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AGE OF SPIRITUALITY Late Antique and Early Christian Art 3rd TO
7th CENTURY
The third through the seventh century A. D. was a time of crisis
and transition for the Mediterranean
world. During that period, one thousand years of the classical
world of Greece and Rome came to an end, and the foundations of a
new Christian world were laid. "Age of Spirituality"-the title of
this exhibition-is a term used to describe the essence and vitality
of Late Antique and Early Christian art. The exhibition begins with
powerful portraits of several important third-century Roman
emperors and the first
appearance of Christian art; it ends with Christian art in full
flower, when its imagery dominated all sectors of artistic
production. The exhibition also charts the evolution of the Late
Antique world from its height in the third century, when Rome still
ruled from Egypt to Britain, to its demise at the end of the
seventh, when the empire, having been split in two at the end of
the fourth century, survived as a political unit only in the
northeastern Mediterranean. This was the time when the Early Middle
Ages may be said to have begun. The purpose of this exhibition is
twofold. The
objects assembled explore the survival of classical
culture-through literary traditions, popular games, and images of
the Olympian gods and heroes-
through the sixth and even into the seventh century. They also
demonstrate the evolution toward a fully developed Christian art,
which, while based on classical models, drew freely upon Eastern
and Jewish
motifs to create a truly unique and new spiritualized art form.
Such momentous changes in art and aesthetics were dependent on
cultural and social
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developments in the Late Antique and Early Christian
world. It was a world that suffered from devastating invasions
of nomadic peoples-called "barbarians" by the Romans-on all of its
borders and from severe economic and social turmoil. The age-old
worship of the Greek gods was challenged by mystery religions from
Eastern provinces and was ultimately vanquished by the triumph of
Christianity.
It is our conviction that the study and appreciation of the art
of this complex period can best be under- stood in the context of
these developments. This
exhibition is therefore divided into five realms: the imperial,
classical, secular, Jewish, and Christian. In all the realms the
objects reflect the needs of many diverse patrons, ranging from the
emperor in Constantinople to a Jewish community on the Euphrates
River. Throughout the exhibition photographs of architecture,
sculpture, frescoes, and mosaics are included to provide a more
extensive picture of the artistic achievements of these inventive
centuries. The Age of Spirituality, however, comes to fruition in
the Christian realm, when the patronage of the emperor and bishop
alike focused on the church. Images of Christ's life and passion,
portraits of saints, the precious implements used in the liturgy,
and memen- toes of pilgrimages to holy sites reveal the pervasive
role of art both within and outside the church walls. Christian art
was used as a potent didactic medium, and all methods of
representation- narrative and abbreviated scenes, and iconic
art-were applied to shape and explain religious ideas of the
time.
The exuberant synthesis of uses of art and styles is summed up
in the Christian realm. However, it is the underlying
interdependence of all five contemporary realms that will express
the boundless faith and increasing spirituality of imagery so
characteristic of the Late Antique and Early Christian
centuries.
Credits
Cover Diptych leaf of the Virgin enthroned. ivory, mid-6th
century A. D., Berlin, Staatliche Museen. Preussischer
Kulturbesitz, FrUhchristlich-Byzantinische Sammlung, J565
Text by Sandra Knudsen Morgan Design by Marleen Adlerblum
Consultation by Joan K. Holt. Bulletin Department. Linda J. Lovell.
Department of Public Education, Stephen Zwirn. Department of
Medieval Art
The bracketed numbers in the text refer to the locations of the
objects on the map. page 14
Copyright 1977 The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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I. IMPERIAL REALM
Detail of a statue of the emperor Trebonianus Gallus, bronze, AD
251-253. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 05.30
In the turbulent five centuries covered by this exhibition, the
rule of the Roman emperor dominated life in the Mediterranean
world. The roots of imperial
rule were established by Augustus (31 B. C. -A. D. 14) and
continued to function, at least in the eastern Mediterranean,
throughout the Middle Ages. The
portrait of the emperor, whether pagan or Christian,
and the monuments that commemorated the ceremonial events he
sponsored, such as official processions and public performances,
were everywhere visible. The world he governed in the third
century, and that Justinian ruled in the sixth, comprised most of
the known world.
The Mediterranean Sea was like a Roman lake, a unified
political, geographical, economic, and cultural entity. The
mainstream of Roman culture was Hellenistic culture, which
developed out of the impact and interaction of Greek ways of
thinking on the varied societies conquered by Alexander the Great
in the late fourth century B. C. The Romans adopted Greek culture
by equating Greek gods with their own pantheon, following Greek
models in their art and literature, and applying methods of Greek
science and engineering. They carried this Graeco-Roman culture
from Britain to the Nile, from Spain to the Euphrates. By the third
century, economic unity had
disintegrated within the empire. The internal peace of the first
two centuries A. D. gave way to continual civil wars and barbarian
incursions. The army grew into a dominant political force, and a
huge bureaucracy administered the increasingly complex government.
Rome became an empire of impoverished city dwellers, tenant
farmers, and wealthy landowners,
Medallion of Constantine 1, gold, struck at Siscia AD 325 or
326. Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington, D. C., 49.4
and with the turmoil came a loss of confidence in government.
Some portraits of the third century, a time of almost continuous
civil strife, reveal anxious, furrowed faces like that of the
soldier-emperor Trebonianus Gallus (A. D. 251-253) [I, 11. At the
end of the
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I. IMPERIAL REALM
third century, however, strong leaders, beginning with the
emperor Diocletian (A. D. 285-305), imposed tight autocratic
control on the citizenry. The implacability of the new regime was
reflected in the highly stylized imperial portraits seen in the
first two galleries. Diocletian's abdication in 305 led to the rise
of Constantine (A. D. 306-337), later revered as "Saint" or "the
Great. " In two far-reaching diplomatic decisions, Constantine
determined the religious and military future of the empire: in 313
he championed Christianity and sanctioned religious toleration with
the Edict of Milan, and in 324 he laid out the boundaries of a new
capital city on the shore of the Bosporus at the ancient Greek city
of Byzantium, to be
renamed Constantinople. Constantinople, also known
as the New Rome, became the seat of the "Byzantine" Empire,
which ruled the eastern Mediterranean and endured as its cultural
center until it fell to the Moslem Turks in 1453. The eternal
empire was symbolized, in traditional
Roman fashion, on imperial coins. Roman emperors had long used
their coin issues for propaganda, presenting the ruler on the
obverse, and references to great achievements of the day on the
reverse. Constantine and his successors christianized this imagery.
Following the artistic development toward spiritualization, the
portraits of Constantine and his
sons [I, 2] are less and less individualized. By the sixth
century, a cross or angel alone on a medallion of Justinian
sufficed to connote the triumph of Christian rule over the
world.
In the portraits of Constantine [I, 3], the animation and
realism of earlier Roman portraits (like Trebonianus Gallus) gave
way to spiritualization and introspection. The portrait stresses
his divine qualities and denies his human frailty. The early
sixth-century empress Ariadne [I, 4], wife of Anastasius (A. D.
491-518), is shown carved in ivory, stiffly posed in her robes of
state and bejeweled from head to foot. She has the same remoteness
as the life-sized marble portrait of her displayed nearby. A
similar evolution of style characterized imperial
ceremonial art. Whereas the beautiful sardonyx
Portrait of the emperor Constantine I, marble, about A. D. 325.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Mrs. F. F. Thompson,
26.229
carving called the Belgrade Cameo [I, 5] shows the emperor still
active in battle, on the Barberini Diptych [1,6] the victory is
symbolic, the defeated enemy touching the victor's lance in
submission. In the hunt, symbolic of prowess in war, the emperor or
aristocrat is spectacularly successful. On state occasions, he or
the consuls, high officials of the empire, are depicted on ivory
diptychs (two plaques hinged together) [I, 7] presiding over the
games and chariot races arranged for the amusement of the urban
populace. Gladiatorial combats were made illegal in 405, but animal
hunts, chariot races, and other spectacles were staged on
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I. IMPERIAL REALM
-'I ; `C,
', ( (ti: r'U it ---I.
Diptych panel with the empress Ariadne, ivory, about AD 500 52U.
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, X 39
holidays. The importance of these entertainments is
reflected in the variety of objects that commemorate them, from
consular diptychs in ivory to bronze, glass, and terracotta
objects. 11,81
City hippodromes, like one built in Rome [I, 91 or rebuilt in
Constantinople 1I, 101, were masterpieces for handling crowds.
Another major building type for large groups, but limited to the
most formal ceremony,
was the imperial audience hall, as in Trier [I, 111; such halls
are found throughout the empire, in the fortified palace at Split
11,121, as well as the secluded, but lavishly decorated villa near
Piazza Armerina [1,131. Even in death, the emperors' plans were
grandiose; large mausolea were built to testify to their worldly
glory.
Belgrade Cameo, sardonyx, about AD 325-350. National Museum,
Belgrade
In 395 the empire was divided into East and West, with separate
emperors for administrative purposes. During the fifth century, the
Western empire slowly disintegrated. Successive waves of barbarian
peoples sought to enter the empire, at first peacefully but soon by
force. The city of Rome itself was sacked in 410 and 455. In 476
the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus, was removed
from the throne and replaced by the barbarian Rugian king Odovacar.
By that time not only Italy but Gaul, Spain, and North Africa as
well were in the hands of barbarian conquerors.
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II. CLASSICAL REALM
Detail of the Oceanus plate, silver, fourth century Au The
British Museum, London, 1946.10-7.1
The classical realm demonstrates the continuous presence of the
ancient gods and heroes in art and literature throughout the entire
period covered by tI exhibition. Even after the emperor adopted
Christianity, the study of Greek and Latin poetry and rhetoric
continued until 529, at the academy of Athens. Augustine and the
Greek church fathers Basil, John Chrysostom, and Gregory Nazianzus,
infused Christian theology with classical learning. Admiration for
the past kept the pagan philosophers and poets as well as the gods
alive in art and writing. Respect for the old architectural forms
was demonstrated in newly built Christian churches, where lacy
capitals and graceful entablatures topped shafts of ancient
columns. A few of the great aristocratic families of the late
empire resisted the encroachment of the new religion. Wealthy
and cultivated, these families were great patrons of the arts; but
this influential minority was unable to prevent the abolishment of
public pagan worship by the imperial decree of the emperor
Theodosius in 391. The aristocratic classical revivals produced
some of the finest works of Late Antique art
that have survived. On a lanx, a ritual tray, and on a situla,
or ritual pail [II, 141, figures of the Olympian gods and their
retinues are elegantly and gracefully posed. The images are
strongly traditional, with a smooth, decorative quality of their
own. On the huge silver plate [II, 151from the mid-fourth-
century Mildenhall Treasure in England a central mask of Oceanus
(the personification of Ocean), with dolphins in his hair, is
surrounded by a revelry of drunken satyrs and maenads in honor of
the wine god Dionysos. On the two leaves of the ivory diptych
[11,161
Diptych of the Nicomachi (left) and the Symmachi (right), ivory,
about AD 388-401. Muse de Cluny, Paris, Cl 17.048 (left) and
Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 212-1865 (right)
possibly made to celebrate a marriage between the aristocratic
families, the Nicomachi and the Symmachi, a sacrifice to Dionysos,
Zeus, and Cybele takes place under the supervision of two elegant
priestesses. The exquisite carving and masterful representation of
the
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II. CLASSICAL REALM
figures recall the art of the past; but even these deliberately
classicizing works show elements of a new abstraction, such as the
shallow space or the priestess's foot overlapping the border.
Images of the pagan gods thus survived long after
their public worship was banned. Knowledge of the classical
cults remained a mark of culture in the Early Christian world, and
clandestine worship of some of these pagan deities survived after
the triumph of Christianity. The benevolent Mithras-who slew the
world bull-introduced from Persia, and the compassionate Isis from
Egypt [11,17] offered comfort in this life and salvation in the
next to initiates of their mysteries. The ancient Olympian god
Dionysos, deity of wine and fertility, also offered a strongly
emotional ritual. Images of the god and his followers, satyrs and
maenads 111,18], were fashioned as late as the sixth and seventh
centuries. The art of these cults often reveals the popular, almost
nive, style of the outlying provinces of the empire, particularly
in the East and in Egypt. In contrast with more classicizing
pieces, these objects are flat, colorful, and ornamental.
The classical tradition of personifying cities, rivers, and the
seasons survives to this day in decorative art. The muses and
heroes like Herakles and Achilles continued to be praised in
Christian art and literature as ideals of personal virtue and
prowess to the end of the Middle Ages and into the modern era. The
wealthy intelligentsia also cultivated literary
pursuits. Some of the greatest treasures of the fourth through
seventh century are lavishly illuminated manuscripts. In the first
to third century, the scroll was gradually replaced by the
flat-bound codex, the form of book still used today. As much care
as that given a fresco or mosaic was lavished on the illustration
of its pages. The lively stories of the Iliad and the Aeneid were
favorite texts, but treatises on astronomy like the Aratea 111,19],
a verse compilation of astronomical facts and mythological tales
associated with the constellations, were decorated with equal care
and inspiration, as were the plants painstakingly de- picted in the
herbal of Dioscurides 111,201. The texts and illustrations were
copied laboriously but copiously by
Andromeda, folio 30v of the Aratea of Germanicus Claudius
Caesar,
parchment, second quarter of the ninth century A. D. copy of a
fourth
or fifth century manuscript. Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit,
Leiden, Voss. lat. qu. 79
hand. Copies circulated so widely, from Egypt to Britain, that
the same scene from a poem like the story of Achilles might be used
as the model for a sculpture in Rome, a mosaic in Cyprus, a silver
plate in Gaul, or a textile in Egypt. A third-century Tunisian
mosaic of a poet and an
actor [11,211 reflects a fascination with the works of classical
and Hellenistic playwrights. The seated poet may be a portrait of
the house-holder himself, since his hair and beard are in the style
of the third century and he has individualized features. An
extremely popular branch of classical writing that exerted a
particularly strong impact on Christian art was bucolic poetry[II,
22J. Happy country life suggested to the Christian what he might
expect in paradise.
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MAP OF THE GALLERIES
F4O
EXIT
39
35
V
37
33 38
77
36 it 32
V
[-TiFF IV
29 31
III
I. IMPERIAL REALM II. CLASSICAL REALM III. SECULAR REALM IV.
JEWISH REALM V. CHRISTIAN REALM
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II
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15
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27 O
i 23 26 24, '
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II 20 19
Q-' 1 (second floor balcony)
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III. SECULAR REALM
Projecta's casket, silver and silver gilt, mid-fourth century A.
D. The British Museum, London, 66.12-29.1
The secular realm includes art produced for daily use for people
in every walk of life, and representations of some of the most
common occupations. A relief [III, 231, for instance, portrays a
wine merchant in his shop, while a fragment of a gold glass bowl
[III, 24] represents a young couple's wedding, as they hold hands
over an altar and are exhorted to "live in God. " Many of the
objects included in this section are rich and splendid, made to
display the wealth and taste of the owner. The great aristocratic
families imitated the life of the imperial court, sometimes on a
scarcely less lavish scale, with a retinue of servants, clients,
and tenant farmers who made luxurious life possible. The waterfront
villa of a wealthy landowner is represented half naturalistically
and half symbolically on the central medallion of a large silver
dish [III, 25]. The buildings, surrounded by a wall, face a lake or
ocean bay teeming with marine creatures, who are hunted by mythical
Erotes, or Cupids, in boats. Many great treasure hoards have been
found from this period, valuables hidden in times of danger and
never recovered by their owners. The
magnificent Esquiline Treasure, discovered in Rome in 1793,
includes among its most spectacular pieces a large silver-gilt
casket [III, 26] made for the Christian wedding of a woman named
Projecta and L. Turcius Secundus. The casket was probably meant to
contain
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III. SECULAR REALM
Detail of a bust of a lady of rank, marble, about A. D. 500-525.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cloisters Fund, 66.25
jewelry, combs, and toilet articles. It is decorated with
portraits of Projecta and her husband on the lid, surrounded by
traditional pagan Roman images of the bride being led to her
wedding, while Aphrodite,
goddess of love, adorns herself to attend the ceremony. Below,
Projecta sits in the central arcaded panel preparing her toilet
with the aid of her handmaidens.
Sculpted and painted portraits were among the glories of Roman
art of the Republican and early imperial periods. Before the
tradition came to an end in the sixth century, this portrait of a
lady of rank [III, 27] was carved. The bust exemplifies the finest
qualities of Late Antique sculpture, with its delicately rounded
features, melancholy gaze, and highly polished surfaces. The scroll
in the lady's hand signifies her learning. This late style of
portraiture concentrates typically on the intellectual or spiritual
essence of the subject and not her personality.
Some personal possessions were apparently imperial gifts to
officials at coronations and special court ceremonies. A heavy gold
necklace [III, 281, consisting of sixteen imperial coins and
medallions of different emperors of the late sixth and early
seventh centuries plus a massive central medallion of an
Detail of a pectoral, gold, early seventh century AD Staatliche
Museen, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Antikenabteilung, Berlin,
30219.506. Photo: Ingrid Geske
unidentifiable emperor, clearly had an imperial function.
Attached to this expression of loyalty to the state is a large
pendant medallion with two Christian
scenes-the Annunciation and the Marriage at Cana. The close
interrelationship between church and state is evident.
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IV. JEWISH REALM
Cup bottom with Ark of the Covenant, gold glass, first half of
the fourth century AD The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund,
18.145.1a, b
A Jewish realm is included in the exhibition because of the
importance of Judaic antecedents for the Christian approach to
history and art. The monotheism of the Jewish people did not permit
cult images of god, and for centuries the Jews' refusal to worship
Greek or Roman cults caused them grief. The ill-fated revolt under
Vespasian (A. D. 69-79) led to the sack of Jerusalem and the
destruction of Solomon's great temple. The temple is remembered in
many later Jewish art monuments throughout the empire.
Christianity began as an offshoot of Judaism and owed much to
the force of the Judaic moral code. The new church, however, owed
not only theological but artistic debts to Judaism. While abhorring
the Greek tradition of cult images, Jewish artists did adopt the
Graeco-Roman custom of symbolic representations IIV, 291 and
narrative illustration applied to their holy stories. A small
synagogue discovered in 1932 at Dura-Europos, a frontier garrison
town on the Euphrates River, has walls covered with elaborate
frescoes of narrative sequences from several Old Testament
books, particularly the stories of Moses from Exodus, David from
the Books of Kings, the prophet Ezekiel, and Esther. In the gallery
is displayed
a photographic reconstruction of the frescoed walls on a reduced
scale [IV, 301. The local artists combined traditional Graeco-Roman
and Oriental dress and gestures and showed a preference for strong
simple color, stiff frontal poses, and virtually no background
detail. In some cities in the fifth and sixth centuries,
congregations ornamented their places of worship lavishly with
mosaic pavements. These included
WIA Floor mosaic from the nave of a synagogue at Beit Shan
(photomontage), sixth century A. D. Photo: Israel Museum,
Jerusalem
allegorical pagan images like Helios, the sun god, surrounded by
the symbols of the constellations and representations of the Torah
shrine, container of the Pentateuch, the first five books of the
Bible,
surrounded by seven-branched candlesticks, or menorahs, incense
shovels, and shofars, or ceremonial rams' horns [IV, 311. These
mosaics are as decorative as colorful carpets, for which they
served as durable
substitutes.
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V. CHRISTIAN REALM
j( , Li,, a, ir'till d1l''Llt Ih' Clrcrl; uul MuSrUIn t)(
Art, John L. Severance Fund, 65.238
In its first two difficult centuries of existence, Christian art
hardly existed at all. In the beginning, Christians, because of
initial hostility to representational art, expressed their faith
through simple symbols as the fish, cross, dove, and anchor. With
time and imperial patronage, the early small communities became
large congregations. The "Fathers of the Church, " like Basil, John
Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzus in the East, and Jerome and Augustine
in the West began to formulate Christian
doctrine, and religious leaders and advisors like Eusebius,
bishop of Caesarea in Palestine during the reign of Constantine,
wrote history from the Christian viewpoint. By the third century,
with a growing body
of converts, didactic illustration became more and more
important. At the same time, funerary paintings in the catacombs of
Rome, with their abbreviated representations like the Three Hebrews
in the Fiery Furnace, or the Raising of Lazarus emphasized themes
of salvation and life after death. In rare instances
three-dimensional sculpture survives, such as the series from Asia
Minor, of A. D. 250-275, devoted to the Good Shepherd and the story
of Jonah. The images of Jonah swallowed by the sea monster and cast
up again three days later [V, 32[ were interpreted by Christian
theologians as prefiguring the death and resurrection of Christ.
Christian imagery was deeply rooted in classical
art, both in style and in subject matter. The iconography of
Christ is a striking example: as the shepherd of men, he probably
is represented as a lamb-bearer on a sarcophagus [V, 331; as a
teacher, he is
surrounded, like a philosopher, by disciples on a gold- glass
bowl [V, 341; as the omnipotent deity, he sits like the emperor on
a jeweled throne on an ivory diptych [V, 351. One of the most
magnificent survivals from the
seventh century is a series of nine silver plates, found in 1902
in northern Cyprus, decorated with scenes of the early life of King
David [V, 361. The illustrations
are centered on David's single-handed defeat of the Philistine
champion Goliath, as represented on the largest plate. Implied here
is a commemoration of the defeat of the Persians by the emperor
Heraclius about 627. Heraclius had challenged and defeated the
enemy general Razatis in hand-to-hand combat and went on to
reconquer Jerusalem. Events in David's life are represented
according to a variety of antique models. Fighting bear and lion as
a shepherd boy, he is drawn
as Herakles; David's marriage to King Saul's daughter Michal is
depicted with full court ceremony. Dressed
as a Byzantine prince, David takes Michal's hand, with Saul's
blessing, under an arcade that suggests a palace.
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V. CHRISTIAN REALM
The Holy Scriptures were central to Christian lif(- and thought,
and by the third century, as suggested h% the frescoes in the
Christian baptistry of Dura, artists embarked on cycles of
illustration adapting the principle of the illumination of the
Greek and Latin epics. Fragments of illuminated Old and New
Testament codices have survived the centuries to show the minute
detail with which the Scriptures could be illustrated, like that
lavished upon the numerous small scenes on each page of the
Ashburnham Pentateuch and the rich gold lettering on purple vellum
of the
Marriage of David and Micbal, silver plate, about A. D. 628-630.
Cyprus Museum, Nicosia, J452
Codex Sinopensis [V, 371 which was an imperial commission. Ivory
plaques for caskets could also narrate a series of scriptural
events or single, abbreviated representations of the symbolic
importance of a story.
I Virgin enthroned, wool texulr, sixth (rntury AD The
Cleveland Museum of Art, Leonard C. Hanna, Jr. Bequest,
67.144
In the fourth century, the development of a more hieratic and
spiritual approach began to transform Christian as well as secular
art. Iconic representations were one of the major forms of the new
style. Power- ful and spiritually uplifting images of Christ, the
Virgin, and saints as well as those of Christian
emperors were created and venerated. They are por-
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V. CHRISTIAN REALM
traits in the Roman tradition, but their spiritual presence is
more important than physical verisimili. tude. Few painted panels,
a most important medium for iconic representations, have survived,
but other arts-mosaic, fresco, ivory, textile-also epitomize the
iconic concept transmitted through a conscious demate- rialization
and spiritualization of form. A large, well- preserved textile from
Egypt (V, 38] represents the Virgin in Majesty. Mary and the Christ
Child wear the imperial purple and gold. They sit stiffly and
rigidly frontal on a throne flanked by angels, with the risen
Christ enthroned in a mandorla above. The forms are geometric and
abstracted, colors are flat, and all elements of the design
emphasize the spiritual and didactic message of the Virgin as the
Mother of God. Christian life urged repudiation of the
temptations
and duties of the world in order to perfect one's spiritual life
and prepare for the imminent Day of Judgment. Moreover, thousands
of men and women sought to escape the claims of family, class, or
state, and to purify themselves by retreating into asceticism.
Others sought God alone in the wilderness, first in solitude and
later grouped into loosely formed communities and finally in
monasteries, where a regulated life of work and prayer was
established. A few particularly charismatic saints collected
followers in their own lifetimes. In the wastelands of northern
Syria, Saint Symeon (died A. D. 459) attracted attention by living
thirty-seven years on top of a column, refusing to be part of the
corrupt life of the world below. An enormous monastery was erected
at Qa'lat Sim'an around his column, and the curious and the devout
made pilgrimages to the site. Other pilgrims went to venerate St.
Peter in Rome, the place of his martyrdom, or to the sites of
Christ's ministry and passion in the Holy Land. Large pilgrimage
churches like the Holy Sepulcher, the Martyrium, the Church on the
Mount of Olives, and other locations in Jerusalem were built.
Souvenirs were sold at the sites; most popular were the lead and
terracotta flasks (V, 391 decorated with the scenes of a shrine
that were usually filled with oil taken from the shrine's lamps. As
Christianity became the religion of an empire,
Reliquary for a fragment of the True Cross, silver gilt, enamel
and niello, late seventh-early eighth century A. D.. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan,
17.190.715
its ceremony became more elaborate. Instead of the simple
sharing of bread and wine in a private house that had been the
communion of early Christians, the Christian community now had
elaborate churches in
which to celebrate the liturgy or the mass. For these
celebrations huge, complex buildings were required, the most
notable of which are the basilica of St. Peter commissioned by
Constantine after 313 and the magnificent domed structure of Hagia
Sophia ("Holy
24 25
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TIME LINE
Wisdom"), re-dedicated by Justinian in 537. The
photographs show the diversity in plan used for
churches during this period. Variants depended on many factors,
such as local architectural traditions, different liturgical
customs, as well as patronage- imperial, episcopal, monastic. The
rededication of existing buildings was also a significant factor
in
establishing important types of plans which continued to be
influential throughout the Middle Ages. Mosaics
and frescoes decorated walls, ceilings, and floors. The apse,
the focal point of the church where the altar stood, was richly
decorated with images symbolic of Christ as savior and ruler of the
world, and in
symbolic form, of the Last Judgment. During the liturgy, dozens
of priests and deacons
led the congregation in preparing and administering the
Eucharist, the sacrificial bread and wine symbolizing Christ's body
and blood. Splendid vessels and ornaments were created for the
service. The altar replica in the last gallery displays some of the
implements that were used-chalices for the wine, patens for the
bread, book covers for the Gospels, flabella, or fans, to keep the
flies away, candlesticks, spoons and vases for various usage. In
places of special veneration-usually under the altar-were
reliquaries containing remains of Christian saints and martyrs. The
silver-gilt and enamel reliquary [V, 401 was made to hold a
fragment of the True Cross. Its luminous colors and flat pattern
emphasize the otherworldliness of the scene. Christ is represented
alive on the cross, the conqueror of death. He is mourned by the
Virgin
and John and surrounded by portraits of saints and martyrs, many
of whom lived and died in the Holy Land, where the reliquary was
probably made. The Age of Spirituality ends here with a new
beginning. The Christian Byzantine world arose out of the old
classical world. The cultural, political, and artistic roots can be
traced back to the time of the emperor Constantine and even
earlier. The Early Christian world, in both Eastern and Western
Europe,
owed a tremendous debt to the classical heritage-a heritage
passed in turn to the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the modern
world.
A. D. 248 1000th Anniversary of Rome
303-305 The last Christian persecutions under Diocletian
306-337 Constantine, emperor
312 Constantine defeats Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian
Bridge
313 Edict of Milan sanctions religious tolerance
325 First ecumenical church council at Nicaea
330 City of Constantinople dedicated
300-350 Beginnings of monasticism in Egypt
361-363 Julian the Apostate revives classical cults 391 Imperial
edict prohibits worship of pagan gods 395 Empire divided into East
and West
ca. 400 St. Peter's basilica in Rome completed 404 Ravenna
becomes capital of the Western
Empire
410 Rome sacked by the Visigoths under Alaric
455 Rome sacked by the Vandals under Gaiseric
476 Abdication of Romulus Augustulus and the end of the Roman
Empire in the West
520 First Benedictine monastery founded
527-565 Justinian I, emperor 532-537 Church of Hagia Sophia
rebuilt in
Constantinople
610-641 Heraclius, emperor
614 Jerusalem captured by the Persians
632 Death of Mohammed, founder of Islam
673 Constantinople beseiged by Moslems for the first time
This brochure was made possible by a grant from the National
Endowment for the Humanities.
The exhibition has been made possible by a grant from the
National Endowment for the Humanities, a matching grant from The
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, and a grant from
the Robert Wood Johnson Jr. Charitable Trust. Under the Arts and
Artifacts Indemnity Act, indemnity was granted by the Federal
Council on the Arts and the Humanities.
26 27
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NOVEMBER 19,1977- FEBRUARY 12,1978
AGE OF SPIRITUALITY Late Antique and Early Christian Art 3rd TO
7th CENTURY
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART Fifth Avenue and 82nd Street/New
York, New York 10028
Telephone (General Information) 535.7710 (Offices) 879.5500
Hours: Tuesdays 10: 00-8: 45, Wednesday through Saturday 10:
00-4: 45, Sundays and holidays, 11: 00-4: 45. Closed Mondays and
November 24, December 25 and January 1.
Admission charges: There is a suggested $2.00 admission policy;
give what you can but you must contribute something. No additional
charge for special exhibitions. Members and senior citizens, and
New York City school groups admitted free. Fee to school groups
outside New York City, $5.00.
Group visits to the special exhibition: A limited number of
elementary and high school groups will be admitted Tuesday through
Friday, by appointment only. Reservations should be made well in
advance. Please call the Appointments office, junior Museum, ext.
308. Adults may view the exhibition individually; no group
appointments may be made.
Access to the Museum for visitors in wheelchairs: There is a
ramp entrance to the Museum at 81st Street. Wheelchairs are
available at the 81st Street entrance, but it is advisable to call
ext. 201 to reserve a wheelchair.
Films and lectures will be scheduled in the Grace Rainey Rogers
Auditorium during the exhibition. A list of films and lectures
relating to the exhibition is available at the Information Desk
or by telephone request to the Department of Public Education, ext.
307.
A recorded tour prepared by the Department of Medieval Art
is
available to the museum visitor at a rental fee of $1.50. The
Audio- guide is offered at a discount to members and for groups of
six or more. Please call the Audioguide Desk, ext. 672 for
information and reservations.
Special publications: A fully illustrated catalogue of the
exhibition, with additional photographic material and essays,
edited by Professor Kurt Weitzmann, principal organizer of the
exhibition, will be forthcoming. Catalogue orders may be placed
with the Museum Bookshop. A picture book on the exhibition may
be
purchased for $2.95. A SoundSlide kit on the exhibition, with 40
color slides and text, is available for purchase ($14.95).
No photography is permitted in the exhibition.
Slides of a broad coverage of objects in the exhibition are
available for rental from the Slide Library, ext. 261. Nominal
rental fees are charged.
