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Age of Metternich. European Leaders try to repair Europe. Dual Revolution. Economic Revolution: England’s Industrial Rev Political Revolution: France’s Revolution Had been separate until 1815 Two countries, two different paces - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Age of Metternich
European Leaders try to repair Europe
Dual Revolution
Economic Revolution: England’s Industrial Rev Political Revolution: France’s Revolution
Had been separate until 1815 Two countries, two different paces
After 1815, these two forces began to fuse, reinforcing each other Dual Revolution
Example: industrial middle class drove the push for representative government; sans-cullottes inspired socialist thinkers
Most of world history in last 200 years is about this fusion
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
International Congress whose statesmen met in Vienna to determine the details of the peace settlement
The objective was to reestablish a conservative order in Europe following years of upheaval and war as a result of the French Revolution and Napoleon.
Dominated by the figure of Metternich, the foreign minister of Austria, thus. “Age of Metternich”
He hated liberalism, nationalism, revolution, anything that smacked of “republicanism”
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
Blamed liberal middle class revolutionaries for stirring up the lower classes
Doubly dangerous since liberalism went hand in hand with national aspirations
Liberalism, therefore supported the idea of national self-determination
This threatened the aristocracy Also would destroy Austrian Empire since most of the
Empire was composed of subject ethnic groups
Carlsbad Decrees: 1819
Metternich’s policies dominated Austria, Italian peninsula & German Confederation 38 independent German states, including
Prussia and Austria Met in complicated assemblies dominated by
Austria with Prussia, a willing junior partner 1819: Metternich passed Carlsbad Decrees
Required that all 38 member states root out subversive ideas in their universities & newspapers
Congress of Vienna
Dominated by “conservatism” Wanted Europe to forget about Napoleon, the French
Revolution, and the Enlightenment Wanted to achieve a “balance of power” in Europe
Power between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France
Wanted “legitimacy” to return rightful monarchs or their heirs to their thrones
Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolutions in France spread conservative ideas throughout Europe
Austria: Count Klemmens Von Metternich
Great BritainViscount Robert Castlereigh
PrussiaKarl August von Hardenberg
FranceCharles Maurice de Talleyrand
RussiaAlexander I
Congress of Vienna
First Treaty of Paris (May 1814) France lost all its conquests of revolutionary and
Napoleonic periods Permitted to retain its frontiers of 1792 Regained almost all colonies; not required to pay an
indemnity Napoleon’s 100 Days interrupted the proceedings Second Treaty of Paris (November 1915) After Waterloo, the allies imposed a more severe
treaty than the first one
Congress of Vienna
Second Treaty of Paris France was reduced to the borders of 1790 French required to pay an indemnity of 700 million
francs to the allies and to accept allied military occupation of 17 French
forts for 5 years.
The Holy Alliance: Sept. 1815
Proposed by Tsar Alexander I Signed by rulers of Russia, Prussia, and
Austria Pledged to observe Christian principles in
both domestic and international affairs
The Quadruple Alliance: Nov. 1815 Signed by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and
Russia Agreed to maintain the alliance that had
defeated Napoleon To meet periodically in concerts to discuss
issues of mutual concern Concert of Europe: would lead to the
preservation of the balance of power and the conservative order established in Vienna
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle: 1818
France had paid its indemnity Members of the Quadruple Alliance decided
that France should be freed from occupation France rejoins the ranks of the great powers
Now the Quintuple Alliance Alexander I proposed they should support
existing governments and frontiers in Europe Castlereagh rejects this; first break in the
accord
Congress of Troppau: 1820
Spain: revolutionaries rose up & forced the kings of Spain & Kingdom of Two Sicilies to grant liberal constitutions
Metternich and Alexander I: principle of active intervention in other countries to oppose revolutions
British objected to policy of intervention
Congress of Laibach: 1821
Authorized Austria to suppress the revolution in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies She did so
Breach between Britain and three conservative powers widened at this congress
Congress of Verona: 1822
Last of the congresses Authorized France to intervene in Spain Spanish king reestablished absolute power Castlereagh’s successor, George Canning
finally withdrew Britain from the Quintuple Alliance
Britain’s Opposition to Intervention & the Monroe Doctrine Without Britain’s naval power, conservative
powers were unable to suppress the revolts in Latin America
British opposed intervention for 2 reasons: On principle, was unfair Didn’t want any interference with their
profitable trade with Latin America Canning proposed Great Britain & U.S. join in
a declaration against any European intervention in the Western Hemisphere
Britain’s Opposition to Intervention & the Monroe Doctrine Americans acted independently Monroe Doctrine, 1823: The U.S. would oppose intervention and any
further colonization by the European powers in the Western Hemisphere
Great Britain endorsed Monroe Doctrine Both U.S. & Britain began to grant formal
diplomatic recognition to new L. A. republics
1815 Europe
Liberalism
Metternich wanted conservatism Liberalism was dominant among the
commoners who didn’t benefit from noble privilege
Liberalism was defined by freedoms – freedom of speech, religion, and the press
Liberalism stressed constitutional monarchies Liberalism stressed meritocracy – value in
what you achieve, not who you were born to
Liberalism
Only France with Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter
And Britain with its Parliament & historic rights had realized much of the liberal program in 1815
Economic Liberalism
Opponents of liberalism criticized its economic principles which called for unrestricted private enterprise & no government interference in the economy
Known as Laissez-faire Often called Classic Liberalism in U.S. in
order to differentiate it from modern American liberalism which usually favors more government programs to meet social needs & to regulate the economy
Economic Liberalism
This type of classical (economic) liberalism, was supported by business groups & became a doctrine associated with business interests
Businessmen used the doctrine to defend their right to do as they wished in their factories.
Labor unions were outlawed because they supposedly restricted free competition & the individual’s “right to work”
Nationalism
Hotbeds were in Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire
Argued that each people had its own genius & its own cultural unity
Glorified the past and culture of unified groups
Sought to turn the cultural unity that they felt into a political reality
Nationalism
Complex industrial urban society requiring better communications: standardized national language
When a minority population grew large, a nationalist campaign for a standardized language often led to a push for a separate nation-state
Nationalism
Between 1815-1850, people who believed in nationalism, believed in either liberalism or radical, democratic republicanism. Liberals & democrats saw the people as
ultimate source of all government Early nationalists believed every nation, like
every citizen, had the right to exist in freedom, to develop its own character and spirit
Once this was achieved, then a symphony of nations would promote the harmony and unity of all peoples
Nationalism
Early nationalists stressed differences among peoples
Strong sense of “We” & “They” A sense of national mission A sense of national superiority
Early nationalism: ambiguous Below the surface lurked ideas of national
superiority, national mission These ideas could lead to aggression &
conflict
Utilitarianism
The greatest good for the greatest number. Normally associated with liberalism – the greatest
numbers were non-nobles Jeremy Bentham – father of Said government should only interfere in people’s
lives to bring order and harmony John Stuart Mill said the role of the government is to
help people achieve happiness Mill’s On Liberty and On the Subjection of Women
outlined utilitarianism and feminism
French Utopian Socialism
They were aware that the political revolution in France, the rise of laissez-faire, and the emergence of modern industry were transforming society
They saw these as fomenting selfish individualism & splitting the community into isolated fragments
Urgent need to reorganize society to establish cooperation & new sense of community
French Utopian Socialism
3 principles of early French Utopian Socialism Economic planning (emergency measures of
1793-94) Intense desire to help the poor; rich and poor
should be more equal economically Private property should be regulated by the
government/or abolished and replaced by state or community ownership
PLANNING, GREATER ECONOMIC EQUALITY, STATE REGULATION OF PROPERTY!
Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) Key to progress was proper social organization! Parasites: court, aristocracy, lawyers,
churchmen must give way to the Doers: leading scientists, engineers,
industrialists Who would carefully plan the economy, guide it
forward with vast public works projects, establish investment banks
Every social institution ought to improve conditions of the poor
Charles Fourier (1772-1837)
Self-sufficient communities of 1,620 people living communally on 5,000 acres devoted to combination of agriculture & industry Women should be totally emancipated Critical of middle-class family life
Marriages only another kind of prostitution Young women “sold” to men for their dowries Abolition of marriage/ Free unions based only on
love & sexual freedom The socialist link to liberation of women may have
hindered the women’s movement in future
Louis Blanc (1811-1881)
Wrote Organization of Work Urged workers to demand universal voting
rights Take control of the state peacefully Government-backed workshops & factories to
guarantee full employment Right to work as sacred as any other right
Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-65)
Wrote What is Property? Nothing but theft Property was profit stolen from the worker,
who was source of all wealth Different from socialists in that he feared the
power of the state Often considered an anarchist
Early French Utopian Socialism
Message was linked to the experience of French urban workers
Memory of radical phase of French Rev. Its efforts to regulate economic life & protect
the poor Skilled artisans who believed in guilds came to
oppose laissez-faire laws that denied workers the right to organize and promoted brutal, unrestrained competition instead
Marxian Socialism Karl Marx: (1818-1883)
Karl Marx
The Communist Manifesto: “the history of all previously existing society is the history of class struggles”
Ridicules early socialists as naïve to appeal to the middle-class and the poor
Interests of these two classes were inevitably opposed to each other
Karl Marx
One class had always exploited the other With modern industry, society now clearly
more split Middle-class: bourgeoisie Modern working class: proletariat Bourgeoisie had triumphed over feudal
aristocracy Marx predicted that proletariat would conquer
the bourgeoisie
Karl Marx
How would this happen? Bourgeoisie was tiny minority: they owned the
means of production As this tiny bourgeoisie grew richer, the
proletariat would continue to grow in size & in class-consciousness
Portion of the bourgeoisie would join the proletariat as “they raised themselves to the level of comprehending theoretically the historical moment”
Karl Marx
The critical moment of takeover of the means of production by the proletariat was very near “The ruling classes tremble at a Communist
revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE”
Karl Marx
Marx stressed that the bourgeoisie historically, “has played a most revolutionary part” During its rule of less than 100 years, it had
created more massive and more colossal productive forces than all preceding generations together.
Karl Marx
Ideas united sociology, economics and all human history together
Combined French utopian schemes, English classical economics, German philosophy, Engels’ critique of the oppressive factory system, Proudhon’s view of labor as the source of all value
His doctrines seemed to be based on hard facts
Historical evolution
Georg Hegel: (1770-1831) German philosopher
Each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas: thesis
Opposing ideas challenge this: antithesis Eventually new idea is accepted: synthesis Synthesis evolves into new thesis Historical evolution will again challenge the
thesis and so on
Historical evolution
According to Marx, it was now the bourgeoisie’s turn to give way to the socialism of revolutionary workers
Thing about Marx’s theory: appeared the irrefutable interpretation of humanity’s long development
In other words, revolution of the proletariat was inevitable
Created one of the great secular religions out of the intellectual ferment of the early 19th c
Romanticism
Early romantic German philosophers Sturm and Drang (Storm and Stress) Tremendous emotional intensity Suicides, duels to the death, madness,
strange illnesses all characterize leading romantics
Artists typically led bohemian lives, wore long hair
Rejected materialism
Romanticism
Driven by sense of unlimited universe Yearning for the unattained, the unknown, the
unknowable Nature: they were enchanted by it “A blade of grass is always a blade of grass;
men and women are my subjects of inquiry.” Nature as beautiful and chaste Saw modern industry as ugly, brutal attack on
their beloved nature & human personality
Romanticism
Fascinated by color and diversity Turned toward history with passion Key to universe was now organic & dynamic Not mechanical & static as the Enlightenment
had been Historical studies promoted growth of national
aspirations
Greece breaks free from Ottoman Empire: 1830 Alexander Ypsilanti: leader of Greek
independence against Ottoman Empire Metternich opposed even if it was against the
Turks Romantics such as Byron, Shelley and liberal
intellectuals agitate for the liberation of the “birth of western civilization” from the Turks
1827: Britain, France & Russia pressured by popular demands at home pay more attention to the Greek problem
Greece breaks free from Ottoman Empire: 1830 1827: Great Britain, France, and Russia
intervened, and destroyed a Turkish-Egyptian fleet in the Battle of Navarino.
Russia declared war on Turkey in 1828, invaded Bulgaria, and seized Adrianople, where Turkey was forced to sign peace terms.
Treaty of Adrianople, 1830: granted independence to Greece
Romantics were happy!
Romanticism in Literature
William Wordsworth Samuel Taylor Coleridge Lord Byron Percy Bysshe Shelley John Keats Walter Scott Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Germaine de Stael Victor Hugo
Romanticism in Literature
I WANDER'D lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o'er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
1804: Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Romanticism in Literature
Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness, Thou foster-child of silence and slow time, Sylvan historian, who canst thus express A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme: What leaf-fring'd legend haunt about thy shape
Of deities or mortals, or of both,
John Keats
Romanticism in Literature
She walks in beauty, like the nightOf cloudless climes and starry skies;And all that's best of dark and brightMeet in her aspect and her eyes:Thus mellowed to that tender lightWhich heaven to gaudy day denies.
Lord Byron
Romanticism in Literature
O WORLD! O life! O time! On whose last steps I climb, Trembling at that where I had stood before; When will return the glory of your prime? No more -- oh, never more!
Percy Shelley
Romanticism in Literature
“I am alone and miserable; man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me. My companion must be of the same species and have the same defects. This being you must create.”
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley
The Revolutions of 1830 Belgium
The Belgians (Catholics) inspired by the French revolted against the Dutch Protestants. Russian troops were sent to suppress this revolution,
but Poland got in the way. England later suggested and got an agreement by all
the Great Powers to leave Belgium alone and make her a neutral country. (Neutrality Agreement 1931)
Belgium established a liberal constitutional monarchy and became a prosperous small country.
The Revolutions of 1830 Belgium
The Belgians (Catholics) inspired by the French revolted against the Dutch Protestants. Russian troops were sent to suppress this revolution,
but Poland got in the way. England later suggested and got an agreement by all
the Great Powers to leave Belgium alone and make her a neutral country. (Neutrality Agreement 1931)
Belgium established a liberal constitutional monarchy and became a prosperous small country.
The Revolutions of 1830 Italy
Northern Italy—Modena, Parma, and Papal States—saw outbreaks of liberal discontent.
Italian nationalists called for unification. Guiseppe Mazzini and his secret revolutionary
society—Young Italy. The Carbonari: secret nationalist societies
advocated force to achieve national unification. Austrian troops under Metternich’s enforcement of
the Concert of Europe’s philosophy crushed the disorganized revolutionaries.
Italian Risorgimento (“resurgence” of the Italian spirit) continued—Mazzini’s dream
The Revolutions of 1848
In 1848, liberal revolutions broke out throughout Europe. Although, at first, they appeared to be spectacularly successful, in the end, all the revolutions failed.
In general, revolutions occurred where governments were distrusted and where the fear and resentment fed by rising food prices and unemployment found focus in political demands.
Importance of The Revolutions of 1848 In the end, the revolutions failed b/c the
revolutionaries found themselves divided, and also, because the original governments still had the power and will to survive.
Sometimes 1848 is referred to as “the turning point at which modern history failed to turn” because it seemed as though the revolutionaries were only so close to success.
Importance of The Revolutions of 1848 Considered the watershed political event of
the 19th century. 1848 revolutions influenced by romanticism,
nationalism, and liberalism, as well as economic dislocation and instability.
Only Britain and Russia avoided significant upheaval
Neither liberals or conservatives could gain permanent upper hand
Importance of The Revolutions of 1848 Resulted in end of serfdom in Austria and
Germany, universal male suffrage in France, parliaments established in German states (although controlled by princes & aristocrats), stimulated unification impulse in Prussia and Sardinia-Piedmont.
Last of liberal revolutions dating back to the French Revolution
States that saw Failed Revolutions
France Austria Prussia Italy
The Effects of the Revolutions
Although none of the revolutions succeeded, they had a lasting impact on Europe. Never before or since has Europe seen so
truly universal an upheaval. The revolutions strengthened the more
conservative forces that viewed revolution with alarm.
Revolutionary ideas succumbed to military suppression.
The Effects of the Revolutions
Several gains in fact, did endure: peasants in Prussia and Austria were
emancipated, Piedmont and Prussia kept their new constitution monarchs learned they needed to watch public
opinion. Liberals learned that they couldn’t depend on the
masses to follow them w/out making demands They reevaluated their own goals Perhaps the old order was better than anarchy?
The Effects of the Revolutions
Everyone realized that revolutions needed power and armies to back them up but that, nevertheless, nationalism was a powerful new force in politics.
England in the Age of Metternich
Rights of commoners actually is expanded England: Tories (had defeated Napoleon) still in
control. 1815 Parliament only elected by wealthy Corn Law of 1815: halted importation of cheaper
foreign grains. Habeas corpus repealed for first time in English
history Peterloo Massacre” of 1819
Pro-liberal crowd listening to anti-Corn law rhetoric attacked by police.
Press brought under firm control and mass meetings abolished
England in the Age of Metternich
1820s – labor unions legalized Chartist Movement (People’s Charter) wanted
expanded voting rights 1832 – Great Reform Bill – allowed 50% more
people to vote; redrew district boundaries Big deal since it signaled the beginning of the end for
the gentry. Middle class rising and gaining control of the
government.
England in the Age of Metternich
After 1832 more reforms: Factory Act (limiting hours of child labor) Poor Law passed Law granting all resident taxpayers the right to vote in
municipal elections.
1846 – Repeal of the Corn Laws Mostly achieved because both working class
and middle class worked together (final proof of the rising power of middle class).
More on England
In 1866 – Whig party (liberal) Prime Minister William Gladstone attempted to expand voter registration.
In 1867 – Tory Party (Conservative Party) Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. 2nd Reform Bill = gives right to vote to workers.
Back to England
At the turn of the century Great Britain’s laws laid down the foundation of the social welfare state (but first programs started in Germany)
All citizens guaranteed a free public education -- compulsory
Unions were legalized Secret ballots (Australian) Government workers insurance Unemployment insurance Old age pensions End of child labor; safety regulations in factories
Review English Eras
Magna Carta – King has to follow the law
War of the Roses – leads to Parliament supported a new king
Henry VIII – religious upheaval – power of the monarch
Elizabeth – relied upon Parliament for support
James I – absolutist Charles I – English Civil
War; Parliament overthrows monarch
Charles II returns – at the request of Parliament
Glorious Revolution – Parliament invites William and Mary to return
Bill of Rights – habeas corpus and freedom of speech
Prime Minister gains power during the reign of Queen Victoria
France in the Age of Metternich
Louis XVIII was the king – granted a new constitution
Charles X was a reactionary and make people mad
1830 – July Revolution – Charles overthrown Louis Philippe chosen as king of “the French” Louis had problems with workers – constant
uprisings
France in the Age of Metternich
Impact of July Revolution: sparked a wave of revolutions throughout Europe.
Italy (1831-32) Belgium Poland Spain
Back to France
Began the Revolutions of 1848 July Revolution of 1830 was against Charles X Louis Phillip replaced Charles and gave a voice to the
“bourgeoisie” but no one represented the proletariat (workers)
February, 1848 Louis Phillip abdicates and a new legislature is elected – dominated by conservatives – riots break out between the government and the workers
Universal male suffrage approved and a constitution that set up a one house legislature and had a strong president.
Napoleon Again
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president of the Second Republic (1st Republic was during the French Revolution)
Goals: law and order; eradication of socialism and radicalism; adherence to conservative groups: Church, army, property owners and business.
1852 declares himself Emperor Napoleon III Internal improvements – highways, canals, railroad
construction Subsidized industry allowed organized unions Everyone was doing well – Liberal Empire – eased censorship and granted
amnesty to political prisioners
Mexican Empire
Napoleon sets up an “Emperor of Mexico” – a Hapsburg cousin who was to answer to Napoleon – the Mexicans kill him and the United States is outraged at the violation of the Monroe Doctrine
Crimean War (1854-1856)
French and English went to war to prevent the Russians from establishing dominance over Ottoman possessions
Ended the peace set up after the Congress of Vienna