Aggression in Sport Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 8, pages 193-208

Aggression in SportAggression in Sport

Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 8, Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 8, pages 193-208pages 193-208


Aggression is often displayed in sport and Aggression is often displayed in sport and sometimes boils over into unmitigated sometimes boils over into unmitigated displays of violencedisplays of violence

Often implicitly or explicitly advocated by Often implicitly or explicitly advocated by spectators, coaches etc. and cite spectators, coaches etc. and cite reasonable provocation or justificationreasonable provocation or justification

Much media attention places on displays Much media attention places on displays of aggression, usually with ‘high moral of aggression, usually with ‘high moral ground’ground’

“Of the nine red cards this season we probably deserved half of them”


Why do players resort to aggression and Why do players resort to aggression and violent conduct when they know they will violent conduct when they know they will be penalised?be penalised?

Why do coaches defend their players Why do coaches defend their players when they can clearly see that such when they can clearly see that such aggression is counter-productive?aggression is counter-productive?

What role does the media play in What role does the media play in perpetuating such aggression?perpetuating such aggression?

What is Aggression?What is Aggression?

Violent or aggravated behaviours Violent or aggravated behaviours are not necessarily ‘aggression’are not necessarily ‘aggression’e.g., angry gestures, equipmente.g., angry gestures, equipment‘‘abuse’abuse’

AggressionAggression is a set of behaviours that are is a set of behaviours that are likely to, or have the potential to, likely to, or have the potential to, cause cause harmharm to others, are to others, are intendedintended to cause to cause harm, and are harm, and are goal-directedgoal-directed (Berkowitz, (Berkowitz, 1993)1993)

AggressionAggression

QuestionQuestion: Does aggression need to result in : Does aggression need to result in actual harm to a sports player?actual harm to a sports player?


Coaches often want players to display more Coaches often want players to display more ‘aggression’ in their play – what they ‘aggression’ in their play – what they actually mean, in psychological terms, is actually mean, in psychological terms, is they want to see more they want to see more assertiveassertive behaviours behaviours

AssertiveAssertive behaviours reflect behaviours behaviours reflect behaviours that are physically vociferous, but do not that are physically vociferous, but do not contravene rules nor do they have the contravene rules nor do they have the intentintent to harm, rather they are aimed at to harm, rather they are aimed at imposing imposing influenceinfluence and and dominancedominance

Aggression in SportAggression in Sport SomeSome assertiveassertive behaviours behaviours

are tolerated by officials inare tolerated by officials insports such as the ‘Haka’-sports such as the ‘Haka’-the provocative displaythe provocative displayperformed by the NZ ‘all blacks’performed by the NZ ‘all blacks’rugby teamrugby team

Other behaviours that are violent but are neither Other behaviours that are violent but are neither assertive (aim to influence/dominate) nor assertive (aim to influence/dominate) nor aggressive (intent to harm) are not tolerated e.g., aggressive (intent to harm) are not tolerated e.g., bad language, equipment abusebad language, equipment abuse

Types of AggressionTypes of Aggression

Two types of aggression (Silva, 1980):Two types of aggression (Silva, 1980):Hostile aggressionHostile aggression: Has the primary goal : Has the primary goal

of injuring another person or player e.g., of injuring another person or player e.g., response to provocation, high emotional response to provocation, high emotional arousal, usually spontaneousarousal, usually spontaneous

Instrumental aggressionInstrumental aggression: Has intent to : Has intent to harm another but with the superordinate harm another but with the superordinate goal to achieve an outcome that is goal to achieve an outcome that is beneficial to the player or the team e.g., beneficial to the player or the team e.g., planned or calculated aggressive actsplanned or calculated aggressive acts


Hostile aggressionHostile aggression: Supersedes : Supersedes other goals of the sport such as other goals of the sport such as scoring points or goals and usuallyscoring points or goals and usuallydistracts players from their role in distracts players from their role in the teamthe team

E.g. Roy Keane (2001) “I’d waited long enough. I hit E.g. Roy Keane (2001) “I’d waited long enough. I hit him f***ing hard. The ball was there (I think). Take him f***ing hard. The ball was there (I think). Take that, you c***. I didn’t wait for Mr Elleray to show the that, you c***. I didn’t wait for Mr Elleray to show the card. I turned and walked to the dressing room”card. I turned and walked to the dressing room”


Assertive behaviour1. No intent to harm2. Legitimate force3. Unusual effort and energy expenditure

Hostile aggression1. Intent to harm2. Goal to harm3. Unusual effort and energy expenditure

Instrumentalaggression1. Intent to harm2. Goal to win3. No anger

Source: Silva (1980)

Types of AggressionTypes of Aggression Silva’s (1980) model illustrates the core features Silva’s (1980) model illustrates the core features

of each type of aggressionof each type of aggression Also illustrates that there is some ‘ambiguity’ in Also illustrates that there is some ‘ambiguity’ in

all threeall three Such definitions do not encapsulate all instances Such definitions do not encapsulate all instances

of aggressive or assertive type of behaviourof aggressive or assertive type of behaviour GamesmanshipGamesmanship: performing behaviours that are : performing behaviours that are

not illegitimate according to the rules but are not illegitimate according to the rules but are considered ‘unsportspersonlike’considered ‘unsportspersonlike’

E.g. tennis coach instructing players to hit the E.g. tennis coach instructing players to hit the ball at the opponent, ‘sledging’ in cricket ball at the opponent, ‘sledging’ in cricket

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression1. 1. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard

et al., 1939)et al., 1939) Aggression the product of an ‘anger response’ to Aggression the product of an ‘anger response’ to

the frustration of goals and desiresthe frustration of goals and desires Aggression directed to perceived source of Aggression directed to perceived source of

frustrationfrustration e.g. hockey player’s aim of scoring goals is e.g. hockey player’s aim of scoring goals is

frustrated due to lack of service from her wing-frustrated due to lack of service from her wing-players but also marked out of the game by players but also marked out of the game by opponents – may lead her to assault the marking opponents – may lead her to assault the marking defender out of frustrationdefender out of frustration

However, competitive environs lead to lots of However, competitive environs lead to lots of frustration but seldom is that expressed in terms frustration but seldom is that expressed in terms of aggressionof aggression

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Observational learning (imitation and vicarious Observational learning (imitation and vicarious

experience) during childhood may contribute to violent experience) during childhood may contribute to violent actions (c.f. Bobo doll experiments)actions (c.f. Bobo doll experiments)

Bandura et al. (1961): Children watched an adult playing Bandura et al. (1961): Children watched an adult playing with ‘Bobo doll’ (5-foot inflated plastic doll).with ‘Bobo doll’ (5-foot inflated plastic doll).

Bobo Doll ExperimentBobo Doll Experiment

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) 2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Observational learning (imitation and vicarious Observational learning (imitation and vicarious

experience) during childhood may contribute to violent experience) during childhood may contribute to violent actions (c.f. Bobo doll experiments)actions (c.f. Bobo doll experiments)

Explained the social circumstances under which Explained the social circumstances under which violent/aggressive acts might ariseviolent/aggressive acts might arise

Factors include:Factors include: Past experience of aggressive behaviour (personal and observed)Past experience of aggressive behaviour (personal and observed) Previous ‘success’ with aggressive behaviours in terms of fulfilling Previous ‘success’ with aggressive behaviours in terms of fulfilling

personal goalspersonal goals The expected pattern of reinforcement of aggression – rewarded or The expected pattern of reinforcement of aggression – rewarded or

punished?punished? Psychological (e.g., personality), personal (e.g., verbal Psychological (e.g., personality), personal (e.g., verbal

encouragement), and environmental (e.g., presence of significant encouragement), and environmental (e.g., presence of significant others) factorsothers) factors

More comprehensive that frustration-aggression because More comprehensive that frustration-aggression because it charts the development and conditions under which it charts the development and conditions under which aggression occursaggression occurs

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionSocial Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Application of theory: Russell (1979) hero selection in Application of theory: Russell (1979) hero selection in

fansfans Interviews and archival data found that goals scored Interviews and archival data found that goals scored

but also penalties conceded were influential in but also penalties conceded were influential in selectionselection

Influence of penalties suggested that aggressive Influence of penalties suggested that aggressive behaviours were viewed positively by fansbehaviours were viewed positively by fans

Media coverage perhaps enhanced this ‘reputation’ Media coverage perhaps enhanced this ‘reputation’ which made such behaviours integral to perceived which made such behaviours integral to perceived successsuccess

BUT – no link between aggressive displays in BUT – no link between aggressive displays in supported teams and aggressive behaviour in fanssupported teams and aggressive behaviour in fans

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionSocial Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997)Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Connelly (1988) suggests that modeling aggressive Connelly (1988) suggests that modeling aggressive

behaviours may help non-assertive players behaviours may help non-assertive players But these need to be checked with distinctions But these need to be checked with distinctions

between legitimate, goal-directed and assertive between legitimate, goal-directed and assertive behaviours and aggressive behaviours (c.f. Silva’s behaviours and aggressive behaviours (c.f. Silva’s (1980) model)(1980) model)

Modeling may therefore help coaches enhance the Modeling may therefore help coaches enhance the assertiveness of players, but should be used in assertiveness of players, but should be used in conjunction with education and information on the conjunction with education and information on the distinction between aggressive and assertive distinction between aggressive and assertive behavioursbehaviours

Theories of AggressionTheories of Aggression3. Personality and Individual Differences3. Personality and Individual Differences Little evidence that one single personality trait that Little evidence that one single personality trait that

characterises an ‘aggressive personality’characterises an ‘aggressive personality’ Agreeableness consistently and Agreeableness consistently and negativelynegatively linked linked

with aggressionwith aggression AgreeablenessAgreeableness: personality dimension linked to : personality dimension linked to

maintaining positive and harmonious social maintaining positive and harmonious social relationshipsrelationships

Zuckerman et al. (1993) isolated an Zuckerman et al. (1993) isolated an aggressiveness/hostility personality traitaggressiveness/hostility personality trait

No link between this trait and aggressive behaviours No link between this trait and aggressive behaviours in sportin sport

Theories of AggressionTheories of AggressionPersonality and Individual Differences Personality and Individual Differences Type ‘A’ personalities: Highly competitive, driven, extrovert Type ‘A’ personalities: Highly competitive, driven, extrovert

individualsindividuals Type ‘A’ personalities tend to be attracted to sport (Biasi, 1999)Type ‘A’ personalities tend to be attracted to sport (Biasi, 1999) Some evidence type ‘A’ is related to displays of aggression Some evidence type ‘A’ is related to displays of aggression

and hostility in competitive situationsand hostility in competitive situations Situational factors (e.g., competitive or frustrating environment) Situational factors (e.g., competitive or frustrating environment)

may interact with personality factors like type ‘A’ to foster may interact with personality factors like type ‘A’ to foster aggressive behaviouraggressive behaviour

But in many sports (e.g., dancing) no extrovert or aggressive But in many sports (e.g., dancing) no extrovert or aggressive behaviours are observed as emotionality and aggressive behaviours are observed as emotionality and aggressive displays are perceived as signs of weakness (group norm) displays are perceived as signs of weakness (group norm)

Personality effects criticised as they tend to downplay the Personality effects criticised as they tend to downplay the situationsituation

Social cognitive variables such as group norms, group Social cognitive variables such as group norms, group cohesion and self-efficacy can mitigate personality effectscohesion and self-efficacy can mitigate personality effects

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionThe Cathartic Hypothesis The Cathartic Hypothesis CatharsisCatharsis: The feeling of release after an emotion-: The feeling of release after an emotion-

expressing experienceexpressing experience Often thought that aggression assists in this process Often thought that aggression assists in this process

helping express ‘pent-up’ frustrationhelping express ‘pent-up’ frustration Often held belief that aggression in sport serves a Often held belief that aggression in sport serves a

cathartic purpose is the cathartic purpose is the cathartic hypothesiscathartic hypothesis This belief is prevalent e.g. Wann et al. (1999) found This belief is prevalent e.g. Wann et al. (1999) found

that viewers of aggressive sports believed that this that viewers of aggressive sports believed that this made them personally less aggressivemade them personally less aggressive

Sports coaches and school teachers also found to Sports coaches and school teachers also found to believe that sports with ‘aggressive characteristics’ believe that sports with ‘aggressive characteristics’ are healthy due to their cathartic natureare healthy due to their cathartic nature

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionThe Cathartic Hypothesis The Cathartic Hypothesis Little evidence to support the cathartic hypothesisLittle evidence to support the cathartic hypothesis Evidence suggests that exposure to aggressive Evidence suggests that exposure to aggressive

sports does not reduce aggressive displays sports does not reduce aggressive displays elsewhere, but may increase itelsewhere, but may increase it

Bushman et al. (1999):Bushman et al. (1999): Gave students a pro-catharsis essayGave students a pro-catharsis essay Essay subjected to criticism by another unseen student Essay subjected to criticism by another unseen student

(actually the researcher)(actually the researcher) Participants were more likely to choose a punch-bag task Participants were more likely to choose a punch-bag task

afterwards and administer punishment to the other student afterwards and administer punishment to the other student afterwardsafterwards

Cathartic hypothesis is a belief rather than an effect Cathartic hypothesis is a belief rather than an effect (Bennett, 1991) (Bennett, 1991)

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionGenderGender Men are more likely to engage in aggressive Men are more likely to engage in aggressive

behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996)behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996) Men are also more likely to display aggressive Men are also more likely to display aggressive

attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing Aggression

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Assault AggravatedAssault

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Gender differences in US crime statisticsGender differences in US crime statistics

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionGenderGender Men are more likely to engage in aggressive Men are more likely to engage in aggressive

behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996)behaviour (Wrangham & Peterson, 1996) Men are also more likely to display aggressive Men are also more likely to display aggressive

attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)attitudes and beliefs (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) This may be due to:This may be due to:

Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone)Elevated levels of androgens (e.g., testosterone) Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of status and Evolutionary benefit to aggression in terms of status and

dominancedominance Socialisation of aggressive tendencies during developmentSocialisation of aggressive tendencies during development

Majority of aggressive acts in sport are Majority of aggressive acts in sport are committed by men and it is more endorsed by committed by men and it is more endorsed by men (Tucker & Parks, 2001; Rainey, 1986)men (Tucker & Parks, 2001; Rainey, 1986)

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionGenderGender Young girls tend to express higher levels of moral Young girls tend to express higher levels of moral

behaviour in sport and rate such behaviours as more behaviour in sport and rate such behaviours as more virtuous (Stephens & Bredemeier, 1996)virtuous (Stephens & Bredemeier, 1996)

Females do endorse aggressive behaviours if the Females do endorse aggressive behaviours if the group norm endorses it (Tucker & Parks, 2001)group norm endorses it (Tucker & Parks, 2001)

Females are much less likely to engage in verbal and Females are much less likely to engage in verbal and physical aggressive behaviour than menphysical aggressive behaviour than men

BUT are equally likely to engage in verbal assault as BUT are equally likely to engage in verbal assault as men (Harris, 1992)men (Harris, 1992)

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionMorality Issues Morality Issues Social identity theory states that people in groups Social identity theory states that people in groups

tend to forgo their personal attitudes and beliefs and tend to forgo their personal attitudes and beliefs and assume those of the group – they adhere to the assume those of the group – they adhere to the group norm and become ‘deindividuated’group norm and become ‘deindividuated’

Bredemeier and Shields (1986) suggest that sports Bredemeier and Shields (1986) suggest that sports players in teams can adopt a ‘bracketed morality’ in players in teams can adopt a ‘bracketed morality’ in which the “usual moral obligation to equally consider which the “usual moral obligation to equally consider the need and desires of all persons is suspended”the need and desires of all persons is suspended”

In the group aggressive acts can therefore be In the group aggressive acts can therefore be tolerated or condoned if the norm permits ittolerated or condoned if the norm permits it

Bredemeier and Shields (1986) found basketball Bredemeier and Shields (1986) found basketball players gave fewer prosocial and more egocentric players gave fewer prosocial and more egocentric reasons to moral dilemmas in sportreasons to moral dilemmas in sport

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionArousalArousalArousal is heightened with physical Arousal is heightened with physical

exertion and remains elevated for a while exertion and remains elevated for a while thereafterthereafter

Evidence suggests that such arousal may Evidence suggests that such arousal may be misinterpreted as anger or frustration be misinterpreted as anger or frustration c.f. Zillman et al.’s (1974) cycling c.f. Zillman et al.’s (1974) cycling experimentexperiment

Feelings of anger may be elevated in Feelings of anger may be elevated in intense sports and, if the group norm intense sports and, if the group norm legitimises it, may be expressed as legitimises it, may be expressed as aggressionaggression

Factors Influencing AggressionFactors Influencing AggressionHormones and Steroid AbuseHormones and Steroid Abuse One side effect of misuse of steroids for One side effect of misuse of steroids for

performance enhancement is aggressive performance enhancement is aggressive behaviourbehaviour

There is a clear link between aggressive There is a clear link between aggressive behaviour and steroid abuse (Pope & Katz, 1994)behaviour and steroid abuse (Pope & Katz, 1994)

This is particularly the case if the steroid mimics This is particularly the case if the steroid mimics the androgen testosterone, which itself is linked the androgen testosterone, which itself is linked with aggression (van Goozen et al., 1994)with aggression (van Goozen et al., 1994)

Likely to be a small contributing factor but may Likely to be a small contributing factor but may interact with situational factors result in interact with situational factors result in aggressive behaviour in sportaggressive behaviour in sport

Collective AggressionCollective Aggression Collective aggressive behaviour is prevalent in sport, Collective aggressive behaviour is prevalent in sport,

particularly among crowds of spectators or fansparticularly among crowds of spectators or fans In certain sports seems to be very prevalent e.g. In certain sports seems to be very prevalent e.g.

association football but some sports are almost association football but some sports are almost completely immune e.g. cricketcompletely immune e.g. cricket

Sport is ingrained in the social fabric and groups of fans Sport is ingrained in the social fabric and groups of fans mood and emotions, motivation, and personal mood and emotions, motivation, and personal relationships seem to be ensconced in the fortunes of relationships seem to be ensconced in the fortunes of their supported team (e.g., Nick Hornby’s their supported team (e.g., Nick Hornby’s Fever PitchFever Pitch))

Collective AggressionCollective Aggression

Fernquist (2000) found a direct negative Fernquist (2000) found a direct negative correlation between homicide and suicide correlation between homicide and suicide rates and success in local sports teams in rates and success in local sports teams in US cited between 1971 and 1990US cited between 1971 and 1990

Suggested ‘broken promises’ theory – Suggested ‘broken promises’ theory – frustration of unfulfilled hopes of sports frustration of unfulfilled hopes of sports teams lead to social manifestations of teams lead to social manifestations of those negative emotionsthose negative emotions

DefinitionsDefinitions

Collective aggressionCollective aggression: Violent, unified : Violent, unified behaviours displayed by a group or crowd behaviours displayed by a group or crowd of people with intent to cause harm or of people with intent to cause harm or injury to another group or individualinjury to another group or individual

Crowd violenceCrowd violence: A form of collective : A form of collective aggression among sports supporters or aggression among sports supporters or fansfans

HooliganismHooliganism: Crowd violence often : Crowd violence often among fans or supporters of association among fans or supporters of association football teams in Europefootball teams in Europe

Theoretical Accounts of Collective Theoretical Accounts of Collective AggressionAggression

Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory:: Aims to describe the mechanisms by which groups influence Aims to describe the mechanisms by which groups influence

individuals behaviourindividuals behaviour Individuals forgo their individual identity and assume the Individuals forgo their individual identity and assume the

attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and norms of the group = attitudes, beliefs, expectations, and norms of the group = deindividuationdeindividuation

As group members self-esteem is tied in with the fate of the As group members self-esteem is tied in with the fate of the group = a threat to the group is a threat to each individualgroup = a threat to the group is a threat to each individual

Individuals self-stereotype themselves as typical group Individuals self-stereotype themselves as typical group membersmembers

Members from the ingroup (‘us’) are viewed unequivocally Members from the ingroup (‘us’) are viewed unequivocally positively and outgroups (‘them’) likely to be viewed negativelypositively and outgroups (‘them’) likely to be viewed negatively

This can lead to prejudice and discrimination towards outgroup This can lead to prejudice and discrimination towards outgroup membersmembers

Collective Aggression and Social Collective Aggression and Social IdentityIdentity

““I didn’t look hard, in truth: I was nowhere near as big as I I didn’t look hard, in truth: I was nowhere near as big as I should have been, and wore black framed Brains-style should have been, and wore black framed Brains-style National Health reading glasses… But those who mumble National Health reading glasses… But those who mumble about the loss of identity that football fans must endure about the loss of identity that football fans must endure miss the point: this loss of identity can be a paradoxically miss the point: this loss of identity can be a paradoxically enriching process. Who wants to be stuck with who they enriching process. Who wants to be stuck with who they are all the time? I for one wanted time out from being a jug-are all the time? I for one wanted time out from being a jug-eared, bespectacled, suburban twerp once in a while…I eared, bespectacled, suburban twerp once in a while…I knew it wasn’t me that made people hurry to the other side knew it wasn’t me that made people hurry to the other side of the road, it was us, and I was part of us, an organ in the of the road, it was us, and I was part of us, an organ in the hooligan body.”hooligan body.”

Nick Hornby, Nick Hornby, Fever PitchFever Pitch, 1992, 1992

Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory

Deindividuation occurs as group members Deindividuation occurs as group members assume the attributes of prototypical group assume the attributes of prototypical group members (e.g. Nick Hornby’s account)members (e.g. Nick Hornby’s account)

Individuals behave less as individuals and more Individuals behave less as individuals and more as group membersas group members

May result in the expression of values and May result in the expression of values and behaviours not normally expressed as individuals behaviours not normally expressed as individuals (Reicher et al., 1985)(Reicher et al., 1985)

Individual responsibility for actions is reduced as Individual responsibility for actions is reduced as anonymity is pronounced in a group situation anonymity is pronounced in a group situation (Mann, 1981)(Mann, 1981)

Social Identity TheorySocial Identity Theory

In sports situations violence is seldom seen, aggressive In sports situations violence is seldom seen, aggressive behaviours (threats and displays) are often sufficient to behaviours (threats and displays) are often sufficient to galvanize ingroup cohesiveness and self-esteemgalvanize ingroup cohesiveness and self-esteem

Stott et al. (2001) examined aggression and violence at Stott et al. (2001) examined aggression and violence at Euro 2000 association football tournamentEuro 2000 association football tournament

Collective aggression determined by context Collective aggression determined by context (confrontation with outgroup – opposition fans) and (confrontation with outgroup – opposition fans) and collective norms (shared attitudes towards opposition collective norms (shared attitudes towards opposition fans)fans)

Stott (2001) suggests that the relationship between Stott (2001) suggests that the relationship between collective identity and the environment is reciprocal – it is collective identity and the environment is reciprocal – it is partly determined by contextpartly determined by context

Can result in an escalation of aggressive displays which Can result in an escalation of aggressive displays which might lead to actual displays of violencemight lead to actual displays of violence

Documents

Aggression in Sport Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 8, pages 193-208