bebeka. The vine reach maturity after 2 to 3 years of planting .Selective picking of red berry is made at about Weekly intervals for 2 to 3 months period for the preparation of white pepper. Shed and damaged berries which have fallen to the ground are collected to produce black pepper. At the end of harvesting period the vines are stripped of all fruiting spikes, the ripe and unripe fruits produced are made in to black pepper to ensure that the vines will'come in to bearing and fhiit evenly at the same time the following year. Three-legged 'tripod' ladders are used to reach the higher spikes, care being taken to avoid damaging the vines. Approximately 27% of white or 33%of black pepper are produced from fresh green pepper harvested. ’
Support and Shade Trees
Since pepper is climbing vine support is required whether it is living or non living for each plant. Alternatively, the pepper vine could be grown as a secondary crop in fruit tree stands for support. Because pepper is the crop of wet tropics, it requires a heavy and well distributed rainfall as much as 2500 mm per annum (Puresglove et al., 1981). On the contrary such heavy and well distributed
raimali doesn't occur in Ethiopia therefore shade is needed although it has negative impact. Shade must be provided at Bebeka just only to escape during the dry period, therefore, in Ethiopia (Bebeka and Tepi areas) Erethrina indiea tree is selected for both support and shade for pepper vine for more intensive form-of cultivation.,. '
Chemical Analysis of Ethiopian Black Pepper
Black pepper quality is evaluated on the bases of its appearance, pungency level, aroma, and flavor quality . The'pungency level is expressed as pipeline which is the major pungent principles of spices. Based on the analysis made by Berhanu et al., 1993, Bebeka's black pepper piperine content is comparable with the international average standard 4 to 7% Oleoresin yield of 10-13% have been reported for Indian Malabor pepper. Highest yields being obtained from Malabor light pepper. Some manufacture products contain about 15-20% volatile oil and 35-55% piperine. The highest yield and volatile content of oleoresin of Ethiopian pepper was obtained from the variety Ku.5.80 with 51.5% with Hexene solvent (Table 9) . The analysis of oleoresin yield volatile, oil content, physical characteristics of volatile oils* chemical composition of the volatile oils of oleoresin, etc. were indicated that Ethiopian black pepper satisfy international standard quality (Berhanu et al., 1993)
Table 9. Yield, volatile oil and piperine content of black pepper oleoresin with different solvents
Variety Solvent Oleoresin yield (%)
Volatile oil conten t<%)
Piperine content {%}
Sl.3.80 Acetone ? 10.0 15.0 47.8
Hexane 4.8 51.5 11.5
Ethanol 8.4 10.3 42.5
’ Pa.4.80 Acetone 9.1 16.4 .47.5
Hexane 5.0 35.1 20.5
Ethanol 9.1 6.9 38.1
Ku.5.80 Acetone 10.3 18.0 51.6
Hexane 4 .8 49.7 15.8 ‘
Ethanol. 8.3 7.-6 50.4
Cr. 17.79 Acetonfe 10.4 12.1 42.7
Hexane 7.3 33.6 26.4
Ethanol 9.1 7.1 33.8
Br.32.79 Acetone 10.1 13.2 44.1
Hexane 7.911
43.3|
24.4||
F th a n n l II P R I RR II 37 3Source; Berhanu et al, 1993
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verumH.) 'KERFAImportance and Requirements
/Cinnamon is an evergreen tree with spirally arranged, broad laminated dark green leaves having palmate venation. The plant grows to a height of 8 in-17 m in wild state With stem girth of 30 cm-50 cm. When coppice from time to time, it cold be maintained as a bush from 2-2.5 m height with multiple stems arising from its base (Bavappa et al.y 1981). The dried inner bark and leaves are strong aromatic (Spices). It is a hardy plant that can grow well in almost all soil types under a wide variety of tropical condition ranging from semi-dry to Wet zone. It requires a warm and wet climate With average temperature 20 to 30 \ with no extreme of heat or cold with high rainfall (Perseglove et a i , 1981; Bavappa et al., 1981).
Variety
Cinnamon variety Cm.5.82 was introduced to Ethiopia 1982 for the first time. It is performing well at Tepi and Bebeka but also less vigor at Jima and Metu. It grows at more Wider ecology than black pepper and cardamom in Ethiopia. In other locations where adaptation is not observed it could be cultivated for home or consumption in all coffee growing regions.
Propagation
Cinnamon is propagated by seeds or vegetatively. Since the fruits are avidly eaten by birds it is necessary to cover the mother plant with the net to protect the fruits. The fruits are collected and kept in heaps until the pulp rots. The seeds are then washed and planted in nursery. When the trees are not covered with the net the birds eat the pulp and drop the seeds to the ground (tree base). When the rain comes, the seeds germinate there, then transfer theseneedlings to the pot and in nursery.
Field Planting and Spacing
Spacing is approximately 2 m between stands. The plants are copied after two years, the stems being cut to 10 cm from the ground and covered with earth for shoots initiation, of which four to six are allowed to grow for a further two years before harvesting.
Quality of Ethiopian cinnamon
The quality of cinnamon is assessed on the basis of its appearance, oil content, aroma and flavor of the volatile oil (Table 10). Their quality requirement depend on their final end use.
Table 10. Quality characteristics of Ethiopian cinnamon and Internationa! standard (IS)
Characteristics Cin.5.82 IS
Moisture 10.6% Max. 12.0%
Ash 3.5% Max. 5.0 %
Ash Insoluble in Hcl 0.03% Max. 1.0%
Crude fiber 33.4 %
Protein 4.9%Source : Berhanu et al., 1993
References
Bavappa K.U.A Guneratne L. and Ruettimann R.A. (1981). Cinnamon Cultivation and Processing. Technical Bulletin 5.Department of Minor Export crops. Sirilanka
Berhanu M. Abagaz and Nigist Asfaw. Analysis of essential oils and oleoresin derived from Exotic Black pepper, Cardamom and Cinnamon. Department of Chem istry, AAU and Ethiopian spice Extraction Factory A.A. Ethiopia
Edossfc Etissa 1995, Cardamom: A New Potential Cash Crop of South Western Ethiopian Lowl ands. IAR Newsletter (2 and 3). Nov 1995.
Fantahun Legesse, Edossa Etissa and Zenebe Woldu. 1995. Review of Spices Research in Ethiopia. A status Report: Coffee and'Associated crops workshop. Feb.27-March 1,1995. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. (In press).
Janson P.C.M. 1981. Spices, Condiments and Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, Then* Taxonomy and Agricultural Significance, Laboratory of Plant Taxonomy and Plant Geography, Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands.
IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research). 1985. Jima Research Center Horticulture Division Progress Reports for the period of 180/81 -1982/83, 1983/84, 1984/85, 1985/86 and 1986-1991.IAR Progress Reports.IAR. Addis Ababa.
Parry J.W. 1969. Spices : The story of spices (I). Chemical Publishing Company, New york, USA.
Purseglove, J.W., Brown. E.G., Green CL., Robbins S.R.J. (1981). Spices, long man Inc. New York. Vol. 1 and 2
Rijkebusch P.A.H 1971. Cardamom in Tanzania, pp. 144-148. (In) Bakker G. de. First East African Horticultural Symposium. ISHS. Acta Hort. No. 21, Kampala, Uganda.Solomn Teklu, Senait Tsegaye and Nigist Asfaw. 1993. Chemical Inyestation On Essential Oils and Oleoresin Derived from Ginger Varieties from-Jima IAR. Ethiopian Spice Extraction Factory, Addis Abeba,
Westphale, E. 1975. Agricultural Systems in Ethiopia, Joint publication of the College of Agriculture, H.S.U. (I) Ethiopia, and the Agricultural University of Wageningen, The Netherlands. Center for Agricultural publishing and Documentation.
Zenebe Woldu and Bereke-Teshai Tuku. 1987. Review of Spices Research in Ethiopia, pp 343-347. In : Godfrey-Sam Aggrey and Bereke-Tsehai Tuku (eds). Proceeding of the First Ethiopian Horticultural Workshop, Addis Ababa, 20-22 Feb. 1985. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
RECOMMENDED VARIETIES AND CULTURAL PRACTICES FOR
PRODUCTION OF FRUIT AND TUBER CROPS IN SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA
Edossa Etissalima Agricultural Research Center■ PO Box 192t lima______________________________________________ _____________________________________________ ,
Introduction
Ethiopia is a country with diverse climate suitable for growing various fruit and tuber crops. The humid areas are naturally endowed to grow several types of fruits (citrus, banana, pine apple, mango, etc.), stimulants, spices, root and tuber crops. These fruit crops are cultivated
sporadically in all coffee growing areas. Roots and tubers are the main components in their traditional feeding habits and their cultural heritage (Westphal, 1975). Among the native root and tuber crops are 'Kote Hare', Enset, Anchote, 'Oromo Dinch1, and some spp. of yams. The exotic once : Cassava, Taro, Tannia, S. potato. Potatoes are intercropped with each other and with fruit trees in gardens. Each of them possess certain advantages for subsistence farming. These systems of traditional cropping evolved more intensive multiple cropping, mixed farming, compound fanning etc. that made the humid areas more sustainable environment for agricultural production than other part of Ethiopia . However, farmers are well aware of the importance of fruit crops. This paper provides the current available varieties and cultural practices on avocado, pine apple, bananas, taro, yam and cassava at Jima.
Avocado (Persea americana M.)Climatic Requirements
The environmental factors required for avopado growth; temperature, rainfall, PH and relative humidity studied at some areas of southwestern Ethiopia, which is very ideal for avocado production supported by the actual yield recorded at Jima, which is exceptionally high as compared to other countries. Avocado perform not only in southwestern but in all Other areas of Ethiopia where extreme low temperature occurs and from down sea level to higher altitude areas (Table 1).,
Table 1. Environmental requirements of avocado in some areas of southern, southwestern and western parts of Ethiopia.
Climatic factors Jima Bonga Tepi Metu Nekemit Gimbi
Temp'Tc) 12.3-26.5 15.4-29.8. 12.6*28.1
Rainfall (mm) 1516.9 1800 1713.8 1933 1700 1800
PH 5.3 5.5 -B
Altitude (m) 1750 ’ 1720 1250 1700 1870 . 1870 •.
Relative humidity 6 8 * - ♦ -
Source:Durand BJ.(J994), Samson J.A.(1986)
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C u ltiva rsThe avocado cultivars cultivated today in Ethiopia are originally introduced from unknown areas although small fruit sized trees are Mexican races that adapt to medium to high land areas (IAR,1994). Larger fruit size trees are either Guatemalan or west Indian races. However due to long periods o f continues segregation and crossing among the seedlings trees, currently diversity o f avocado types and hybrids exist in Ethiopia (Edossa 1993). Great effort is under way to select local superior avocado lines, for d ifferent agronom ic traits. Some commercial avocado cultivars Furete, Hass, Nabal, Bacon, Pinkerton, Ettinger are popular cultivars available at Jima. Their properties are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Avocado cultivars and their properties
Cuttivar Flower type Races
■ : ■—.--r ==
Oil content{%) Cold resistance Maturity season
Furete B Mex. x Guat. 18 -2 to -3°c Mar-May
Hass A Guat. 25 -2 to -3°c Oct.-April
Bacon B Mex. x Guat. 18 very sensitive May-Oct.
Nabal A Guat. 16 -1 to -2°c Dec.May
Pinkerton 24 •1 to -2°c
Ettinger AprilM ay
Source: (IAR, 1994)
N ursery and P ro p ag atio nThe yielding potential o f seedlings vary according to production and quality o f fruits, even when they originate from the same m other tree. Since seedlings grow vigorously, vegetative growth dominate and m ost o f the fruit lets are aborted. They also start bearing after 8-10 years o f planting, while grafted trees produce yield after 2 to 3 years o f planting. Seeds must be collected from only healthy root stock cultivars and vigorous mother trees fruits which are mature well. Seeds loose viability with in 20 days after pulp is removed under ordinary conditions. Seeds are planted in nursery beds with the flat basal-end down just deep enough to cover the tips, this is in September October at Jima. Soon after germination young healthy seedling are transplanted into polytene bags if they were planted in beds, other than polythene bags.
Young seedlings must be protected from adverse effect o f violent tem perature fluctuations, intense sun heat and light, high evaporation, wind damage yet provides sufficient warmth, light and moisture to ensure root and shoot developm ent & adequate photosynthetic activity o f leaves. After about four to five m onths seedlings reach grafting at Jima.
Wedge/cleft graft is an easy way to jo in avocado scion with root stock. The scion may be same or less diam eter than the stock. The cambia o f scion and stock are placed in intimate contact and clam ped together firmly, either by grafting tape, strong tie made from polytene bag. The graft requires tying &. sealing, covering with moist soft paper and the tying with grafting tape is important. The tying must be in a way that should prevent entrance o f water if so there will be decay at contact. Timely pinching out all the new buds produced below the graft union (root stock) as they em erge is highly required unless both the scion and root stock fail to join. Once the grafted seedlings achieved enough size they require harding before field transplant. Unlike the citrus grafted seedlings which
require 2-2 Vz years in nursery, grafted avocado seedlings reach field transplant after 9-10 months (sowing in September and October, grafting in January-February, Field planting in June).
Planting Management
Avocado variety should be planted at a time favorable to achieve good pollination. Since avocados are out breeding, put bee hives in avocado orchard for sufficient & reliable pollination. Plant as much as possible only known variety of grafted seedlings from knownsources. Do not plant seedlings trees as it may be non bearer after you wait for more than about 8 to 9 years. If it bears it is too high to harvest, susceptible to wind damage during bearing, doesn't become true to type.
Avocado trees brought from a nursery should already have hardened. Plant the trees as soon as possible after receiving them. Don’t place trees in the sun since the container, becomes hot and cold bum the roots before planting. Never keep the trees too long before planting they are made ready for planting while still in'nursery. If they are kept much longer they may become root-bound, develop long shoots in uncontrolled shade and suffer from nutrient deficiency. Young trees should be supported with sturdy props as soon as possible after planting. Avocado trees should be planted to the same depth as they were in the planting bag. The trees should preferably be planted in a slightly raised position so that water can not collected in the base. The trees should be protected by erecting a frame over the trees and covering this with grass or shade net. This probably took from June to September after field planting. Once the leaves have penetrated the grass they are hardened & need no further protection. Protect only from animals & weeds.
Neither tree spacing on its Own, nor tree thinning alone can be regarded as the best orchard practice to maximize initial fruit yield of a given avocado orchard. The avocado spacing depend on the expected size of mature tree. Mature tree size depends on several reasons . Thus spacing should be made for each growing areas. Initially plant at spacing to accommodate the mature tree size, plant as many trees as economically feasible, using precocious cultivars and then thin with courage.
The clpsest initial tree spacing 4-6 m x 4-6 m that is economically feasible is the spacing that attains high enough yield to make some profit before the first thinning. In many countries 400-800 trees/ha of grafted avocados are planted. However seedling trees require more spacing from 8-12 m x 8-12 m area is required for each plant depending on the soil fertility & management. During the early years of an orchard it is desirable to plant a cover crop or others (pine apple) to protect and maintain the soil until the trees can cover it with shade. Such corp must not, however, compete with the trees & must be restricted to the strip between the tree rows.
Maturity and Harvesting
While on the tree the fruit remain hard, avocados only became soft and edible after they have been harvested. It is not easy to decide the right harvesting time by the skin color. With dark colored cultivars, this is some what easier since these are ripe when one half to three quarters of the final color has developed. Maturity in green type indicated when there is a yellowish tint to skin and stem. The fruit becomes smoother, especially at the end opposite the stem, and many cultivars small, corky areas appear on the skin.
Avocado Seasons
Avocado start maturity at Jima in August and ends in December with peak supply in October and November. Very few supply is continued up to the middle of February. However, there is a critical gap from middle of February, up to July . Although avocado fruit can be left (storage) on the tree hanging on for more than 3 months with out any quality loss, 'hanging on' prevent the tree from
61
flowering. These could reduce the next yield There are many factors that change avocado supply seasons:
Variety: M exican race verities reach maturity earlier after six months o f flowering and the Guatemalan race mature lately after more than 10 months The West Indian races are in between.
Altitude: at low altitude avocado seasons are earlier and at higher altitude, avocado supplyseasons are late with same variety. Therefore, if planned production o f avocado cultivation is adopted, there could be year round supply.
Rain fall: when rainfall starts earlier avocado seasons also becomes earlier with few weeks and vice versa. At Jima and Metu avocado supply starts in summ er when cash crops, coffee and maize are out o f season for income generation again this peak supply is when the rural community face food shortage.
Pineapple ( Ananas comosus (L).Merr.
C u ltivarsSmooth cayenne is the most com m only grown pineapple. This variety is the commercial cultivar at Gojeb. It combines nearly spineless leaves with high production, high fruit quality and resistance to gum m osis (Sam son 1986). N o other cultivar has fruit o f such good, cylindrical shape, ideal for canning.
P ro p ag atio nDifferent propagules (Suckers, slips and crowns) can be used for planting. Because pineapple has slow propagation any o f the propagules indicated on table 3 can be used for fast propagation. The different types o f propagules should be kept separate and must be sorted for size, so that a field is planted with uniform materials (Table 4). Slips and suckers are stored for one to two weeks and may be kept storage for several m onths before field planting.
Table 3. Effect of type of planting material on the yield of pine apple at Gojeb.
Treatment Fresh yield (t h a ')
Crown 40.9
Suckers 40.6
Slips 45.7
Mean 48.3
Source: Edossa et al 1995
62
Table 4. Effect pf different si2es of slips on pineapple yield at Gojeb
. Treatment (cm) Fresh yield (tha ’)
20 44.4
30 59.5
40 66.5
50 58.6
60 58.4
Mean 41.9
Source: Edossa
Planting and Sp*. (ng
When planting pineapples two rows make a bed and between beds a path is maintained. At Jima spacing of 25 cm between plants in rows, 60 cm between tow rows in a bed, and 70 cm between beds (path) is recommended (Table 5). In other countries the rows are staggered & each second row is displaced by half a space.
Table 5..Yield of pineapple with different spacing combinations at Gojeb
Treat (cm) Fruit yield (tfia'1)
80 x 70 x 30 48.5
90 x 60 x 30 53.6
100 x 50 x 30 50.9
8 0 x 7 0 x 4 0 50.9
90 x 80 x 4 0 54.3
1 0 0 x 5 0 x 4 0 55.1
80 x 70 x 25 74.4
9 0 x 6 0 x 2 5 70.4
100 x 60 x 25 55.9
Mean 55.1
Source: Edossa et al 1995
Bananas (Musa Spp.)There are many known cultivars of Banana which have adapted nicely to the various ecological zones of Ethiopia. They have local names such as 'Yabesha Muiz','Kenya Muiz’ Mizan Muiz type' and
D ucasse Hybrid. These are the bases o f local banana cultivars in south western Ethiopia by traditional farmers. Since banana is a crop of humid low lands, humid low- medium land o f Ethiopia are very ideal for banana cultivation providing optimum environm ental requirem ents. For these reasons M aizan-Tepi area are one o f the three known banana supplying areas (Awash valley and Arba M inch) for Addis Ababa markets. Under not well managed farmers field bunch weight o f more than 35 kg is very com mon in Mizan areas However due to lack o f transport facility, packing materials and long distances from Addis Ababa the wide potential o f south western areas (Gojeb, Mizan, Bebeka and Tepi) for bananas are not yet exploited
C u ltiva rs
Except Tepi and Bebeka state farms (they grov. Dwart Cavendish) farmers o f Kefficho -Shekicho’ and'Bench-M aji’’ Timir Zones' grow the Local "Mizan type" cultivars, the most curved and becomes Teka-Teko' at full ripening.
However, although the "Mizan type" are sweet, they are said to be less quality as compared to Awash valley and Arba Minch banana produces. Therefore, in order to supplement the subsistent farmers with superior banana cultivars a num ber o f banana cultivars which are am ong the leaders in international trade (include the most important genome groups AAA and AAB) were introduced (Stover et al 1887). These are
Lacatan, Poyo, Red, Grand N a in \ Robusta. Gaint Cavendish. Valery. Green red. Pisang sri’, Williams 1 and W illiams II
These are being screened at Jima, Tepi and Metu Based on their field performance and yield the most com mercial cultivar becom e superior at Jima. They are grouped based on their height.
S h o rt B an an a C u ltivars
W illiams I, W illiams II, Green Red and D w arf Cavendish
M edium B anana C u ltivarsPoyo, Grand Nain', Gaint Cavendish and Robusta.
Long B an an a C u ltivars
Lacatan and Ducasse Hybrid.
C o o kin g B an an a C u ltivarsFeeding cooked banana is not common in southwestern Ethiopia traditionally like in Gambella, Yeki areas, however farmers use dessert banana types for cooking. The popular cooking banana cultivars, Saba & Cardaba are planted at Jima for observation They, like other root crops, have high carbohydrate content with highly resistant to black sigatoka (Stover et al 1987). They are used as cooked, fried chips and catsup etc. The variety Cardaba is more vigorous and faster ratooning speed and reduced wind loss (higher yield) at Jima.
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Propagation
There are different systems of banana propagation. Seed beds are established exclusively for producing a maximum number of suckers per plant for planting new ureas or for changing varieties. 'Seed' obtained in plantation by leaving extra suckers extra sword suckers is left to develop for replanting near by spaces. Suckers are ready for removal when they reach of minimum of 15 cm diameter & 15 cm above the soil (Stover et al 1987).
Spacing and Planting
Spacing is determined by soil fertility, the more fertile the soil the larger the pjlant, including foliage. This necessitates lower population but higher population where individual plants are smaller. Studies on spacing have lead to have high density planting . However there is a tendency that taller variety need more wider spacing than short or medium varieties. Therefore, short cultivars require; 2 x 2 m medium cultivars 2.5 x 2.5 m and tall cultivars 3 x 3 m
The best planting time is at, or just before the beginning of a rainy season. After few weeks after planting a careful cheek of ail plants should be made for replacement.
Pruning and Special Care
Pruning in banana aim at maintaining a balance between growth and yield. All unwanted suckers must be removed. This also diminishes internal competition with in a 'stool', so that bigger bunches of better quality are produced. The following management practices have also to be made for banana plantation;
■ deflowering (removal of the withered style and perianth),■ propping serves to protect bearing plants from falling over and from wind damage, and■ earthling-up also protects the plants against wind damage.
Growth Period and Harvesting
Under optimal conditions banana takes nine to twelve months from planting to flower and at least another three to five to mature the fruit ( Stover et al, 1987). These period may be longer depending on cultivars, climate and cultural practices. The warmer the climate is, the less time is needed for harvest and vice versa.
Taro ( Cofocasia esculent/a L . ) and Tannia (Xanthosoma Sp.)Different varieties o f taro and tarinia are cultivated in humid areas of Ethiopia.
Tannias the so called 'Sudan Godere’, have a short erect stem , large and long stalked sagittate or hastate leaves, the leaves stalk joins the blade at the margin between the lobes and the tips of the lobes are pointed, not rounded, long petiole, and long leaves.
Taros (so called "Godere") the leaves are heart shaped, with rounded basal lobes; the leaf stalk joins the blade some distances inwards from the. notch between the lobes. Both of them are widely distributed and cultivated in south western Ethiopia. With regard to taro, variety screening Were undertaken.
Rosadu Habain, Julean Joponica and Godere Adi’ varieties were found to be very superior in their yielding potential and tuber quality. These cultivars were verified and dem onstrated widely.
P lan ting m ate ria ls and M etho ds
Taros are propagated vegetatively using suckers, whole corms or cormels, pieces o f corms or setts. Three different taro planting materials (corms. cormels & cui corm) were com pared at Jima. The results showed that m other corm gave highest tuber yield (Table 6).
Table 6.Tuber yield of Taro (Rosadu Habain variety) from different planting material at Jima.
Type of planting materials Tuber yield (q ha-1)
Cormels (suckers) 499.1
Mother corms 662.7
Cut corms 619.6
Mean 593.8
Source: Edossa et al 1995
P lan ting T im e
Since taros are plants o f lowland, wet culture, upland, the planting time also varies accordingly. For wet lands the field preparation resembles for rice, to produce a well puddled soil. Cormels are used and the base pushed by hand in to the mud to depth of 20 to 30 cm. In dry culture where rain fall is sufficient planting is done at the beginning o f rainy seasons in rows.
Field S p ac in g
In high rain fall areas with heavy cloud, exceptional!) large leaves will be produced like Bebeka, here wide spacing appear to be optimal. At Jima 70 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants gave hign yield (Table 7).
Row spacing (cm.)
Plant spacing (cm) 50 60 70 80 90 Mean
30 75.6 76.37 78.89 72.67 76.10 75.73
40 77.4 76.7 75.8 70.9 74.1 74.9
50 75.4 76.1 76.4 72.3 72.7 74.8
60 74.0 69.5 69.6 62.6 67.2 68.6
70 72. 72.8 68.3 62.4 63.5 67.8
Mean 75.1 74.3 73.8 68.2 70.7 72.4
Sottice: Edossa et al 1996
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Growth Period and Harvesting
The maturation period varies according to cultivars and growing conditions of the area. The taro duration at Jima is from 7 to 9 months after planting. However in the warmer areas with high level of radiations shorter months and in the cooler areas more months are required to mature. However, taros are ready for harvesting when the leaves begin to turn yellow and start to wither. Harvesting can be delayed for some Weeks in dry weather with out deteriorating and post harvest can thus be reduced to a minimum.
Yam (Dioscorea Spp.)Cultivars
Many different species of yams are cultivated in humid areas. Three species D. abyssinica, Bitter yam (D. dumetorum (Kunth) Pax), Potato yam "(A bulbifera ) are indigenous to Ethiopia. Westphal, (1975) also identified nine types of yams in Ethiopia. They are grown in different yam cultivation niches of wettest part of the country near home, on stakes trees, fences. Few yam collections have been made with which comparison have been made at Jima. There is high variability among the accessions in yield and all other characters. The accessions Yam-2-81, Yam- 1-75 and Yam-56-76 gave the highest yield with 600,503.3 and 458 q ha'1 at Jima, respectively.
Planting Material
Edible yams are normally propagated by the use of small tubers (seed yams), cuttings of the tubers. The best planting material is a small whole tuber which produce a fairly large numbers of tubers, can be propagated very easily by reserving a few of tubers and planting these at the beginning of the next rainy seasons. In general, tuber (proximal) tops are preferred and larger the sett, the earlier and grater is the rate of germination.
Planting Methods and Staking
Yams are planted either as mono-culture or intercropped with other crops. Sett may be planted in hole, on mounds, ridges or raised beds. Support for the growing vines is usually provided, most often on stakes, a trees, fences, fruits or bushes. There is evidence that such support is necessary for satisfactory plant and tuber development.
Planting Time
In areas where the rain lasts 8 to 10 months planting normally takes place just before or at the beginning of the rains. Where the rain season is less than 8 months early planting recommended.
Plant Spacing
Wide range of planting distances are used depending up on variety, soil types and whether intercropping is practiced. At Jima mounds are prepared in rows and at 45 cm between plants in .'ows and 90 cm between rows gave high yield (Table 8).
Table 8. Yield of Yam tuber at different spacing combinations at Jima.
Spacing (cm) Yield (tha 'l
4 5 x 9 0 ; 54.6
4 5 x 1 0 5 51.8
4 5 x 1 2 0 44.8
6 0 x 9 0 49.4
60 x 105 51.9
6 0 x 1 2 0 46.9
7 5 x 9 0 45.5
7 5 x105 47.9
75 x 120 40.3
9 0 x 9 0 41.6
9 0 x 1 0 5 42.8
9 0 x 1 2 0 38.9
Source: Edossa et al 1995
Growth Period and Harvesting
Yams reach maturity 8 to 11 months after planting, the growth period usually come to an end at, or shortly after, the end of rainy season. At the start of dry season yam plants normally die back and the tubers are ready for harvesting, though in most cases they may be left in the ground for several weeks as deterioration is usually not rapid.
References
Durand B.J. 1990. Climatic Requirement of Avocado. Farming in South Africa Avocado B-l/1990. Citrus and subtropical fruits Research Institute, Nelspruit, South Africa.Edossa Etissa, Zenebe Woldu, Fantahun Legesse and Tirfalem H/woid. (1995). Avocado, Pineapple
and Macadamia Nuts in Coffee based farming: Potential for production. Coffee and associated crops workshop 27 Feb-1 March 1995 Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Edossa Etissa; Zenebe Woldu, Fantahun Legesse and Abate Guangule. 1995. Review of Rootand Tuber crops research at Jima, Coffee and Associated crops workshop, 27 Feb- 1 March 1995 Addis Ababa Ethiopia (Inpress).
Edossa Etissa, Zenebe Woldu and Abate Guangule. 1996) Determination of inter and intra row spacing of taro tube. (Colocasia esculentia L.) at Jima. Paper presented on second annual conference of Agronomy and crop physiology society of Ethiopia . 30-31 May 1996. Addis Ababa Ethiopia).
IAR, Diy. 1994 land Farming and Horticulture Research and Development, Ethiopia, Project findings and Recommendations. FAO. Rome.
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Samson J.A. 1986 Tropical Fruits (2nd ed) Tropical Agricultural Series, Longman, London. Stover R.H.and Simmonds N.W. 1987. Banana (3rd ed) Longman, group, UKWestphel E. 1975. Agricultural Systems in Ethiopia. Center for Agricultural publishing and
documentation center. Wageingen, The Netherlands.
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RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS AND TRANSFERABLE TECHNOLOGIES
IN COFFEE AGRONOMYTesfaye Shimber, Yacob Edjamo, Alemseged Yilma and Taye Kufalima Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 192, lima____________________________________ ,
Introduction
Ethiopia is believed to be the center o f origine and diversity for arabica coffee. It is well known that the multiplying effect o f coffee on the over all economy o f the country is quite g^eat. In spite o f its enorm ous variability and importance in the national economy, its production
potential hardly exceeds 450 kg h a '1 (MCTTX 1985, Yacob et al., 1996). Traditional management systems, unregulated stand density, ineffective weed control, disease infestation, lack o f improved and adaptable high yielding varieties, lack o f proper pruning practices, poor soil fertility, drought and inadequate or excessive light/shade are among the major factors that account for such low coffee yields (Femie, 1966; Narasimhaswamv. 1966; Huxley, 1967; Yacob, 1985; Getachew etai.,1995).
In order to alleviate the constraints and promote coffee production, several crop management practices have been tested at Jima/Melko and other trial sites in different coffee growing regions.The major research areas include old coffee rejuvenation, nursery management, pruning andtraining, spacing (population density), selection o f shade trees, intercropping, weed management,soil and moisture conservation, and morphophysiological responses to stress conditions. In line «with this, major on-station research achievements and field survey results obtained so far in coffeeagronomy and physiology are summarized and briefly presented in this paper
Forest Coffee ManagementIn cyclic (four, five and seven years cycle) stumping trials, stumped plots gave higher yields than the unstumped coffee. However, in other sets o f experiment unstumped (control) stands out-yielded both partial and clean stumping with the respective mean yields o f 617.5, 570.5 and 497.6 kgha '1. Similarly, it was observed that yields o f old coffee stands increased by several folds using rejuvenation methods other than stumping and moisnire conservation techniques such as ridging (Table 1).
Therefore, the economically feasible method can be adopted to renew old coffee stands. This finding is quite in agreement with the results o f comparative survey works in Wellega and Illubabor Regions (Getachew et al., 1995) indicating the reluctance o f farmers to accept stum ping as a practice o f promoting productivity o f old coffee stands. On the other hand, the efficiency o f land preparations (ridge planting) to conserve soil moisture and promote productivity has also been documented for annual crops (Adjeitum, 1987).
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Table 1 Forest coffee production (qha ') as affected by rejuvenation andland preparation, methods in western Ethiopia
RejuvenationLand,preparation methods
MeanTied ridge Untied ridge Flat land
Clean Stumping 3.3 3.b 2.3 3.1
Layering 8.5 5.7 4.6- 6.3
Eskeletamento 11;3 8.9 9.2 , 9.8
Topping 10.6 10.3 9:9 10.3
Decote 7.46 4.76 6.3 6.17
Agoviado 5.7 6.5 7.3 6.5
Control 7.2 7.4 3.3 5.9
Mean 7.7 6.8 6.1
Besides rejuvenation and land preparation, yields of old forest coffee stands generally increase linearly with increasing number of bearing heads per tree or stump and population adjustment at higher densities under moderate shades (Table 2),
As observed at Melko, Agaro, Gera, Tepi, Metu and Mugi, shade regulation, prolific bearing heads and population adjustment up to the biological optima can significantly promote coffee productivity under forest ecosystem (Westphal, 1975; Chaffey, 1982; Yacob, 1985, Yacob et al.,1996).
Table 2. Effect of pruning and density adjustment on forest coffee yield
Pruning practice Yield (qha ') Density (trees/ha) Yield (qha')
Single stem 9.3 2000 4.9
Two stems 10.5 3000 6.9
Treestems 11.9 4000 7.1
Four stems 12.3 5000 8.4
Stumped + free growth 5.8 6000 8.1
Gontrol (unstumped) 6.4 7000 10.2
< On the other hand, yields o f old forest coffee stands were not significantly affected by fertilizerapplication and weed management. Lack of significant and consistent responses to these treatments could be associated with the complex forest ecosystem and heavy shades that masked, depressed or nullified treatment effects on the performance of coffee stands underneath (IAR, 1992).
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Coffee Seed GerminationGermination of coffee seeds significantly decreases with prolonged storage time. Higher germination percentage was obtained when coffee seeds are store under cool condition in earthen
- pot or fiber sack for not more than foiir months. On the otherhand, germination declines as seed sowing depth increases below 1.0 cm (Table 3),
Therefore, immediate sowing alter harvesting to a depth of only 1.0 cm with the grooved side of the seed placed down on forest soil medium or on matures of 6 parts of top soil, 2 parts of compost and one part of sand is always the best option for optimum germination
Table 3. Effect of storage condition time of storage and sowing depth on mean germination of coffee seeds
Storage treatment Germination (%) Storage time (months) Germination (%)
Container
Earthen pot 78-90 One 89.1
Sacks 78-90 Two 77.6
Small tin 78-88 Three 77.1
Glass jar 75-88 Four' 77.6
Condition ' ■ ■ , Five .52.1
Cold grass hut 78-91 Six 43.1
Open grass hut 76-88 Seven 53.6
Concrete building 72-87 Eight 37.4
Sowing depth (cm) Nine 36.9
0.5 80.7 Ten 17;4
“1 81.5 Eleven 5.6
2 67.8 Twelve 2
Nursery ManagementIt was observed that coffee seed beds covered with 3 to 5 cm thick mulch need to be watered at 2- day intervals until seedling emergence during the diy season. After emergence, with the removal of mulch and provision of over head shade, the frequency of watering could be reduced to twice a week until seedlings1 produce 2 to 4 pairs of true leaves, then application of water at one to two weeks interval could be adequate for normal growth of coffee seedlings (Table 4).
Table 4. Effect of watering frequency and shade level on coffee seed germination, and emergence, total plant dry matter (DM) yield and relative water content (RWC) of seedlings and the rooting medium
Watering interval (days) Germination (%) Emergence (%) DM(g)
seedlingRWC (%} seedling
Medium moisture (% by vol.)
4 /SO' /
80 8.1 72.9 28.3
8 / -75/■
/ 32-5
72.5 6.8 70.4 24.1
12 62.5 5.9 67.3 21.0
16 47.5 35.4 6.0 67.2 19.5
20-28 0 0 5.4 66.1 15.0
Shade level (%1
0 5.3 64.9 14.6
25 6.1 68.0 19.0
50 6.6 68.5 20.0
75 6.1 68.9 20.6
Besides frequent watering, moderate shade level (25 to 75%) resulted in significantly higher total diy matter yield and relative water content of coffee seedlings and improved moisture content of the rooting medium (Table 4).
Increases in plant growth parameters and soil moisture content with increasing water supply and shade level have also been reported by Yacob (1985), Cambrony (1992), and Tesfaye and (1995), Tesfaye Berga (1997). These results suggest that frequent watering both at early and later stages and provision of 50% shade/light after emergence would provide optimum growth of coffee seedlings during the nursery period.
Modern Plantation ManagementDifferent experiments have been conducted using modem coffee plantations at Melko, Gera, Agaro, Metu, Tepi and Mugi. Results of these trials show that coffee yield linearly increased in response to increasing plant population (closer spacing) and number o f bearing heads per tree. Similarly, moisture conservation techniques such as ridging significantly increased the yield of plantation coffee (Table 5).
. Table 5. Mean clean coffee yield (qha1) as affected by land preparation, density or plant population (spacing) and number of bearing heads (verticals per tree)
Treatment Yield Treatment No. of verticals Yield
Land Dretiaratiori Coffee tvne/canoDV
* Tied-ridfle 16.9 < Open types 1-2 8.2
• Untied-ridfle 16.7 3 4 8.6
•Banding 15.4 5-6 9.5
•Flat land 13.9 7*8 10.7
9-10 10.7
Spacing Density •Intermediates 1-2 9.3
Ml (UessM1) 3 4 9.9
•2.20 - 2,086 8.5 8-6 10.6
•1.80 • 3,086 10.4 7-8 11.2
-1.58 • 4,006 12.0 9-10 11.8
• Compacts 1-2 10.4
-1.41 • 5,030 13.0 3 4 11.2
•1.29 - 6,010 14.6 5-6 11.7
-1,10 r 7,062 13.6 7-8 11.7
•1.12 • 7,974 13.2 9-10 13.0
-1.05 • 9,066 11.8
•1.00 - 10,000 10.9
The increase in yield with increasing population up to 10,(jb0 trees ha'1 and number of bearing heads up to 10/tree was more obviously observed on compact coffee cultivars, particularly at early years of production. But later on, after four or five crops (specially at lower altitudes), because of increased mutual shading mean yield significantly declined at higher densities ( closer spacings) and the biological optima for all the canopy classes seems to lay between 5,000 and 7,000 trees ha*1 (Table 5). These results are consistent with the findings of Gathara and Kiara (1985) on close spaced coffee in Kenya. Canopy volume, as determined by number of bearing heads, angle orientation of branches and plant height, indicates spatial arrangement and optimum spacing between plaits. Therefore, it can be used to categorise arabica coffee into three major classes, open, intermediate and compact, each of which require specific spacing, pruning system, management practice and moisture regime for adaptation and optimum production. Although it depends on a number of factors including altitude, the optimum spacing or density determined by canopy measurements is given for each morphological class and pruning system (Table 6).
T
Table 6. Suggested spacing/density for single and multiple stem pruning in arabica coffee
Pruning system Coffee morphological class Spacing (mz) Density
(trees ha'1)
Single stem 'Open 1.8 -2 .2 3086*2066
78.9 1 .7 -2 .0 3460*2500
78.9 1.6* 1.8 3906*3086
Multiple stem (many verticals) 75.9 2.00 • 2.5 2500*1600
• Intermediate 1 .8 -2 .2 3086*2066
78.9 1.6 * 2.0 3906-2500
Consistent with the present results, Teme et al. (1991) suggested that smaller canopy volume (diameter) is feasible for closer planting and larger canopy volume for wider spacing.
Coffee Shade TreesYield differences within the coffee plots intercropped under known leguminous shade trees and those plots striped between the shade trees were highly significant, where striping generally out- yielded intercropping coffee with shades (Table 7).
Based on these observations, Millettia ferruginea, Acacia sp., Albizia sp., Erythrina abyssinica, Calpurinea subdecandra and Cordia qfricana appear to be favourable for coffee production, as these shade trees intercept/allow moderate light intensity (30-60%) when planted at normal spacings. The efficiency of such moderate shades in promoting coffee production has also been elaborated by Huxley (1967); Yacob (1985) and Yacob et al (1996).
Table 7. Yield of CBD resistant coffee cultivars as affected by planting pattern (intercropping with and stripe planting between) under known shade trees
Shade trees coffee intercropped Mean coffee yield (qha1)
Coffee striped between two shade sp.
Mean coffee yield (qha*1)
M illettia ferruginea 18.1 M illettia + Albizia 21.6
Acacia abyssinica 15.3 Acacia + abyssinica 18.9
Albizia sp. 15.2 Calpurina + Acacia 16.9
Erythrina abyssinica 14.8 M illettia + Gravfflia 13.4
Calpurina subdecandra 14.67 Albizia + Acacia 12.5
Cordia africana 12.0 Erythrina + Tephrosa 10.9
Similarly, as indicated earlier, moderate shades (25 to 75%) favoured maximum growth and dry matter production in coffee seedlings and increased soil moisture status, while deeper shades decreased growth and dry matter yield in spite of increased level of plant and soil moisture content during the nursery period (Tefaye, 1995, Yacob eta!., 1996).
EcophysiologyCrinkle Leaf Syndrome
Results of seasonal survey works carried out to determine the incidence of crinkle leaf in arabica coffee indicated that the extent of damage due to the syndrome significantly varies with altitude, cultivar, shade level, leaf /branch position within a canopy and season. It was found that leaf area damage and the corresponding crop loss due to the syndrome ranged from 55 to 89% and 25 to 75%, respectively.
Its incidence was more severe in the east that in the west direction specially on the top part of coffee canopies exposed to open sun. It is considerably suppressed under shades. Spring and summer seasons complemented with susceptible coffee lines (particularly compact types) at medium and higher attitudes greatly aggravated the syndrome (Table 8).
Table 8. Crinkle leaf incidence as affected by attitude, shade/light level and coffee moiphologica! class
Crinkle leaf incidence (0-5 score; 0 = im d c sad 5 = 100%)
Altitudem
Mean score Shade level Mean score Coffee canopy (Morphological) class
Meanscore
1400-1600 0.6 Open sun 2.8 Open types 1 2
1601-1800 1.1 Light shade 2.7 Intermediates 1.7
1801-2000 2.1 Moderate shade 0.1 Compacts 2.2
Heavy shade 0.7
Therefore, planting susceptible coffee lines at lower altitudes or under moderate shades in high lands may be the best option to overcome the problem of crinkle leaf syndrome in arabica coffee.
Coffee Branch Die-back
As the case with crinkle leaf, the incidence of coffee branch die-back was highly significantly affected by light intensity or shade level, canopy nature (morphology) of coffee cultivars, plant age and management practices such as weed control and fertilizer application. Severe branch die- back was observed on compact coffee lines exposed to open sun or light shade, while its incidence was lower or mild under moderate to heavy shades and on matured trees of open and intermediate types (Table 9).
Long term observations indicate that coffee branch die-back is more serious at early stages of growth and under poor management conditions (weed infestation, moisture depletion and low soil fertility) specially during the dry period of the year (October-January).
76
Table 9. Effect of shading/light intensity, weedmg and free age on the incidence of branch die-back in different coffee morphological classes
% tight mtensity
Mean % die-back
Weedcontrol*
Mean*feback
Tree age (years)
Mean%die-back
Coffeecanopyclass
Mean % dto-back
1020 6.9 Frequent 29.1 Seeding ( I ” ) 46.9 Opentypes
31.5
30.4 15.5 Occasional 37.1 Yoaig(2-5) 23.6 fntermediates
36.3
50.6 13.2 Cultivation 36.9 Mature (6-12) 15.9 Cotnpacts
49.7
70.8 15.3 No control 60 Old (above 13) 18.7
90-100 27.5
*Frequent and occasional weed control indicate weed management by slashing
Thus, the problem of coffee branch die-back, which is a physiological disorder induced by environmental stresses, could be considerably minimized by app ly ing recommended full package management practices, mainly moderate shade, effective weed control method, mulching and adequate soil fertilization, to make trees of more sensitive coffee lines healthy and vigorous particularly during the early years of growth and production.
Drought Tolerance
Variations among coffee lines were significant for drought tolerance, escape or avoidance, expressed in terms of relative leaf water content, specific leaf mass or leaf weight ratio (leaf thickness) and percent leaf rolling during the driest months of the year. It was also observed that leaf rolling is highly correlated with leaf dry weight and moisture content, specific leaf area and flowering potential in CBD resistant coffee cultivars, and it is greatly affected by shade level, spacing between plants (population density) and leaf or branch position within the canopy (Table 10) both at lower and higher altitudes.
Mutual and self shading of coffee trees by way of narrower spacings (higher densities) and canopy strata minimized the adverse effects of drought and the extent of leaf rolling or folding and associated characteristics which are perhaps important in the maintenance of leaf water balance during moisture stress periods (Table 10). In line with this, Jones (1980) pointed out that drought survival includes escape, tolerance and avoidance of water deficits by either maximizing water uptake or controlling its loss. Such a difference between crops or varieties because of modified or specialized morphological and physiological mechanisms (adaptations) in response to moisture stress has also been reviewed by Tesfaye (1995) and Tesfaye and Berga (1997).
77
Table 10. Degree of leaf rolling (LR) and relative leaf water content {RLWC) in coffee cultivars as affected by density and canopy position during drought periods
Density(trees/ha) % LR Canopy position % LR Coffee line
(canopy class) % LR RLWC(%)
2500 57.2 Top 58.0 ■ Open 43-63 63-64
3265 54,4 Middle 54.6 Intermediate 39-67 56-65
4444 53.7 Bottom 40.3 Compact 45-59 58-64
6400 52.5 60 18.6
10000 51.7
Since shading improves soil moisture status (Cambrony, 1992) and increases relative leaf water content by lowering the rate ofevapOtranspiration (Tesfaye, 1995), provision of adequate shade level by planting/trees and/or adopting close spaeings may be advisable for sensitive coffee lines in stressful areas. The advantage of close spacing in efficient utilization of moisture, light and nutrients by coffee plants has also been discussed by Kumar (1979) and Gathara and Kiara (1985).
In general, environmental stresses causing physiological disorders (crinkle leaf syndrome, branch die-back and leaf rolling or wilting symptoms) could be over come or at least minimized by planting resistant/tolerant coffee cultivars, modifying the micro climate (mainly shade provision) and applying ideal management practices (weeding, soil fertilization, moisture conservation etc.) to maintain the ecology for sustainable coffee production (Jones, 1980; Yacob, 1985; IAR, 1992, Yacob et al., 1996).
References
Adjeituwm, D.C.l 987. Effects of plant density and tillage on growth and grain yields of sorghum (sorghum bicolor (L) Moench ) under dryland condition in semi-arid areas in Ethiopia. J.agr. Sci. Camb.108:398-401.
Cambrony, MR. 1992. Coffee g/-ow/«g.Technical centre for Agricultural and Rural cooperation (CTA), Wageningen, The Netherlands, and Macmillan Press Ltd. London. 119p.
Chaffey, D.R. 1982. South west Ethiopia forest inventory project. A reconnaissance inventory of forest in south west Ethiopia, project report 31 Ethiopia 04-6 Rep-31/79.
Femie, L.M. 1966. FAO coffee survey in Ethiopia. FAO coffee mission to Ethiopia. FAO, Rome. Gathara, M.P.H. and Kiara, J.M. 1985. Factor that influence yield in close spaced coffee. Ill:
yield components. Kenya coffee 50(587): 385-392.Getachew Olana, Harmen Storck and Mulat Demeke. 1995. Farmers response to new technologies in coffee production. The small farmers in Ghimbi CIPA, Wellega. Horticultural systems in tropics. Working Paper Series, University of Hannover, Institute of Horticultural Economics,Germany.Huxley, P. A. 1967. The effects of artificial shading on some growth characteristics of arabica and
Robusta coffee seedlings. J.appi Ecol. 4:291-308.Institute of agricultural research (IAR). 1992. Progress report for the period 1986/1991, Coffee
Researc center, Jima/Melko.
Jones, H.G. 1980. Interaction and integrations of adaptive responses to water stress. Theimplications of an un-predictable environment. IN: Nile, C Turaer and P.J.Kramer (ed). Adaptation o f plants to water and High Temperature stress. John Wiley and sons,Inc.353p.
Kumar, D. 1979. Some aspects of plant water nutrient relationships in coffee arabica L. Kenya coffee AA (517): 15-20.
Ministry of Coffee and Tea Development (MCTD). 1985. National coffee area and results of yield estimate survey, planning, and programming, unit. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Narasimhaswamy, R. L. 1966. Report on visit to coffee areas in Ethiopia, FAO, coffee mission in Ethiopia. FAO, Rome.
Teme, L., Robinson, Lakso, A. N. and Carpenter, S. G. 1991. Canopy development, yield and fruit quality of empire and "delicious" apple trees grown in four orchard production systems for ten years../. Amer. Soc. Hon. Sci. 116:179-187.
Tesfaye Shimber. 1995. Influence of seed bed watering frequency,mulching and shading on seedling growth of Arabica Coffee. M.Sc. Thesis. Alemaya University, Ethiopia!
Tesfaye Shimber and Berga Lemaga. 1997. Influence of watering frequency on seedling growth of Arabica Coffee . Proceedings of the 2nd annual conference of the Agronomy and Crop Physiology Society of Ethiopia, 30-31 May 1996. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP. 52-63.
Westphal, E.1975. Agricultural systems in Ethiopia. Agricultural Res. Reps, versl land bouwkondrez. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. Wageningen, The Netherlands;.
Yacob Edjamo. 1985. Physiological studies of coffee seedling as affected by five light regimes. M.Sc. Thesis. Addis Ababa University, Alemaya College of Agriculture, Ethiopia.
Yacob Edjamo,Tesfaye Shimber, Alemseged Yilma and Taye Kufa. 1996. Advances in coffee agronomy research in Ethiopia. In Proceedings of 1ACO Workshop. Kampala, Uganda, 4-6 Sept., 1995. African Crop Science Society. 1996. PP,40-55.
APPLICABLE RESEARCH FINDINGS IN PRODUCTION OF HORRO SHEEP
Solomon Abegaz and Yohannes GojjatnBako Agricultural Research Centre, P.O.Box3 Bako, Ethiopia__________________________________
Introduction
The W estern part o f Ethiopia, (W ollega, Kafa, and Ilubabor) accounts for 17 % o f the sheep population o f the country (Tesfaye, 1991). Mostly the small ruminant in these area are meant for providing meat. However, their productivity in terms o f annual o ff take rate and meat yield
per anim al is low (Kasahun et al., 1989; Fitzhugh, 1993). Despite the low productivity, the contribution o f small rum inant to Ethiopian national economy is significantly high.
Nationally sheep alone provide some 20% o f the meat consumption and with goats provide 48% o f the value o f national meat production and 58% o f the value o f hide and skin production (Kassahun et al., 1991). In most cases productivity is low. O ff take rate from sheep is 30% and carcass weights are very low (about 10 kg).
The existing export market for live sheep and goat has also a substantial potential for expansion. At farm level small ruminants are also considered as living Bank for farmers as they generate cash for agricultural inputs and provide manure for fertilizer. Small ruminants play an important role in the diversification o f farm income. They guarantee the pay back o f debts to agricultural inputs, and are linked to social and cultural aspects o f smallholder farmers.
In the western region the inhabiting breed types reported are Horro, Bonga, Mocha, Gimira and Sheko (Tesfaye, 1991). Am ong these, Horro is the only one studied at Bako agricultural research center. Survey made on livestock production systems o f the w estern region o f Ethiopia (Tesfaye, 1991), identified poor management level and dry season feed shortage as the two major production constraints. Livestock management determines productivity. In addition to the genetic potential o f a given breed or type, management practices play an important role in increasing flock productivity by reducing maintenance and feeding costs.
This paper reviews the highlights o f research efforts made to alleviate these problems, achievements gained and limitations in the dissemination o f these technologies.
AchievementsBreed Performance
The sheep breed which is largely distributed in the Western region is Horro sheep and it is mainly meant for meat. Performance studies in terms o f reproduction, growth, and survival have been carried on the breed as these all have impact on production o f meat and on farmers income. Under research center managem ent the breed has shown good breed performance for growth and reproduction traits and at tim es for survival traits (Table I ).
Study on the ability o f the breed for early breeding (Solomon et al., 1995) had shown the potential o f Horro ewe lambs for breeding at early age. The results indicate that Horro ewe lambs could be successfully bred at 7 month o f age with no adverse effect on subsequent production. The body weight requirem ent for breeding at 7 month o f age is about 2 i kg.
Performance of Horro Sheep Under Different Management: it is estimatedthat 82% of the sheep sent to market for sale are milk tooth and unfinished lambs. Study on Horro sheep to investigate means and feasibility of finishing immature lambs under feedlot condition by rations of different roughage to concentrate ratio resulted in increased final weight and average daily gain (ADG) as the concentrate to roughage ratio was increased in the diet (Table 2).It is concluded that fattening should largely depend on high concentrate feeding when cost benefit considerations are positive.
Maize and noug-cake are the potential concentrate supplements available to complement native pasture in the western region. A study was undertaken to determine their optimum level of feed combination as sheep fattening ration. It is concluded that a 50/50 % mixture of maize and noug- cake with small amount of (3-5 g/sheep/day) salt gives the optimum live weight gain and the maximum net return (Table 3).This level can be used as economic proportion for ration formulation.
Results from experiment done using yearling Horro sheep supplemented with different levels of 50% maize and 50% noug-cake concentrate mixture (Table 4) have identified 400 g to be optimum level for maximum profitability.
Feeding whole maize and noug-cake to sheep as a supplement to hay resulted (Table 5) in either better or similar feed conversion efficiency and animal performance and gain to that of feeding in the ground form. The physical form of feeding had no significant influence on body weight gain. It is concluded that sheep digests whole maize and noug-cake satisfactorily and the cost and time of grain processing could be saved.
An experiment was carried at Bako (Galal, et al., 1979) to investigate the effect of optimum stocking rate and feeding regime during the dry season, on finishing lambs before marketing at the age of about one year, under grazing (phase I) and fattening (phase II) periods. The result (Table 6) indicated better animal performance at low stoking rate (8 sheep/ha) than at medium and high stocking rate (16 and 24 sheep/ha) during the grazing period. However, the difference has diminished during the fattening phase; The practical conclusion to be made is that Iambs reared in the dry season should be supplemented with 300 g/head/day of concentrate mixture when stocking rate is high.
Experiments were incited (Beniam etai., 1981; Demisse etai., 1991) in an attempt to determine the impact of different feeding regimes, and animal size categories and influence of castration on carcass yield and quality. The results showed that with increasing body weight at slaughter the amount of meat yield increased. The increment was brought about by size and improvement in dressing percentage which is associated with improvement in fat content of the carcass . Attending to practices Which could help in attainment of heavy weight sheep, could be beneficial in increasing national meat production and farmers household meat consumption. Castrated rams had better fat deposition, whereas uncastrated ones had significantly higher growth performance (Table 7). This reveals that castration o f young lambs depresses growth and favours fat deposition. In Ethiopia Where fatty animals are preferred to lean ones, castration might be used even at the expense of growth. However, young lambs should not be castrated since this will depress growth.
Productivity StudiesIn a study that compared lamb production and ewe productivity from 12-monthly and 8-monthly mating system have resulted in no significant differences between the two mating systems. The result indicates that 8-monthly mating frequency is advantageous over the 12-monthly mating system. But, this could only be possible if there is a possibility of supplementing animals during the critical periods.
Ill
Alteration of breeding season was found to be another strategy to exploit the seasonal fluctuations in availability and changes in qualify and quantity of natural pasture. Performance of ewes lambing at two different periods, i.e., late April to early May (Period one); and early July to late August (period two) was compared for 3 years to find out the best period for better performance. The result showed no significant difference in ewe reproductive performance and birth weight of lambs in the two periods (Table 8). However, lambs born in the middle of the rainy season, (Period 2) were significantly heavier at weaning and had higher survival rate at 6 month of age. Mating in January/February and lambing at the middle of the rainy season is recommended.
Lamb survival rate is a major factor contributing to productivity in small ruminants. Despite high prolificacy, Horro sheep have high rate of young mortality. Investigations in the husbandry aspects of the constraint were done. The result obtained have identified low birth weight and seasonal influence as a factor determining lamb survival. The result suggests that lamb survival could be increased by improving nutrition of the ewe during the last phase o f pregnancy so that heavier (more viable) lambs could be bom. Additionally among factors affecting pre-weaning lamb survival; birth type, season of birth were identified to be the major ones. Three to four months are recommended weaning age for Horro lambs.
Reproduction StudiesReproductive studies related with both female and male performance revealed that in flock mating where controlled mating is practiced conception from 1 to 6 weeks of mating were 29,63, 78, 90, 97, and 100%, respectively with ultimate conception of 91.6% (Galal and Kassahun, 1981). Thus 5 to 6 weeks of mating is recommended and no gain could be realized by maintaining mating further than this period. This may be helpful in deciding for how long to keep a ram with the ewe(s) or vise- versa when conditions enforcing sell of the ram occurs or in case of borrowed ram (s). One of the important environmental factors affecting reproduction is nutrition and it is usually reflected by body weight . Relationship of ewe weight at mating with conception shows that conception rate in a group of ewes increases with increasing weight to about 38 kg then starts to decline. Since conception and overall productivity decline at extremely higher weights (Table 9) very high weights should be avoided to optimize productivity.
Usually feed shortage is a problem under farmers condition and heavy weights to the extent that affect productivity are not common. Thus farmers should strive to avoid low body weight at mating through improved feeding for few weeks before mating so that they can attain large weights.
Reproduction performance in the ram is much more important than is in an individual ewe. Work on male fertility (Yohannes et al., 1995) showed that weight in excess of 30 kg in H o it o rams does not bring much improvement in fertility, thus feed resources can be directed to feeding ewes. But since serving rams lose condition and weight (Solomon and Thwaites, In press) supplementation during service period is important.
Breeding Strategies to FarmersUnder fanners condition the use of rams genetically related to the flock is common, hence there exists high level of inbreeding. Apart from this since small ruminants are usually sold to meet the immediate cash needs of fanners, it is not uncommon that fast growing and good performing animals are sold. This leads to negative selection since in most cases genetically inferior and scrub rams have got the chance to leave most of the progenies. Enhancing awareness of fanners on the dangers of such activity in affecting the growth performance and survival of the flock which in turn affect the benefit fanners could get from sheep production is an important area of development and extension. Possible solutions under the existing system are to avoid sell of superior animals so that they could leave most of the progenies, and to exchange these male animals with males from other flocks and castrating or removal of inferior animals.
Gaps and LimitationsE xten s io n P o licy fo r L ives to ck T ech n o lo g y T ran s fe rTechnology need to be transferred to producers to insure impact. Therefore, the immediate problem is to get technology moving on to farmers’ hand. In the case o f animal production, the mechanism o f dissem inating livestock technologies to users is missing. An intermediate link between the livestock "esearch and technology transfer is highly needed in Ethiopia.
Id en tifica tio n and C h arac te riza tio n o f the E xis ting S m all R u m in an tsIn western Ethiopia the majority o f sheep and goat kept are non descript (Tesfaye 1991) in type but there exists about five known sheep breeds or types. Even though information is available on Horro sheep, there could be, within the breed, eco-types with wide variations. Thus it is very important to study and characterize the small rum inant in the western Ethiopia. To do these infrastructure is a lim iting factor. Bako agricultural research center, with its limited facilities, is the only research center in the western region which deal with animal production research. The wide variation and distribution o f livestock in the region demands future strengthening o f the existing research center and additional establishment o f livestock research institutions in the region to deal with constraints limiting the livestock production.
S tudy o f S m all R u m in an t P ro ductio n S ystemFor any im provem ent or developm ent program to be enhanced the knowledge o f the production system is important. Information on productivity o f Horro sheep under the farmers condition is scanty. Therefore program need to be developed to study the production systems and productivity o f small rum inant at the fanners level in the western region.
Farm ers P artic ip a tio nThe current research review system in planning research program involves participation o f development and extension officials from the farmers side. Though such system have some help it should further be strengthened in such a way that farmers could be involved in problem identification and research planning.
R eferen cesBeniam Akalu, E.S.E Galal, Demisse Tiyo and G/Tsadikan Hailu. 1983. A summ ary o f carcase
measurem ents on.som e Ethiopian sheep and Goat. Animal production bulletin No. 15 IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Demisse Tiyo, Kassahun Awgichew, and Yohannes Gojjam. 1991. Comparison o f castrated and entire Horro male lambs for growth and fattening ability under various feeding regimes. Proceedings o f the 2nd National Livestock Improvement Conference 24-26 Feb 1988, pp 74-77 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Fitzhugh H,A.1993 Sustainable Animal production. World Animal review. 72:8-19.Galal E.S.E Kassahun Awgicew, Beyene Kebede, Yohannes Gojjam, and P.B O'Donovan 1979.A
study on fattening Ethiopian sheep I. Performance o f highland lambs under fed-lot condition. Ethiopian Journal o f Agricultural science Vol.I (2): 93-98.
Institute o f Agricultural Research (IAR). 1991. Bako Agricultural research centre progress report o f 1988. IAR, Addis Ababa.
83
Kasahun Awgichew, Getahun Gebru, Zelalem Alemayehu, Niguse Akalework; and I.Fletcher 1989. Sm all rum inant production in Ethiopia: constraints and future prospects. Proceedings o f 3rd National Livestock Improvement Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 24-26 May 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa, pp. 37-48.
Kasahun Awgichew. Demisse Tiyo and Yohannes Gojjam. 1991. Productivity o f Horro ewes under 8- m onthly and 12- m onthly mating systems. Proceedings o f 2nd National livestock im provem ent Conference, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, 24-26 Feb. 1988. IAR, Addis Ababa, pp. 87-81.
Solomon Abe«az. 1991. Effect o f weaning age on 6lh Month weight o f Horro lambs. Proceedings o f the 3 National Livestock Improvement Conference, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia, 24-26 Mav 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa, pp. 75-77.
Solomon Abegaz. 1996. Comparison between performance of lambing ewes and lambs bom in two different periods o f the rearing season. Proceedings o f the 4 ,h Ethiopian Society' o f Animal Production. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 18-19 April. 1996.
Solomon Abagaz, and Solomon Gizaw. 1995 Hay intake and growth perform ance o f lambs fed maize and Noug-cake supplements in different forms. Proceedings o f 3* Ethiopian Society o f Animal Production conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 27-29 April 1995. ESAP, Addis Ababa, pp. 261-265.
Solomon Gizaw, Solomon Abegaz, and Asfaw Negassa. 1993 Growth responses o f Horro sheep to D ifferent levels o f maize and noug cake Supplements, p. 113-118. In Proceedings o f the Fourth National Livestock Improvement Conference. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia, 13-15 November 1991. IAR. Addis Ababa.
Tesfaye Kumsa. 1991. Livestock production systems of the western region o f Ethiopia. Research report No. 12 IAR. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Yohannes Gojjam, Solomon Gizaw. C-.J. Thwaites and Kasahun Awgichew 1995. Influence o f birth weight and post-partum age on lamb mortality in Ethiopian Horro sheep. Proceedings o f 3rd Ethiopian Society o f Animal Production conference. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. 27-29 April 1995. ESAP, Addis Ababa, pp . 219-222.
Table 1. Some reproductive and productive characters of horro sheep
Trait Mean value Range
Conception rate (%) 83 61-95
Lambing rate (%) 80 60 95
Lambing percentage (%) 135 106-158
Birth weight (kg) 2.7 2.1 -3.1
Weaning Weight (kg) 13.1 11.0-18.8
Six month weight (kg) 16.1 13.8-24.4
Yearling weight (kg) 26.6 20.3-33.1
M ortality to weaning (%) 15.9 1-44
M ortality to six month (%) 28.2 1-61
84
Table 2. Composition of diets(%) and live weight gain and daily gain of lambs fed different of diets.
FpffH ingrnHroimf niofsAnimal traits. A B CNative hay 20 35 50Matze(ground) 20Wheat bran 10 5 *Wheat middlings 21 29 10Noug-cake 25 27 36Bone meal 3 3 3Salt 1 1 1Total 100 100 100Concentrate: Roughage Trait
80:20 65:35 50:50
Initial weight(kg) 20.6 20.5 20.0Final weight(kg) 34.7 30.0 24.9Aug daily gain (g)Feed conversion efficiency
141.0 96.0 49.0
(kg feedikg live wt gain) 7.4 9.3 16.6Kg TDN1 kg Iwtgain 5.4 6.2 10.2
Source: Galal et al, 1979
Table 3. Effect of Supplementation of (300 gjheadjday) different proportion of maize and noug cake concentrate on average daily gain of sheep
(Noug-cake/Maize) Average daily gain.% proportions_______ ______________________ 164 davs
100/075J25 46.750/50 56.925/75 59.20/100 _________________ _______________ 47.9
Source: IAR, 1991
Table 4. Weight change of sheep at different levels of concentrate of supplementation
Level of Supplement ( g/head) N Initial
Weiaht(kQ)Final
Weiaht (ko)Daily gain
(a)0 9 14.8 19.5 45.9200 9 14.8 25.3 94.9300 9 14.8 27.4 111.4400 9 14.8 29.8 131.7500 7 14.4 30.4 136.7Source: Solomon et al., 1993.
85
\
Table 5. Weight changes (kg) and average daily gam (S) of lambs fed w ith maize and noug-cake either in whole or ground form.
Treatment- N Initialweight(kg)
Finalwaght(kg)
Daily gain(g)
Ground maize +ground noug cake 10 15.2 25.7 85.6Ground maize +Whole noug cake 10 15.4 26.8 93.8Whole maize +Ground noug cake 10 15.3 26.8 93.8Whole maize+Whole noua ake 10 15.2, 26.4 mSource : Solomon and Solomon, 1995
Table 6. Weight changes of lambs at different stocking rate and tw o levels of supplementation.
Stockino rate NPhase 1
Final wt la) Oaiiv uain la) InitialPhase II.
final wt (a) Daily aain (a)Low 18 sheep/ha) 34 25.2 76 24.0 31.0 100Medium! 16 sheep/ha) 34 23.2 50 22.8 29.4 95High(24 sheep/ha) 34 22.6 46 22.7 30.4 110Supplemented 56 27.9 103 26.5 33.7 104Non suDDlemented 56 19.5 12 19,9 26.9 100Source: Galal et al., 1979
Table 7. Body weight and carcase measurements ol castrated and entire lambs of different age group.
Age groups Sex groupParameters 9 Month Yearlmg Entire Castrate
Initial weight (kg) 35.0 28.3 21.2 21.2Final weight (kg — 38.0 31.0Daily gain (g) - - 144 75.0Carcase weight(kg) 17.6 12.7 16.9 12.0Dressing % 50.1 43.5 43.0 40.0Fat thicknesslmm) 6.0 3.0 3.6 6.0Eye muscle area(cm) — — 10.3 8.7
Source: Beniam et al„ 1983; Demisse et al., 1991
Table 8. Growth performance of lambs bom at early (period II & middle of rainy season (Period II)
Variable Period 1. Period II.Birth weight(kg) 2.8 2.7Litter size 1.6 1.5Survival to weaning(%) 80 81Survival to six month(%) 65 73weaning weight(kg) 11 13Daily Gain .9 0 . 110Source: Solomon, 1996
86
ANIMAL HEALTH RESEARCH AT BAKO
Tamrat DegefaBako Amcultural Research Centre PO Box 3. Bako, Ethiopia________________________.____________ . ___________
Major AchievementsSerum Biochemical Components
A study was done to assess the serum biochemical components of Horro, Boran and. their crosses with Jersey, Friesian and Simmental to identify normal value for these biochemical components as a baseline data and to give clue for breeders in providing the cross bred
animals with the proper supplementation in breeding improvements.
A total of 104 dairy cows from local Horro, Boran and their crosses with the European high yielding Friesian, Jersey and Simmental cattle were examined for serum biochemical components (Table 1). The quantities of alkaline reserves, total proteins, total lipids, calcium and urea were all increased in all FI generation and the Ioqal breeds. However, changes in the two enzymes, (alanine aminotransferase, ALAT and aspartate aminotransferase, ASAT) Were riot uniform Where as the inorganic phosphorus uniformly decreased in all F, generations. The level of these examined components can be used as a normal value in further examinations (Tsonka, 1989), especially for estimating the changes in sick animals - corrcct diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. The increment in the level of total protein, total lipids and alkaline reserves are an indication of improvements while the decrease in the inorganic phosphorus in all F, generation indicate the need for supplementing inorganic phosphorus for all crossbred animals of these* breeds. From the observed changes Boran x Jersey were most promising and Horro x Jersey were less promising. From the serum biochemical components of veterinary importance these are selected for the sake of simplicity for checking and their common involvement in pathological changes of some organs and tissues either by increasing or decreasing in the serum level.
Ectoparasetes
Cattle ticks were a serious threat to livestock production at Bako research centre. So a study was done on the tick species and resistance against commonly available acaricide. The test for acaricide resistance check was done in Shola disease investigation laboratory twice in 1984/85 on the larvae of three tick species; B.decoloratus, R+e.evertsi and A.vargatium. The observed result was indicated that B.decoloratus was resistant to toxaphene and lindane where as the other two species were relatively susceptible to all chemicals (toxaphene, lindane, dieldrin, coumaphos, dioxathiori). The investigation result showed that organochlorine resistance is well established at Bako (Teshome, 1985) and this accounts for the irrational use Of acaricide and complete dependence on chemicals. On the other hand information on seasonal dynamics of ticks indicate that the animals are almost stressed with heavy tick burden of different species at different time through out the year (Table 2). There fore unless integrated tick control technique is introduced resistance to other acaricide may develop soon.
Brucellosis
The case of Brucellosis in the local and cross breed cows at Bako research Center was initiated to see the prevalence of the disease and loss contracted as reproductive wastage, to develop awareness of live stock dealers from the zoonotic effect of the disease and pointing out possible control measures.
A total o f 147 blood serum was tested for Brucellosis after collection on a random bases during the study period. The total incidence o f 38.7% was recorded with the higher figure for older cows (49% ). The difference between the cross breeds and local breeds in the incidence and rate o f abortion from 1985 to 1990 (Muktar, 1991) was insignificant. From the observation on the cases o f abortion 95% was occurred in the third trimester (late pregnancy,5 month and above). The record in these five years showed that the service per conception rate was very low (table 3). The clinical results i.e. 95% abortion o f late pregnancy, infertility, retained placenta and hygromatous lesion indicated the higher rate o f abortion was caused by Brucellosis rather than other possible causes such as nutritional imbalances, inadequate management practices and other infectious causes.
Brucella microorganism causes undulant fever in man as a result o f consumption o f infected milk and occupational exposure. So that the best approaches are avoiding contact with aborted fetus and uterine discharge, disinfection o f the area, proper disposal o f aborted fetus and placenta and proper cooking o f milk from infected animal before use. Drug treatment as a control method is unsuccessful and therefore not reliable.
G astro in tes tin a l H e lm inthThe type and seasonal dynam ics o f gastro intestinal helminth parasites were studied at Bako Research Center in 1990 for a full year. The objectives w ere to quantify tlie intensity o f infection, specify seasonal patterns and host susceptibility and to apply cost effective control strategies. The investigation revealed that Haemonchus contorius, Paramphistomum spp, Oesophagostomum and Moniezia spp. were the observed spp in their respective prevalence. Among these H. contorius was o f prime importance in Bako area with infection rate o f 96% in examined gastro intestine (Table 4). There was significant difference between seasonal variation in relation to prevalence and worm burden o f Haemonchosis. Persistently large burden o f Haemonchus were acquired by tracers during wet season (May- August) which favors the larval abundance, survival and migration on to the vegetation due to optimum moisture and temperature. Thus, strategic use o f anthelminthic beginning from rainy season and also removal o f susceptible sheep (weaner and suckling ew'es) from infected pasture are the two alternative approaches.
Investigation on the type and seasonal dynamics o f gastrointestinal helminths at Bako research ce n te rliav e indicated that nem atodes were the most prevalent parasites with a considerable intensity o f infection (range 0-4150 egg per gram faeces) (M uktar et al. 1991). Based on this study, an experiment was done to see the effect o f anthelminthic and supplementation on gastrointestinal helminths control and perform ance in Horro sheep both during the dry and wet seasons. The experiment was carried out in 1994/95 at Bako research center on 32 Horro rams stratified in to four treatm ents with equal number o f animals. Treatment 1 = Drench + supplement (300 g/head/day); 2 = Supplement alone (300 g head'day); 3 = Drench alone and 4 = Control (no supplement or drench). The animals in all treatments were allowed to graze during the day tim e and only treatm ent 1 & 2 were supplemented w ith maize and noug cake mixture during the night. Drenching was on a monthly bases and at a manufacturers' recommendation rate. Body weight gain was recorded every fortnight w here as packed cell volume (PCV) and egg per gram faeces (EPG) count were recorded on a monthly bases.
During the wet season higher average daily wreight gain (ADG)was observed in treatment 1 and 2 than in treatment 3 and 4 in treatment 1 than in 2 and also in treatment 3 than 4. Significantly lower final EPG count and EPG increment from May to September was observed in treatment 1 and 3 than treatment 2 and 4 and in treatment 1 than in 3 During the dry season despite the low quantity and poor quality o f grazing animals in treatments one, two and three have gained (no significant difference between them) in body weight while the control animals lost weight (ADG = -3.6 g/day). EPG count was drastically dropped in both drenched and non drenched groups with a highly significant num ber in the control group (reduction o f EPG count o f 3811.6).
From the observed results the rise in EPG in wet season was attributed to the increased pasture infestation, of conducive situation For larval development and intake where as the dry season arrested larval development (hypobiosis) and decreased pasture infestation rates. The nutritional status of the animal affects the infestation rate of the parasite and the performance of the animal
Gaps and ConstraintsThe increase in number of all major domestic animal species in sub-Saharan Africa by 1.7% over the past 25 years (Mohamed-Saleem and Fitzhugh, 1993), is out numbered by the increasing human population number and as a result the shortage of protein and the problem of malnutrition are not solved. Thus to keep up with the ever increasing human population number the only alternative approach is increasing the productivity of small holder dairy production by improving the level of fertility, calving rate, milk yield and avoiding reproductive wastage rather than increasing livestock head. Therefore, based on the past achievement designing strategies for controlling and reducing the impact of brucellosis, mastitis and ectoparasites (ticks) were to be done. Assessing the effect of micro environment and prevailing management system on farm and on station have also a paramount importance in improving productivity and reducing mortality rate and to be investigated in detail. Besides the strategies for the control of parasites should be verified on farm. Testing the efficacy of different veterinary drugs that are commonly available on local market and the locally existing ethnomedicine are the one to get attention in the future.
The main goal in livestock health research is to achieve improved animal health and performance through generating technologies and transferring technologies to national program. This could be done only by identifying and giving priorities among the existing problems. However, the progress in this sector at Bako Research Center is constrained by shortage of man power which include deficit of animal health researcher, lab technician and technical assistance. The infrastructures that are important for animal health research are also not fulfilled. As a result some projects that have to be completed was extended and suspended.
Table 1. Biochemical status of Horro, Boran and their crossbreeds
AnimalNo.
Breed Aik.res(mmojl)
.Totalpro.(gfl)
Ca(mmo/l)
Inorg. P (mmo/l)
Totallipids(mmofi)
Urea(mmo/l)
ALAT(u)
ASAT(u)
12 Horro 208.0 78.1 2.4 2.3 4.8 5.5 3.4 43.7
12 H X F 217.1 82.8 2.2 1.8 4.4 6.00 3,7 53.3
15 H xJ 194.2 78.4 2.6 1.6 4.7 5.4 3.2 50.5
12 H xS 210.2 79.6 2.4 1.6 5.8 6.7 3.2 49.7
12 Boran 196.1 74.5 2,3 1.9 5.7 5.1 3.4 50.4
15 B xF 199.4 79.6 2.4 1.6 5.7 5.7 3.2 49.9
12 Bx J 209.6 80.8 2.5 1.7 5.7 6.0 3.1 48.5
14 B xS 201.8q 77.6 2.5 1.8 5.1 5.8 3.3 49,5
source: Tsonka Peynikova, 1989
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Table 2. Ticks situation during three observation periods at Bako agricultural research center and its surrounding
Site Month Seasonal dynamics of tick species
B.decoloratus R.e.evertsi Amblyomma
Bako Nov. 1984 + + + + ♦ + +Jan.1985 + + ♦ *■ + +May 1985 + + ♦ 4> -f + +
Surrounding Nov. 1984 + + + ♦ + + + +Jan.1985 + + + ♦ + + + +
» May 1985 + + + ♦ + + + +
Source: Teshome, 1985
Table 3. Percentage of cows served more than tw ice during 1985 1990 but did not give birth
No. of cows
Year Served Not concieved %
1985 137 81 59.01986 141 72 51.01987 153 83 54.01988 144 70 48.61989 83 42 50.61990 136 82 60.3Total 794 430 54.2
Source: Muktar Reshid, 1991
Table 4. The intensity of worm infection among 24 tracer sheep at Bako Research Center
ParasiteNo.sheepInfected
Infection rate {%)
Range of infection
Mean annual worm burden! sheep
Mean deviation among months
Standarddeviationamongmonths
H.contortus
23 96 0-4150 815 883 1020
Paramphistomum
21 88 0 2280 524 401 496
Oesophagostomum
6 5 0 16 2 1.5 3.8
Moniezia 6 25 0-3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Source: Muktar Re shid, el a i l 991
R efe ren cesM oham ed-Saleem , M.A and Fitzhugh, H .A J993 . An over view of Demographic and
Environmental Issues in Sustainable Agriculture in Sub Saharan Africa. In: Livestock and Sustainable Nutrient Cycling in Mixed Farming Systems o f Sub Saharan Africa, vol.2. Tech. papers. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 22-26 Nov. 1993.
M uktar Reshid. 1991. Reproductive Wastage in Cattle due to Bovine Brucellosis. IN: IAR Proceeding o f the Fourth National Livestock Improvement Conference. 13-15 Novem ber, 1991.Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Muktar Reshid, M engesha Fantaye, Feseha G/Ab, Moges W/Meskel. 1991. Ovine Helminthiasis at Bako. In: IAR Proceeding o f the Fourth National Livestock Improvement Conference. 13- 15 N ovem ber, 1991.Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Teshom e Yhualashet, 1985. Cattle tick Resistance Against Acaricide at Bako Agricultural Research Institute. DVM Thesis, 1985. FVM, Addis Ababa, University.
Tsonka Peynikova. 1989. Serum biochemical components in Horro, Boran and Their Crossbreeds at Bako. In: IAR Proceeding o f the Third National Livestock Improvement Conference. 24- 26 May, 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
91
DAIRY AND BEEF TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND ACHIEVEMENTS
AT BAKOGizmo kebede, Mulugeta kebede and G/egziablu’r G/YoltannesBako Agricultural Research Center. PO Box 3. Bako, Ethiopia________________________________
Introduction
The western region o f Ethiopia; lllubabor, Kefa and Wellega, including Gambela and Asosa. is predom inantly a m ixed farming zone where food or cash crop cultivation is the main activity. Livestock are kept for draught, milk, meat, manure and social prestige. The role o f
cattle in the mixed farming system is primarily for draught, but also as savings or insurance. The total cattle population in this region is estimated to be 4.5 million which makes about 14% o f the cattle population o f the country (Tesfaye. 1991). Horro. Sheko and Abigar are the identified breeds o f the western region though the non descript types of cattle makes the majority. The level o f productivity o f cattle in terms o f milk and meat is low. This is due to low genetic potential in the production o f milk, long calving intervals, slow growth rate and low o ff take rates.
AchievementsD airyThe cattle o f the western region, purely indigenous, kept under poor husbandry practices and inadequate feed provisions, yield low level o f milk. I he mean milk production was reported to be 1.7 kg/cow day (range 0.5-6 kg) and a mean lactation length o f 8 months (range 4-12 months). O f the identified breeds the Sheko breed has high average milk production per day. Abigar breed averaged 4 kg o f milk day and Horro 2 kg/day (Tesfaye. 1991). Traits o f economic importance in the cattle o f the western region are given in Table I.
O f all the cattle breeds/types in the region, it is only the horro cattle that has been studied extensively at Bako Agricultural Research Center. The horro cattle is genetically a poor milker: and this is further exaggerated by poor husbandry practices o f the farmers. The perform ances o f horro cattle under on-farm and on- centre conditions is presented in Table 2.
Improvement o f milk production o f the indigenous breeds through selecuon would be a huge task and a slow process. M aintenance o f a diversity o f genetic types permits the exploitation o f heterosis effect for economic traits when crossbreeding is employed. The exotic blood level o f crossbred anim als to be used must be judged against (he background o f what feeding and management svstemsare going to be adopted. In light o f these. FI crosses produced from friesian. je rsey and simmental X boran. barca and horro, all produced about 3 times more milk than reported for local cows (Sendros et al., 1987). Additionally Beyene (1992) reported that the lactation length and milk yield o f ^ 1 crosses were much higher than boran and horro in the wet .egions (Bako and Holetta). Evidence from various sources indicated that like many other tropical countries the management level in Ethiopia hardlv justify exotic blood levels higher than 50% (M cD ow ell, 1988; M oham m ed et al., 1987; Kiwuwa et al. , 1983). The on-farm and on center perform ances o f FI (50% ) crossbred cows produced in the crossbreeding program is given in Table 3.
92I
!1
Though the 50% crosses are the ones to fit into the management levels that can be provided in Ethiopia, under improved and intensive management conditions 3/4 exotic blood levels can be kept to improve productivity. In Bako agricultural research center 75% crossbred cows were studied and evaluated. The age at first calving (mo), services per conception, calving interval (days) and milk yield (I) of 3/4 crossbred cows were 58.12il2.19, 1.88±1.18, 712±78 and 1278.89*703.32, respectively (Beyene, 1992; G/Egziabher eta i, 1991). From the work on 25% exotic crosses, it was concluded that these animals can yield nearly twice as much as the pure zebu dams; Although the milk yield of these crosses was lower than FI cows of similar genetic make up, the yield advantage over the pure zebu coupled with the expected hardiness :due to their high proportion of zebu blood might makd quarter bred cows potential genotypes for resource poor farmers (Tesfaye et a l, 1995). The productive and reproductive performances of quarter breed exotic crosses are given in Table 4.
Research results, be it from with in the country or other countries of similar conditions have demonstrated that 50% crossbreeds are the future dairy animals of the country. But there are problems associated with the dissemination of such improved stocks to farmers. These include inadequate and under development of support services. There is no responsible organization for the production and distribution of improved animals. Artificial insemination (Al) service is not available and is limited to very few areas in the country. Lack of provision of an efficient Al service for small holder producers is a well identified constraint. The options to facilitate the use of improved stocks by farmers include.establishment'of Al centers at representative sites, bull stations where farmers can bring their cows for breeding or multiplication center for the continuous supply of 50% crossbred animals.
The use of improved stocks by farmers/owners makes sense if management, feeding and health care, are sufficient to .satisfy the requirement of crosses and the fanner is prepared to make investments, to accept risks and to pay the high costs of raising the crosses'
Beef
At Bako agricultural research center, many finishing experiments were conducted using local and crossbred animals. Crop residues such as maize stover, forages such as hay and silage given adlibitum plus concentrate mixtures mainly composed of ground maize, noug cake, bone meal and salt were used as finishing rations.
Determination of the level of concentrate intake required for economic live weight gain generates valuable information for finishing animals. In line with this, horro cattle fed on supplementary silage, ad lib hay and different levels of concentrates, 0 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 kgs/head/day, increased weight gains with increasing level of concentrate intake up to the 4 kg level. In terms of profit all groups gave their best returns from the 60 day finishing period with the highest return from the group fed 4 kg concentratc /head/day. On longer finishing period, like 120 days the highest profit was obtained from the group fed on 3 kg concentrate/head/day (IAR, 1977).
In the assessment of the economics of fattening Horro cattle under different fattening periods, animals were provided with 3 kg of concentrate and ad lib maize stover. Animals were then fattened for 154 days in round 1,117 days in round 2 and 109 days in round 3. The economics of fattening Horro cattle is given in Table 5. The work demonstrated that the gross return as well as the net return per animal were highest when the animals were fattened for 109 days. But the number of animals was small. In comparing the weight gains of Horro steers fed on limited or ad lib silage or hay together with concentrate supplement for 90 days, it was demonstrated that the silage fed group performed better in weight gains than the hay fed group. The fattening performance of the steers on silage and hay is given in Table 6.
A study on crossbred and local bulls stocked at 2.4 bulls/ha and grazed on native and improved pasture for 140 days revealed that the average daily gains of crossbreeds on native and improved
93
pasture were 457 and 529 g, respectively. W hereas the figures for the local bulls were 490 and 514 g, respectively. The local bulls performed better on the native pasture than the crossbreeds IAR, 1979). The weight gains o f crossbred and local bulls on native and improved pasture is
given in Table 7.
nvestigation on the fattening performance o f zebu (Horro, Boran) and 50% crossbred bulls fed on a concentrate ration averaging 3 kg per bull per day and ad lib hay for 150 days revealed that he average daily gains o f crossbred bulls previously grazed on native and Rhodes pasture were
0.50 and 0.58, kg respectively. The figures for the local bulls were 0.36 and 0.40, kg respectively O'Donovan et al., 1980). Furthermore, in an extension o f the previous study where zebu steers
and 50% crossbreeds received either ad lib hay or silage supplemented with 4 kg o f concentrate, he average daily gain o f all crossbred group was much higher than the Horro steers, i.e., 0.91 vs
0.52 kg (O 'D onovan et al., 1980).
In a 90 day experim ent intended to compare the weight gains o f bulls, steers and heifers under feedlot conditions where the anim als were given 3.7 kg concentrate/head/day and ad lib forage the weight gains o f bulls, heifers and steers were 653, 564.5 and 549 g per head per day, respectively (IAR. 1973). Bulls gained better than heifers and steers, and heifers better than the atter.
ConstraintsThe major cattle production constraints identified in the western region o f the country are:
■ poor management levels in terms o f feeding, breeding and health.,■ dry season feed shortage,■ diseases,■ internal and external parasites,■ low genetic potential o f the local livestock.■ inadequate veterinary services, and■ poor market infrastructure.
Future Research Directionsin dairy production, the focus o f research on center was in the area o f genotype improvement hrough crossbreeding. Very little work was done in the on-farm verification o f the performances :>f crossbreeds under farmers management conditions. Research programs on management aspects o f milk production, milk preservation and processing should be developed. Reproductive wastage is an important factor both at the research center and on-farm level that contributes for low milk and meat production. The variation in milk production o f the cattle o f western region may create he opportunity o f improvements through selection, this has to be well assessed. As a whole beef
-esearch is not well developed in the country. Programs should be developed to identify and m prove cattle types/breeds for beef production, to increase o ff take rates and slaughtering
weights and to improve meat handling and processing. On-farm studies should be undertaken to complement on center work. Genetic and phenotypic characterization o f the cattle breeds/types, '.heir population and distribution in the region are areas which need due attention. With the .levelopment and transfer o f crossbreeding techniques, the extinction o f indigenous breeds should come into attention, hence conservation strategies have to be designed.
References
Beyene Kebede 1992. Estimation of additive and non additive genetic effects for growth, milk yield and reproductive traits of crossbred (Bos taurus x Bos indicus) cattle in the wet and dry environments in Ethiopia. Dissertation. Cornell University, USA.
G/Egziabher G/Yohannes, Tesfaye Kumsa, and Mulugeta Kebede 1991. Reproductive and productive performances of 3/4 crossbred cows in Bako area. Proceedings of the 4* National Livestock improvement conference, 13-15 Nov. 1991. Addis Ababa. PP. 83-89;
Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1973. Institute of Agricultural Research, Progress report 1972/73, Bako Research Station. PP. 14.
IAR 1977. Institute of Agricultural Research. Progress report 1974/75, Bako Research Station. PP. 160-164.
IAR 1976. Results of experiments in animal production. Animal production report no. 1. Institute of Agricultural Research. Addis Ababa. PP. 3-6.
IAR 1979. Institute of Agricultural Research. Progress report 1976/77. Bako Research station. PP. 214-219.
Kiwuwa, G.H., J.C.M. Trail, M.Y. Kurtu, Getachew Worku, F.M. Anderson. 1983. Crossbred dairy cattle productivity in Arsi regions, Ethiopia. ILCA Res. Rep. no.l 1.
McDowell, R.E. 1988. Strategies for genetic improvement of cattle in warm climates.Proceedings of the second national livestock improvement conference. Feb, 24-26, 1988.
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP. 61-73.Mohammed Yusuf, A.Olson, Asfaw Tolessa, Tegene Alemayehu and.Tsehay Biaclgiln. 1987.
Performance of dairy cattle at research and dairy cooperative farms in the Arsi region of Ethiopia. Proceedings of the first national livestock improvement conference. Feb,; 11-13, 1987. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP. 61-64. : \ ,
O'Donovan, P.B., M.S. Taylor, Abraham W/Gebriel, Alemu G/Wold, E.S.E. Galal and Alcmu Tadesse. 1980. Fattening trials with zebu and crossbred cattle at Bako, Wellega., Ethiopian oumal of Agricultural Sciences. Vol. II. No. 1. PP. 13-22.
Sendros Demeke, Beyene Kebede, Tesfaye Kumsa, Taye Bekure and Hailu G/Mariam. 1987. Preliminary results of cattle crossbreeding study. I. Milk production performance of FI cows. Proceedings of the first national livestock improvement conference Feb. 11-13, 1987. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. PP. 61-65.
Tesfaye Kumsa, Mulugeta Kebede and G/Egziabher G/Y ohannes. 1995. Preliminary observations on the performance of quarter bred cattle. Proceedings of the third national conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal production. April 27-29, 1995. Addis Ababa. PP. 184- 189.
Tesfaye Kumsa. 1991. livestock production system of the western region of Ethiopia. Research report no. 12. IAR. Addis Ababa. ! '
95
Table 1. Traits of economic importance in the cattle of the western region
Trait > Mean SD
Age at first calving (yr) 4.4 , 0.88Calving interval (mo) 22.0 7.19Breeding age for male (yr) 4.0 1.32Age for work for male (yr) 4.1 0.83Milk yield/cow/rfay (kg) 1.7 0.92lactation length (mo) 8.0 1.83
SD - Standard deviation , Source: Tesfaye, 1991.
Table 2. Performances of Horro cattle.
Trait On-farmMean
On-center
Age at first calving (mo) > 6 0 .0 55.3Calving interval (mo) 19,5 14.5Milk yield/day (1) 0.4-0.8 2.41Lactation length (days) 210.0
■230.0
Source: Legesse et al., 1987 Mulugeta et al., 1991
Table 3. Performances of F1150%) crossbreeds on-farm and centre.
TraitMean
On-farm On-center
Age at first calving (mo) 45.7Calving interval (days) , 490.0Milk yield (kg) 1229:0 1672.0lactation length (days) 279.0 344.0
Source: Sendros et al., 1987; Beyene, 1995; Tesfaye, 1995
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Table 4. Productive & reproductive performances of quarterbred exotic crosses
Breed lact. no. (year)
AFC SPC(kg)
MY(day)
LL(day)
Cl
BF 1 5.2 1.8 : 1090.2 273.4HF 4.3 1.4 1 758.2 292.2
• * * N S I NS NSBF 2 1.1 ;• 105.1 301.1 405.0HF 1.41 788.1 266.2 409.7
NS NS »
BF 3 1.5 1042.4 270.9 389.5HF 1.8 892.7 258.8 427.1
NS NS NS NSBF 4 1.2 1339.5 295.4 355.5HF 1.6 1342.0 259.0 350.6
NS NS NS NS
A F C = A g e a t f ir s t c a lv in g ; S P C - S e rv ice s p e r c o n c e p tio n ; M - M ilk y ie ld (K g ); L I - la c ta tio n le n g th (d a y s ); C l- C a lv in g in te rv a l (d a y s )S o u rce : T esfaye e t a l., 1 99 5
Table 5. Economics of fattening Horro cattle
- item Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
No. of cattle fattened 40 83 39i Purchasing cost (Birr) 6396.0 17820.9 8805.4t Operating costs
5501.3Total 5210.0 12074.0Return
365.3i Average selling price 326.7 318.1i ' t Gross return 13070.0 26403.1 14248.1
Net return 7860.0 14329.1 8746.7Cost per animal 130.3 145.4 141.1
'f Gross return per animal 326.7 318.1 365.3Net return per animal 196.5 172.6 224.3
S o u rc e : M u lu g e ta e t a l., 199 5
Table 6. Fattening performance ( Total wt gain, kg) of horro steers on silage and hay
Silage group Hay group
92.4 75.664.4 55.968.1 59.163.8 55.8
1 3
97
Table 7. Weight gains of crossbred and local bulls on pasture.
Native flasture Imnroved DastureCrossbred Local Crossbred Local
No. of animals 6 6 6 6Ave.'initial weight |kg) 180.5 231.9 209.6 219.2Ave. final weight (kg) 244.4 300.5 283.7 291.1Total qiin (kg) 63.9 68.6 74.1 71.9Ava. daily gain (g)/ '
457.0 490.0 ; 529.0 514.0
Source: IAR, 1979.i' ,
9#
RESEARCH ON FEED RESOURCES OF WESTERN ETHIOPIA
Lemma Gizacliew and Diriba GeletiBako A <rricultural Research Centre, PO Box 3. B a k o ________ ;___ __________ _______ ____
Introduction
The western part of Ethiopia is diverse in its agro-ecology and endowed with a wealth of indigenous livestock and pasture species. The different parts of the region experience warm- dry and warm-wet tropical, and cool temperate climates. Almost in all agro-ecologies
livestock are the integral parts of the production systems. Except in hot humid environment where trypanosomiasis pose a serious problem, dry season feed shortage is the number one problem of improved livestock production in the region.
Natural pastures and crop residues are the traditional feed resources, with the former gradually shrinking in size as a result of increase in human population and subsequent need for cultivable land. Future potential for livestock feed rests on crop residues and cultivated forages and to some extent on agro-industrial by products. Feed resource research has an age of more than 25 years at Bako research center. Over this period, many aspects of natural and improved forages, agricultural and agro-industrial by products have been studied and a lot of technologies were developed. In this paper only research findings on feed resources that are readily available are covered.
Natural PastureBotanical composition and productivity
Despite the steady expansion of cropping into virgin lands that exclusively used in the past for grazing, natural pastures still remain the major contributors of feeds for ruminant livestock. Wider variability in topography, climate and soil types have influenced pasture productivity and species composition (Lemma et ah 1993). The dominant pasture species found in different ecological zones of the western region are given in Table 1. The mean dry matter (DM) yield of natural pasture in protected area was 9 tha° in the highland and 7 tha'1 in the medium altitude; But the majority of grazing lands are heavily overgrazed and produce far below than the yield indicated above. The most abundant pasture species in the highland grasslands, Pennisetem adoem and Andropogon abyssinicvs, are good tor grazing and hay making (Forman and Preston, 1974). The fairly good proportion of Trifolium species in these pastures further enhances their feeding value. The problem associated with highland pastures is thus of management than species composition. Here overgrazing and soil nutrient depletion are the causes of poor pasture productivity.
Most of the predominant species in the grasslands of the mid altitudes are of poor grazing value (Table I.). Rapid physiological maturity and low indigenous legume proportion further underm ines their potential to supply sufficient nutrient for grazing animals.
Agronomic and Management Practices
A number of possibilities exist to improve the quality and DM yield of natural pastures. Much of the natural pasture improvement research undertaken so far centered around mineral fertilization, manuring and incorporation of improved pasture species. In the highlands the use
m
of 23 kg Nitrogen/ha and 46 kg phosphorous/ha on natural pastures increased DM y ield and CP (crude protein) content (Astatke, 1977). By the same token, urea and TSP each applied at 100 kgha'1 or barnyard manure at the rate of 12 kgha1,-raised the mid altitude pasture DM yield by more than 40% over the control (IAR, 1972).
. I[ With the intention of improving the proportion of valuable pasture species and productivity ofnatural pastures in the mid altitude, so many improved pasture species and pasture introductionstrategies have been tested. Using a cultivated strip of 1.25 m2 and a between strip distance of1.5 m, 10 Stylosanthes, one Macroptilium, one Desmodium, and one Cajanus cajan lines .wereestablished in Hyperrhenia dominated natural pasture (Table 3) (Lemma, 1990). Preparing a Seedbed by burning a pasture land at about the start of the main rainy season and incorporating! thesown legumes into the soil by animal trampling improved DM yield and vegetation compositionof natural pasture (Lemma et al, 1993). On DM bases stylo constituted 70% and 49% of thepasture during the first and the second year of establishment, respectively (Table 2). j
Proper pasture management practices like optimum stocking rate, bush control, appropriate, rest period, etc., however* should precede the above improvement interventions. Adjusting the livestock number in accordance with the available herbage is crucial for the well being of the pasture and grazing animals. Establishing an optimum stocking density for pastures of different species mix and productivity is a daunting exercise and demands land, money and expertise.'Only few stocking rate studies have been conducted in the mid and high altitude pastures. Cautious use of this information as a working guide, however, will, help to avert the untold damage that is occurring on the environment and valuable pasture species. In the highland, a well managed pasture was reported to sustain two to three TLU (tropical livestock unit)/ha (July-Dcc) or 10 to 15 sheep/ha, oh a year round basis (IAR, 1982, 1982b, 1983). In the mid altitude, a' stocking rate of two TLU was recommended but there is a strict need of supplementation ip'the dry season (IAR, 1976 and Astatke, 1977).
Animal productionThe reward for fertilizing, forage legume reinforcement and supplementing natural pastures is quite substantial. In the mid altitude, mature oxen grazing fertilized natural pasture with 120/80 urea/DAP kg/ha gained 783 g/head/day (IAR, 1977). This level of gain remain profitable at the current prices of fertilizers. With a steady increase in fertilizer price and cash constraint of smallholder farmers for its purchase, fertilizing pastures for fattening purpose does not seem feasible. Horro bullsgrazing S.guianemis cv Cook oversown natural pasture in the dry season had attained a growth rate of 195 g/head/day (Lemma et al, 1993). Weight gain of animal grazing natural pasture can be pushed further through supplementation of protein and energy concentrates. Average growth rates of natural pasture grazing male Horro lambs increased linearly from 46 to 137 g/day as the concentrate (maize and noug cake mixed at a ratio of one to one) supplement rises from 0 to 500 g/h/day (Solomon et al, 1993). For a feeding period of 120 days, a concentrate supplement of 400 g/head/day was found biologically efficient and financially profitable. In a similar experiment, 0,2,3,4, and 5 kg/head/day concentrate levels were supplemented to Horro cattle that uniformly offered 5 kg/head/day maize silage and ad lib natural pasture hay for a period of 60, 90, and 120 days (IAR, .1977).. The concentrate was composed of 46, 30,20,2, and 2 % maize, sorghum, noug seed cake, salt and bone meal, respectively. The best financial return
/for both groups was the 60 days finishing period, with the group fed with 4 kg concentrate/ head/day bringing in the highest return.
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Improved! Pastures and Fodder Crops
P ro m is in g fo ra g e s and th e ir p rodu ction zo n eMore than two and a half decades have elapsed since gerniplasm evaluation program started at Bako research center. In mid 1980s new testing sites were opened in Assosa and Gambela. Over this period, a number o f annual and perennial pasture and fodder species o f demonstrated herbage and/or seed production potential have been identified for the different agro ecologies o f western Ethiopia. Most are suitable for ameliorating soil fertility problems; the browses in particular are found to be appropriate for rehabilitating denuded areas and supplying the growers with woody products needed for construction and cooking (Lemma and Abubeker, 1992 and: Lemma, 1993). U nder m oderate managem ent, perennial pasture species have longer growing period and stay aggressive and persistent for longer than three years. In table 4. list o f the most promising pasture and fodder species, their possible entry point into the farming system, and major zone o f production are indicated. The fact that these pasture and fodder crops have very little been used to countervail the chronic feed problem at farm level is a great disappointment to individuals and organizations involved in feed resource research and development. O f the long list o f species in Table 4. it's only oat/vetch mixture, fodder beat and Ch/oris gayana pasture that have been made into significant uses by few keen individuals and government run livestock farms.
EstablishmentMost o f the species in Table 4, are propagated by seed but Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepitim can be grown from stem cuttings. The extent o f establishment o f four L. leucocephala cv Cunningham planting materials namely, direct field planted seeds, nursery grown bare rooted and potted seedlings and stem cuttings (2.3 cm diameter) were compared (Lemma, 1993b). Average survival counts the order o f 98, 72, 64 and 18% for potted, bare rooted, direct field planted seeds and stem cuttings. Pennisetum purpureum establishes exclusively from root splits and stem cuttings. For improved forage crop in a right environment, seed and seed bed quality make the difference between good and poor establishment. Generally seed beds have to be fine and seeds should be covered by a soil not more than their diameter. Pressing seed beds following sowing improves seed-soil contact and results in superior germination specifically for small seeded forages. This could be attained by dragging light rollers, branched shrubs or animal trampling. The right time to start planting forage crops is the beginning o f the main rainy season, however, in cool highlands with reliable short rains planting can start early.
ManagementThe use o f fertilizers on forages under smallholder farmers situation is conditional. In home gardens where the soil fertility is often high due to frequent disposal o f household leftovers and manures, no need to worry about fertilizers. But in depleted fields judicial use o f fertilizers or manures is important. Under such circumstances farmers can apply whatever amount o f fertilizer/manure they can afford; but for best effect one should apply 100 kgha'1 DAP at planting o f all forage crops and an additional 100 kgha '1 urea for grasses annually. In the highlands, indigenous clovers DM yields were reported to increase sixfold with mere application of 30 kgha 1 P (Jutzi and Haque, 1984). In mid altitudes, the persistence o f herbaceous legumes was extended by annual top dressing o f phosphorous above 18 kgha'1. But responses o f tree legumes to phosphorous fertilizer was either minimum or inconclusive (Lemma and Abubeker, 1992; and Lemma, 1993b). In heavy rainfall areas, split application o f urea gives good result. Owing to variation in climate and weed flora, uniform weed management practice can't be suggested for the whole part o f western Ethiopia. But at early stage o f growth, improved forage crops are less aggressive and weed growth have to be avoided altogether. Except for L.leucocephal and S.sesban, forage crops in Table4 are more or less tolerant to insect and disease pests. Therefore, care m ust be taken not to introduce L.leucocephala into the farm ing community for it's highly
101
susceptible to leueaena psyllid. On S.sesban sporadically occurring beetle larvae were also observed to cause heavy leaf damage.
Forage crops should be cut at a growth stage Where both DM yield and nutritive value are optimized. This time could differ among the different forage genotypes but safer practical guidelines can be suggested for forage species of broader category. Harvesting stage study on LJeucocephala shows that cutting the crop at 100% flowering gives higher edible DM yield of superior1 efude protein and in vitro organic matter digestibility values (Lemma and Alemu, 1993b). This time of cutting may equally apply for most browse species that meant for herbage production. For reasonable DM yield and digestible nutrient concentration, herbaceous legumes can be harvested at 15 to 50% flowering and grasses at 50 to 75% heading. Browses and herbaceous forages were observed to deteriorate very fast when cut at a height shorter than 15 and 75 cm from the ground, respectively.
To ease the growing pressure bri land, labor and fertilizer at farm level, alley cropping, planting of forage legume trees around field boundaries and undersowing of forages in cereals have to be exploited. In the'highlands, undersowing of forages in Wheat have been studied on black and red soils (Schulthess et Hi, 1995; and Lujseged, 1987). In both studies fodder yields were raised without significant reduction in wheat grain yield.'Rhodes grass and D.unicenatum were also established successfully when undersown in maize during the second weeding of maize (Alemu et al, 1987). Here too, the undersown forages have no effect on maize grain yield. The forage crops persisted and remained productive for more than three years.
Seed Production
Despite the many desirable characteristics of selected and cultivated forages, they have not been disseminated to farmers largely because of seed scarcity. Most of the adaptablepasture species are capable of flowering and producing healthy seeds. As the field husbandry critical to herbage seed production are little studied, current seed quality and yield levels for most of them are unsatisfactory. With the growing forage seed demand from the users side, the seed research share is gradually growing. Few but Valuable crop management studies have already been developed. In the mid altitude, seed yield of Vicia atropwpurea (vetch) was shown to increase by more than 318 and 570% over the contrbl (unsupported) when the seed crop was supported by a wooden structure constructed in the form of A-frame and a fence, respectively. Fence supporting required lesser total variable cost than A-frame and gave the highest net benefit of 2802 birr/ha. Sowing densities and row spacings that give maximum seed yield were also studied for C.gayana, Panieum coloratum, D.imicehatum and S.guianensis (Lemma and AlemU, 1992b). A sowing densities of 4 kg and 2 kg good quality seed/ha were recommended for the grass and legume species, respectively. Inter row spacings of 20, 30, and 40 cm were tested for both species but found to have no effect on seed, yield.
Utilization
Cultivated forages can be grazed insitu, utilized as a green feed or conserved in the form of hay or silage for later use in lean period. Fodder crops with thicker stems like maize sorghum and Napier grass can more appropriately be utilized as green feed or silage. Study ihat compared the quality of hand viz machine chopped; small viz big silo silages of the above fodder Crops and llyperrhenia pasture have underlined the importance of machine (fine) chopping and the use of silos larger than 16 m3 capacity (IAR, 1974). Many more grass and grass-legume pastures have been evaluated and recommended for the medium and high altitudes of the region (Lemma and Alemu, 1991; and Lemma and Alemu, 1993). Among the perennial grass-legume combinations, Cgayana/S.guianemis, C.gayana/M.atropurpureum and Melinus minutiJlora/S.guianensis are the most compatible and persistent mixtures. Avena sativa (oat) accessions namely* 01-8251 and Cl-8237 combined well with Vatropurpurea. Producer cooperatives who had started dairying in mid 1980s have successfully demonstrated the production of pure Rhodes grass, fodder beet,
102
and oat/vetch mixture at farm level. High value fodder and pasture crops must .be used sparingly to make up for deficient nutrients and improve intakes of poor qualify roughages. The use of L.leucocephala leaf hay at a rate of 1.35 kg/head/day, for instance, enabled natural pasture grazing Horro bulls to put on 262 g/head/day in the dry season (Lemma etal, 1993). In another experiment, where protein supplements comprising different proportion of noug cake and L.leucocephala were given to natural pasture grazing Iambs, growth rates increased linearly from 45 to 64 g/head/day as leucaena gradually replaced noug cake (Lemma and Alemu, 1992a). Browse and herbaceous legumes hay supplementation have also raised tef straw Voluntary intake and growth rate of sheep.
Crop Residues and Agro-industrial by ProductsProduction and utilization
In western Ethiopia, quite a number of crop species are grown but the largest share of cultivable land goes to maize, sorghum, tef, barley and wheat. According to the 1992 estimates (Central statistical authority, 1996) a respective 371,760; 337,360; 188*620; 56,070; 45,990; and 39,960 hectares of land in the region are planted to maize, tef, sorghum, millet, barley and wheat. Guizot ia abssynica (noug) whose seed cake is widely utilized as a protein supplement is an important cash crop for farmers in the high and medium altitudes.Traditionally immediately following grain harvest, animals are allowed to graze maize and sorghum stbvers directly on the field whereas the straws of tef, barley and wheat are stacked around the homestead for feeding the most preferred animals. In situ grazed crop residues are utilized inefficiently due to the fact that much is wasted by trampling, and exposure to sun light and rainfall. Timely collection and storage under shade undoubtedly minimizes wastage and further drops in quality.
Improving the Feeding Value
Crop residues are high in structural carbohydrates, and low in CP and soluble minerals; factors that seriously limit voluntary intake, and animal production and reproduction. Higher DM intake and livestock productivity from crop residue based diets largely depend on physical or chemical treatments and/or supplementation of deficient nutrients. Intake and animal performance data from alkali treated crop residues are impressive but had limited application under smallholder farmers' conditions. Physical treatments such as reducin'g particle size by chopping improves voluntary intake of crop residues. Wetting also slightly improved tef straw DM intake by sheep (Lemma and Alcmu, 1992a). Sprinkling one kg of tef straw with 18 g fertilizer grade urea dissolved in water dramatically increased tef straw intake of horro sheep.
Supplementing crop residues with high value protein and energy concentrates or leguminous forage legumes appears to be a prudent practice. Supplementation of D.intortum and S.guianensis at a respective 530 and 250 g/head/day improved DM intake, N retention, digestibility and weight gain of sheep fed on maize stover (Adugna, 1990). A step wise rise ofT.lembense at 0,24.3,34.7 and 50.7% of the total DM, increased total DM intake and digestibility but reduced maize stover consumption of Ethiopian highland sheep. Tef straw voluntary intake and growth rate of sheep were improved as a result of L.leucocephala, G.sepium, M.atropurpureum, Lablab purpureus, V. airnpurpurea, D. unicenatum, S.guianensis, noug seed cake and urea supplementation. For the forage legume supplemented group Average Daily Gain (ADG) ranged from 28 to 80 g/head/day. In a 100 day long cattle finishing experiment where haricot bean haulms, maize stover, tef straw, and maize cob each fed along with concentrate supplement fairly increased weight gains (Alemu, 1976). Each crop residue constituted 50% of the ration and the rest came from molasses (20%), noug seed cake (25%), bone and meat meat (4%) and salt (1%).
108
Future Research DirectionPrevious studies on locally available livestock feed resources put natural pasture as a major sources of livestock feeds and invariably emphasized the importance of dry season feed shortages. Today, the picture on the ground, is completely different. Each year more and more grazing lands are converted into cropping fields. As a result, the .share of natural pastures as livestock feed is steadily declining thus increasing grazing animals dependence on crop residues. As crops occupy much of the land in the growing season, the problem of feed scarcity is rather becoming more grave in the wet season; the fact that never conceived just a decade ago. This fact obviously calls for a fresh investigation into the. quantitative and qualitative distribution of locally available feed resources oyer the year. The importance of such works is hardly questionable for it is the basis for launching an effective feed improvement intervention and developing a livestock feed calender.
Due to increase in human population and improved provision of agricultural inputs by the government, area under crop and animals dependence on crop residues will continue to increase in the future. As a result, there is a strong need to develop appropriate crop residue processing and storage technologies! Physical forms of crop residues will remain constraints of efficient storage and utilization. Future work on crop residues should thus put emphasis on aspects of processing, storage, treatments and up-grading deficient nutrients.
With agricultural intensification, improved forages have an important role to play in smallholder agriculture. They supply quality live,stock feed, provide fire wood and construction materials, and restrain soil, nutrient depletion and environmental degradation. To tap all these benefits improved forages se&ds have to be available in sufficient quality and quantity, studies on optimum field husbandry and post harvest seed management needs immediate research attention.
Least cost complete diets that capitalize on locally available feeds, and improved pasture and fodder crops do not exist today. 'Fherefore, there is an urgent need of developing complete feeds that suit the different physiological needs of farm animals.
References
Adugna Tolera. 1990. Animal production and feed resource constraints in Walayita Sodo and the supplemental value of D.unicenatum, S.guianensis and M.axillare when fed to growing sheep fed on basal diet of maize stover. M.Sc. thesis.
Alernu Gebre wold. 1976. Results of fefeding trials with crop residues in Ethiopia. Proceedings Of the sixth annual research seminar. 12-14 Nov. 1975. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 98-106.
A lemu Tadesse, M.S.Taylor and Tadesse Tekle Tsadik. 1987. Intercropping of maize with forages. FJAS Vol.IX (1): 15-24.
Astatke Haile. 1977. Results of experiments in forage crops and pasture management in the highlands of Ethiopia 1971-76. Institute of Agricultural research (IAR) Forage and range bulletin No.l?PP 107-113
Central statistical authority. 1996. Agricultural sample survey 1995/96. Report on area and production for major crops (rivate peasant holdings, MeKer season). Statistical bulletin Vol.l, No. 152, Addis Ababa.
Forman. 13 and S, Preston. 1974. An illustrated guide to the grasslands of Ethiopia. Cadu, Assella. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). 1972. Bako research station progress report for the
period April 1971- March 1972. IAR, Addis Ababa. PP 100-101---- 1974. Bako research station progress report for the period April 1972- March 1973. PP 148-
157. ■ ; " '— -1977. Bako research station progress report for the period April 1974 to March 1975. IAR,
Addis Ababa. PP 165-171.
104
Jufzi S. and I.Haque. 1984. Some of effects of p and N/p fertilization on three African clovers (Trifolium tembeme, Trueppelliamm and T.steudneri) on a P deficient vertisol. ILCA newsletter 3(2): 5-6.
Lemma Gizachew. 1990. Strip planting: An economic pasture improvement strategy. The . PAN ESA newsletter No. 12. March 1990. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 2-3
Lemma Gizachew and Alemu Tadesse. 1991. Evaluation of different oat/vetch mixtures in the highlands of Ethiopia. Proceedings of 3rd National livestock improvement Conference '(NLIC), 24-26 May 1989. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 133-135
_______. 1992a. Effects of supplements with or with out hydrated tef straw on growth rate ofnatural pasture grazing sheep in the dry season. Proceedings of animal feed resources workshop held in Gaborone. March 1991. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 147
____ _. 1992b. The effect of seed rate and row spacing on seed yield of four tropical pasturespecies. Bulletin of the 4°' Crop science society of Ethiopia (CSSE). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 46-50.
Lemma Gizachew and Abubeker Hassen. 1992. Evaluation of selected lines of Sesbcmia sesban for adaptation and performance on acid Nitosol at Bako. Bulletin of the 4th CSSE, Vol.4 Dec. 1992. Addis Ababaj Ethiopia. PP 42-45.
Lemma Gizachew. 1993a. Comparison of different legumes hay, urea and noug cake as a protein supplement to growing Horro sheep fed with tef straw. Proceedings of 4 th NLIC,. 13-15 Nov. 1991 .Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 211-215
_____ 1993b. Leucaena leucocephala: Research experience, in Bako area. IAR research reportNo. 20. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Lemma Gizachew and Alemu Tadesse. 1993. Evaluation of different grass/legume mixtures in mid altitude sub humid zone of Ethiopia, Proceedings of the 4th NLIC, 13-15 Nov. 1991. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 201-204
Lemma Gizachew, Alemu Tadesse and Abubeker Hassen. 1993. Botanical composition, improvement intervention and cattle weight gain . of natural pastures in western Ethiopia. Proceedings of XVII International Grassland Congress, 8-21 Feb. 1993. New Zealand and Australia. PP 309-311Lulseged Gebre Hiwot, Gebremedhfn Hagos and Tadesse T.Tsadik. 1989. Undersowing of forage
crops in cereals:Some achievements. First NLIC, 11-13 Feb. 1987. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 151-154. ; ,
Solomon Gizaw, Solomon Abegaz and Asfaw Negassa. 1993. Growth response of Horro sheep to different levels of maize arid noug seed cake supplements .Proceedings of fourth NLIC, 13- 15 Nov. 1991. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP 113-118
Schulthess, U; Abate Tedla; M.A.Mohammed-Saleem; and A.N.Said. 1995. Effect of variety, altitude and undersow'ing with legumes on the nutritive value of wheat straw . Expt. Agric. Vol.31: 169-176.
105
Table 1. Dominant natural pasture species of grasslands in Western Ethiopia
Study site Altitude (m) Dominant pasture soeciesBakoAssosaBandiraNfekemte/Arjo
1600-1800 1600
• 1700-1800 > 2 0 0 0
Hyperrhenia anamesa, Sporoboluspyraminida/is, and Neotonia'weightii H.filipendiila, H.pilgerana, Arthraxan m a n , and Crota/aria microcarpa Hyperrhenia spp., Exotheca abyssinica, and Aristida adoens Pennisetom adoens, P.schimperi, Andropagon abyssinim< Trifotium spp., Digitaria spp., Eragrostis spp., Exotheca abyssinica, H.tubercutata and Festuca abvssvinka
Table 2. Botanical composition and DM yield of natural pasture as affected by controlled grazing and oversowing of S.guianensis
Pasture status Pasture composition , DM yield (t/ha)
Year one Year two
Undisturbed Grasses 2.3 8.6natural pasture Neotonia sp. 0.4 0.4
Others 0.3 0.2
Stylo-oversown
Total 2.9 9.1
natural pasture Grasses 0.1 5.9Neotonia sp 0.1 0.1Stylo 2.2 5.8Total 3.1 11.9
Table 3. Dry matter yield (DM) and height at flowering of some promising forage legumes on cultivated strips of natural pasture at Bako.
Species ILCA accession DM yield Height atnumber (Kgha1) flowering
(cm)
Stylosanthes scabra cv Seca 140 19,184 85S.scabra 6,356 9,384 90S.hamata cv.Verano 75 2,419 65Shamata 165 5,158 S5S.guianensis cv Cook 4 3,452 185S.guianensis 163 9,216 175S.guianensis 6995 2,288 55S.guianensis 7284 15,276 195S.guianensis cv Graham 73 2,865 50S.scabra cv Fitzeroy 441 3,958 50MacrotiHum atrbpurpureum
60cv Siratro 69 1,333Desmodium intbrtumcv Greenleaf 104 45Macrotyioma axiiiare
200cv Archer 6756 5,518
100
I1:;
Major zone. Pastureffodder Productiort stratepy1crop species
Table 4. Forage crops of high promise and their possible production strategies V .
Low-medium altitude Browses(1000-1800 m)
Leucaena Imocephala L.pallida L.diversifolia Gliricidia sepium Sesbania sesban Catliandra catothyrsus Cajanus cajan
Perennial forage legumes SF, US, RD, ONP
Stylosanthes guianensisS.hamataS.scabraD.unicenatumD .in tortmM.atropurpureumM.axillare
1 Annual forage legumes SF, GM
Lablab purpureusVicia atropurpurea 'V.dasycarpa
Herbaceous orass species
SF, AC, RD, GM, LF
High altitude (> 1 8 0 0 )
Chloris gayana SF, USPanieum coloratum SF, USPenn'mtum purpureum SF, BS, R0Sataria sephacelata SF, BSMelinus mmutiflora SFSorghum sudaness SFSorghum afmum SF
Browses SF, AC, RD,.GM, LF
S.sesbanChamaecytisus pafmensis
•’ 1 '
Herbaceous forages
A vena sativa SFVicia dasycarpa SF,GMV.atropurpurea SF, GMNative Trifolium spp. SF, US, GMBeta vulgaris * SF
7 SF= Sole forage, BS= Bund stabilizer, US= undersowing in cereals, AC= Alley cropping, RD - Rehabilitating denuded sites, GM- Green ' manuring, ONP= Oversowing in natural pasture, LF= Live fence
107
RECOMMENDED AGRONOMIC PRACTICES FOR WESTERN ETHIOPIA
Girma W/TsadikBako Agricultural Research Center\ PO Box 3. B a k o __________________________ ;_____ -
introduction
Western Ethiopia, comprising Wellega, Illubabor and Kefa receives high rain fall which varies from 800 - 2500 mm at various sites. The total rain fall and its distribution in a normal year is considered adequate for rain- fed agriculture in the area. Teff, wheat,
barley and noug are widely grown in the Western high lands. At lower elevations sesame, groundnut, soya bean, haricot bean, maize and sorghum have better yield performances. Research confirmed that recommended varieties of the above mentioned crops gave higher yields than the local varieties. Even though, yields obtained at the regional level are higher than the, national average „ a large gap still exists between yields obtained at experimental sites and those realized by farmers and state farmers in the area. This could be due to poor land preparation, lafe sowing , low or high plant population, weeds, soil erosion, disease and insect pests and lack of improved varieties. /
To .overcome the above mentioned crop production constraints experiments were conducted to determine the effects of tillage practices,selection of adapted varieties ,optimum seeding rates and planting dates, rates and time of fertilizer application in relation to moisture conservation, timely weed control methods and proper harvesting methods, etc. in different crops at Bako since 1968. In this paper results of the different improved agronomic practices for increased yields of different crops are reviewed. Future areas for research are also indicated.
Recommended Agronomic PracticesTef
Seed bed Preparation: In a study conducted at Bako Research Center to evaluate the effect of frequency of plowing pn the grain yield of,teff, 3-4 times plowing gave highest yield compared to the other frequencies (Seifu, 1993).
Sowing date: According to Seifu (1993) tef can be sown in a season when the rainfall is reliable and well distributed. For most cultivars 300-500 mm of rain fall during a growing season |s adequate. The results o f Bako Research Center showed that the highest yield was obtained when the crop planted in July and delay in sowing after this month resulted in progressive yield depression (Table 1).
Seed rate: Tef is traditionally sown by hand broadcasting. It would be difficult to evenly distribute the seeds. Therefore, 25-30 kgha"1 seed is recommended for broadcasting tef (IAR, 1968/69; 1969/70).
Weed control: Tef seeds should be free from weed seeds. Hand weeding once at early tillering stage (20 to 25 days after planting) is ideal and adequate, if weed population is low. However, if the infestation level is high a second weeding should be done at the stem elongation stage (50 to 55 days after planting) (Seifu, 1993). Crop loss as a result of weed competition at Assosa was estimated to be about 70% (IAR, 1968/69; 1969/70). Pre-sowing herbicides should
be applied one-two weeks before planting while the post emergence herbicides should be applied at early tillering (4 to 5 weeks after sowing). Among the per sowing herbicide Gesdten 500 FW at a dosage of 1.2 kg a.iha"1 and post emergence herbicides,2,4-D and MCPA at a dosage of 1 kg a.iha'1 are recommended, respectively (Seifu, 1993).
Sorghum
Sowing date: The sowing date must be carefully planned in order to harvest the crop in good time. Late sowing causes a high yield reduction. Sowing date for sorghum varies depending on the altitude, of the area. May 1-30 is the optimum sowing time for sorghum (Table 1.) (IAR, 1995). . ,
Seed rate: IAR (1995) recommended a seed rate of 8-10 kgha'1 for sorghum.
Spacing and plant population: A spacing of 75 cm. between rows and 15,cm between plantS'to give a population density in sorghum growing areas depend on the available moisture and vigor of a cultivar (IAR ,1995).
Weed control: Weed competition affects sorghum adversely. A yield reduction ofup to 30% may be caused if weeds are not controlled at the right time (IAR, 1995). It is important to destroy weeds at early development stages of the crop. Hence, two hand weeding are necessary. The first could be done at 25-30 days after planting and the second 55-60 days after planting; Herbicide trial on sorghum showed that yields obtained from Atrazine and Atrazine/ metolachlor mixtures were, superior to manual weeding. Mixed herbicide treatments increased yield as the dosage of application is raised from 1.75 to 2.0 kg a.iha'1 (IAR, 1995).
Soybean
Sowing date: Soyabean is very susceptible to drought and sowing must take place early for the plant to benefit from allavailable moisture. Best time for sowing soya bean around Bako and similar areas is from June 9 to July 30. For Anger-Gutin it is. from June 15 30. (Table 1).
Seeding rate and plant population: The amount of seed recommended was 60 kgha'1. The spacing for soya bean is 60 cm between rows and 5 cm between plants which gives a plant density of 33 3320 plants/ha.
Haricot bean
Sowing date:. The optimurti planting time tor haricot bean was found to be late June to early July. Delayed sowing caused a shortening of the growth period as a result there could be a tremendous decrease in yield. Research has shown that higher yields can be obtained from row planting than from broadcasting. Row planting rendered better weed control and was good for ease of harvesting (Table 1).
Seed rate: optimum seed rate for haricot bean was recommended to be 99-100 kgha*1 ,
Spacing and plant population: Recommended spacing for haricot bean was 40 cm between rows and 5 cm between plants which gives a plant population of 500,000 plants/ha
Weed control: Beans do not compete well with weeds, especially at their early stage. Weeding, can easily be done if beans are planted in rows: Yield loss due to unweeding haricot beans were 80-100%. Weeding of at least once at 30 to 35 days after planting is important.
i m
Herbicide such as Alachlor applied as pre-emergence at a rate of 2.0 kg a.iha1 against broad- leaved and grass weeds controlled the weeds and increased yield
Sesame
Sowing date: The optimum time for sesame planting at Didessa was observed to be mid- June (Table 1), (IAR, 1992).
Seed rate: Five kilograms per hectare was optimum for sesame.
Spacing and plant population; Studies on population density indicated that 10 cm between plants and 50 cm between rows or population density o f250,000 plants/ha was found better spacing to get-high yield.
Weed control | The most important consideration in sesame cultivation is to see that the.soil is free of weeds and well loosened. Sesame does not withstand weed competition, particularly during the early stages of its development. Weeds reduce yield, increase pest and disease incidence and interfere in fertilization and hamper harvesting. Yield loss due to weed competition on sesame was observed to reach as high as 77%. Twice hand weeding at 20 to 25 days and 50 to |5 days after planting is recommended for high yield gain.
Groundnut' V '
Sowing date: According to a study conducted at Didessa mid July was found to be the optimum planting time. A consistent decline in pod yield was recorded when planting was delayed after mid-July, (Table 1),.
Seed rate: '.Sixty to eighty kilogram per hectare was the optimum amount of seed for groundnut.
Spacing and plant population: In spacing and planting method trials at Didessa, 50 cm between rows and 10 cm within plants were found to give high yield. Ridging was not beneficial for variety Shulamith. A plant population of200,000 plants/ha gave^also better results.
Weed Control: Weed competition is more severe on ground nut at early stage. Experiments Conducted on weed competition at Didessa indicated that weeding groundnut not later than four weeks after planting was found to be the minimum period of competition. During weeding, the plants may be earthen up to encourage penetration of the pegs into the soil.
Future Research DirectionsTillage Practices including time, frequency and method of seed-bed preparation along with alternative weed control practices should be studied. Cropping systems, including rotation and intensification. .Surveying and identifying Weed species and assessing crop losses across different zones is required. Devising integrated'weed control method that combine crop rotation, tillage, weeding practices etc. is necessary. Effective,relatively less dangerous and cheaper herbicides should be_ screened. Recommended technologies shduld be demonstrated to the farmers. Agronomic practices for highland crops and recently released varieties should be established. Research on Dodder should be strengthened .
114)
ffr »
Table 1. Recommended Cultural practices of diffment craps.
Ctop Variety Altitude (m) Rain fall |mm)
Plantingtime
Method of planting Spacing (cm) Seed rate Otg ha11
Weed control methods
Handweedingldap)
Herbicide
Ti f DZ-01-787 DZ-01-354
1800-25001400-2400
400-700300-700
July Broadcasting 25-30 25-30 50-55 d.a.p
Post emen»ncel4-D and MCPA'Ika a.i/ha 4-5 weeksO j .n Preemerasnee Gesatert 500EW 1kg ajha 1-2 weeks before planting
;:'5i:ara Birmash IS 9302
1600-1900 1600-1SOD
900900
May Row 75x30 36016 25-3055-60
Atrarine kg.aJ|haAtrajneJ MetoiachloMkgjJIha-
j:;L‘r.dnut' ShulamithRoba
1500 300-750 Mid July Row 50x10 60-80 20-25;
" ';7?(n0 SE
1500 300-750 Mid June Rowg and drilling 40x10 5 20-2550-55
\ *; . . .
"jnr.ol•Jean
Robal Red whlayfta Mexican 192 Brown speeded Black-Dessie
1400-200 350-700 - Late June Early July
Raw planting 40x5 90-100 25-30 •freemergenceAlacMor2.0 kg a.i/ha .
Soybean Davis Clark - 63K Cota 240 Wiliam
100-1700100-1700700-1700700-1700
400-500400-500700-1000700-500
BakoEarly June- Late June Anner-Gutin. Mid June- Late June
Row Planting60x5 60
Source:- IAR I9$8/69; 1969/70; 1993
R eferen ces
Institute o f Agricultural Research (IAR) 1968-1977 Bako progress reports of. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
IAR. 1995. Haricot bean production hand book.Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. PP. 12 - 14.IAR. 1992. Oil seeds research and development in Ethiopia, in; Proceedings o f the first national
oil seeds workshop 3-5. December 1991. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. PP.95- 139 .Seifu Ketema. 1993. T eff (Eragrostis tef) breeding, genetic. agronom>, utilization and role in
Ethiopian agriculture. IAR.Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. PP. 1-48.
. DEMONSTRATION AND POPULARIZATION OF IMPROVED CROP
VARIETIESfb SMALL HOLDER FARMERS IN EASTERN WELLEGA AND
WESTERN SHEWAAbubeker Mussa and Tesfaye Balemi . ; , • ; - 1,Ba^o AgriculturalResearch Center, PO Box 3, Bako,Ethiopia- ■ , , , , y '
Introduction
Agricultural production needs, to be increased through the use o f improved technologies in order to feed the increasing human population. Despite the availability o f numerous.improved crop
varieties and thqir management practices, mbst o f the farmers in the region depend jon, local varieties and traditional management practices..
In order to change this situation, tlie Research and. Extension' Uajson Division (RE.LD) o f Bako Research center (BRC) has been trying to demonstrate and popularize improved technologies since its establishment (1985). The division was established with the objective to popularize tested and verified improved agricultural technologies, organize training for extension workers and*farrtierfc, organize field day and visits and feed back information to researchers on farmers’ production p r o b l e m s . ; \ V ' v
To attain the objectives, improved varieties o f cereal crops (Maize', Sorghum, Whe&t, barley),1 oil crops (linseed, Rapeseed). pulses (haricot bean, field pea) and Horticultural crops (sweet potato and hot pepper) have been demonstrated*on farm'ers field.’ Moreover, training; field days’ and field visits were organized. Improved seeds o f different crops wer^'rilso provided to farmers in order to‘make the process o f technology transfer and adoption more effective/ 1 - " •' •' '
On Farm Demonstration
Maize
Efforts have been made to transfer maize technologies so far developed in the center to the farmers o f eastern Wellega region and part o f western Shoa. and the extent to which these technologies have been adopted and their impact on the farming community especially in the Bako area are indicated by Beyene el.al. (1992). According to survey results of, 60% o f the farmers adopted the recom m endations for fertilizers, variety and row planting in the Bako area. In 1989,70% o f the sampled fanners applied fertilizer, 57% used an improved variety and 67% planted in rows on at
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least half of their maize field^Morebver, unavailability untinaely provision and extsemely high price of inputs were identified as some of the problems of maize technology adoption. Demonstrations of maize varieties .wi& their recommend^ poianagement p r ic e s Have been under way since 1986. It was demonstrated for 5 years in the lowland areas around Bako, and for two consecutive years in the highlands. T "? r ’ . y
The Varieties ^|r^BG,-BHrl40j 811^60, Beletech and kujani which, all pfthem are released from Bako Research center. 16G was found to be susceptible to lodging due to its height and late maturity sunlike the local farmers varie$; Despite its short comings; ’the' farmers continued to grow this variety for its better yield potential than the local until the release of Hybrid and open pollinated in 1990 (Table 1). Similarly two hybrid maize varieties (BH-140 and BH-660) and a composite variety (Beletech), new virgin of BC, were demonstrated on farmers field along with the farmers’ local variety. for_twp .years. Results of these demonstrations showed that ,improved varieties grown under
- recommended management practices out yielded the local variety with farmers practice.
On the other hand, until the RELD staffs of BRC reached the highlands of Shambu in 1994, only small area, around the homestead was allotted for maize production. However, after the demonstration of Beletech, Kularii and BH-660 in the Shambu highlandin 1994 arid 1995 by RELD,SG2000, aft^ government extension package program, changes have been observed on farmers attention for maize production and in area coverage ofmaiie, though no formal study was made on the extent to which these technologies have been adopted in the highlands. However, the yields obtained are still low due to shortage of rain for few weeks after planting, low plant population resulted from poor'.qiiality seed and cattle damage.
Sorghum t
Sorghum is one of the major cereal crops grow in wollega region and ranks 3rd in area coverage andyield per hectare (CSA, 1989). Most of the sorghum cultivars grown by the farmers in wollega „region.are tall,low yielding and late maturing. Area of improved sorghum varieties (D-I057,Bakomash, IS 9302) production were-increased due to the expansion of settlement project and state farms in Wellega until 1990. But recently production of improved sorghum.varieties haye been decreased in area coverage, probably due to bird susceptibility of improved early sorghum varieties.Improved and local sorghum varieties were demonstrated on farmers field for three years but the yield obtained was discouraging since farmers were reluctant to scare birds. In the Second year the varieties were demonstrated on larger areas in order to minimize birds damage however, still bird damage was not minimized and the yield was very low (Table 2). In general it was observed that improved early varieties of sorghum require good land preparation, sufficient soil moisture at planting, shallow planting and regular bird scaring.
Wheat
Wheat is the most important cereal crop-in the high land of wollega region. In our country wheat is grown at altitude between 1600 and 3000 m wheat can be grown successfu ily under a wide range Aof rainfall and temperature conditions: It can withstand cold quite well, however, it does not adopt well-to areas1 where warm, humid conditions prevail largely because such conditions favor the rapid development of diseases. A
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Efforts have been made to transfer improved wheat production technologies to farmers in the highlands however, the extent to which these technologies have been adopted is not yet formally studied. In order to popularize improved wheat varieties with the recommended practices, demonstration have been conducted in Shambo highlands since 1989 for about four years and is being conducted. One improved variety of wheat (Dashen) was demonstrated under unproved management practices during 1989 and 1990 production years. During those years Dashen out. yielded the local variety (Table 3).
During 1994 only ET. 13 was demonstrated but in 1995 HAR 710 and HAR 1685 were included. ET> 13 was found to be promising in yield potential and disease tolerance. This variety has similar height and maturity time to the local variety. The other two early maturing varieties (HAR 710 and HAR 1685) are shorter in height. According to the results of the demonstration trials improved varieties outsmarted the farmers' local in yield. However, the yields are still low due to some problems such as the unusual heavy rainfall at harvest in 1995 poor crop management by the farmers (not timely weeding) and damage by domestic animals (Table 3).
Barley
Barley is a source of food today for large number of people living in cooler areas where other cereals are less adapted. It is an important crop for the extreme highland fanners of the western region. In order to popularize improved barley varieties with their recommended practices, demonstrations have been conducted on the highlands of Wellega from 1989 to 1992. However, the extent to which they are diffused in the farming community is not yet surveyed.
Most of the local barley varieties are early maturing while the improved ones are late maturing as compared to the local. Since accessible farmers used to grow the early maturing variety, there is little possibility to get more, number of location on which to demonstrate the late maturing improved barley varieties. Results from the demonstration plots showed that improved barley variety (HB-42) grown under improved practices out yielded the local variety (Table 4). However, the yield obtained for HB-42 is yet not satisfactory due to poor management (untimely weeding in ail years),rat damage in 1989-95, lodging unusual heavy rainfall at harvest in 1995 and early off-set of rainfall in 1994.
Linseed
Linseed is the third major oil crops grown mainly as cash source by farmers in the highlands of Wellega. Three improved varieties of linseed (Chilalo, Cl 1525, and Cl 1652) were demonstrated and popularized to farmers at 6 different locations for 3 years. Besides demohstration, improved seeds were also distributed to 6 farmers during each year.
Due to poor management practice by thefarmers (poor land preparation and Weeding) very low yield was obtained from both improved and local Varieties. Improved varieties showed better yield even under such poor management. In some sites where the crop was planted on well prepared land, and where there Was once weeding, the crop had good vegetative performance and good yield was obtained (Table 5).
Some of the production constraints observed were poor land preparation by almost all farmers, no
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weeding, insect damage, early off set of rain at flowering in 1994, unusual heavy rainfall at harvests in 1995 and logistic problems to supervise the field and to make farmers follow the recommendation .After three years of demonstration and popularization activity it was decided not to demonstrate linseed varieties any more since farmers did not give importance to manage the crop.
Field pea
Field pea it stands first in area coverage and production among the highland pulses in Eastern Wellega Zone
One improved variety of field pea (G 22763-22) and the local variety were demonstrated at 10 locations on farmers field for two consecutive years. In both years the improved variety out yielded the local variety. However, the improved variety's yield potential was not yet achieved due to poor management, root rot and pod borer problems, early cease of rainfall in 1994 and unusual heavy rainfall at harvest in 1995. Besides the yield, farmers also preferred the Improved variety for its White seed color,(Table 6).
Haricot bean
Haricot bean is an important food crop for the farmers in low and mid altitude parts of the western region. Both bush and climbing types of haricot beans are widely grown between the altitude ranges of 1300 to 1900 m .
Three recommended varieties (Mexican 142, Roba-1, Awash) were demonstrated on farmers field for two year under both cropping systems, sole and inter cropping. However, inter cropping was not successful because of wild animal damage and thus no yield was obtained. Besides demonstration, sites were selected from three woredas and seeds were distributed to farmers for popularization. Generally, the y ield obtained didn't reflect the genetic potential of the varieties due to late planting, poor land preparation by the farmer and untimely weeding (Table 7). It was observed that Roba-1 had good vegetative performance, disease tolerance while Mexican 142 was inferior to both:
Forage Crops
Animal feed shortage particularly in the dry season is very critical in Wellega region. With an increase in human population and subsequent need for cultivableiarid, the area under natural pasture is. gradually decreasing. The only reliable source of feed during dry period has become crop residue. Currently feed shortage is becoming a problem even in the wet season. To minimize this problem improved forage crops were demonstrated on farmers field starting from 1988. Improved grass (rhodes, panieum, pats) and legume (vetches) species were demonstrated and the results showed that the dry matter yields of the improved grass and legume species were higher than that of natural pasture. Table 8
A total o f6780 seedlings of Leuceana leucocephala (an important legume tree species that can be used as animal feed, source of soil fertility, as fire wood and life fence) were also distributed to 30 farmers from three woredas. These were planted around homesteads as a life fence and only 1750
110
seedlings were established. Only 25% o f the seedlings were established due to wild and domestic animals damage during wet and dry season.
Other Activities
Training
Training is one o f the major strategies used for efficient technology transfer. Thus quarterly training were organized from 1987-1990 by the RELD of BRC for subject matter specialists (SMSs) and Development Agents (DAs) working in the Ministry o f Agriculture (MOA), Ministry of Coffee and Tea Development (MCTD), and farm managers from Ministry o f State Farms (MSF). Researchers from different disciplines offered the training and discussions were made on agricultural problems o f the region.
Field day and Visits
Field day and visits were organized to popularize improve technologies to the farmers there by making their transfer and adoption more efficient. Field days w'ere organized two times for users, researchers, policy makers and fanners as a whole and once a year in on-farm demonstration trials for 6 consecutive years. Field visit were organized and regional RELC members from MOA, representative from other user organizations and researchers from Bako Research Center had participated on the field visit for two years. Demonstration plots o f IAR, MOA and MTCD, rural development projects, trials and farmers fields were included in the visits. Discussions were made on major issues.
Seed Supply
In order to minimize the problem of improved seed shortage, improved seeds o f maize, sorghum, pepper, sweet potatoes and forage crops were provided to farmers and other user organizations free o f charge, through exchange o f improved varieties with local and selling in cash.
Crop Production Problems
Poor soil fertility status, weed competition due to labor shortage and overlap of crop calendar, insect, diseases, and wild animal damage, unavailability and shortage of inputs, untimely delivery and high cost o f inputs, lack o f improved farm implements and Lack of specific seed rate, fertilizer rate recommendations for specific area and Unreliable weather condition
Future D irections
Preparing production guidelines in local languages, conducting adoption study on highland crops so far demonstrated, demonstrating improved technologies on teff, finger millet, sesame and groundnut, demonstrating and popularizing improved animal production technologies, demonstrating improved farm implements
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J; ) ■1 Table 1. Yield of hybrid and open pollinated Maize varieties
Yield (qha1)i Varieties
1986 1987 1988 1992 1993 1994 1995
BC 39.7 51.2 38.3 - • •
Beletech - 38.2 36.5 28.7 56.9
BH 140 34.2 47.9 32.6;
BH 660 • 52.1 40.0 71.0
Kulani . • - - 60.0
Local 22.6 20.1 14.2 29.0 36.0 24.7 36.0
Table 2. Yield of sorghum varieties
Varieties Yield (qha1)
1987 1988
IS-9302 45.4 10.0
D-1057 I 39.6
Local 20.0 11.0
Table 3. Yield of wheat varieties
VarietiesYield {qha1)
1989 1990 1994 1995
Dashen 27.9 26.5 •
ET-13 - 17.38 30.08
710 - 24.15
1685 * 28.75
Local 16.3 12.7 11.68 17.05
118i
Table 4. Yield of barley varieties
Yield (q ha-')Varieties
1989 1990 1994 1995
HB42 27.9 12.2 23.0 27
Local 20.3 11.0 13.0 22
Table 5. Yield of linseed varieties
VarietiesYield in {qha '}
1990 1994 1995
Chilalo 7.92
CM 525 2.5 3.6 7.58
CM 652 2.6
Local 1.5 1.6
Table 6. Yield of field pea variety
Variety Yield in (qha1)
1994 1995
G-22763 2C 8.09 12.8
Local . 5.94 3.17
Table 7. Yield of Haricot bean varieties
VarietyYield (qha1)
1994 1995
Roba-1 6.2 14.75
Awash 8.1 11.15
Mexican 142 - 4.15
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Table 8. Yield of forage crops
Forage CropOM Yield (tha1)
1986 1987
co;CO! 1989 1990
Rhodes #- 10.0 8:8 14.4 14.0
Panicum 10.8 5.2 14.6 13.0
O&ts & Veches « 7.5 7.9 13.6 12.0
References
Beyene Seboka, Asfaw Negaasa, Wilfred Mwangi and Abubeker Mussa. 1991. Adoption of Maize production technologies in the Bako area, Western Shoa & Wollega region of Ethiopia. Research report No 16 Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Abeba.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA). 1987 Time series data on area, production, and yield of major crops, Addis Ababa, Eth.
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CONTRIBUTIONS OF ON-FARM RESEARCH IN VERIFICATION
RECOMMENDATION, TRANSFER AND ADOPTION OF IMPROVED MAIZE
TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BAKO AREAAbdissa GemedaBako Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 3, B a k o ____ ' 1____________________________•
Introduction
Under conventional top-down research approach and trickle-doWn technology transfer model, small farmers were taken to be ignorant ,reluctant (resistant) to change and laggards, These old
thinking that farmers are irrational emanated from the fact that efforts by research and development circles to bring about rapid rural and agricultural development were hot up to expectations. However, thanks to the advent of farming systems research by social scientists and development practitioners in the mid 1970s, the line of thinking towards small farmers changed. Thus ,the contemporary understanding is that farmers' decisions are rational and their resource allocations efficient in light of their own objectives, goals and strategies; face a multitude of problems and constraints they face; priorities and opportunities which dictate them. Besides, socio-economic, agro- ecological, cultural, psychological and policy factors affect their decisions to the .highest degree. These factors are called farmers circumstances orthe situations in which farmers find themselves. Consequently, technologies of spectacular results at research stations may not fetch acceptance by farmers because of incompatibility with farmers'circumstances.
To date, on-farm research has reckoned fifteen years' history in the national agricultural research system. It contributed a lot particularly to targeting research to the most marginalized sections of the society, the small-scale resource-poor farmers; who constitute the majority of the farming community in Ethiopia. It has shaped the national agricultural research and development policy interventions- to be demand-driven than supplyrled, decentralized than top-down, more efficient than inefficient and etc. It is well known that no two farmers face identical circumstances. At the same time, resources are scarce to do research suitable to each farmer. So, there is a need to work with and for a group of farmers. Taking farmers circumstances in to account, other factors kept constants any improvement or technological intervention generated with and transferred to relatively homogenous group of farmers, is readily acceptable and adopted. This is the underlying philosophy of on-farm research with farming systems perspective (OFR/FSP) or what some people call on?farm client- oriented research. Homogenous group of farmers or recommendation domains are farmers with more or less similar circumstances for which similar technological recommendations are applicable.
The sequential stages of methodology followed through generation to recommendation and transfer
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of technologies under ori-farm client-oriented research programs are:
■ understanding Tanners' problems and constraints through formal and informal surveys,■ generating and selecting technologies,* testing promising technologies under farmers' conditions, and, t* conducting farmer-managed trials,■ technology transfer either through demonstration or transfer plots.
In line of these methodological .approaches, since 1984 a number of farming systems surveys *identified the principal fanners' objectives and goals, problems and constraints in Western Grom iya in general and the Bako area in particular. The farmers’ objectives are to maximize their output and generate sufficient income from crop, livestock and non-farm enterprises. In light of these objectives, their goals are to have adequate food supply through out the year for family consumption; sufficient cash for investment on farm inputs and household utilities (consumption items); to pay for taxes, social obligations and school fees. On the other hand, farmers' problems and constraints are:
* low soil fertility status; soil erosion and waterlogging,■ seasonal food shortage (deficit) in "hungry months",■ livestock dry season feed shortage,■ seasonal labour shortage,■ draught oxen shortage,■ credit/cash unavailability, ,■ pests and diseases,■ input supply problems, and■ low genetic yielding potential of local crop varieties and livestock breeds.
■i
To address some of the priority problems and meet farmers objectives and goals, severaltechnological interventions have been researched. The technologies were either developed for thefirst time, evaluated and verified in farmers' fields and recommended; or those developed at research ,stations and already available on the "shelf' were verified and recommended. In these steps,technology verification takes especial emphases. It has required both biological and socio-economicinvestigations with active participation of target farmers so as to understand the local limitationswhich confront the farmers and understand farmers' preferences which shape their managementstrategy: Farmers critically analyse and comment on the new technologies from the perspective ofthe applicability of the technologies under their own farm Conditions.
Technology verification trials are synonymous to "technology quarantine” service. That means, technologies adopted to the communities socio-economic and agro-ecological conditions are recomriiended for demonstration in transfer/demonstration plots and for large scale production. On the other hand, feed back on technologies which manifest failure is provided to the concerned researchers for further amendments. In nutshell, the major contributions of OFR/FSP in national maize commodity research have been:
■ to provide adequate information to maize breeders on characteristics of needed varieties, -■ to provide agronomists and other scientists with new information on farmers' problems,■ to give feed back to researchers on the performance of new technologies,
122
■ to formulate recommendations appropriate for small-scale farmers, and■ to make recommendations to policy makers.
Development of Improved and Problem-oriented VarietiesFarmers in the Bako area face food deficit in "hungry months", when grain depletes from stores, i.e, from late June through early September until green cob harvest of maize begins. The local maize varieties are also inferior in grain yield potential and other agronomic characteristics. To deal with the problems, breeders stationed at Bako Research Center developed a total of six improved maize varieties namely, Guto, Beletetch, BII-I40, BH-540, BH-660 and Kulanii. Guto, Beletech and Kulanii are open-pollinated varieties where as the BH series are hybrid varieties.
The Variety Guto and Seasonal Food Shortage
A diagnostic survey conducted around Bako (Legesse et al,. 1987) indicated that many farmers do not produce sufficient food to last them through, the season. In the face of recurrent food shortages from June to September (before the main harvest) an early food supply is a major concern for the farmers in the area. The management strategies the fanners use to cope with this problem are planting maize immediately after commencement of rain; dry planting maize; planting an early maturing variety maize, "Safi", that takes 130 days to harvest green; and planting maize in the offseason using irrigation.
From the survey findings, a proposal for selecting an early maturing maize variety that could be harvested earlier than "Safi" was put forward to on-station researchers (breeders) aimed at solving the farmers' seasonal food shortage. As a result the variety "Guto" was developed, and found well adapted to the mid-altitude humid areas, and released in 1988. Guto was derived from Tuxpeno-1, a Latin American, broad-based population, through intensive selection for reduced plant height, tolerance to lodging, and earliness (Asfaw eial., 1990). It is a short statured variety. On-farm verifications show that it reaches maturity to green cob harvest 38 and 18 days earlier than the local long maturing variety Burrie and local early maize variety, Safi. Thus, if Guto is planted in early April, it could be ready for green cob harvest in late July. That is, Guto required 112 days from planting to green harvesting. Even if, Guto yields lower than local varieties its earliness has been found to be crucial to poor farmers. It reduced their hungry period before they start the normal harvest from the local varieties. The variety also helped farmers taickle the risk of crop failure due to long dry spell and catastrophic events caused by insects and disease pests in early stage of the crop emergence. For instance, in 1994/95 following total damage of their maize seedling by army Worm, many fanners in the Bako area planted their fields to Guto seeds. Guto exploited the remaining growing period and enabled farmers to harvest some yield from their land which would otherwise be idle until next cropping season.
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High Yielding Varieties
Beletetch is a medium to early maturing variety. It is highly adaptable to Bako and sim ilar environm ents. It yields from 32-50 qha '1 grain under sub-optimal to relatively good agronom ic management conditions in farmers fields. In package extensions programs it could yield up to 65 qha'1. The development o f Beletetch is an increase to fanners' menu o f open-pollinated varieties with improved agronomic characteristics such as resistance to lodging, early maturity and higher yfield as compared to the local varieties. Beletech is earlier than local variety by 25 days in physiological maturity.
Highland Variety
Kulanii is another open pollinated variety developed mainly for high land areas. Under on-farm verification trials, it yields 50 qh a '1 grain in Shamboo and Amboo high lands. Kulanii is equally tolerant to diseases as local varieties. It matures 30 days earlier than the local high land varieties. Early maturity ,however,exposed it to birds damage on its silk, and consequently favoring molds to enter and grow in the cobs.This e ffec t,however, may dilute with wider adoption and production o f the variety by the majority o f the farmers.
Hybrid Varieties
BH-140, BH-540 and BH-660 are high yielding varieties as compared to their open-pollinated counter parts. BH-140 and BH-540 have been developed for Bako and similar agro-ecological zones. On-farm verification o f these varieties showed that, on average, BH-140, BH-540 and BH- 660 gave grain yield of 53, 64. and 75 qha 1 respectively with coefficient o f variation (%) ranging between 14 and 20.
The development o f improved hybrid maize varieties has boosted maize grain yields by 2 to 4 folds (between 40 and 80 q/ha). Tlie yield increases over traditional varieties is from 100 % to 300 % on margin. Profitability o f hybrids is also between 100 % and 200 %, considering seed input as the principal investment item determ ining fanners’ decisions to grow hybrids. Despite higher productivity and profitability advantages, hybrids are susceptible to storage pest such as weevils. BH-540 is attacked even on the field before h a rv es t.
Weed Control for Major Crops
Weeding is a critical factor in crop production around Bako. For example, at a critical time o f maize weeding, labour is not sufficient for timely and efficient weeding because different farm operations overlap. To alleviate this problem on-farm tests o f promising technologies from on-station were undertaken.
First, station recommendations on hand weeding ( hand weeding twice at 25-30 and 55-60 days after planting) was compared with farmers' weeding practices for grain yield and labor saving advantages (Gemechu and Legesse, 1989). Results showed that the average labor requirement for recommended hand weeding was less than that o f the farmers' practices (425 Vs 554 hours/hectare). There was no
124
significant difference however, in grain yield between recommended hand weeding (2.7 tha). and the farmers' practices (2.4 tha1)- Nevertheless, the farmers did not accept the recommendation of hand weeding twice because the second weeding for the recommended practice coincided with a time when labor is in high demand, for other farm operations. During this, period farmers prefer ox- cultivation to hand weeding because they want to weed large areas of their maize fields within a short period of time if possible. Thus, the recommendation for hand weeding had no impact on farmers but it underlined the importance of searching for other alternatives, such as herbicides, which reduce the demand for labor at critical times for maize weeding.
Consequently, a herbicide verification experiment comparing two herbicides (Primagram and Gesaprim) with the farmers’ weeding practices was conducted with the following objectives: first, to study the comparative advantajge Of herbicides to solve the problem of labor shortage during peak season; and second, to verify the.effectiveness and economic acceptance of herbicides in maize production (Asfaw et.al., 1990). There was no yield difference between treatments and the herbicides scored more than 70% mean general weed control efficiency at early stages. Primagram and Gesaprim saved 380 and 355 labour hours per hectare required for maize weeding respectively, compared to the farmers’ weeding practices. From the economic analysis Gesaprim (4 liter active ingredient per hectare) was recommended for weed control in maize. The chemical control of weeds allows the farmers timely and efficient weeding for maize. The labouF released from maize weeding can be used to perform timely and efficient operation for other crops, such as land preparation'and planting of pepper and tef. This would increase the farm families' overall productivity.
Low Soil Fertility Problems
The problem of low soil fertility is well recognized in most farming systems in Ethiopia as limiting the small farmers’ productivity. To overcome this problem on-station fertilizer recommendations were made for different crops at various national agricultural research centers. In addition there were also blanket fertilizer recommendations by Ministry of Agriculture. However, these recommendations were not developed under farmers' conditions nor their economics studied.
At Bako research center on-farm tests of fertilizer use in maize were conducted to determine the economics of fertilizer use in maize production under small scale farmers' conditions. As a result of this activity 100/50 kg ha'1 N/P20 5 Was recommended (Gemechu et.al., 1990) for maize, as opposed to the Bako research center recommendation of 75/33 kg ha'1 of N/P and the Mo A blanket recommendations of 41/20 N/P kg ha*'.
Dry Season Feed Shortage
During the dry season lack of feed is one of the major constraints for crop and livestock production. As a result oxen traction capacity declines and leads to reduced area cultivated, delayed seed bed preparation and late planting. Moreover, calf mortality increases, animals lose weight and milk yield is reduced; One promising solution is to grow forage crops as feed for livestock during dry seasons. An on-farm experiment was conducted around Bako research center on producer cooperative farms with a view to establishing forage crops through intercropping with maize. In this experiment an effort was made to avoid competition for farmers' scarce resources with other crops in establishing forages; the only resources required were forage seeds and labor for broadcasting it. The fear was
125
that farmers give priority to food and cash crops in allocating their scarce resources of labor and• cash . The results of the on-farm experiment (Gemechu et.al., 1989) indicated that the intercropping* of two forage crops, Rhodes grass and desmodium did not affect maize grain yield and the forage
crops were also successfully established at all sites. The mean dry matter yield for the succeeding ryears were 14 and 9 1 ha'1 for Rhodes and Desmodium respectively. The practice saved 114 labor hours per hectare and equal amounts of oxen hours spent on land preparation for forage crops if they were grown sole. *
Addressing Farmers'Land Shortage
Arable lartd shortage is a serious problem in most of the farming systems of Western Oromiya and it is getting more acute. For example, in the Bako area the percentage of farmers reporting land shortage increased from 13% in 1986 (Legesse et.al., 1987) to 33% in 1988 (Hailu et.al., 1990) and around 40% in 1994 growing at a rate of not less than 10% per year. Under these circumstances technologies which maximize returns to land are desirable, and intercropping is one such technology.But around Bako the farmers' practices of intercropping are mostly limited to areas aroundhomestead and main Fields are planted to sole maize. An. experiment of intercropping haricot beanwith maize was conducted on farmers' fields. The objectives were to find out the effect on grainyields and economic benefits of intercropping maize and haricot bean (Gemechu et.al., 1990). Theharicot bean was intercropped with maize at about 37 days after maize planting at a time of oxen-cultivation ("Shilshalo"). Two methods of intercropping were used: haricot bean intercropped withinmaize rows and harcot bean broadcasted under row planted maize. Both intercropping practices weresuperior to sole maize interms of net return per hectare of land; 1489,1555 and 1650 Ethiopian Birr(ETB) qha*1 for sole maize, intercropping within maize rows and intercropping by broadcastingrespectively. The marginal rate of return was 137% for moving from sole maize cropping tointercroping through broadcasting. Thus, broadcasting beans under maize was the most beneficialand hence recommended to the farmers. Intercropping proved to be beneficial to the farmers in two ^ways: first, the farmers had the possibility of harvesting two crops from a field in one season and,second, they could use haricot bean as both a food and caish crop.
Impacts Of OFR On Farmers' Adoption Of TechnologiesThe perceived important goal of OFR is to generate technologies which are relevant to the farmersneeds and circumstances. Their relevance and impact can be assessed by examining farmers'adoption. In the following sections the farmers’ acceptance and adoption of the technologies testedon-farm will be assessed. In the case of the early maturing maize variety "Guto", fanners not onlyadopted "Guto" but also incorporated it into the cropping system, in innovative ways to meet theirparticular objectives under their specific conditions. About 9% of the farmers staggered theirplanting of Guto, 15% used Guto for double cropping and 24% intercropped it with other crops £(Asfaw et.al, 199.0). Staggered planting is mainly for seed maintenance purposes in which the firstplanting o f’’Guto" is used for food while the second planting used for seed. Both intercropping anddouble cropping reflect the farmers’ interests in maximizing benefits from their limited resources, iespecially land.
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Nearly all fanners (93%) expressed interest iti growing "Guto" in the future. About 78% planned to plant it in the next year, 1990, while 67% kept the seed of "Guto" for planting. Neighbors, relatives and friends of farmers growing "Guto" also expressed interest in using the variety; About 49% of the sample farmers reported that they had been asked for "Guto" seed by other farmers, and 25% had given it. However unavailability of "Guto" seed to the farmers limited the continuous adoption of "Guto". Farmers noted that their own seed is degenerating (becomes taller, and its maturity period increases through time) because of out crossing with local late maize varieties. This problem highlights the importance of providing farmers with a reliable supply of "Guto" seed every year. Thus, when farmers note that their own seed is degenerating, they will be able to purchase new seed. Currently, even though,"Guto" is not in the government's seed distribution program the supply is not adequate enough to meet the ever growing demand! Farmers' assessments of herbicide use in controlling Weeds in maize indicated that 13 out of 14 fanners involved in herbicide trials expressed interest in herbicide use in the future. However following the completion of the trials herbicides were not made available to the farmers and hence they were not able to use them.
The results of an adoption study conducted around Bako on maize production practices indicated that only 34% of the farmers used fertilizer in 1989 for maize production (Byene et.al., 1991). Farmers' limited cash incorrte and the inefficient fertilizer distribution system (Characterized by unavailability and untimely delivery, limited quantity and type of fertilizer) were the main reasons given by the sample farmers for not using fertilizer and for the low rates for those using.
The farmers' assessments for forage crops establishment through intercropping also indicated that the technology can be easily practiced. The farmers showed their interest by. feeding the forage crops to the oxen and calves. The technology was especially appreciated in sites where farmers (Producer cooperative farms) have started dairy farming and have already started growing cultivated pasture in pure stand. However, after the trial Was completed and the recommendation made the technology was not adopted by fanners. This was mainly because of abolition of the producer cooperative farms and also the fact that the transfer of technology was not made to the small farmers. The intercropping of haricot bean with maize was also appreciated by farmers. However, the farmers in.Bako area are still practicing sole maize cropping in their main maize fields as the technology is not transferred to the fanners. However, even the farmers involved in the on-farm trial did not adopt the technology because of wild animals. Thus, if interctopping is followed only by small farmers their fields will be the main target of wild animals. On the other hand if all the farmers adopt at the same time, damage by wild animals will be reduced. The lack of adoption of this technology by the farmers also indicates the weakness of extension services, especially given the fact that haricot bean seed is available locally.
Conclusion and RecommendationsBefore the agricultural research systems of the country (NARSs) adopted the OFR approach, the NARSs was criticized for developing technologies that were not relevant to the farmers' needs and circumstances. This was seen as the main reason for low adoption rate of technologies developed by NARSs. Now with the on-set of OFR in IAR a lot of efforts have been made to adapt, develop and test technologies under farmers' circumstances as indicated in the selected cases from Bako research center. It is also important to note that not all OFR work was a success. Some of the technologies were not accepted by the farmers and feed backs have been given to on-station
127
research. The adoption of some technologies that have been acceptable to farmers has, however, been successful with the availability of complementary inputs, credit and relatively strong extension services. The,transfer problems, outlined .in this paper for some other technologies, however, had a major implication for OFR researchers' credibility in the eyes of the farmers. At the field level the farmers collaborate with the researchers because they expect solutions to their farming problems. But after having seen the advantages of new technologies farmers do not understand why they are not made available. This reduces farmers’ confidence in researchers and jeopardises the chances for their future collaboration. For examplp, herbcide and cropping systems technologies have been shelved.
Thus policy measurers which facilitate, the transfer of new technologies to users should be designed and implemented to improve the general productivity of farmers as well as that of research (both on- station and on-farrn).Suchmeasures include establishment of agricultural cooperatives which benefit their members through collective bargaining for input supply and fair price for their produces; creating favorable conditions for vertical integration of entities engaged in seed generation, production/multiplication, packaging, transporting and marketing for efficient and timely delivery of seed to users. Besides, encouraging farmer -to-fanner dissemination of technologies and seed production by privateenterpruners and farmers themselves are some of the interventions to be taken in to account.
References
Asfaw Negassa, Benti Toiessa, Steven Franzel, Gemechu Gedeno and Legesse Dadi. 1990. On-farm research and the development o f an early maturing maize variety: Solving farmers' seasonal foodjshortage in the Bako area. Research Report No. 9. IAR, Addis Ababa.
Asfaw Negassa, Gemechu Gedeno and Legesse Dadi. 1990. Verification o f herbiciderecommendation on maize in farm ers' fields around Bako. Paper presented "at the 8lh Ethiopian Weed Science Committee Annual Meeting. Addis Ababa.
Beyene Seboka, Asfaw Negassa, Wilfred Mwangi and Abubaker Mussa. 1991. Adoption of maize production technologies in the Bako area, Western Shoa and Welega regions of Ethiopia: Research Report No. 16. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Addis Ababa.
Gemechu Gedeno, Girina Wolde Tsadik, Aliye Hussein and Asfaw Negassa. 1990. Maize N x P fertilizer rate study under Bako small-scale farmers' conditions. A paper presented at the Third Conference of Crop Science Committee of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa,
Gemechu Gedeno and Legesse Dadi. 1989. Verification of a hand weeding recommendation for maize under farmers' conditions in Bako area, Ethiopia24. Paper presented at the 7lh Annual Meeting of the Ethiopian Weed Science Committee, April 13-14, 1989. Addis Ababa.
Gemechu Gedeno, Legesse Dadi, and Asfaw Negassa. 1989. Intercropping Rhodes and Desmodium with maize on farm ers' fie ld around Bako. Paper presented at the Third Livestock Improvement Conference, May 1989. IAR, Addis Ababa.Hailu Beyene, Asfaw Negassai, Legesse Dadi, and Tilahun Mulatu. 1990. Crop production and
agricultural implements in the Bako, Holetta and Nazret areas. Research Report No. I'.. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). Addis Ababa,
Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa, and Getahun Degu. 1987, Bako mixed farming ‘ zone diagnostic survey report. Research Report No. I . IAR. Addis Ababa.
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RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS ON SOME IMPROVED PULSE AND OIL CROPS IN
WESTERN ETHIOPIAChemeda Daba, Geremew Gebeyehu and Shiferaw TadesseBako Agricultural Research Center, Bako, PO Box 3. Bako____________________ _________________
Introduction
Western Ethiopia com prises Jima, Ilubabor,.W ellega, Asosa and Gambella are classified as high rainfall area o f the country. Eventhough western Ethiopia has favorable environmental condition for production o f crops like haricot bean, soybean, noug, sesame and groundnut,
the regional productivity o f these crops is less than half o f the yield realized by experimental plots. The low productivity o f the crops is mainly due to lack of improved crop varieties. To alleviate this problem crop improvement w ork was started at Bako and Jima Research Centers in 1960s with objective o f developing crop varieties which are high yielders, tolerant to disease and pest and adaptable to western Ethiopia.
Research AchievementsHaricot bean
Between 1971 and 1981 several sets ofharicut bean lines have been obtained from Nazret Research Center and evaluated at Jim a and Metu representing the medium altitude (1750 and 1550m respectively) and Gojeb representing the low altitude (1200 m ). During this period the lines were not tested uniformly across locations and years. However, promising varieties like Black Dessie and Red wolita from the medium seeded group, M exican-142 from the white pea bean group and Brown speckled from large seeded bean group were recommended by the national program (Amare, 1988). These varieties out yielded the local ones and this is a great achievement to bean production in the area. Most o f them disseminated to the farmers and even it is difficult now to differentiate them from the local cultivars. From 1987 on wards, large number o f germplasm have been introduced from CIAT and evaluated at Nazret, Jima and Bako. As a result. Awash-1 from white pea bean group and Roba-1 from medium seeded group were released by the national program. Haricot bean varieties which are recommended for Western part o f Ethiopia are given in Table 1. From the varieties given in the table, Awash-1 is susceptible to foliar disease at Bako but did well at Jima,
Soybean
There are some indications for soybean adaptation trials at Jima Research Center in early 1970s. As the result o f evaluating large number o f varieties by the national as well as by the cooperating center, several o f them found to be adapted to various climatic conditions o f the country. Availability o f different maturity group o f soybean varieties gave an opportunity to select varieties for different climatic regions. So far, from the national yield trials, 8 varieties which have shown greatest performance in terms o f yield per hectare, resistance to pest and diseases and quality seed were recommended for Jima area. These are: d a rk 63K, Coker 240, Davis, kanrich, Harde, TGX- 13-2644, Gail and VI (Table 2). At Bako also, considerable efforts have been made to develop high yielding varieties o f soybean. In experiments conducted at Bako during 1989, 1990 and 1993, the average grain yield obtained from Davis was 16.9. The productivity o f soybean under management
o f state farms in the western is less than :.hat o f experimental plots. Eight years average yield obtained in W ellega State Farm was 8.2 q (WADE. 1995).
Soybean is a high quality protein source pulse crop (Amare,1988 ) which has high adaptation and yield potential in the w'estem Ethiopia but it is produced only by the State Farms in the region. Therefore, there is a need to popularize and demonstrate improved soybean varieties to small scale individual farmers. Recommended varieties o f soybean for Bako and similar agro-ecology are given in Table 3.
NougBased on result o f multi-location testing of germplasm, a variety Sendafa w'as released in 1976. In addition, two varieties namely Fogera-1 and Esete-I were released in 1988. These varieties mature in about 150 days and give a seed yield o f well over 8 qha 1 and oil content o f more than 39% (Getinet and Adefris, 1992).The promising varieties for the western region are given in Table 4.
S esam eOut o f the released sesame varieties at national level, the most promising varieties were tested in the then Relief and Rehabilitation commission (RRC) settlement sites o f Asosa and Anger Gutin.ln this trial, varieties S and E were better yielders. In addition, the released variety Abasena was tested at Fincha, Asosa, Didesa and Gambela and it was the best performing variety in the high rainfall Western part o f Ethiopia (Gemechu and Bulcha, 1992). The recommended varieties are given in Table 5.
G ro u n d n u tThe national average yield o f groundnut is 12.5 qha which is very low as compared to the experimental results^of 30-50 qha 1 under rainfed condition (Adugna. 1992). This was confirmed by the result o f research work done to develop improved varieties o f groundnut at Loko experimental site during 1987 cropping season. In this trial, Shulamith. NC-4x and Roba gave 40.6 q h a 1, 53.3 qh a '1 and 53.7 q h a1, respectively. Recom mended'groundnut varieties for Western Ethiopia are given in Table 5.
Table 1. Grain yield, days to maturity and color of released haricot bean varieties
Variety M aturity (day) Color Yield (q ha ’ )
Roba 1 8 0 1 0 0 Cream 20-24
Red Walayita 90-100 Red 10 15
Mexican 142 80-100 White 16 20
Brown speckled 90-95 Brown 36083
Black Oessie 75-95 Black 18-22
Awash-1 _ 7R-QR White _ _ 7H.?4
Source: IAR. 1995
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Table 2. Yield and maturity of soybean varieties in southwestern Ethiopia
Varieties Yield(qha‘t) Maturity(days)
v, 2 040 130-150
Clark 63 k 20-30 120-130
Gail 20-40 120-140
TGX-13-3-2644 2040 140-160
Coker-240 15-25 115-130
Oavis 20-30 120-140
Kanrich 20-30 140-160
Hardee 1525 140-160
Source: Jima Research Center (Un publishedReport)
Table 3. Grain yield and adaptation area of released Soybean varieties
Variety Altitude(m)
Rain fall (mm)
Maturity{day)
Plant height . (cm)
Yield(qha1)
Oavis 1000-1700 400-500 120-140 44 15-20
C)ark-63K 1000-1700 400-500 90-120 40 10-15
Coker-240 700-1700 700-1000 121-140 50-70 10-26
William 700-1700 400-500 90-120 40 10-15
Source: Benti et.al. 1989
Table 4. Potential yield, and oil content of released noug varieties
Variety
Seed yield (q/ha) Oil %
Year of releaseF1 FO F1 FO
Sendafa 6.9 7.8 39.2 39.1 1976
Fogera 1 9.0 8:3 39.6 39.5 1988
Eseie 8.9 8.2 39.6 39.6 1988
Source: Getinet and Nigussie, 1992
Table 5. Potential yield, oil content, major area of adaptation and year of release of sesame and groundnut
Crop Variety yield (qha'’)Oil content (%)
Area of adaptationirrigated rain fed
Sesame S 14 7 43 western'low lands and irrigated
E 12 7 43 same as above
Abasena 14 9 43 same as above
Groundnut ShulamKh 50-85 23-35 47 Western Ethiopia
NC-4X 5 0 7 0 20-40 48 Irrigated
Roba 50-70 30-50 47 Multipurpose
Source: Gemechu and Bulcha, 1992
References
Adugna Wakjira. 1992. Groundnut Breeding in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of the First National oil Seeds workshop, 3-5 December 1991. Addis Ababa Ethiopia. IAR Addis Ababa.
Amare Beljiy, 1988. Progress and Future prospects in Soy bean Research in Ethiopia, pp 252-265 In: Proceedings of the 19th National Crop Improvement Conference 22-26 April, 1987,
NvBdis Ababa, Ethiopia,IAR.Benti Tolessa, Abubakar Musa, Beyene Soboka, Gebregzaber Amede 1989. Recommendations for
increasing crop production and experience of technology transfer in Western Ethiopia. P. ^42-153. In:'20th National crop improvement Conference Addis Abeba Ethiopia, 20-30 March 1988 Addis Ababa.
Gemechu Keneni and Bulcha Woyessa. 1992. Sesame Breeding in Ethiopia?. 57-65. In: Proceeding of the first National oil seeds workshop 3-5 December 1991. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Getinet Alemaw and Nigussie Alemayehu. 1992. Production and Research on oil seeds in Ethiopia. P. 5-12. In : proceedings o f The First National Oil Seeds Workshop. 3-5 December 1991. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Getinet Alemaw and Adefris Tekle Wold. 1992. Noug Breeding in Ethiopia. P. 24-30. In: proceedings of the first National oil seeds workshop. 3-5 December 1991. Addis Ababa Ethiopia. IAR, Addis Ababa.
Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) 1995. Haricot bean production hand book.Wellega Agricultural Development Enterprise (WADE, 1995). Work program and capital Budget
proposal for the fiscal year of 1988 E.C. Nekemte.
t
*
132
CULTURAL PRACTICES, CROPPING SYSTEMS AND FERTILITY
MANAGEMENT FOR MAIZE PRODUCTION IN WESTERN ETHIOPIA
Tadesse Yohannes and Tolessa Debele , ; . -Bako Agricultural Research Center PO Box 3, Bako___________________________________________________________ -1
Introduction
The major emphasis of maize agronomy and soil fertility research is to identify environmental and management factors limiting maize production and to develop improved production technologies suitable to different agro-ecological zones and farming systems. Thus, maize
agronomy and soils research are directed to solve management problems specific to region.
The amount of plant nutrients required by maize may vary depending on several factors such as the amount of rainfall and its distribution, varieties, topography, soil type and the prevailing cultural operations. Plant nutrients are removed by the growing crops every year and are not returned to the same land. Hence, replenishment o f the nutrients used up by harvested crops is crucial.
The yields of maize grown under traditional farming systems are generally low. In addition to the poor cultural practices adopted by local farmers, poor soil fertility is major factor contributing to the low yields of maize (IAR, 1982). Solving these problems require intensive resea/ch efforts. A. series of agronomic and soils experiments have been conducted at various occasions. Findings of these activities are reviewed and presented in this paper.
Tillage Systemsy
Research conducted on conventional versus minimum tillage indicated that there was no significant difference in maize grain yield as well as the total cost of various operations and inputs between the two tillage systems (Table 1). However, different recommendations are made to allow flexibility in the use of tillage systems under different'conditions.
Case I: Compared to minimum tillage, conventional tillage seems to be appropriate in cases where herbicide costs are high and availability is a constraint.
Case 2: In areas with critical shortage of draft power for timely land preparation, and where weed problem is not serious or where the cost of paraquat is less than 29 Birr/ha, minimum tillage is recommended (Aliye et. al. 1993).
Cultural PracticesSowing Dates
Several experiments were conducted at different times at Bako to determine the optimum maize planting time and results indicated that, early to mid-May planting, at the beginning of effective
rain fall and when the soil moisture is adequate for good germination of seed is the appropriate time of planting maize at Bako and similar areas.
Plant Density
Farmers in. Western Ethiopia practice different maize planting density often above the recommended rate. This high plant density predispose the plants to adverse lodging and competition, and eventually to low grain yield. The optimum density for Guto is 66,666 for BH-140 53,333 and other composites 44,444. .
Planting Method
The advantage of row-planting over broadcasting at Bako area is 16%.
Weeding
Trials made on frequencies of hand-weeding at Bako and Assosa showed that early and mid-season weeding (10 to 30 and 40 to 60 days after sowing) gave highest yield (Table 2).
Cropping Systems
Relay Cropping; In a comparative study between relay cropping systems and sole maize production, 11, relay cropped, treatments showed higher over all benefits than sole maize. The highest gross return of 7007 Birr/ha when maize harvested for green use and 3882 Birr/ha When maize harvested dry grain were obtained when haricot bean was relayed into maize at 50% flowering and at 15 days after 50% flowering respectively (Table 3).
Crop rotation: Crop rotation is a basic principle of crop production. Farmers of the Western zones practice mono-cropping on the same land for many years. To alleviate the ill effects of continuous cropping of one crop on the same land, an experiment on rotation conducted at Bako showed 50% yield increase. The best precursor crop for maize are noug, sunflower and beans in order of importance Table 4).
Intercropping: On farm experiment on maize intercropped with haricot bean 37 days after planting of maize (at shilshalo) was conducted at Bako. As indicated in table 5 broadcasting beans under row planted maize was economically better than sole maize.
Table 1. Maize yield and input/output coefficient as influenced by different tillage systems
Tillagesystems
Yield y. {qha” J
. Input(hrsh‘)Input cost (Birr ha '1
I otbIcost(fTBI
machinery labor paraquat machinery labor paraquat
Minimum 43.2 1.58 74.28 4.0 33.18 ’ 17.11 . 143,0 192.29
Conventional 41.9 7.27 58.80 0.0 152.25 14.11 0.0 166.36
Table 2. Effects of selected hand weeding on grain yield of maize (qha1) ’
Weeding (DAS) Bako Assosa
yield increase (%) yield increase (%)
U 46.3 0.0 4.7 0.0
ES 53.7 16.0 21.4 355.3
< MS 51.6 ■ 11.4 13.3 183.0 '
LS 46.8 i ; i 6.4 36.2
ES, MS 57.9 25.1 30.7 553.2
MS, LS 49.7 7.3 14.3 204.3
ES, MS, LS 55.4 19>7 31.5 570.2
U=no weeding ES=early weeding (10 to 30 days) MS~mid season weeding (40 to 60 days)LS=late weeding (70 to 90 days)
Source: Rezene et al 1992
Table 3. Relay cropping of haricot bean and tef on maize green ear and dry grain harvest at Bako
treatments Green maize earsna-t
Yield (qha ') other crops
grogs return Grainmaize(aha”1) .
Yield qha' 1 qther crops.
gross return (Birr ha'1)
mz+hb 50% mf 41681 10.1 7007.67 57.45 ^ 5;8 3638.20
mz+hb 15 da 50% mf 37472 11.5 6622.06 54.67 6.6 3882.40
mz+hb 30 da 50% mf 41103 7.8 6760.24 58.01 3.3 3629.80
mz+sf 50% mf 39360 4.4 6268.52 50.5 1.1 3294.00
mz+sf 15 da 50% mf 39505 5.9 6461.08 54.5 2.1 3529.80
mz+sf 30 da 50% mf 36310 6.5 6544.01 57.1 2.5 3482.80
Sole maize 39941 * 5967.08 55.88 3299.20
Sole haricotbean 40.9 3699.89 40.1 3631.20
Sole saffi tef 8.9 1048.72 9-3 1056.10mz=maize, hb-haricot bean, da-days after, mf=maize flowering, ns=non significant, sf=saffi tef
135
Table 4. Effect of three years rotation on maize gram yield Iq/ha) at Bako Mean of two trials
1st precursor 2ndprecursor
maize te f noug Sunflower beans wheat mean
Maize 46.4 50.8 63.3 61.3 57.1 63.9 40.5
Tef 48.6 57.3 63.5 63.4 59.3 67.3 48.3
Noug 52.0 53.2 60.5 63.6 62.4 64.4 50.9
Sunflower 50.0 62.4 69.2 63.9 62.9 69.3 44.7
Beans 46.6 58.4 64.7 65.7 56.1 71.6 47.8
Fallow 56.8 62.7 71.7 70.7 70.9 69.2 ♦
Source: Gemechu and Tilahun, 1993
Table 5. Grain yield and gross return from maize haricot beans intercropping, on farm, Bako
Treatment yield (qha ’ ) maize+ haricot bean
maize haricot bean(gross return, Birr)
Sole maize 36.3 1475
maize + bean (beans in rows) 36.0 2.8 1688
maize + bean (bean broadcast) 37.2 3.0 1751
Source: Gemechu Gedeno 1993
Soil FertilityNP Rates
Fertilizer rate trial on maize at Bako: As presented in table 6, fertilizer trialsconducted at the centre consistently showed that there was only a small yield increase gained from fertilizer rates higher than 75 kgha'1 o f N and P (P; CX).For hybrids 110 N and 4 6 ^ £> is recommended to be the optimum rate
NP rate trial at Didessa: Results indicated an application o f N&P at the rate o f 75 and 33 kgha'1 respectively is the optimum rate for Didessa
Maize NP rate trial at Anger Didessa: At Anger Didessa Only N showed significant response. 75 kgha'1 N is recommended as optimum.
NP rate trial on maize at Wamma* On the black soil at Wamma,where water logging is common, yield response to nitrogenous fertilizer was highly significant (Table 7).
Maize NXP fertilizer rate study under Bako small scalefarmers1Condition: The response for N at 50 kgha'1 was highly significant. Economic analysis alsoshowed highest benefit of 1451 Birr ha’1 applying 50 kgha'1 N (Table 8).
Maize NP rate Trial at-Assosa: A fertilizer trial on maize was conducted in 1987 Significant response was obtained from P application only (Table 9).
Table 6. Fertilizer rate trial on maize yield (qha 'Jat Bako.
N, {kgha'} P, (kgha'} Mean N
0 22 33 44
0 59.0 65.8 68.0 69.5 65.6
50 57.7 66.6 71.4 74.4 67.5
75 58.3 69.3 77.4 78.1 70.8
100 62.3 70.0 : 75.1 78.5 71.5
Mean P 59 3 67.9 73 75.1
Source: Desta. 1979
Table 7. Maize NP rate trial at Wamma;yield (qha'1}
N (kgha1) P (kgha1) Mean N
0 22 33 44
0 18,8 22.9 21.1 25.7 22.1
50 33.0 32.1 '30.9 35.8 33.0
75 . 34.7 33.1 39.6 32.1 34.9
100 33.2 40.2 40.5 37.8 37.9
Mean P 29.9 : 32.1 33.0 32.9
Source: IAR, J9$3
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Table 8. Maize grain yield (qha ’) for N/P rate under Bako small scale farmers
N, Ikflha ’) P, (kgha ’) Nmean
0 11 22
0 36.4 38.3 36.6 37-1,
25 39.3 42.5 41.6 41.1
50 43.4 40.9 45.1 43.1
75 42.4 J 43.4 45.2 43,7
P mean 40.4 • 41.3 42.1
Source: Gemechu et'.al. 1993
Table 9. Maize NP rate trial at Assosa, grain yield (qha1)
N (kgha1) P (kgha1) Mean N
0 22 33 44
0 23.3 47.7 44.5 53.5 42.3
50 39.8 46.0 40.0 37.7 40.9
75 40.3 46.0 44.3 40.4 42.8
100 34.7 43.4 37.7 44.8 40.2 ...
Mean.P 34,5 45.8 41.6 44.1
Organic Fertilizer Trials
Incorporating maize residues into the soil coupled with the application o f75/33 (N/P) kgha'1 yielded30.4 and 37.5 % more than burning or removing the residue respectively.
Organic fertilizers showed significant yield differences among each other. Best treatment was found when 60 kgha'1 nitrogen was incorporated with cowdung and was also important for residue decomposition.
The 50/22 N/P kgha*1 plus leucaena (4.7 tha'1) gave the highest yield and was significantly different from the other treatments.
Maize planted on plots manured with dolichos lablab gave the highest yield from the plots manured with different manure sources. The increase in yield due to lablab manuring without chemical fertilizer was as high as 28% and 37% as compared to maize after maize and maize after vetch respectively.
^significant yield differences were detected among compost and N/P fertilizers. Economic analysis revealed that highest marginal rate of return was found applying N25 PI 1 kgha'1 and compost 50 tha'5.
Liming trial conducted at Nejo during the period 1974-80 indicated that maize yield advantage of7.4 qha'1 was obtained with the application of 35 kgha‘! N P20 5 and 3 tha'1 lime. On top of the trials reported above, experiments on method and time of fertilizer application (NPK) and on residual effect of phosphorus were conducted, but yield advantage due to these methods over the conventional one was not significant. However; it is advisable to use split application of nitrogen to avoid risk of nitrogen loss.
GapsDifferent maize varieties have different reactions to the environment (climate, soils etc.). Thus newly developed varieties may not do well to the already recommended practices such as sowing dates and plant densities. So these studies should continue.
Soil fertility problem is one of the key problems in maize production. It is also not static. Considerable charjges under go in either direction (build-up or depletion of nutrients). So, further fertility studies are required to anticipate soil problems.
Commercial fertilizers are beyond the economic reach of the farmers. Hence, studies on alternative sources such as biological nitrogen fixation, local sources of phosphorus and different types of green manure should be strengthened. Soil conservation studies by introducing agro-forestry research systems and improved fallow should be implemented
References
Aliye Hussien, 1993. The impact of crop residues and farmyard manure on growth and yield of maize. In: Sebil Vol.5. Bulletin of the crop science society of Ethiopia. Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia.
Desta Beyene and Asgelil Dibabe. 1979. Results of soil fertility studies at Bako (1970-74). Soil science bulletin, 2 Addis-Ababa, Ethiopia.
Gemechu Gedeno, 1993. Use of pruned parts of leucaena as supplement or substitute for nitrogen and phosphorus on maize grain yield. In; Sebil Vol. 5, Bulletin of the crop science society Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Gemechu Gedeno and Tilahun Tadios. 1993. Maize cropping systems in Ethiopia. In: Benti Tolessa and Joel K. Ransom (eds.). Proceedings of the First National Maize Workshop of Ethiopia5-7 May 1992 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1982. Soil science department progress report for the period 1978/79. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1983. Soil science department progress report for the period 1982/83. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Rezene Fessahaiel. 1993. Weed control research oh maize in Ethiopia. In: Benti Tolessa and Joel K. Ransom (eds.). Proceedings of the First National Maize Workshop 5-7 May 1992 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
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RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS IN SOME HORTICULTURAL CROPS IN
WESTERN ETHIOPIAGirtna AberraBako Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 3, Bako________________________________________________________
Horticultural Crops in Western Ethiopia
In western Ethiopia many horticultural crops are grown. Hot pepper, potato, sweet potato and anchote are the most important ones grown widely in the region.
P ep p erEven though no documentation is available, pepper is believed to be introduced by the Portuguese in the 17th century (Hafnagel, 1961). It stands fourth next to maize, te f and noug in areas o f production and second in importance next to maize in the Bako area. It is an important vegetable and spice crop grown for home consumption, local and export markets
In the country, the crop is grown in a wide range o f environment. However, the major production areas are concentrated between 1400-1900 m Hafnagel. 1961). According to Bako Farming System s Research (FSR) team survey, 68% o f the farmers of the Bako area are pepper growers (Legesse et al., 1987).
S w eet potatoSweet potato has been cultivated as food crop in Ethiopia for several years and over 95% o f the crop is grown in the south, south western and eastern parti;, where it has remained for centuries an im portant staple food for the communities. Approximately 90% o f this crop is grow n between altitudes o f 1500 and 2100 m (Terefe, 1987)
Sweet potato is versatile. Because o f its agronomic characteristics as well as short growth period and high productivity per unit o f tim e and area, it can be used together with cereals in intensive, diversified land use patterns (CIP. 1995).
Research AchievementsHot pep perVariety improvement: From 1975-1977, a variety trial consisting o f nine genotypes were conducted at Bako. Didessa and Guto. According to the result Bako local and Marekofana were found to be good yielders and recommended for production. They gave the average pod yield of 20 tqha 1 (Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey and Yosef, 1985).
A nother variety trial was conducted at Bako and Didessa from 1983 to 1986 seasons. The result (revealed that isolation no.7 yielded as high as Bako local and outsmarted the other varieties at Bako where as Marekofana outstripped all the varieties under study at Didessa. However, isolation no. 15
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has higher oleo-resin (oil and resin) content than all varieties under studv at both locations (Table 1) (Yayeh, 1989a).
A g r o n o m y : Three methods o f hot pepper establishment, raising the seedlings by irrigation, by rain fall and direct sowing were compared and raising the seedlings!>y irrigation and transplanting
J when the big rain starts out yielded the rest in total and marketable pod yield followed by directsowing. It gave almost 50% more yield, because this method o f establishment adjust the plants life cycle with the main rain fall period at the area. In contrary, in the other two methods o f establishment, plants could not complete their life cycle with in the existing rain fall period and they run short o f rainfall during fruiting stage. In addition, lodging and soil erosion problems were the most important factors which contributed for the low yield o f direct sown plots (Table 2) (Yayeh 1989b).
The widely used practice exercised by the hot pepper producers is using transplanting rather than direct sowing. Different sizes o f seedlings (ages) were used as transplants by the producers. An attempt was made to evaluate and select the best age where by maximum yield and good quality could be harvested. Results o f the experiment indicated that, for Bako seedlings of 15-25 cm height or 43-63 days old and for Didessa 15-20 cm height or 40-50 days old were the best (Yayeh, 1989b).
Fertilizer trials o fN P were conducted at Bako, Guto and Didessa. From these trials 217 kgha'1 DAP and 133 kgha'1 urea were recommend as the best rates. Based on this, another fertilizer trials were carried at Bako to observe the effect o f split application o f fertilizer on nitrogen use efficiency. The result showed that 25%, 50% and 25% at transplanting, 4 and 8 weeks after transplanting respectively was found the best amount and time o f application to obtain high and quality yield (Godfrey-sam -Aggrey and Yosef, 1985; Y osef and Yayeh, 1987, and Zinabu, 1995).
In order to determine the optimum hot pepper plant population different spacings, between rows and plants, were evaluated at Bako and Didessa by using Bako local variety. For Bako 70 x 30 cm and for Didessa 60 x 20 cm spacings were found best. Again another population study with the same treatments but by changing the variety with markofana was conducted at Bako and Didessa. Spacings o f 60 x 30 cm at Bako and 60 x 20 cm at Didessa gave the highest marketable pod yield. Statistically there was significant difference among spacings o f between plants and when the
•a spacings increased yield decreased (Y osef and Yayeh, 1987).
Result obtained from comparison o f different harvesting times at Bako and Didessa confirmed that, delayed harvesting when the pods partially withered (dried) on the plants is superior in quality and yielded more than those picked when totally withered and succulent. The oleo-resin content was higher for the pods harvested at dry stages, i.e., harvesting time has significant effect on quality o f hot pepper. So, delayed harvesting when pods partially withered was recommended as the best time o f harvesting (Table 3) (Yayeh, 1989a).
Sweet Potato
Variety Improvement: In 1976 and 1977 three sweet potato varieties were evaluated atBako, namely; white star, Type No. 10 and carrot Red. Out of them white star gave the highest root yield (3 18.25 qha'1). Therefore, based on the two years mean yield data white star was selected for its high yield, root color and good taste and recommended for production (Yayeh, 1987 and Sirake, 1985).
I Seven sweet potato varieties including white star (check) were evaluated between 1983/84 - 1985/86in sweet potato variety trials No. 1. Koka 12 out yielded the check and the rest o f the materials tested by giving marketable root yield o f 139.5 qha'1 and total root yield o f 241.0 qha'1 against 98.5 qha '1 marketable and 240.6 qha'1 o f total for white star. As a result Koka 12 was recommended as the best productive variety (Yayeh, 1989a).
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Results o f another variety trails conducted between 1985 86-1987/88 showed that Cemsa (363.49 qha'1) out stripped the standard check (245.9 q h a ') as well as the rest o f varieties in fresh root yield and total bio-mass. There after, it was verified and demonstrated on farmers field with package technologies pertinent to sweet potato production. According to the Agricultural Economics Division report, the variety gave 303 qha and 221 qha root yield with and with out fertilizer, respectively. Its sweetness and large sized roots were highly preferred by the producers (farmers) and consumers (Zinabu, 1995).
A g r o n o m y : To determine plant populations of sweet potato, different spacings between plants and rows were evaluated at Bako for three consecutive years ( 1979/80-81 82) by using the variety white star. The maximum average marketable root yield was obtained from 100x30 cm spacing (209.79 qha '1) and based on this result 100 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants were recommended (Table 4) (Yayeh, 1989a).
Harvesting time trial was carried out for three consecutive >ears( 1979/80-1981 /82) starting from the 5th month after planting at monthly interval using varietv white star. Maximum average marketable root yield was obtained from 5th month after planting. Unmarketability has increased as roots stayed more in the soil (1980/81). in the last two treatments, roots were seriously attacked by sweet potato weevil and new shoots start growing from the roots (1981 82). There fore, from these series o f experiments fifth month after planting was recommended (Yayeh, 1987).
Planting date experiment was also carried out for three consecutive years (1981/82 -83/84) using variety white star. The highest marketable yields were obtained from cuttings planted on June 11 (236.1 q h a 1) followed by June 22 (208.6 qha1 ) in 1981/82, on June 14 planting (171.04 qhk ) followed by June 4 planting (142.8 q h a 1) in 1982 83 and from those planted on June 13 (152.9 qha ') followed by June 22 (151.5 qha ') planting in 1983 84. Due to inconsistency o f the planting dates, it is impossible to carry out the combined analysis across the years. But generally it is possible to recom m end the whole month o f June as the best planting date if there is reliable amount o f rain before and after planting (Yayeh, 1987).
Vine cutting is the best means o f sweet potato propagation because the vines have ability to regrow after being cut. An experiment was carried to determine the optimum stem cutting length where by maximum root yield was obtained. From the result 30-36 cm length was found to be the best for sweet potato production (Bako Horticulture Division Progress Report o f 1986/87).
Future Research DirectionsScreening, evaluation and developm ent of high yielding, disease and insect pest resistant/tolerant hot pepper cultivar(s) from introductions and locally existing genotypes. Breeding and selection of hot pepper for the desirable characteristics using germplasm from the elite cultivars. Identification and development o f appropriate agronomic practices for major horticultural crops which could be affordable and adaptable by local fanners.
Development o f low cost alternative technologies like true potato seed (TPS) and true onion seed (TOS) production. Collection, characterization, documentation and conservation o f the indigenous crops like Anchote and Dinnicha Oromo should be emphasized.
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Table 1. Pod yield potential of hot pepper varieties at Bako and Didessad 983/84-1985/86).
Treatments Bako Didessa
Marketable pod yield (qha1)
Total pod yield (qha1)
Marketable pod yield (qha1)
Total pod yield (qha’1)
Bako local 23.2 29.7 6.6 10.4
Isolation No 5 16.3 23.4 5.2 7.4
Isolation No 7 21.5 29.2 5.7 9.4
Isolation Wo. 15 16.4 26.3 8.8 13.5
Marekofana 17.3 26.3 9.2 14.1
Table 2. Hot pepper direct sowing vs transplanting at Bako (1983/84-1984185)
Treatments Yield (qha ')
Marketable Total
Direct sowing 14.8 18.5
Transplanting 12.5 15.6
Early sowing and transplanting 20.6 26.7
Table 3. Effect of harvesting time on yield and quality of hot pepper at Bako and Didessad 986/87 -1988/89).
TreatmentsBako Didessa
Marketable(qha1)
Average color of oleoresin
Marketable(qha1)
Average color of Oleoresin {100gml.C,U)
Pods harvested at red ripe and secculent
26.9 108900 7.2 91500
Pods harvested at dry and papery
23.1 128200 9.2 104,500
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Table 4. The effects of spacing on marketable root yieldlqha ’) of sweet potato at Bako (1979/80-1981/62). Spacing in cm between rows, between plants.
Spacing (cm) 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 Mean
80x30 320.1 143.5 157.0 206.9
80x40 287.8 125.0 166.0 193.2
80x50 270.8 115.7 174.5 187.0
100x30 306.5 133.1 189.8 209.8
100x40 258.3 109.3 155.6 174.4
100x50 221.4 119.5 131.3 157.4
120x30 249.3 140.3 183.7 191.1
120x40 203.6 125.2 153.2 160.7
120x50 229.8 94.1 154.8 159.6
R eferencesInternational Potato Center (CPI). 1995. People-centered research for sustainable production,
circular, vol. 21 (2): 1.Hafnagel. H P. 1991. Agriculture in Ethiopia. FAO, RomeLegesse Dadi. Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. Diagnostic survey
report No. 1 Bako mixed farming system zone Wellega and Shoa region.Sirake Beyene. 1985. Review o f sweet potato and other minor root crops research in Ethiopia. First
Ethiopian Horticultural Workshop PP. 3 13-322. IAR. Addis Abab Ethiopia.Terefe Belhu. 1987. A review o f available research recommendations, current research activities,
and further research studies strategies on sweet potato. Proceedings o f the 19th National Crop Improvement Conference, 22-26 April Addis Ababa. IAR, Addis Ababa,Ethiopia.
Godfery-Same-Aggrey, W. and Yosef Haile. 1985. Review o f hut pepper research in Ethiopia and proposals for future research and development direction. PP. 206-227. Proceedings o f the First Ethiopian Horticultural Workshop Addis Ababa IAR. Addis Abab Ethiopia.
Yayeh Zewdie. 1987. Review o f sweet potato research at Bako PP. 16 (unpublished).Yayeh Zewdie. 1989a. Review o f hot pepper research at Bako. PP 9 (unpublished).Yayeh Zewdie. 1989b. Terminal report on study leave. PP. 11.Yosef Haile and Yayeh Zewdie. 1987. Hot pepper research recommendations and strategies. PP.
346. in: Proceedings o f the 19,h National Crop Improvement Conference, 22-26 April 1987. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Zinabu Legesse. 1995. Terminal Report. PP. 4.
t
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j
DISEASE AND, PEST CONTROL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
WESTERN ETHIOPIAFekede Abebe and Kedir WakoBako Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 3. Bako_________________ ;_______________________________
Major Diseases on Some Major Crops Grown in Western Ethiopia
In western Ethiopia, crops widely grown include cereals, pulses, oil seeds, vegetable and tuber crops. This part of the country is characterized by high relative humidity, temperature and rainfall which favor heavy disease pressure making the region a hot spot for most crop diseases.
Disease ControlFoliar Diseases '
Va ri eta I res is ta n ce: The best strategy to control these diseases are developing resistant varieties, commercial sorghum varieties IS-9302JS-9323, Bako mash and 85 MW 5340 are resistant
0 and tolerant to these major diseases (IAR, 1995).
Grain Diseasefc
C u ltu ra l C o n tro l : Grain mold damage can be controlled by adjusting planting date so that plants enter the grain filling stage and reach maturity. In case of smut infected plant, the plant should be rouged out and properlydisposed in order to avoid seed contamination.
Varietal resistance: Variety 84 MW 4138 is resistant to grain mold (IAR, 1995).
Chemical control: The disease on contaminated seed can be controlled by usingappropriate fungicides as seed dressing (IAR, 1983b; Teclemariam, 1986). In a trial conducted to control smut, a systemic fungicide vitavax at the rate of 3 gkg'1 seed was found to be effective under Bako condition. Other fungicides like pomarsol Forte (TMTD), Femason D* (TMTD/iindane) and Benlate 50% WP (benomyl) at the rate of 3 g, 3.6 g and 2.5 gkg'1, respectively can also be used alternatively (Table I), (IAR, 1983a).
In another trial conducted at Bako, Sorghum seed treatment with elemental sulphur at the rate of 5 gkg1 seed is reported to be effective sufficiently against smuts (IAR. 1983c, Teclemariam 1986a) and can be recommended to farmers as safe and low price fungicide.
f
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D am p in g -o ff in T e f
Cultural control: TefF was damaged more by damping-off and less by rust at early sowing date. The recommended planting date for tef is 2nd to 3rd weeks o f July. High seed rate ( >25kgha') was found to cause more damage by dam ping-off than lower seed rates (Eshetu, 1986).
Varietal resistance: The released varieties such as DZ cr.37,DZ cr.44 DZ 01-787 and DZ 01-354 are resistant to tolerant to the major diseases o f tef.
Chemical control: Fungicides such as Campogran, Rizolex and Bronopol at 2.5gkg’' seed were reported to protect te ff crop against dam ping-off (species o f Drechslera) and other soil and seed-borne diseases (SPL, 1984). All the above mentioned fungicides reduced the number o f early infected plants, decreased final disease severity and delayed disease progress.
A n th racn o se in H arico t bean
Cultural Control: Since it is a seed-bome disease using disease free seeds is the best controlmethod recommended (IAR 1983a).
Varietal resistance: Screening trials conducted at Bako and Kulumsa Showed that RedWolita and Negro Mecental had the lowest disease score and gave the highest yield. From released varieties Roba 1. Brown speckled. Red wolita and Mexican 142 were found to be moderately resistant to tolerant for the major diseases o f Haricot bean (Habtu and Dereje, 1986).
Chemical control: Seed treatment trial conducted ai Bako by using a variety Mexican 142showed that Captafol (0.02% ) applied as a seed treatment or spraying gave the best results in controlling anthracnose (Table 2) (IAR, 1983a: IAR. 1983b)
R ust in H arico t beanCultural control: Crop rotation with non host crops can minimize the incidence o f thedisease. Sowing dates trial tested at Bako showed that late planting ( J u l y ) was reported to develop a 60% rust attack (Habtu and Dereje, 1986).
Varietal resistance: Varieties Black Dessie and Negro Mecentral showed less rust andhigher yield (Habtu and Dereje, 1986).
Chemical control: Trials conducted at Bako to conirol bean rust showed that Oxycarboxin(0.1%) and Captafol (0.2% ) were reported to be effective against bean rust
B acteria l B ligh t in H arico t beanCultural control: The use o f healthy seed and crop rotation with non-host crops arerecom m ended. Disease free seed material is best obtained in area where rainfall doesn’t exceed 250mm during the vegetation period or in drier area under irrigation condition ^Amare, 1987, Habtu and Derje, 1986).
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Late blight Irish Potato
Cultural control: Elimination of source of inoculum such as neighboring field of potato tobacco and volunteer plants can delay disease appearance.
Varietal resistance:' Vieties Avena (Al-120), Annet (Al-l 19), lnd-73 (A1-264), Cebeco (Al-108) and Anita (Al-148) were relatively tolerant to late blight (Tesfahun and Boris, 1986a).
Chemical control: The systemic fungicide Ridomil MZ63.5 Wp (Metalaxyl Mancozeb) at 3 kgha"1 at an interval of 8 days, beginning from the onset of the disease, gave the best control. Gaptafol 0;4% also gave reasonable blight control. With regard to post harvest disease analysis results , Ridomil 63.5 Wp gave the best control in storage (Tesfahun and Boris, 1986b). Among protective fungicides, Bresthon 10 (Chlorothalonil), Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) and Polyram M (Maneb) performed relatively better in controlling the disease and resulted in higher yield. These fungicides should be applied prior to disease breakout. It is advisable to use chemicals in rotation in order to avoid chemical resistance (Yaynu et.al.-, 1992).
Bacterial wilt in Irish Potato /
Cultural control: Crop rotation with non host crops like cereals can generally reduce the disease incidence. The survival of the pathogen varies from one to four years. Moreover, care should betaken at the time of irrigation not to spread bacterial disease from field to field.
Varietal resistance: AL-624, AL-601,AL-578,AI-580,Al-20 1 ,UK-80-3 and CIP-378367 were identified as resistant (Yaynu, 1990),
Powdery Mildew in Hot pepper
Chemical control; Triadimenton 25% WP, Denmert (10 EC) and Kumulan (80% WP) and Thiopharatemethyl 70% WP at the rate of 0.2 kg ha'1; 0.5 lha1, 0.3 kgha and 0,6 kgha"1, respectively were effective (Tesfaye and Habtu, 1986),
Stem blight in Hot pepper
Chemical control: Metalaxyl-Moncozeb at 3.5 kg ha'1 was found to be the best in reducing the disease incidence (Tefaye and Habtu, 1986).
Virus Diseases in Hot pepper
Cultural Control: Crop rotation with non host crops, rouging of virus infected plants andsolanaceous weeds. The rouged out plants should be disposed properly.
Chemical control: Soaking of pepper seeds in 10% Na5 Po4 (Sodium penta phosphate) for 30 sec. was found to be Effective (Yosef and Yayeh, 1987). Other chemicals such as diluted HCL, Na3 Po^and NaOH also found to be effective (Agranovsky, 1985). Vector control against aphid- borne viruses was recommended.
Bacterial Leaf s'pdts in Hot pepper
Cultural control: the level of the disease infection is reduced by weeding or thinning onlywhen seedlings are dry (Taa^sse, 1985).
Chemical control: Seed treatment with common bleaching agent (Clorox) is the last option to control widely spread bacterial disease with 50 ml of clorox dissolved in 250 ml of water which was found enough to disinfect 100 grams of pepper seeds in cheese cloth and the seed should be in the solution for only 30 minutes with constant steering . The seed should be washed with tap water for 1 hr and dried in tne sun (Korobko and Tadesse, 1986). Spraying with Cupravit 45% (copper oxychloride (0.5%) three times at 14 day intervals proved to be effective in reducing the infection of bacterial leaf spots at Bako (Table 3), (IAR, 1983a).
Future Research Directions
As no single method can give satisfactory control of crop diseases, it is desirable (that, disease control research be targeted at the development of integrated control. Indigenous methods of control which are familiar to the farmer should be considered and improved through research so that it will be more effective and easily adopted by the farmers. Diseases of high land crops and their management need immediate attention. Less hazardous and relatively less expensive fungicides need to be screened for the most important diseases.
Table 1. Effect of seed dressingchemicals against sorghum smut at Bako.
Treatjneht Rate gjkgseed in % the untreated check
Yield
qfha % change
Untreated 73.3 51.0 100
Ceresan(organo mercurial products)
2.0 0.3 87.5 143
Pomarsol Forte (TMTtf) 3.0 0 83.9 138
Fernasan 'D’ lTMTD/tindane) 3.0 0 ■ 83 ;1 136
Benlate 50%’W. P (benomyl) 2.5 0.5 ; . 80.6 132
Vitavax (CSrbgxIn + TMTD) , 3.0 0 , 81.7 134
Agrosar^W,(organo + mercurial product) p.
5.0 0 62.6 103
LSD 5% \l2 .7LSD 1% - ,17.4
i4a
Table 2. Effect of seed treatment on haricot bean against anthracnose at Bako.
ProductRateglkg seed
Disease score on 300 leaves (0-3 scale)
1000 grain weightlg)
Yield
qjh a in % of the untreated check
Untreated 1.8 143.1 16.4 100
Benlate(50% wp| henomyl 2.5g 1.4 145.6 20.5 V25
Thiram appr.60-80%(TMTD) 5.0g 1.5 141.6 21.5 131
Polyram-Combi 80%wp (metiram)
lO.Og 1.9 144.9 18.3 112
Ortha-Difotatan 70%wp [Captafol)
5.0g 1.9 146.9 18.2 111
Table 3. Effect of spraying against bacterial leaf spot on hot pepper at Bako
Treatment diseased plants per plot (%)
1st counting [mid- August) 2nd counting (mid-September)
Un sprayed 41.7 14.7
Cupravit sprayed 8.3 4.5
References
Agranovsky, A.A 1985. Virus diseases of pepper and tomato in Ethiopia pp 531-544. Msedeke Abate(ed.) Proceedings of the First Ethiopian crop protection symposium. Feb. 4-7, Addis Ababa.Ethiopia. IAR.Amare Abebe. 1987. Haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) varieties performance and recommended method of production . pp.229-251. In: proceedings 19th National crop Improvement conference 22-26 April, 1987 IAR Addis Ababa Ethiopia Eshetu Bekele. 1986. A review of research on diseases of Barley, Teff and wheat pp. 74-100.
In: Tsedeke Abate (ed.) Proceedings of the first Ethiopian crop protection symposium 4-7 February 1985 .
Habtu Assefa and Dereje Gorfli. 1986. A review of food legumes disease in Ethiopia pp.345- 400 In: Tsedeke Abate (ed.). In proceedings of the first Ethiopian crop protection symposium 4-7 February, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia .
Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR ). 1983a. A crop protection progress report for the period 1977/78. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
IAR. 1983b. Crop protection Department progress report for the period 1978/79. Addis Ababa. IAR. 1983c. Crop protection Department progress report for the period 1979/80 Addis Ababa. IAR. 1995. Sorghum production hand book, 1995 Addis Ababa Ethiopia.Korobko, A.P. and Tadesse Tagegn. 1986. Chemical control of bacterial leaf spots of hot
pepper (Capsicum annum X.) caused by Xanthomones campestris pv.vesticatora pp.487- 493 In proceedings of eighteenth National crop Improvement conference. April 24-26, Nazret, Ethiopia. IAR.
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Scientific Phytopathological Laboratory(SPL). 1984. SPL progress report for the period 1983/84 Ambo EthiopiaTadesse Tagegn. 1985. A review of research on bacterial diseases of peppers in Ethiopia pp.519-529; In Tsedeke Abate(Ed.). Proceedings of the first Ethiopian crop protection symposium. Feb. 4- 7, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, IAR.Teclemariam W/kidan. 1986a. A review of research on maize and sorghum diseases in Ethiopian pp.24- 32.1n Tsedeke Abate (ed.) Proceedings of the First Ethiopian Crop protection Symposium 4-7 February Addis Ababa. Institute of Agricultural Research.Teclemariam W/kidan. 1986b. Screening soybean varieties/lines for resistance to bacterial
blight and pustules. P. 420-424.In Proceedings of 18th National Crop Improvement conference (NCIC). 24-26 April 1986. Nazeret, Ethiopia*
Tesfahun Fenta and Boris Anismov. 1986a. A review of potato disease research in Ethiopia.pp.447-463.in Tsedeke Abate (ed.) Proceedings of the First Ethiopian Crop Protection Symposium. 4-5 Feb. 1985. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. IAR.Tesfahun Fenta and Boris Anisimov. 1986b. Efficacy of certain fungicides in controlling late
blight potato . EPC proceedings of the 11 th Annual meeting at Holetta Res. Center,6-7 Feb/1986, pp. 101-109.
Tesfaye Tedla and Habtu Assefa. 1986. A review of vegetable disease research in Ethiopia. In Tsedeke Abate(ed.). Proceedings of the first Ethiopian Crop protection Symposium. Feb. 4-5 1985. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. IARpp.495-516.
Yaynu Hiskias. 1990,Current status of potato diseases in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Phytopathological Committee (EPC) proceeding of the 15th annual meeting. Addis Ababa, 13-14 March, 1990. pp.60-64.
Yaynu Hiskias, Berga Lemaga and Gebremedhin Woldegiorgis. 1992. Evaluation of fungicides to control late blight (Phytophthora infestans) of potato. CPSE, Proceedings of the Joint Conference Ethiopian Phytopathological Committee, Committee of Ethiopian Entomologists 5-6 March,1992. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Yosef Haile and Yayeh Zewdie, 1987. Hot pepper recommendations and strategies. In proceedings of the 19th NCIC. April 22, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.. IAR, pp 343-357.
INSECT PEST CONTROL THEIR RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE
NEEDS FOR RESEARCH IN WESTERN ETHIOPIA
Firdissa Eticha and Abraham TadesseBakoAmcuUurdlResearch Center, POBox3, B a k o _________ ______ •' -
Major Insect PestsrJ , he major field and storage pests are indicated in Table 1.
Control of for Field PestsSorghum Shoot fly
Cultural control: Time of .planting has an important impact on the level of pestinfestation. ResearchresUlts from Rako revealed that early (May) sown sorghum can escape damage by sorghuitifshoot fly (Adane and Abraham, 1996c). Late (June) planted sorghum suffered inuch damage due to this pest. At Alemaya, planting sorghum was recommended immediately with the commencement of the rains in early May (Sileshi, et. al., 1996). Similarly,; studies from Anibo indicated that shoot fly was not a pest of early planted sorghiun. Sorghum planted in the beginning of the cropping season (April- May) can escape the damage that can be inflicted by the pest (Fantahun and Sineshaw, 1996). , r
Reports also indicate t^at increased plant density appeared to reduce damage by the pest. Intercropping sorghum with pulses like haricot beans can be used to reduce the incidence of shoot fly ahd other pests as well (Sileshi et al., 1996).
Chemical control: Granular insecticides such as carbofuran (Furadan) 10 G (presowing application) at the rate of 4.4 kg ai/ha and Sumicidin 20% at the rate of 0.2 kg ai/ha appeared to reduce the level of shoot fly infestation on sorghum (SPL, 1982).
Stalk borers
Cultural control: The larvae of stalk borers over-season in three different parts of the sorghum plant, the stub or the base which remains in the field, the main stem and the base of the panicle (Abraham, 1986c). Cultural control measures which have been reported as useful in reducing stalk borer attack in both maize and sorghum are removal of the trash, stubble and volunteer plants after harvest and destruction of all the representatives of wild species of sorghum.
The thinly spreading and horizontal lying of sorghum stalks in the open for 2 weeks reduced the population of diapausing larvae of the pest. Moreover, it was found that the rate of mortality of diapausing larvae of the insect was lower in stacked stalks in the shade compared with that
151
stacked in the open. In addition, the stalks must be cut down from close to the ground so that no stub remains in the field to harbor the larvae (Assefa, 1983).
A study conducted at Bako between 1992 and 1994 seasons indicated that infestation of maize stalk borers ranged from 5 to 64% depending on the season and the time of sowing, the highest being on late (June) planted sorghum in all seasons (Adane and Abraham, 1996c). This study suggested that early sown sorghum suffers less damage from stalk borers.
Chemical control*. Insecticides such as carbary 185% wp and endosulfan 35% EC were reported to be effective against stalk borers (Assefa, 1982). Application of cyhalothrin 16 g aiha'1 at 45 days after crop emergence resulted in significantly low damage and higher yield (Gashowbeza and Melaku, 1996)
African ESollWorm (ABW)
Cultural control: In an effort to develop integrated management of ABW On sorghum, investigations into the use of trap crops were made at Bako and Didessa (Table 2). The results have shown that sunflower followed by lupin were preferred by the bollworm as host plants duringtheir flowering stage and when flowering coincided with the heading stage of sorghum, much more eggs were laid on sunflower. In the absence of sunflower, lupin did well in attracting the pest although its vegetative performance was poor at low altitude areas like
/D idessa (Abraham, 1986a).
Reports of preliminary trials on the possible use of trap crops in the management of ABW were carried but during the 1981/82 to 1983/84 cropping seasons at Melkassa Research Center indicated that when haricot beans were interplanted with niaize as a trap crop, for every larva found on haricot bean there were 18 on maize (Tsedeke, 1983). Similarly, when five trap crops (hyacinth bean, lupin, maize, pigeon pea and sunflower) were compared with haricot bean, all trap crops caught significantly greater number of ABW than haricot bean. However, haricot bean plots interplanted with maize showed statistically lower percent pod damage than the rest of the treatments. It was recommended that strip-cropping maize with haricot bean at about 10 m intervals be practiced in the integrated pest management of ABW (Tsedeke and Ferede, 1986).
In an effort to develop integrated pest management of ABW on hot pepper, investigations into the use of lupin as a trap crop were made during 1981/82 and 1982/83 crop seasons. It was found that lupin caught appreciably higher number of ABW population than did hot pepper (Table 3); this ranged from 4-folds .in 1981/82 to upwards of 18-folds in 1982/83 (Tsedeke, 1984a). Interplanting lupin at 5 m distance in the hot pepper fields was recommended in order to reduce ABW populations (Abraham and Tsedeke, 1986).
Chemical control: Information for the insecticidal control of ABW on sorghum is limited. However, endosulfan 35% EC was reported to be effective against the pest (Abraham, 1986c).
Evaluation of different insecticides for the control of ABW on hot pepper was carried out during 1979/80 and 1980/81 crop seasons at Bako and it was found that decamethrin was the best (Tsedeke and Adhanom, 1981).
Barley fly
Cultural control: Sowing date experiments conducted at Bako for three years (1986/87, 1988/89 and 1990/91) in order to determine the best time for sowing tef that gives maximum yield and minimum infestation of shoot fly showed that early and late sowing gave low levels
of damage but yields were also low. High yields were obtained from planting dates which gave high infestations indicating that during good rainfall periods the crop can tolerate high infestation by the fly (Table 4). Therefore, second to third week of July is the best time for sowing tef. However, planting may be possible from as early as the first week of July to as late as first week of August to as late as the first week of August if there is reliable moisture during planting and subsequently in latter stages (Abraham and Adane, 1996).
Chemical control: Karate 5% EC at 15 g a.i.ha'1, chloropyrifos 48% EC at 0.5 kg a.iha1 and fenitrothion 50% EC at 1 kg a.i.ha'1 were found to control barley fly at Bako (Adane and Abraham, 1996d).
Termites
Chemical control: At Bako experiments were conducted between 1982/83 to 1985/86 seasons to determine the methods and rate of aldrin application. Results indicated that three methods of applications (seed dressing, fertilizer dressing and soil application two weeks before sowing) were effective. However, seed dressing appears to be simple for practical use. In areas where termite infestations are severe enough to cause economic losses in yield, aldrin 40% WP at rates of 20 to 40 g a.i. /10 kg of seed can be used as seed dressing (Abraham, 1986b).
Aldrin is banned from the wold market due to its persistent toxicity. However, in our country the left overs found in some stocks are still in use by farmers. Hence, if they have to do it, it should be done right.
Forage CropsIn order to evaluate the performance of recommended grass/legume species in termite prone areas, experiments were conducted at Mendi in collaboration with the Animal Feeds arid Nutrition Division of the Bako Research Center. Although the trial was not successful due to livestock damage, it was observed that elephant grass tolerated termite damage and established far better than the rest of the grass/legume species tested (Abraham, 1987). It was also observed that over-grazing aggravated termite attack on grazing lands indicating that stock management' could be one approach in the management of termite problem in range lands (Abraham, 1990).
Armyworm
Chemical control: Insecticides such as endosulfan 35% EC at 2 lha"1, Carbaryl 85% WP at 1.5 kgha'1 and Malathion 50% EC at 1 lha*1 can be used for the control of armyworms. These rates could be reduced by half if applied on small (< 2 cm) larvae. Fields should be inspected frequently (at least twice a week) so as to have earlier information on its occurrence.
Control Strategies for Stored Product PestsSitophilus Weevils
Cultural Control: Preliminary results from Bako indicated that admixing wood ash with sorghum was good in controlling weevils (Adane and Abraham, 1996a). Moreover, different plant products with insecticidal properties were tested for effectiveness against the maize weevil in stored sorghum at Bako in 1993/94 and it was found that Endod (Phytolacca dodecadra) leaf and seed powder, Datura (Datura stramonium) leaf powder,(Nerium oleander) leaf powder and Pyrethrum flower powder, all applied at the rate of 5% by weight, gave good control of weevils on stored sorghum (Adane and Abraham, 1996a).
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Chemical control: The effectiveness o f some insecticide dusts to control maize weevil on stored sorghum was evaluated in 1991 and 1992 at Bako and it was found that pirimiphos- methyl 2%, Deltamethrin 0.2% and 2.5%, malathion 1% and malathion (1.6% ) + permethrin (0.4% ) were found to be effective in controlling weevils on stored sorghum (Adane and Abraham, 1996b).
Bruchids
Bruchids are the most important pests o f stored beans in the western region. Heavy losses have been reported to be caused by the Mexican bean weevil at Bako (Adane and Abraham, 1993). Evaluation o f insecticides for the control o f bean bruchids (Callosobruchus chinenesis) on stored haricot bean at Nazareth indicated that pirimiphos-methyl at rates 4, 5 and 6 ppm gave superior control o f the pest (Tsedeke, 1984b).
Future Directions for Research on Insect PestsEarlier recom m endations for the control of termites depended on insecticides which were banned from use. Future research activities should focus on alternative methods specially by focusing on integrated pest management strategies. Stored product pests are among the most important problems that require research attention. Research should focus on non-chemical pest control strategies such as screening o f biopesiicides, improvement o f indigenous pest control practices and traditional storage structure etc., and on the appropriate use o f insecticide chemicals. Research on insect pests o f wheat, barley and cool season legumes like faba bean and field pea which are widely produced in the western highlands o f Ethiopia should be conducted.
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Table 1. Major insect pests of crops in western Ethiopia.
£uul Cnmrmn nanw Sclwttific naftiBField pests
Sorghum
Tef
Pulses
Sesame
Noug
Ground nut
Sunflower
Hot pepper
Storage pests
Sorghum
Pulses
Sorjhum shoot fly Afripan bollworm Maize stalk borer Spotted stalk borer Armyworms
Barley .fly Termites Tef epilachna Black tef beetle Armyworms
African boll worm
Sesame seed bug Sesame webworm
Ffower thrips
Termites
African boll worm Cluster bug
African boll worm Termites
Maize weevil Rice weevil Angoumois grain moth Red flour beetle Confused flour beetle
Mexican bean weevil
Alberigona sotcata (Rondani
Busseciafusca (Fuller)Chilo partellus (Swinhoe Spodoptsra ,M07J/7fj,|Wa1kei)
Delia arambourgi fSeguyi Termite spp.Fpilacfmasimilis IThumberg Eriangerivs niger IWeise $. axampta (Walker)
H. armigera (Hubner
Elasmofomus sordidtis (Fabiicius) Antigestra iatalaunajisjOijponeli.)
Haplothrips articubsos IBangal!)
H. armigera (Hubner) Termite spp.
Sitophilus zeamaisi Motsch.)S. orym (L.|Sitotroga cm alstla (Olivier) Tribolium castanum (Herbst)T. confusum (J. tie Val)
Zabrotas subfsciates (Bohemanl
Table 2. Average number of ABW eggs and larvae population caught by different trap crops (1983/84-1985/86)
Trapcrops
Didessa Bako
Eggs Larvae Eggs Larvae
Lupin 10.5 6.1 14.3 2.3
Maize 0.2 0.0 0.4 0.1
Sorghum 1.7 2.5 0.6 0.1
Sunflower
272.2 56.0 21.6 4.3
* Data for Didessa is average of 3 years, for Bako one year and for sunflower one year.
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Table 3. Comparison of ABW population on hot pepper and lupin at Bako (1981182- 1982/83)
------------------------------------------------. ,,
Mean no of ABW eggs and larvae per row
1981/82 Lupin HP, HP, HP,
Mean 109.9 34.4 23.7 22.4
S.E.M. 15.1 4.7 2.8 3.3
1982/83
Mean 21.9 1.1 1.2 1.3
S.E.M. 6.7 0.3 0.4 0.4
HP1, HP2 and HP3 represent hot pepper planted adjacent to, 5 m and 10 rn away from lupin, respectively.
Source: Modified from Tsedeke, 1984.
Table 4. Effect of sowing date on fly damage and yield of tef in the Bako area (1988/89 • 199019 1 average)
Sowing dates Damage count (No./1.25m2) Grain yield (kgha')
June 22 10.1 446.6
July 02 12.8 541.2
July 12 12.3 669.5
July 22 15.1 755.5
August 1 12.9 587.7
August 11 10.1 447.0
R eferen cesAbraham Tadesse. 1986a. Comparison o f African boll worm population attracted by different
crops used as trap crops to control the pest on sorghum at Didessa and Bako. P. 205- 209. In Proceedings o f the 18th National Crop Improvement Conference (NCIC), 22- 24 April 1986, Nazareth. Ethiopia, Institute o f Agricultural Research (IAR), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abraham Tadesse. 1986b. M ethod and rate o f aldrin application on tef to control termiteinfestation at Bako area. P. 217-221, In Proc. 18th NCIC. (see above).Abraham Tadesse. 1986c. Major insect problems on sorghum in Ethiopia and strategies for
their control. Paper presented at the Fifth Regional Workshop on Sorghum and Millet Improvement in Eastern Africa. 5- 12 July 1986. Bujumbura, Burundi. 25pp.
Abraham Tadesse. 1987. Terminal report submitted to the Bako Research Center, September. 1987. 18 pp.
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Abraham Tadesse. 1990. Termites: Problems and possible methods o f their control inagriculture with reference to the Ethiopian condition. P. 50-74. In Proc. o f the 10th Annual meeting of the of Ethiopian Entomologists (CEE). 7- 9 February 1990. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Abraham Tadesse and Tsedeke Abate. 1986. The use of lupin a trap crop to control African boll worm, Heliothis armigera{Hub.), on hot pepper at Bako. Part II, P. 481-486. In Proc. the 18th NCIC (see above).
Abraham Tadesse. and Adane Kassa. 1996. The influence of sowing dates on the damage by tef fly on tef in the Bako area. P. 87-91, In Eshetu B, Abdurahman A. and Aynekulu Y. (eds.), Proc. the 3rd Annual Conference o f the Crop Protection society o f Ethiopia (CPSE). 18-19 may 1995, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, CPSE, Addis Abeba.
Adane Kassa and Abraham tadesse. 1993. Damage to weight and germination o f haricot bean caused by Mexican bean weevil. Zabrotes subfasciatus Boh. (Coleoptera:Bruchidae) at Bako. Paper presented at the First Annual Conference of the CPSE, February 26- 27. 1993 IAR. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.
Adane Kassa and Abraham Tadesse. 1996a. Comparison of some insecticides for effectiveness against the maize weevil Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on stored sorghum. P. 1 13-119. In Eshetu B„ Abdurahman A. and Aynekulu Y. (eds.) Proc. o f the Third Annual Conference of the CPSE (see above).
Adane Kassa and Abraham Tadesse. 1996b. Evaluation of some botanical against the maize wee\il {Sitophilus zeamais motsch.) on stored sorghum at Bako. P. 120-126. In Eshetu B. Abdurahman A. and Aynekulu Y. (eds.) Proc. the Thrid Annual Conference of the CPSE (see above).
Adane Kassa and Abraham Tadesse. 1996c. Yield losses caused by sorghum shootfly(Atherigona soccaia Rondani) and maize stalk borer (Busseolafusca Fuller) at Bako. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Conference of CPSE, 23-24 May 1996, Addis Abeba. Ethiopia. 15pp.
Adane Kassa and Abraham Tadesse. 1996d. Yield losses in tef due to tef shoot fly (Delia arambourgi Seguy) at Bako. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Conference of CPSE.23- 24 Ma\ 1996. Addis Abeba. Ethiopia. 13pp.
Assefa G. Amlak. 1982. Effects of frequencies of insecticide application on maize stalk borer, Busseolafusca (Fuller) control. Eth. J. Agric. Sci. 4(1): 55-59.
Assefa G. Amlak. 1983. Maize stalk borer. Busseolafusca as a pest of maize and sorghum in Ethiopia. Committee of Ethiopian Entomologists (CEE) Newsletter. 2(2): 5-9.
Fantahun Mensiistu and Sinishaw Avsheshim. 1996. Seasonal occurrence of the sorshum shoot**•' * Ofly, Atherigona soccata. on sorghum at Ambo. P. 45-47. In Eshetu B., Abdurahman A. and Aynekulu Y. (eds.). Proc. of the Third Annual Conference of CPSE (see above).
Gashawbeza Ayalew and Melaku Wale. 1996. Loss caused by stalk borers, Chilo partellus Swinhoe) and Busseola fusca (Fuller), on sorghum in Central Ethiopia. P. 48-53. In Eshetu B. Abdurahman A. and Aynekulu Y. (eds.) Proc. of the Third Annual Conference of CPSE. (see Above).
Scientific Phytopathological Laboratory (SPL). 1982. Ambo Research Station Progress Report for the Period January to December 1981.
Sileshi Gudeta. Tsedeke Abate and R.K. Lakra. 1996. The biology and management ofsorghum shoot fly, Atherigona soccata in Alemaya area: A review. P. 98-1 12. In
Eshetu B., Abdurahman A. and Aynekulu Y. (eds.) (see above).I'sedeke Abate. 1983. Highlights of grain legume pest management research in Ethiopia. CEE
Newsletter. 3( 1): 3-6.Tsedeke Abate 1984a. The use of trap crops for the control o f ABW on hot pepper at Bako
(part I). Paper presented at the 16th NCIC April 16-18. 1984. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.Tsedeke Abate. 1984b. Evaluation of some insecticides for the control of bean bruchid,
Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) on stored haricot bean. Paper presented at the second Ethiopian Agricultural Research Conference. 19-20 April 1984, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.4pp.
1 5 7
Tsedeke Abate and Adhanom Negassi. 1981. Chimical control ot African boll worm (Heliothis armigera (Hubner) with emuisifiable sprays on hot pepper Paper presented at the 13th NCIC. April 1981. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Tsedeke Abate and Ferede Negassi. 1986. The use o f trap crops for the control o f ABW on haricot bean (part II). P. 413-415. Proc o f 18 NCIC (see above)
