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230 Aggression in the Sports World

Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Is it time to pull the plug on the hostile versusinstrumental aggression dichotomy?Psychological Review, 108 , 273–279.

This article provides a thoughtful and convincing reexamination of a long-standingdistinction between two types of aggression.

Retrosheet, Inc.<www.retrosheet.org>This volunteer organization of baseball enthusiasts has as its goal the creation of adetailed, play-by-play database for every game ever played in major league baseball. Theyhave already made impressive strides toward their goal, that is, data from every gameplayed from 1957 to 2005 (except 1999) is presently available along with a number ofnonconsecutive seasons. Ultimately, the Retrosheet organization plans to make the infor-mation available to all interested researchers. If you wish to volunteer your time, energy,or provide copies of game accounts/records, contact information is on the web site.Savage, J. (2004). Does viewing violent media really cause criminal violence? A meth-

odological review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10 , 99–128.This large-scale methodological review of empirical research on the effects of televi-

sion on criminal aggression might instead have been a Suggested Reading for Chapter 4

http://www.retrosheet.org/

http://www.retrosheet.org/



sion on criminal aggression might instead have been a Suggested Reading for Chapter 4.However, because it largely involves detailed discussion of methodological issues it providesa valuable extension to the foregoing section on Methods.Stanovich, K. E. (2006). How to think straight about psychology (8th ed.). New York:

Allyn & Bacon.In my opinion this book should be required reading for all students entering the

social sciences. This reader-friendly paperback will also clarify for the lay person whatscience is, and is not, all about. Above all, it is entertaining and dispels the mysterysurrounding scienti c investigations. It further provides the reader with the intellec-tual tools to debunk the misleading claims of pop psychologists and pseudo-sciencepractitioners.

SUPPLEMENTAL READING

Methods, Measures, and Views of Sports Aggression 231

people tend to be lighter. Were we to actually gather information on people’sheight and weight, a correlation coef cient in the range of .60 to .80 wouldbe expected. As the recorded heights of individuals increase, the weights ofthese same individuals also tend to increase.

Consider a basic question asked by investigators of crowd violence, that is, therelationship between age and involvement in disorders. Data collected throughinterviews with spectators at sport venues consistently reveal that it is the youngermales who become embroiled in disturbances, with the older men tending toavoid involvement. That is, as age increases, involvement in crowd disordersdecreases. A negative correlation in the range from .35 to .40 might re ectthe strength of this particular relationship. Negative and positive correlations areof equal importance. The sign ( or ) simply tells the reader thedirection ofincreases in the values on one variable relative to those on the second.

The size necessary for a correlation to be “signi cant,” that is other than theresult of chance, depends on the sample size. Generally, if the correlation is cal-



, p p y,culated with a small sample, it must be fairly large to be statistically signi cant.On the other hand, a small correlation based on a large sample may also besigni cant. Tables are available at the back of most elementary statistical textsfor determining if a particular correlation coef cient is signi cant or falls shortof signi cance.

A nal point that is frequently overlooked by consumers of research

ndings and even some researchers has to do with the concept ofcausal-ity. Simply because two variables are found to be signi cantly related doesnot as a consequence allow us to infer causality, that is, that changes in onevariable are producing changes in the other. For example, approximately 150youngsters have entered in the State Amateur Golf Championship in the 15years and under bracket. An enthusiastic graduate student at a nearby col-

232 Aggression in the Sports World

A signi cant correlation does not allow us to infer that changes in the valueson one variable are in some way causing changes in the values on the secondvariable. It may seem likely, even very likely, that they are but rst evidenceor reasoning suf cient to discount the merits of rival explanations must be

presented. This is a daunting task for our student.Consider the nding by Semyonov and Farbstein (1989) of a signi cant

correlation of .28 between the levels of team violence and levels of spectators’violence across 297 Israeli soccer teams. That is “teams characterized by violentplayers are more likely to have violent spectators” (p. 50). Incidentally, the cor-relation calculated over a 14-year period of league play rose to.50! What is thedirection of causality? Are violent players increasing spectator aggression or areviolent spectators somehow fueling the aggression of players? Using a sophis-ticated statistical analysis, the researchers determined the causal in uence wasunidirectional, that is “it is violence in the eld that sparks violence in the stands”(p. 56). See a challenge to this general conclusion in the form of evidence to the



(p ) g gcontrary showing that members of an audience can also directly or indirectlyincrease the aggression of those they observe (see Chapter 1, pp. 18–19).

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Author Index



Note: Some author names may not appear on a particular page as they are includedin an et al. citation.

Adang, O. M. J., 137, 168, 169

Adcock, M. L., 122Adesso, V. J., 87Ageton, S. S., 213Akanda, R., 56Alioto, J. T., 110, 111Alker, H. A., 112Allen, V. L., 178

Bakkestrom. E., 65

Bandura, A., 9, 124, 222Barash, D., 218Barker, C., 17Barnett, S. A., 101Barney, R. K., 15Baron, R. A., vii, 26, 45, 52, 76, 77, 79, 84, 85,

128, 129, 153, 162, 164, 169

262 Author Index

Bernhardt, P. C., 66Bernthal, M. J., 119, 120Berscheid, E., 104Bettencourt, B. A., 45, 59, 152Bevan, S., 108Bibby, R. W., 123, 225Binney, V., 135Björkqvist, K., 47, 61, 62, 156Black, S. L., 108Blass, T., 153Boeringer, S. B., 25Bohstedt, J., 135

Bonacci, A. M., 60Booker, A., 98Booth, A., 66, 67Borden, R. J., 18, 19, 62, 209Bowdle, B. E., 7, 30, 67Boyanowsky, E. O., 98, 125Brainerd, J., 28

Branscombe, N. R., 51, 52, 163Brauchi, J. T., 90

Carlson, J. D., 55, 56, 225Carlson, M., 98Carnagey, N. L., 32Carnibella, G., 137Caron, S. L., 25Carpenter, J. A., 86Carrico, C., 104Carver, C. S., 45, 46, 121Cavanaugh, B. S., 86Chakotin, S., 197Chambers, W., 121Champion, H., 119

Champoux, R., 92Charpentier, S., 47Cherek, D. R., 90, 91, 209Choi, C., 122Christiansen, K. O., 65Christie R., 47Christy, C. A., 156

Chu, L. D., 113Cleckley, H., 50



, ,Bray, S. R., 101Bredemeier, B. J., 12Brennan, C., 55, 151Brissett, M., 47Brown, D., 106

Brown, R., 173Brown, T. J., 25Brown, W. A., 65Bryan, C., 138, 189, 190Bryant, J., 106Buchanan, R. W., 74Burgess, E., 172

y, ,Coalter, F., 62, 136, 166, 167Coates, J. F., 164Cohen, D., 7, 30, 67Cohen, S., 134Cohn, E. S., 20

Colaers, C., 83, 137Coleman, A. E., 46Collins, G. S., 99Comber, M., 101, 187Comisky, P., 106Comstock, G., 109, 112Condry, J. C., 176, 177, 178, 179

Author Index 263

Darley, J. M., 173, 174, 185, 191Darrah, E. M., 10Darrow, C., 135Darwin, C., 226Davis, E. B., 96Davis, H., 212Davis, J., 116, 117, 118Davis, R. W., 20Davison, A., 17Dechesne, M., 53De Divitiis, C., 56De Freitas, B., 89DeGregorio, E., 46de Haan, A., 202DeNeve, K. M., 76Dengerink, H. A., 38, 163Deutsch, M., 94, 96Dewar, C. K., 83DeFour, D., 107

de Graaf, J. P., 82, 216de Kock, H., 141, 142

Elliott, D., 185Elliott, D. S., 213Ellsworth, P. C., 33, 34Endean, C., 27Ennis, R., 9Epstein, S., 23Eron, L. D., 110Erskine, J., 21Eslea, M., 210, 212Eubanks, J., 32Evans, F. J., 205Evans, J., 99Evans, R. I., 226Everett, A., 42Eysenck, H. J., 37, 50, 64

Farbstein, M., 232Farkas, I., 185, 193, 194Farrell, B., 87

Farrington, D. P., 213Fein, S., 7, 77, 216



Diab, L. N., 94, 95Diener, E., 107, 125, 147Di Lullo, D., 31, 116Di Lullo, S. L., 31, 116Ditrichs, R., 29

Doerr, C. E., 165Dolan, T. J., 55Dollard, J., 219, 221, 225Donnerstein, E., 29, 79Donnerstein, M., 29Doob, A., 125Doob, L., 219, 221, 225

Feltz, D. L., 12Fenigstein, A., 108, 125, 126Fenske, L., 44Ferguson, D. G., 107, 108Fernández, J., 195

Ferris, C. F., 65, 68Festinger, L., 147Fielden, J. A., 66Fischer, P., 24, 210Fisher, J. D., 76Fitzpatrick, M., 84Folger, R., 95

264 Author Index

Geen, R. G., 3, 78, 79, 109, 112, 115, 208, 223Geis, F., 47Gelles, R. J., 62Gentile, D. A., 118Giancola, P. R., 228Gillis, R., 46Gillmore, G. M., 40Gilmour, R., 175Gilovich, T., 80, 81Girard, D., 127Giulianotti, R., 157, 161Gladue, B., 45Glass, D., 45, 46, 77Goeckner, D. J., 87Goldenson, R. M., 172Goldstein, A. P., 165, 166Goldstein, J. H., vii, 6, 20, 51, 62, 123,

132, 143, 151, 164Goode, E., 134

Goodenough, D. R., 65Granath, F., 93

Hayduk, L. A., 75Haynes, G., 56, 213Helbing, D., 185, 193, 194Helfrich, H. M., 47Helmreich, R. L., 45, 94Henson, A., 34Herman, D., 20Hersch, H., 89Heslin, R., 74Hicks, D. J., 223Higgins, E. T., 10Hill, A. H., 176Hill, R. A., 79, 80Hoaken, P. N. S., 88, 163Hogg, J., 104Holland, L. C., 55, 56, 225Horn, V. E., 130Horton, R., 138House, P., 27, 58, 157

Houston, B. K., 45Howe, N., 122



Granger, D. A., 67Green, T. E., 76Green, T. M., 70Greenberg, J., 53, 209, 210Greene, B., 210

Greene, D., 58, 157Greenwell, J., 163Greer, D. L., 55Greitemeyer, T., 24, 210Grif ths, C. T., 98Grimes, P. W., 61Gross, D. E., 177, 178

Huarte-Mendicoa, E., 224Huddle, M. J., 130, 167Huesmann, L. R., 110Hunter, J. L., 52, 156Hurd, P. L., 71

Husman, B. F., 212Hutchinson, P., 139, 167

Innes, J. M., 84, 147Ito, T. A., 88Izutsu, T., 24

Author Index 265

Karnilowicz, W., 114Kasiarz, D., 6Kasser, T., 65, 98, 210Katz, J., 112Katz, M. D., 88, 92Kaukiainen, A., 156Keating, J., 151, 172Keefer, R., 6Kelley, H. H., 94, 176, 177, 178, 179Kelly, I. W., 82Kelly, T. H., 91Kenrick, D. T., 54, 76Kenyon, G., ixKernis, M., 20Kerr, J. H., vii, 31, 140, 141, 142, 150, 154Killian, L. M., 147, 161, 185King, A., 31Kingsmore, J. M., 212Kinzel, A. F., 75Kirchler, E., 52, 63, 149, 150, 153, 155Kittock, R., 66

Levy, A. S., 74Lewis, G., 8, 42Lewis, J. M., 135, 137, 138, 187Lieberman, J. D., 209, 210Livingstone, M., 168Llorens, L., 65Lockwood, P., 9Loew, C. A., 229Loof, S. D., 108, 210Lorenz, K., 95, 219, 226Lowinger, P., 135Loy, J., ixLubetkin, A. I., 90, 163Lutter, C. D., 66

Macauley, J., 23Maccoby, E. E., 61Macdonald, G., 125MacDonald, J. M., 86MacFarlane, S. W., 76MacNeil, M. L. C., 57, 58



Klein, A. L., 178, 179, 180Klinesmith, J., 65, 98, 210Klötz, F., 93Knorr, M., 104Konecni, V. J., 229

Koss, M. P., 25Kouri, E. M., 92Krahé, B., 44Krahenbuhl, G. S., 47Kruglanski, A. W., 176, 177, 178Kunda, Z., 9Kunkler, J., 135

Mann, L., 75, 84, 137, 142, 147, 153, 154, 166,180, 181, 196

Manning, J. T., 70, 71Marcus-Newhall, A., 98Marlatt, G. A., 87

Marlowe, D., 214Marsh, J., 137Marsh, P., 32, 33, 137, 145Marshall, J. E., 74Martens, R., 37Maruyama, G., 94Marx, G. T., 135

266 Author Index

Meier, N. C., 156Melnick, M. J., viii, 13, 18, 57, 104, 161Mennenga, G. H., 156Metcalf, L. A., 122Milgram, S., 16, 17, 18, 159, 180, 223Miller, N., 60, 88, 98, 219, 220,

221, 225Miller, S., 151Milligan, M., 84Millon, T., 50, 51Mills, B. D., 81Mintz, A., 172, 174, 175, 178, 179, 183, 185Mischel, W., 37Molin, J., 48Moore, M., 30Moore, S., 101Moorhouse, H. F., 134, 144Morrow, M., 96Mosher, D. L., 43, 44Moss, M. K., 84Mowrer, O. H., 219, 221, 225M K E 100 101

Olivier, S., 101Olweus, D., 37Omoto, A. M., 104O’Neal, E. C., 30, 78Ong, J., 30Orne, M. T., 205Österman, K., 47, 61, 156Owens, D. A., 55, 56, 225Owens, L., 62

Page, R. A., 84Paik, H., 109, 112Palmer, C. T., 132Pandey, S., 112Park, R., 172Parker, S. M., 99Pasman, W. J., 202Pastorelli, C., 47Patch, M. E., 177, 178Patterson, B., 104Paulhus, D., 48P ll G C 21



Moyer, K. E., 100, 101Muecher, H., 84Mullen, B., 153Mungo, D. A., 12Murphy, P., 31, 86, 150, 167Murray, H. A., 212Murray, S., 92Mustonen, A., 147, 153, 156, 157, 158, 161Myers, D. G., 26Myerscough, R., 90, 91

Narancic, V. G., 229

Paull, G. C., 21Peake, T. M., 69Pearce, P., 137, 153Pease, D. G., 18, 57, 104, 161Pederson, W. C., 60Pennebaker, J. W., 78Pepitone, A., 147Perrow, C., 145Perry, M., 38, 40, 41, 51, 71, 96, 210,

211, 213Perry, P., 92Peterson, R. R., 51

Author Index 267

Rabbie, J. M., 146Rainey, D. W., 21, 22, 23, 82Ramos, O., 194, 195Rand, M. J., 90Rawtich, A. B., 90, 163Ray, M. A., 61Redmond, G., 8Reicher, S., 157, 161Reifman, A., 55Reifman, A. S., 7, 77, 216Renfrew, J. W., 64Report of the National Advisory Commission on

Civil Disorders 160, 161Requa, R. K., 99Rhodewalt, F., 46Richardson, D. R., 24, 52, 77, 79, 153, 162, 169Ritter, D., 210, 212Roberts, S. C., 80Robinson, D. E., 91Robinson, J. P., 207, 214Rogers, R. W., 8, 28R l ff M E 104

Savage, J., 131Scaramella, T. J., 65Scarborough, K. E., 112Schaeffer, M. A., 78Schauss, A. G., 82, 184Schechter, M. D., 90Schimel, J., 53Schrader, M. P., 56Schreiber, M., 168Schuchts, R., 48Schulsinger, F. O., 65Schultz, D. P., 172, 173, 184Schwartz, G., 89Schwartz, R. D., 216Schwarz, N., 7, 30, 67Sears, R. R., 219, 221, 225–226Sechrest, L., 216Segrave, J. O., 122Semyonov, M., 232Sesma, A., 118Sestir, M. A., 96Sh P R 207 214



Roloff, M. E., 104Rosenfeld, M. J., 144Rosenman, R. H., 45Rosenthal, R., 58, 206, 215, 216, 230Rosnow, R. L., 58, 206, 215, 216, 230Ross, D., 222Ross, L., 58, 157, 158Ross, S. A., 222Rosser, E., 32, 33, 145Rotmil, A., 28Rotter, J. B., 46Rotton, J., 76, 82, 84

Shaver, P. R., 207, 214Sheets, V., 54Shelley, G., 66Shelton, S., 51Shepherd, J. P., 101Sherif, C. W., 94, 95Sherif, M., 94, 95Shields, D. L., 12Shields, T. J., 186Shirreffs, J. H., 47Shirtcliff, E. A., 67Shute, R., 62

268 Author Index

Smith, M. D., vii, 12, 137, 139Smith, R. E., 37Smith, R. J., 48, 49Smith, S. L., 117Smith, T., 51Snyder, C. R., 45Snyder, M., 104Solomon, D. H., 104Solomon, S., 53, 209, 210Southwick, L., 88Spence, J. T., 45, 94Stack, A. D., 277Stacy, C., 25Stallings, W. M., 40Stanley, J. C., 206Steele, C. M., 88Steffen, V. J., 61Steinberg, J. L., 90, 91Steinmetz, S. K., 62Stewart, K. G., 107, 108Stewart, S. H., 88, 163Stoltz H Z 156

Trivizas, E., 62, 63, 149, 150, 216Trulson, M. E., 57, 58Turner, R. H., 147, 161, 185Twemlow, S. W., 58

Ungeheuer, H., 84Urbina, S., 41, 207Uzzell, D. L., 101, 187, 190, 191

Valentine, J., 45, 59, 152Vamplew, W., 156van Baak, M. A., 202van der Kraan, M., 27Van Limbergen, K., 83, 137, 140, 149Vanstone, R., 23Vardaris, R. M., 90, 163Vasquez, E. A., 60Veneman, J. M., 135, 187Vescio, J. A., 10Vicsek, T., 185, 193–194Voigt, H., 156



Stoltz, H. Z., 156Stone, K., 28Stott, C., 137, 139, 157, 161, 168, 169Straus, M. A., 61–62Strauss, A., 183, 194Strube, M. J., 46Suay, F., 65Sullivan, D. B., 106Sumner, K. E., 25Swapp, D., 17

Talley, A., 45, 59, 152

Waddill, P. J., 43Walder, L. O., 110Walgrave, L., 83, 137, 140, 149Walker, R., 51Walshe-Brennan, K., 151Walster, E., 125Wann, D. L., viii, 18, 43, 51, 52, 55, 56,

57, 88, 104, 122, 156, 158, 161,163, 213, 225

Ward, R. E., Jr 134, 137, 139, 164Webb, E. J., 216

Author Index 269

Wolfers, J., 26Wolfson, M., 119Woody, L. W., 107Worchel, S., 95Wright, J. C., 135Wright, L. A., 52, 156Wrightsman, L. S., 207, 214Wyner, D. R., 67, 68

Yaeger, D., 14Yarmey, A. D., 186

Yates, W. R., 92Yoos, C., 23Young, K., 184Young, Kevin., 86, 169

Zani, B., 52, 63, 149, 150, 153, 155Zanna, M. P., 9Zeichner, A., 228Zillmann, D., 4, 106, 128, 129, 215Zimbardo, P. G., 147Zyzanski, S. J., 45



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Subject Index



aggression:de nitions of, 3–5hostile versus instrumental, 4–5incompatible responses, 164learning of, 8–9measurement of, 38–44origins, 63–64sex differences, 60–63

aggression questionnaire, 40–41, 213–214reliability of, 41validity of, 41

compared to cooperation, 93–96and hostility, 94–95summer camp studies, 94–95superordinate goals, 95

correlation:a review, 230–232

criminality:homicide, 6–7, 131National Football League, 14

crowd violence:conditions favoring, 147

272 Subject Index

environmental factors:color, 79–82crowding, 74–75darkness, 83–84ions, 84–85lunar, 82–83noise, 77–79, 202–203temperature, 76–77

erotica:and aggression, 128–129for pro t, 129–130

escalation effects, 19–20ethics, 203expectancy effects, 21, 87–88, 120,

204–205, 215control of, 204–205

ghting sh:eavesdropping, 69st ghts, 68–70

nger length ratio:sex differences, 70–71

hot sauce paradigm, 209–220point subtraction paradigm, 209

media:broadcasters, 105–107effects of television violence, 108–112language of sports, 122–123long reach of violence, 112–114, 131selling of violence, 107–108, 126–128sport widow hypothesis, 104–105suicide, 114television effects of, 108–112

mitigating panics, 195–197anti-panic leadership, 196–197engineering/design, 196–197retractable gangways, 196seated versus standing, 196

mitigating riots:admission charges, 167banning spectators, 165–166design and engineering, 166Dutch model, 168–169



,and sports involvement, 70–71

generalizing, 69–70, 217geography of aggression:

location of ghts, 99–100

heroes (exemplars):categories of, 10–11efforts to emulate, 11–12historical trends, 10negative role models, 9–10

,increasing respect, 165and national ag, 165post-game events, 164seated versus standing, 166–167separation of rivals, 167training of of cials, 165

obedience, 15–18, 223virtual simulation, 17

Olympics:combative sports, 6–7

Subject Index 273

personality:de nitions, 36–37idiographic versus nomothetic, 36traits, 36–37

personality measurement, 38–41, 43,45–46, 48–50

reliability, 39–40validity, 38–39

personality theories:an aggressive personality, 50–51locus of control, 46–47Machiavellian personality, 47–48macho personality, 42–44psychopathic personality, 48–50Type A and Type B, 85

police:deployment, 168–169and impulsivity, 162style of public interactions, 168–169

priming, 98–99, 120–121, 144, 163professional wrestling, 116–120

and aggression, 124

riots:crowd composition, 147–148de nitions of, 134–135incidence of, 135–137and moral panic, 134risk assessment, 168severity of, 138–139

rumination, 59

self-reports:validity of, 213

situational in uences:geography, 99–100surveillance, 186–187territoriality, 100–101

targets of aggression:minorities as, 26–30sport of cials as, 20–23women as, 23–26

theories of aggression:aggressive cue theory, 223–222



ggchildren as consumers, 118–119effects on children, 118–120teen date ghting, 119

projective measures, 212–213provocations, 30–34

eye contact, staring, 33–34songs, chants, 31–33verbal, 30–31

punishment:effectiveness of, 169

gg yfrustration–aggression hypothesis,

219–221instinctual views, 218–219social learning theory, 8–9,

222–224theories of riots:

excitement needs, 139–142FORCE typology, 142–144role reversal theory, 140–141social systems analysis, 144–146

third party in uence:

