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Agathis macrophylla (Pacific kauri)Araucariaceae, araucaria family
dakua makadre, dakua, takua makadre, makadre, makadri, dakua dina, daâua (Fiji); duro (Solomon Islands: Van-ikolo); hoe, khoe (Vanuatu: Espiritu Santo); kauri (Vanuatu: Bislama); marabete (Solomon Islands: Nendo); nejev (Vanuatu: Aneiytum); nendu (Vanuatu: Erromango); Pacific kauri (English)
Lex A. J. Thomson
IN BRIEFDistributionâ Humid,âlowland,âandâlowerâmonÂtaneâtropicsâinâtheâsouthwesternâPacific.Sizeâ Tallâtreeâtypicallyâtoâaboutâ30â40âmâ(100â130âft).Habitatâ Lowlandâsubtropicalâandâtropicalâ forÂestsâwithâevenlyâdistributedârainfallâofâ1900â6000âmmâ(75â236âin);âgrowsâinâelevationsâofâ5â1150âmâ(16â3770âft).Vegetationâ Occursâ inâ associationâ withâ manyâdifferentâ angiospermâ andâ gymnospermâ trees;â aâdominantâcomponentâofâlowlandâtropicalâclosedâforests.Soilsâ Prefersâwellâstructured,âfriable,âandâfreelyâdrainedâsoils.Growthâ rateâ Inâ favorableâ conditions,â annuÂalâ growthâ canâ reachâ aboutâ 1â1.5âmâ (3.3â5â ft)â inâheightâandâ1.5â2âcmâ(0.6â0.8âin)âinâtrunkâdiamÂeter.Mainâ agroforestryâ usesâ Cropâ shade,â silvopasÂture.Mainâproductsâ Timber.Yieldsâ Productionâ ofâ merchantableâ timberâ isâconservativelyâestimatedâtoâbeâ2â3âm3/ha/yrâ(29â43âft3/ac/yr).âIntercroppingâ Preferablyâ cultivatedâwithâ aâdiÂverseâtree/shrubâunderstory.Invasiveâ potentialâ Notâ consideredâ toâ beâ anâinvasiveâspecies.
SpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryââwww.traditionaltree.org
Aprilâ2006ver.â1.2
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Seven-year-old Pacific kauri planted underneath moribund Cordia alliodora trees at Shark Bay, Santo, Vanuatu.
ďż˝â Agathis macrophylla (Pacificâkauri)
INTRODUCTIONPacificâkauriâ(Agathis macrophylla)âisâaâforestâtreeâspeciesâofâmajorâ ecologicalâ andâ economicâ importanceâ inâ theâ southÂwestâPacificâ regionâofâMelanesia.â Itâ isâamongâtheâ largestâandâ longestâ livingâ treeâ speciesâ foundâ inâ theâ region,âwithâindividualsâ reachingâupâ toâ40âmâ (130â ft)â inâheightâ andâ3âmâ(10âft)âinâboleâdiameter,âwithâanâestimatedâlifeâspanâofâ300â1000â years.â Theâ treeâ occursâ naturallyâ inâ theâ humidâandâmesicâ lowlandâandâlowerâmontaneârainforestsâ inâtheâSolomonâIslands,âVanuatu,âandâFiji.âTropicalâcyclonesâocÂcurâ atâ periodicâ intervalsâ inâ allâ partsâ ofâ itsâ range,â mainlyâduringâtheâmonthsâofâNovemberâthroughâMarch.âItsâabilÂityâ toâ withstandâ strongâ windsâ isâ aâ majorâ attractionâ forâgrowingâitâ inâcycloneÂproneâareas.âPacificâkauriâgenerallyâprefersâ wellâ drained,â basaltÂderivedâ clayâ loamsâ andâ claysâwithâaâwellâdevelopedâupperâhumusâlayer.âTheâspeciesâisâaâgapâ opportunist,â withâ seedlingsâ dependentâ onâ largeâ gapâopeningsâ(moreâthanâ2â3âtrees)âinâtheâcanopyâforâestablishÂmentâandâgrowth.âInâmatureâtreesâtheâcanopyâisâemergentâandâconstitutesâaâuniqueâstructuralâelementâinâtheâforestsâinâwhichâitâoccurs;âi.e.,âtheâform/structureâofâPacificâkauriâcannotâbeâreplacedâbyâanyâotherâspecies.âHenceâitâhasâmaÂjorâsignificanceâinâconservationâofâtheâplantâcommunitiesâinâwhichâitâisâaâcomponent.Itsâfinelyâgrained,âpale,âeasilyâworked,âandâuniformâtimberâisâofâmajorâcommercialâimportanceâwithâvariousâhighâvalÂueâendÂuses,âincludingâfurniture,âhandicrafts,âveneer,âboatâbuilding,âlightâconstruction,âandâpaneling.âFromâaâplantaÂtionâviewpoint, Pacificâkauriâstandsâapartâ fromâmostâspeÂciesâinâtheâgenusâbecauseâofâitsâabilityâtoâgrowâmoderatelyâfastâandâestablishâinâopen,âsunnyâsites.âPacificâ kauriâ hasâ goodâ potentialâ inâ severalâ agroforestryâsituations,âincludingâinterplantingâinâshiftingâgardens,âimÂprovedâfallows,âboundaryâplantings,âupperÂstoryâwindbreaksâ(whereâspaceâpermits),âandâwoodlots.âItâalsoâhasâgoodâpoÂtentialâforârehabilitationâofâdegradedâandâsecondaryâforestsâthroughâlineâplantings.âItsâbiologicalâcharacteristicsâensureâthatâitâisâhighlyâunlikelyâtoâbecomeâanâenvironmentalâweedâwhenâplantedâoutsideâofâitsânativeâhabitats.TheâmainâfactorsâlimitingâitsâwiderâreÂplantingâare
highâ earlyâ maintenanceâ costs,â withâ regularâ weedingâandâ vineâ cuttingâ beingâ requiredâ duringâ theâ firstâ 4â5âyears,âespeciallyâinâopenÂgrownâplantationslongâprojectedârotationâ lengthâforâ timberâproduction,âwhichâisâexpectedâtoâbeâ40â55âyearsâ(i.e.,â longerâthanâforâmahogany)difficultyâinâobtainingâviableâseedâofâtheâmostâdesiredâsourcesâfromâsouthernâVanuatu.
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DISTRIBUTION
NativeârangePacificâkauriânaturallyâoccursâasâscatteredâtreesâandâgrovesâinâlowlandâsubtropicalâandâtropicalâforestsâinâtheâSolomonâIsÂlands,âVanuatu,âandâFiji.âItâoccursâmoreâfrequentlyâonâridgeâcrests.âInâtheâSolomonâIslandsâitâisâfoundâonâfourâislandsâinâtheâSantaâCruzâgroup,ânamelyâNdende,âVanikolo,âTevai,âandâUtupua.âInâVanuatuâitâisâfoundâinâtheâcentralÂeasternâpartsâofâtwoâsouthernâislands,âErromangoâandâAneityum.âInâFiji,âtheâspeciesâoccursâonâtheâlargerâislandsâofâVitiâLevu,âVanuaâLevu,âTaveuni/Qamea,âOvalau,âandâKadavu.
CurrentâdistributionTheâspeciesâisâstillâreasonablyâabundantâthroughoutâitsânatÂuralârangeâinâtheâsouthwesternâPacific.âItâhasâbeenârecordedâasâbeingâcultivatedâinâHawaiâi,âandâitâhasâbeenâplantedâinâsmallÂscaleâtrialsâinâSarawak,âMalaysiaâ(Fahlmanâ1975)âandâNewâZealandâ(Beveridgeâ2002).
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
PreferredâscientificânameâAgathis macrophyllaâ(Lindley)âMasters
FamilyâAraucariaceaeâ(araucariaâfamily)
Non-preferredâscientificânamesA. obtusaâ (Lindl.)âMastersâ (forâ southernâVanuatuâpopulaÂtions)âA. vitiensisâ(Seeman)âBenth.â&âHookâf.âexâDrakeâ(forâFijianâpopulations)
Commonânamesâdakuaâ makadre,â dakua,â takua makadre, makadre, makadri,
dakua dina, daâua (Fiji)duroâ(SolomonâIslands:âVanikolo)hoe,âkhoeâ(Vanuatu:âEspirituâSanto)kauriâ(Vanuatu:âBislama)marabeteâ(SolomonâIslands:âNendo)nejevâ(Vanuatu:âAneiytum)nenduâ(Vanuatu:âErromango)Pacificâkauriâ(English)
SizeItâisâaâtallâtreeâtoâaboutâ30â40âmâ(100â130âft)âheight,ârarelyâattainingâ45â55âmâ(150â180âft).âInâFijiâmatureâtreesâareâtypiÂcallyâ20â33âmâ(66â110âft)âtall.âBoleâdiametersâofâolderâspecÂ
âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)â ďż˝
imensâareâaroundâ1.2â1.6âmâ(4â5.2âft)âtheâSolomonâIslandsâandâupâtoâ3âmâ(10âft)âinâVanuatuâandâFiji.
FormTreeâformâvariesâconsiderablyâdependingâonâseedâsourcesâ(provenance),â age,â andâ habitat.â Theâ boleâ isâ slightlyâ toâstronglyâ tapering,â withoutâ buttresses,â andâ inâ matureâspecimensâ isâclearâofâbranchesâ forâ9â20âmâ(30â66âft).â Inâyoungerâ specimensâ theâ formâ ofâ theâ crownâ isâ conicalâandâ monopodial.â Eventuallyâ theâ canopyâ becomesâ broadâ(diameterâtoâ36âmâ[120âft])âandâdeepâ(toâ24âmâ[80âft])âandâdevelopsâaâsympodialâform,âoftenâasymmetricalâandâraggedâinâoutline.âBranchesâmayâbeâerectâtoâhorizontalâandâmassive.âWhenâtreesâareâbetweenâ30âandâ50âcmâ(12â20âin)âdbh,âtheâcanopyâshapeâchangesâfromânarrowÂconicalâtoâaâspreadingâcrownâwithâupwardâspreadingâbranchesâ(Beveridgeâ1975).â
FlowersTheâtreeâ aâgymnosperm,â i.e.,â itâproducesâ itsâmaleâ andâ feÂmaleâreproductiveâstructuresâinâconesâandânotâinâflowers.âItâisâmonoecious,âhavingâseparateâmaleâandâfemaleâconesâonâtheâsameâtree.âTheâfirstâfemaleâconesâbeginâtoâbeâproducedâatâaboutâ10âyearsâold.âTheseâtakeâ2âyearsâtoâmature;âatâtheâendâofâtheâfirstâyearâtheyâareâeggÂshaped,âaboutâ5âcmâ(2âin)âlong,âandâ3âcmâ(1.2âin)âinâdiameter,âandâatâtheâendâofâtheâsecondâyearâtheyâareâmoreâorâlessâroundâandâ8â10âcmâ(3â4âin)âinâdiameter.âInâFiji,âveryâyoungâfemaleâconesâhaveâbeenâobservedâinâearlyâJanuary.âAtâ maturity,â theâ maleâ conesâ areâ cylindricalâ (20â25â mmâ[0.8â1âin]âlongâbyâ8â12âmmâ[0.3â0.5âin]âdiameter)âwithâtheâcupuleâwiderâthanâtheâconeâbase.âTheyâareâborneâonâshortâsideâ branchesâ andâ ratherâ inconspicuousâ greenâ dryingâ toâlightâ orangeÂbrown.âTheâ microsporophyllsâ areâ taxonomiÂcallyâ importantâ andâaâusefulâ characterâ forâdistinguishingâbetweenâ differentâ Agathisâ species.â Inâ A. macrophylla theâmicrosporophyllsâ (asâ seenâ inâ theâ intactâ coneâ atâ anthesis)âareâ stronglyâoverlapping,â 1.5â2âmmâ(0.06â0.08â in)âacross,âmarginâthin,âentireâorâ irregularlyâ incised,âheadâ inâadaxialâviewâ2(â2.5)âmmâ(0.08[â0.1]âin)âacrossâbyâ2âmmâ(0.08âin)âradially,âthickâcenterâthinningâgraduallyâtoâaânarrowâmarÂgin,âstalkâjoiningânearâheadânearâabaxialâedge.âThereâareâ6âtoâ14âpollenâsacs.
LeavesTheâ leavesâ areâ leathery,â darkâ green,â andâ shinyâ aboveâ andâoftenâ glaucousâ below.âTheâ leafâ bladeâ isâ simple,â entire,â elÂlipticâtoâlanceolate,âaboutâ7â15âcmâ(2.7â6âin)âlongâandâ2â3.5âcmâ(0.8â1.4âin)âwide,âwithâmanyâcloseâinconspicuousâparÂallelâveins.âTheâleavesâ taperâ toâaâmoreâorâ lessâpointedâtip,âroundedâatâtheâbase,âwithâtheâmarginsâcurvedâdownâatâtheâedge.âPetiolesâ areâ short,â fromâalmostâ sessileâupâ toâ 5âmmâ
(0.2âin)âlong.âTheâleavesâareâarrangedâdecussatelyâbutâheldâinâoneâplaneâexceptâonâverticalâgrowingâtips.âJuvenileâleavesâdevelopedâinâshadeâareâconsiderablyâlongerâthanâthoseâinâtheâ upperâ canopy.âTheâ leavesâ ofâ Solomonâ Islandsâ plantsâareâtypicallyâlargerâandâbroaderâthanâplantsâfromâdrierâandâcoolerâpartsâofâitsârangeâinâFiji.â
FruitFemaleâ flowerâ conesâ areâ muchâ largerâ thanâ maleâ cones,âglobular,â aboutâ 8â13â cmâ (3â5â in)â across,â onâ thickâ woodyâstalks,â green,â slightlyâ glaucous,â turningâ brownishâ duringâripening.âEachâbrown,âwingedâseedâisâattachedâtoâaâtrianÂgularâconeâscaleâaboutâ2.5âcmâ(1âin)âacross.âAboutâhalfâtheâseedsâareâviable,âtheseâbeingâlocatedâinâtheâcentralâpartâofâtheâcone.âTheâbulkâofâtheâseedâcropâhasâusuallyâmaturedâbyâearlyâtoâmidÂFebruary,âwithâlaterâconesâmaturingâinâMarch,âsuggestingâaâmaturationâperiodâofâ12â15âmonths.
Top:âFemaleâcone.âBottom:âMaleâcones.âphoto:âGtZÂpacificÂGermanâreGionaLâforestryâproject
ďż˝â Agathis macrophylla (Pacificâkauri)
SeedsTheâ seedsâ areâ brown,â small,â ovoidâ toâ globose,â flattened,âwingedâ(wingâaboutâ3.5âcmâ[1.4âin]âlong),âandâattachedâtoâaâtriangularâconeâscaleâaboutâ2.5âcmâ(1âin)âacross.âSeedsâareâreleasedâduringâdisintegrationâofâtheâcone.âWindâdispersalâofâseedâisâefficient:âdispersalâofâupâtoâ10âkmâ(6âmi)âhasâbeenârecorded,âandâlongÂdistanceâdispersalâofâtensâtoâhundredsâofâkilometersâisâlikelyâduringâcyclones.
RootingâhabitMatureâspecimensâhaveâwide,âspreadingârootâsystemsâthatâhelpâ stabilizeâ soilsâonâ ridgesâandâ slopesâ (Beveridgeâ 1975).âSeedlingsâ andâ youngâ specimensâ haveâ aâ vigorousâ taprootâwithâoneâorâmoreâwhorlsâofâlateralâroots.âRootsâofâyoungâseedlingsâareâinfectedâbyâtheâphycomyceteâEndogone,âformÂingâvesicularÂarbuscularâmycorrhizalâassociations.â
Similarâorâlook-a-likeâspeciesAgathis silbaeâDeâLaub.â(endemicâtoâwestâcoastâSanto,âVanÂuatu)Agathis robustaâ (C.â Mooreâ exâ F.â Muell)â F.M.â Baileyâ (enÂdemicâtoâAustraliaâandâPapuaâNewâGuineaâandâplantedâinâsomeâPacificâislands,âespeciallyâTonga)
Howâtoâdistinguishâfromâsimilarâspecies/look-a-likesTheâ mainâ definingâ featureâ ofâ A. silbaeâ isâ theâ maleâ cone:âmaleâstrobiliâareâcylindrical,âoblong,âsomewhatâbroadenedâonâtheâupperâhalf,âcopperyÂbrownâtoâredÂbrown,âwithâaâpeÂduncleâ 3.5â4â mmâ (0.14â0.16â in)â long.â Pollenâ conesâ 37â55âbyâ15â18âmmâ(1.5â2.2âbyâ0.6â0.7âin),âlinearâwithâtheâupperâexpandedâpartâofâtheâmicrosporophyllâ2â2.5âmmâ(0.08â0.1âin)âlongâandâwide,âwithâaâ5â6Âsidedâraisedâbossâatâtheâapicalâ
end.âBetweenâtheâraisedâareaâ(whichâcrowdsâagainstâthoseâofâtheâsurroundingâmicrosporophyllsâonâimmatureâcones)âandâ theâ pendantâ pollenâ sacsâ isâ aâ broadâ raisedâ areaâ withâaâ ridgeâ alongâ theâ centre,â narrowâ whereâ twoâ sidesâ ofâ theâraisedâareaâmeetâatâitsâupperâendâandâlanceolateâ(startingâasâwideâasâtheâadjacentâsideâofâtheâraisedâarea)âwhereâoneâofâthoseâsidesâisâlocatedâinâtheâcentreâofâtheâexpandedâpartâofâtheâmicrosporophyll.âOtherâdifferencesâinâflowerâandâfruitâcharactersâofâA. silbae comparedâwithâA. macrophyllaâincludeâtheâlonger,âmoreâslenderâpenduclesâonâtheâfemaleâconesâofâA. silbae,âtypicallyâ6â9âcmâ(2.4â3.6âin),âcomparedâwithâ1â2âcmâ(0.4â0.8âin),âandâtheâtypicallyâlongerâmaleâconesâofâA. silbae,âaboutâ4â5.5âcmâ(1.6â2.2âin)âlongâcomparedâwithâ2â5âcmâ(0.8â2âin)âinâA. macrophylla.InâA. macrophyllaâtheâmicrosporophyllâheadâisâmoreâorâlessâabruptlyâjoinedâtoâtheâstalk,âwhereasâinâA. robustaâtheâheadânarrowsâgraduallyâintoâtheâstalk.âInâA. macrophyllaâtheâmaleâflowerâconesâ(atâanthesis)âareâshorter,âaboutâ2â5âcmâ(0.8â2âin)âlongâcomparedâwithâ5â10âcmâ(2â4âin)âinâA.ârobusta.âTheâmatureâfemaleâconesâofâA. macrophyllaâareâroundedâ(toâ10âcmâ[4âin]âdiameter),âwhereasâA. robustaâhasâovoidâfemaleâconesâ(toâ13âcmâ[5âin]âlong).â
GENETICS
VariabilityâofâspeciesTheâ populationsâ ofâ Pacificâ kauriâ fromâ theâ Santaâ CruzâGroup,â Vanuatu,â andâ Fijiâ exhibitâ considerableâ morphoÂlogicalâdifferencesâinâboleâform,âbark,âandâfoliage,âbutâtheyâareâ neverthelessâ consideredâ toâ compriseâ aâ singleâ species.âWhetherâtheâthreeâgeographicâformsâshouldâbeârecognizedâasâdifferentâ subspeciesâ isâ anâopenâquestion.âEvenâwithinâoneâregion,âdifferentâvarietiesâhaveâbeenâreported.âForâexÂample,â onâ theâ basisâ ofâ differencesâ inâ leafâ charactersâ andâstemâform,âmorphologicallyâdistinctâformsâhaveâbeenârecÂognizedâonâErromangoâandâAneityumâinâVanuatu.Withinâtheâspeciesâ thereâ isâconsiderableâvariationâ inâothÂerâ traitsâ ofâ economicâ importance,â especiallyâ selfÂpruning.âTreesâfromâtheâSantaâCruzâIslandsâexhibitâheavyâbranchÂingâandâpoorâselfÂpruning.âSouthernâVanuatuâprovenancesâ(formerlyâ knownâ asâ A. obtusa)â combineâ moderatelyâ fastâgrowth,â especiallyâ inâ moreâ openÂgrownâ situations,â withâgoodâ formâ andâ selfÂpruningâ andâ areâ consideredâ toâ beâamongâtheâmostâpromisingâseedâsourcesâinâtheâAgathisâgeÂnusâforâuseâinâplantationâdevelopment.
KnownâvarietiesAtâAnelghowatâ (Aneityum,âVanuatu),â villagersâ recognizeâthreeâvariants,â
Leavesâofâaâseedling.âphoto:âL.âthomson
âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)â ďż˝
nejevâahei,âtheâmostâcommonâtypeâwithâwhiteâbark,ânejev yang,âwithâyellowishâbarkâandâtimber,âand,ânejev apeng,âwithâblackishâbarkâandâbranches.â
InâFiji,âtwoâdifferentâformsâhaveâbeenâreported,âoneâtallerâwithâfewerâbranchesâknownâasâdakuaâbalavu,âandâtheâother,âdakuaâleka,âshorterâandâmoreâbranched.
ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIESInâtheâSantaâCruzâIslandsâ(SolomonâIslands)âPacificâkauriâisâ aâdominantâcomponentâofâ theâ lowlandâ tropicalâ closedâforests,âoccurringâasâanâemergentâaboveâaâdenseâunstratifiedâforest.âTheâspeciesâ isâ largelyâabsentâ fromâearlyâ secondaryâforests,âwhereâitâcannotâcompeteâwithâspreading,âfastâgrowÂing,âsecondaryâforestâspecies.âInâVanuatuâtheâspeciesâoccursâasâscatteredâindividualsâorâinâsmallâgroupsâasâanâemergentâorâupperâcanopyâtree,âinâvariousâclosedâforestâassociations.âInâFiji,âitâoccursâinâseveralâforestâassociations,âespeciallyâinâmoistâmontaneâ closedâ forestsâ andâ lowerâmontaneâ closedâforestsâinâtheâintermediateârainfallâzone.
AssociatedâspeciesâofânativeâhabitatsPacificâkauriâoccursâinâassociationâwithâmanyâdifferentâanÂgiospermâ andâ gymnospermâ trees.â Inâ theâ Santaâ Cruzâ IsÂlandsâitâgrowsâwithâCampnosperma brevipetiolata,âFagraeaâspp.,âandâHernandiaâspp.âAssociatesâ inâ Vanuatuâ includeâ Cryptocarya turbinata,âCalophyllum neo-ebudicum,âGarcinia vitiensis,âHernandia cor-digera, Ilex vitiensis, Palaquiumâspp.,âandâPodocarpus spp.âInâFijiâsomeâofâtheâcommonâassociatesâareâCalophyllum vitiense,âDacrydium nidulum and D. nausoriense, Endospermum mac-rophyllum,âFagraea berteroana,âGarcinia spp.,âGymnostoma vitiense, Myristicaâ spp.,âPalaquium hornei, Podocarpus spp., Retrophyllum vitiense, andâSyzygium spp.
ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND TOLERANCES
ClimateTheâtreeâoccursânaturallyâinâtheâhumid,âlowland,âandâlowerâmontaneâ tropics.â Tropicalâ cyclonesâ occurâ atâ periodicâ inÂtervalsâinâallâpartsâofâitsârange,âmainlyâduringâtheâmonthsâofâNovemberâthroughâMarch.âInâtheâSantaâCruzâIslandsâ(SolomonâIslands)âPacificâkauriâoccursâfromânearâseaâlevelâtoâ600âmâ(1970âft).âTheâclimateâisâveryâwetâ(4500â6000âmmâ[180âin])âwithânoâdryâseasonâandâwarmâtoâhotâthroughoutâtheâyear.âInâVanuatu,âtheâspeciesâisâmostâfrequentâonâridgesâorâ steep,âoftenâ exposedâ slopes,â butâ alsoâoccursâonâflatâ toâundulatingâterrain.âRainfallâonâErromangoâandâAneityumâ
â˘â˘â˘
isâaroundâ2200â2600âmmâ(87â102âin)âperâyearâwithâaâshortâdryâseasonâfromâJuneâtoâOctoberâbutâmayâreachâ4000âmmâ(157âin)âinâwetterâpartsâofâErromango.âInâFiji,âPacificâkauriâisâaâcomponentâofâlowlandâandâlowerâmontaneâsubtropicalârainâforestâfromânearâseaâlevelâtoâ1150âmâ(3770âft),âmostlyâfromâ600âtoâ900âmâ(1970â2950âft)âelevation.âTemperaturesâareâ warmâ toâ hotâ throughoutâ theâ year.â Annualâ rainfallâ isâ2100â3600âmmâ(83â142âin)âwithâaâweakâtoâpronouncedâdryâseasonâfromâJuneâtoâOctober.
Elevationârangeâ5â1150âmâ(16â3770âft)
Meanâannualârainfallâ1900â6000âmmâ(75â236âin)
RainfallâpatternâPacificâ kauriâ prefersâ climatesâ withâ summerâ orâ uniformârainfallâpatterns.
Dryâseasonâdurationâ(consecutiveâmonthsâwithâ<ďż˝0âmmâ[1.6âin]ârainfall)â0â1âmonths.âWhileâthereâisâaâdistinctâdryâseasonâofâseveralâmonthsâinâFijiâandâVanuatu,âtheâaverageâmonthlyârainfallâinâtheâdriestâmonthsâstillâexceedsâ40âmmâ(1.6âin).
Meanâannualâtemperatureâ25â28°Câ(77â82°F)
Meanâmaximumâtemperatureâofâhottestâmonthâ29â31°Câ(84â88°F)
Meanâminimumâtemperatureâofâcoldestâmonth17â23°Câ(63â73°F)
Minimumâtemperatureâtoleratedâ7°Câ(45°F)â(Nadarivatu,âwesternâVitiâLevu,âFiji)
SoilsPacificâkauriâgenerallyâprefersâbasaltÂderivedâclayâloamsâandâclaysâwithâaâwellâdevelopedâupperâhumusâlayer.âItâhasâalsoâbeenâ reportedâonâ coralâ limestoneâ terracesâ andâborderingâmangroveâvegetation.âTreeâgrowthâ isâpoorâonâcompactedâandâwaterloggedâsoils,âandâtheâspeciesâisâmostâcommonlyâfoundâonâwellâstructured,âfriable,âandâfreelyâdrainedâsoils.âOnâNdendoâ(SantaâCruzâIslands)âtheâstandsâareâlocatedâonâdeepâfriableâclaysâ(Oxisols)âderivedâfromâbasalt,âalthoughâtheâedgesâofâtheâstandsâmayâoccurâonâcalcareousâsandstonesâandâ siltstones.â Onâ Vanikoloâ treesâ growâ overâ basaltâ onâ aâlatosolicâsoilâwithoutâappreciableâaccumulationâofâhumusâandânoâsignâofâpodsolization.âItâhasâbeenâfoundâthatâtheâtoÂ
6â Agathis macrophylla (Pacificâkauri)
talâCa2+âandâMg2+âlevelsâareâlowerâinâsoilâsamplesâobtainedâfromâbelowâindividualsâofâPacificâkauriâthanâfromâsamplesâobtainedâ belowâ individualsâ ofâ Calophyllum neo-ebudicum.âAlthoughâthisâdataâsuggestâthatâmoreâextensiveâleachingâofâcationsâoccursâunderâPacificâkauri,âtheâspeciesâdoesânotâapÂpearâtoâpromoteâpodsolizationâtoâtheâsameâextentâasâsomeâotherâspeciesâofâAgathis.InâVanuatuâtheâspeciesâalsoâgenerallyâoccursâonâclayeyâsoilsâwithâaâwellâdevelopedâupperâhumusâlayer.âOnâErromangoâtheâ speciesâ growsâ onâ deeplyâ weathered,â wellâ structuredâclaysâ(Oxisols)âderivedâfromâbasalt.âInâFijiâtheâspeciesâocÂcursâonâvariousâheavierâsoilâ types,â includingâdeep,âfriable,âchocolateÂbrownâclayâoverâbasalt,âhumicâLatosolsâandâredÂyellowâpodzolics.
SoilâtextureâTheâtreeâgrowsâinâheavyâsoilsâ(sandyâclays,âclayâloams,âandâclays).â
SoilâdrainageâFreelyâdrainingâsoilsâareârequired.
SoilâacidityâItâgrowsâinâacidâtoâneutralâsoilsâ(pHâ4.0â7.4).
Tolerances
DroughtItâisâlikelyâtoâbeâtolerantâonlyâofâshortâdryâperiodsâ(e.g.,â3â5âmonths)âonceâestablished.
FullâsunTheâtreeâgrowsâmostârapidlyâinâwellâlitâsituations,âbutâtreesâgrownâ inâ fullâ sunâ mayâ haveâ poorerâ selfÂpruningâ ofâ sideâbranchesâ andâ heavierâ lateralâ branchingâ comparedâ withâthoseâgrownâunderâlight,âevenâshadeâ(aboutâ25%âoverheadâshade).
ShadeInâlightlyâshadedâsituationsâplantsâmayâelongateâmoderateÂlyâfastâ(sometimesâfasterâthanâinâfullâsun),âbutâunderâheavyâshadeâtheyâgrowâveryâslowlyâ(untilâsuchâtimeâasâtheyâareâexposedâtoâstrongerâsunlight).âHowever,âseedlingsâareâableâtoâendureâheavyâshadeâ(upâtoâ75%)âforâmanyâyears.
FireFiresâcanâkillâmatureâtrees;âsusceptibilityâtoâfireâdamageâreÂportedlyâincreasesâinâoverÂmatureâspecimens.
FrostFrostsâareâunknownâinâitsânativeâhabitats,âandâaccordinglyâ
theâspeciesâisâlikelyâtoâbeâtolerantâonlyâofâtheâmildestâfrostsâatâinfrequentâintervals.
WaterloggingTheâtreeâisâgenerallyâintolerantâofâwaterloggingâbutâmightâbeâableâtoâtolerateâshortâperiodsâofâwaterloggingâinâlighter,âwellâaeratedâsoilâtypes.
SaltâsprayPacificâkauriâoccursâinânearÂcoastalâsituationsâandâisâtolerÂantâofâlightâsaltâspray.
WindTreesâareâwellâadaptedâtoâgrowingâinâwindyâlocationsâandâcyclones.
Abilitiesâ
RegenerateârapidlySeedâ productionâ isâ sufficientâ toâ maintainâ occasionalâ toâmoderatelyâ commonâ andâ reasonablyâ widespreadâ populaÂtionsâofâveryâslowâgrowingâseedlings.âWhenâlargeâgapsâinâtheâcanopyâappearâ(>2â3âtrees),âtheâseedlingsâareâreleasedâandâ canâ growâ reasonablyâ rapidlyâ toâ becomeâ emergentâtrees.
Self-pruneTheâextentâofâselfÂpruningâisâsubstantiallyâaffectedâbyâbothâenvironmentalâandâgeneticâ factors.â Inâ theâSantaâCruzâIsÂlandsâopenÂgrownâtreesâdevelopâpersistent,âheavyâlimbsâthatâshowedânoâ signâofâ selfÂpruningâduringâ theâfirstâ 10â years.âHowever,âmatureâplantationsâselfÂpruneâwell,âandâpruningâisânotâpracticedâinâtheâSolomonâIslands.âTreesâfromâVanuÂatuâexhibitâmuchâbetterâselfÂpruningâandâbranchingâcharÂacteristicsâthanâthoseâfromâtheâSantaâCruzâIslandsâ(Fijianâpopulationsâareâintermediate).
CoppiceUnknownâforâA. macrophylla.âSomeâspeciesâofâAgathis,â inÂcludingâA. borneensisâ inâMalaysia,âwillâ coppiceâwhenâsapÂlingâsizeâplantsâareâcut.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTPacificâkauriâisâreportedâtoâbeâamongâtheâfastestâgrowingâspeciesâinâtheâgenusâ(BowenâandâWhitmoreâ1980a).âHowÂever,âannualâdiameterâincrementâisâvariableâandâaffectedâbyâseveralâfactors.âTheâmajorâfactorâappearsâtoâbeâtheâdegreeâofâexposureâofâtheâtreeâcanopyâtoâsunlight.âTheâspeciesâisâexceptionallyâ longÂlivedâ withâ anâ estimatedâ lifeâ spanâ ofâ300â1000âyears.â
âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)â ďż˝
GrowthârateInâopenâandâlightlyâshadedâareas,âwithâgoodâweedâcontrol,âtheâmeanâannualâ incrementâ isâaboutâ 1â1.5âmâ(3.3â5â ft)â inâheightâandâ1.5â2âcmâ(0.6â0.8âin)âinâtrunkâdiameterâ(MarÂtenâ 1970,â Neilâ 1990).âTreesâ inâ undisturbed,â nativeâ forestâgrowâveryâslowly,âe.g.,â2.5â3.7âmmâ(0.1â0.15âin)âperâyearâandâtakeâmoreâthanâ200âyearsâtoâreachâaâdbhâofâ75âcmâ(30âin)â(Ashâ1985).
ReactionâtoâcompetitionPacificâkauriâisâveryâtolerantâofâshading,âbutâgrowthâratesâareâgreatlyâreducedâatâhigherâlevelsâofâshading.âItâisâreasonÂablyâtolerantâofârootâcompetition,âbutâseedlings/âsaplingsâshouldâbeâkeptâfreeâofâcompetitionâfromâgrasses.
PROPAGATIONTheâ speciesâ isâ readilyâ grownâ fromâ freshlyâ collectedâ seed,âandâthisâisâtheârecommendedâpropagationâmethod.âPlantsâcanâalsoâbeâpropagatedâvegetativelyâusingâbothâmainâstemâandâlateralâcuttingsâfromâ12ÂmonthÂoldâseedlings.âLateralâcuttingsâ tendâ toâ retainâ aâ plagiotropicâ growthâ habitâ andâshouldânotâ beâusedâ forâ plantingâ stockâ forâ timberâplantaÂtionâpurposes.
Propagationâbyâseed
SeedâcollectionHeavyâ coneâ cropsâ areâproducedâonâolderâ treesâwithâmasÂsive,âspreadingâcrowns,âalthoughâtheâlarvaeâofâAgathiphaga mothsâcanâcauseâmajorâseedâdamageâandâ lossâ(seeââPestsâandâdiseasesâ).âTheârecommendedâcollectionâtechniqueâisâclimbingâ(usingâappropriateâsafetyâequipment,âropes,âharÂnesses,âandâspikes)âintoâtheâupperâcanopyâandâusingâlongÂhandledâ hooksâ toâ breakâ offâ matureâ cones.â Seedâ isâ mostâabundantâinâtheâearlyâmonthsâofâtheâyear:âFebruaryâAprilâ(SantaâCruzâIslands),âFebruaryâMarchâandâJuneâ(Vanuatu),âandâJanuaryâMarchâ(Fiji).âCollectionâofârecentlyâmaturedâconesâwillâresultâinâgreaterâseedâviabilityâandâlongevity,âbutâitâisâdifficultâtoâassessâwhenâtheâconeâisâfullyâmature,âandâitâshattersâshortlyâafterward.â
PropaguleâprocessingPrecautionsâhaveâtoâbeâtakenâinâseedâcollection,âextraction,âandâhandlingâtoâavoidâdamageâdueâtoâlethalâcombinationsâofâ temperatureâorâmoistureâcontent.âConesâshouldâbeâairâdriedâinâanâopenâlocation,âandâseedâshouldâbeâextractedâasâsoonâasâpossibleâafterâcollectionâtoâminimizeâfungalâdamÂageâand/orâgerminationâinâtheâcone.âOnâaverageâaboutâhalfâtheâseedsâareâviable;âtheseâareâlocatedâinâtheâcentralâpartâofâtheâcone.âHowever,âthereâisâaâveryâlargeâvariationâinânumÂ
bersâofâviableâseedsâperâcone,âfromâaâfewâupâtoâaboutâ100.âFreshlyâcollectedâseedâhasâaboutâ5000â6000âviableâseeds/kgâ(2270â2730âseeds/lb).
SeedâstoragePacificâkauriâmayâbeâclassedâasâintermediateâinâitsâseedâstorÂageâcharacteristics.âItsâseedsâareâveryâsensitiveâtoâaârangeâofâconditionsâincludingâdrying,âchillingâdamage,âandâcarbonâdioxide/oxygenâ balance.â Seedâ storageâ lifeâ isâ affectedâ byâcomplexâ relationshipsâ amongâmoistureâ content,â temperaÂture,âandâdryingârate.âForâlongÂtermâstorage,âseedâshouldâbeâ driedâ toâ aroundâ 9â13%â moistureâ contentâ andâ keptâ asâcoldâasâpossible,âpreferablyâatââ13°Câ(11°F).âDryingâbelowâ7%âmoistureâcontentâreducesâviability.
Pre-plantingâtreatmentsâInâorderâ toâavoidâreductionâ inâviabilityâduringâstorage,â itâisâ recommendedâ thatâ dewingedâ seedsâ beâ sownâ immediÂatelyâfollowingâcollectionâandâprocessing.âNoâpretreatmentâisârequired,âandâfresh,âundamagedâseedsâgerminateârapidly,âcommencingâ withinâ 2â7â daysâ (atâ 26°Câ [79°F])â andâ comÂpletedâbyâ14âdays.
GrowingâareaItâisârecommendedâthatâplantsâbeâgerminatedâunderâshelterâwithâaboutâ50%âshade.
GerminationSowâseedsâintoâpottingâmediumâinâgerminationâtrays.âTheâseedsâareâsownâinâaâverticalâpositionâwithâwingâendâupâandâjustâ coveredâbyâ sandâorâpottingâmix.âSeedlingsâ areâ transÂplantedâintoâ individualâpotsâatâ theâtwoÂleafâorâcotyledonâstage.
MediaAâstandardâpottingâmediumâwithâgoodâdrainingâpropertiesâisârecommended.âForâintroductionâintoâareasâoutsideâofâitsânaturalârange,âitâ isâ likelyâtoâbeâadvantageousâtoâinoculateâseedlingsâwithâappropriateâmycorrhizalâfungi.
TimeâtoâoutplantingSeedlingsâreachâaâplantableâsizeâafterâaboutâ6â12âmonthsâinâtheânursery.
ApproximateâsizeSeedlingsâ areâ suitableâ forâ fieldâ plantingâ whenâ theyâ haveâreachedâ 25â30â cmâ (10â12â in)â inâ height.â However,â largerâseedlingsâgrownâinâlarger,âdeeperâpotsâmayâbeâdesirableâinâorderâtoâreduceâtheâperiodâofâhighÂmaintenanceâweedingâfollowingâoutplanting.âIfânecessary,âseedlingsâmayâbeâsafelyâheldâinâtheânurseryâforâaâconsiderableâperiod,âe.g.,âupâtoâ2âyears,âbyâtransferringâthemâintoâmoreâshadedâconditions.
ďż˝â Agathis macrophylla (Pacificâkauri)
GuidelinesâforâoutplantingSurvivalâ isâ expectedâ toâ beâ veryâ highâ (>95%)â forâ largerâseedlingsâthatâareâplantedâintoâreasonablyâsunnyâsitesâandâweededâ atâ regularâ intervals,â onâ anâ asÂneededâ basis,â durÂingâtheâfirstâ4â5âyears.âItâisâimportantâtoâcutâawayâandâcutâdownâfastÂgrowingâclimbersâsuchâasâMerremia peltataâandâmileÂaÂminuteâ (Mikania micrantha).â Theseâ canâ quicklyâweighâdown,âbendâover,âandâdamageâyoungerâkauriâplants.âForâgrassy/weedyâsites,âpreÂplantingâsprayingâofâsiteâwithâglyphosateâherbicideâisârecommended.
DISADVANTAGESTheâmainâdisadvantageâisâtheâhighâearlyâmaintenanceâcost,âwithâ regularâweedingâbeingâ requiredâduringâ theâfirstâ 4â5âyears,â especiallyâ inâopenÂgrownâplantations.âPacificâkauriâshouldânotâbeâplantedâinâareasâwithâheavyâinfestationsâofâweedyâclimbers.âThereâmayâalsoâbeâdifficultiesâinâobtainingâplantingâstock,âdueâtoâproblemsâofâcollecting,âmaintaining,âand/orâprocurÂingâviableâseed.
PotentialâforâinvasivenessTheâbiologicalâcharacteristicsâofâtheâspeciesâensureâthatâitâhasâaâlowâweedinessârisk.
DiseasesâandâpestsTheâ speciesâ hasâ lowâ susceptibilityâ toâ termiteâ attackâ andâbeetleâlarvae,âbutâoldâtreesâareâsometimesâaffectedâbyâtheseâinsectâpests.âPinkâdisease,âcausedâbyâCorticum salmonicolor,âandârootâfungiâmayâbeâlethalâtoâtheâplantâbutâareâusuallyâreÂstrictedâtoâwaterloggedâsites.âOtherâpestsâandâdiseasesâinÂcludeâfoliageâblightâ(Cylindrocladium macrosporum),ânecrotÂicâbark,âleafâgall,âcanker,âhollowâbutt,âandâPhellinus noxius.âPlantationsâ inâ theâwesternâSolomonâIslandsâ (outsideâ theâspeciesâânaturalârange)âhaveâbeenâaffectedâbyâaâcoreidâbugâ(Amblypelta cocophaga).âTheâmostâseriousârecordedâpestsâareâlarvaeâofâtheâprimitiveâmothâAgathiphaga vitiense.âAttackâbyâtheseâcaterpillarâlarvaeâmayâgreatlyâreduceâtheâamountâofâviableâseedâproduced,âwithâupâtoâ95%âofâseedâinâaâconeâbeingâdestroyed.âPlantsâmayâsufferâfromâdiebackâespeciallyâwhenâgrownâonâsoilsâofâpoorâstructure.
Hostâtoâcropâpests/pathogensUnknown.
OtherâdisadvantagesâorâdesignâconsiderationsTheânurseryâperiodâisâofâaâlongâdurationâforâaâtropicalâtreeâspecies,â increasingâ theâ costâ ofâ seedlingâ propagationâ andâriskâofâseedlingâdeathâfromâwaterâstress.â
InâopenÂgrownâsituations,âtreesâofâSantaâCruzâIslandsâandâFijiâoriginâshowedânoâsignâofâselfÂpruningâduringâtheâfirstâ10âyearsâandâexhibitedâaâtendencyâtoâformâseveralâleadingâshoots.
AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES
SoilâstabilizationItâisânotâsuitableâforâsituationsâwhereârapidâsoilâprotectionâandâbindingâisâneeded,âbutâitâmayâbeâveryâusefulâforâlongerÂtermâstabilizationâofâlessâstableâsoilâprofiles.
Cropâshade/overstoryTheâ treeâ isâmainlyâ suitableâ asâ aâ longÂtermâ orâ permanentâoverstoryâ treeâ forâ moreâ shadeÂtolerantâ understoryâ crops;âhowever,âwideÂspacedâplantingsâofâlessâdenseâformsâofâPaÂcificâkauriâ(suchâasâfromâFiji)âmayâprovideâlightâshadeâforâaâwiderâvarietyâofâcrops.
AlleyâcroppingItâ isâ notâ wellâ suitedâ toâ alleyâ croppingâ inâ permanentâagroforestryâsystemsâdueâtoâitsâeventualâlargeâstatureâandâspread.âItâcouldâbeâ includedâ inâalleysâ inâshiftingâgardensâ(whichâareâthenâleftâtoârevertâbackâtoâforest.
HomegardensTheâtreeâisâusuallyânotâappropriateâforâhomegardensâdueâtoâitsâlargeâsize,âbutâitâcouldâbeâincludedâasâaââlandmarkââtreeâ(withâhighâstabilityâduringâcyclones).âBecauseâofâitsâtradiÂtionalâandâcommercialâimportance,âasâwellâasâitsâlongâlifeâspanâandâincreasingârarity,âtheâplantâisâidealâforâplantingâinâvillageâandâschoolyards.
ImprovedâfallowsItâcouldâbeâplantedâinâshiftingâgardenâsituations,âbutâlongârotationsâmitigateâagainstâitsâuseâforâthisâpurpose.
BoundaryâmarkersInâcertainâsituationsâitâisâsuitedâasâboundaryâmarker,âdueâtoâsizeâandâlongevity,âbutâitâmayâshadeâneighboringâcrops.
WindbreaksWhereâ spaceâ permits,â Pacificâ kauriâ isâ anâ excellentâ upperâstoryâinâaâmixedÂspeciesâwindbreakâ(includingâfasterâgrowÂingâspecies).
SilvopasturePacificâkauriâisâwellâsuitedâtoâinclusionâasâaâtreeâcomponentâinâ silvopastoralâ systems,â beingâ longÂlivedâ andâ providingâhighâshadeâforâcattle.â
âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)â ďż˝
WoodlotItâisâsuitedâonlyâtoâwoodlotâplantingsâinâwhichâearlyâfinanÂcialâreturnsâareânotârequired.
WildlifeâhabitatItâisâaâveryâusefulâwildlifeâhabitatâtree,âespeciallyâforâbirds,âandâ providesâ aâ uniqueâ structuralâ elementâ inâ SWâ Pacificâforestâecosystems.
OrnamentalOneâofâtheâmostâimpressiveâtreesâinâtheâPacificâislands,âitâdeservesâtoâbeâmoreâwidelyâplantedâinâlargeâpublicâspaces,âincludingâalongâroadsâandâasâaâlandmarkâtree.
USES AND PRODUCTSPacificâkauriâisâofâgreatâimportanceâtoâlocalâpeopleâthroughÂoutâitsânaturalârangeâinâMelanesia.âInâaâsurveyâofâ18âvillagesâonâtheâmajorâislandsâinâtheâFijiâGroup,â41âofâ42ârespondentâgroupsânamedâtheâspeciesâasâanâimportantâtimberâtree.âTraÂditionalâusesâforâtheâtreeâareâsimilarâinâdifferentâpartsâofâitsârange.âTheâtimberâisâutilizedâforâhouseâandâotherâconstrucÂtion,âfurniture,âcanoeâmaking,âandâcarving,âwhileâitsâresinâisâusedâforâglazingâpots,âcanoeâcaulk,âlightingâfire,âglue,âandâinâtorches.âTheâsmokeâofâtheâresinâisâalsoâusedâasâaâdyeâforâhairâandâtattoosâandâtoâpaintânativeâclothesâblack.âInâsomeâareasâPacificâkauriâmayâalsoâhaveâspiritualâsignificance.âForâexample,âinâFijiâitâisâtheâtotemâtreeâofâseveralâfamilyâclans,âvillages,âandâdistricts.Pacificâkauriâisâaâhighlyâvaluedâcommercialâtimberâspecies,âoftenâgeneratingâmuchâneededâcashâincomeâforâlocalâcomÂmunitiesâthroughâloggingâroyalties.â
MedicinalTheâyoungâleavesâandâbarkâofâtheârelatedâA. silbaeâareâusedâinâtraditionalâmedicinesâonâSanto,âVanuatuâ(Siwatibauâetâal.â1998).
TimberTheâwoodâisâanâimportantâcommercialâtimberâwithâmanyâendÂuses,â bothâ forâ localâ andâ exportâ marketsâ (seeâ âComÂmercialâproductsâ).â Itâproducesâaâfinelyâ textured,â straightâgrained,âpale,âandâuniformâtimberâthatâisâeasilyâworkedâandâgluedâandâhasâexcellentâphysical,âmechanical,âworking,âandâveneeringâproperties.âTheâtimberâisâvaluedâforâhandicrafts,âfurniture,â veneer,â boatâ building,â lightâ construction,â andâpaneling.â Itâ isâ notâ suitableâ forâ useâ inâ groundâ contact,â asâitsânaturalâdurabilityâclassâisâratedâasâ3âorâ4â(dependingâonâsource),âindicatingâaâserviceâlifeâinâgroundâcontactâofâaboutâ5â10â years.âTheâ timberâ isâ amenableâ toâ preservativeâ treatÂment,âbutâitsâhighâvalueâwouldânormallyâprecludeâitsâuseâ
forâgeneralâconstructionâpurposes.âTheâspeciesâisâcurrentlyâbeingâcommerciallyâexploitedâinâFiji,âmainlyâonâtheâlargeâislandsâofâVanuaâLevuâandâVitiâLevu.âTheâspeciesâ isâproÂtectedâonâErromango,âVanuatu,âinâaâKauriâReserve:âitâisâexÂpectedâthatâthisâmeasureâwillâgenerateâecotourismârevenueâforâlocalâcommunities.âTheâspeciesâisânotâcurrentlyâloggedâinâSantaâCruzâIslands,âandâexportsâofâlogsâareâprohibited.
FuelwoodTheâwoodâcanâbeâusedâasâfuel,âbutâisâbetterâsuitedâtoâotherâpurposes.
Craftâwood/toolsTheâwoodâisâtraditionallyâusedâforâcarvingâinâVanuatu.
Canoe/boat/raftâmakingTheâwoodâhasâ traditionallyâbeenâusedâ forâmakingâcanoesâinâVanuatu;âtheâwholeâtrunkâisâused,âcarvedâoutâtoâmakeâcanoe.
Resin/gum/glue/latexManilaâcopalâproducedâfromâtheâlivingâinnerâbarkâwasâanâimportantâ componentâ ofâ manyâ varnishesâ (Chaplinâ 1993)âandâisâstillâusedâmixedâwithâsynthetics.âCommercialâexportâofâtheâresinâwasâformerlyâpracticedâinâFijiâbutâwasâprohibÂitedâinâ1941,âasânoâmethodâcouldâbeâfoundâforâtappingâanâeconomicâyieldâofâgumâwithoutâendangeringâtheâlifeâofâtheâtree.âInâVanuatuâAgathis resinâisâtraditionallyâusedâasâcanoeâcaulk,âandâtheâresinâsootâwasâusedâforâtattoos.âInâFijiâtheâresinâwasâformerlyâusedâforâglazingâpots.
Tannin/dyeSmokeâresiduesâofâtheâburntâresinâwereâtraditionallyâusedâasâaâdyeâforâhair.
Illumination/torchesResinâfromâtheâinnerâbarkâwasâtraditionallyâusedâforâlightÂingâandâtorchesâinâFijiâandâVanuatu.
Ceremonial/religiousâimportanceInâ someâ areasâ theâ treeâ hasâ spiritualâ significance.â Forâ exÂample,â inâFijiâ itâ isâ theâ totemâ treeâofâ severalâ familyâ clans,âvillages,âandâdistricts.
COMMERCIAL PRODUCTSPacificâkauriâisâaâhighlyâvaluedâcommercialâtimberâspecies.âItâ hasâ goodâ peelingâ andâ gluingâ propertiesâ andâ isâ highlyâsoughtâ afterâ forâ surfaceâ veneer.â Theâ paleâ creamâ toâ goldâbrownâlustrousâheartwoodâandâstrawâyellowâtoâpaleâbrownâsapwoodâ areâ wellâ knownâ andâ highlyâ appreciatedâ inâ theâtimberâ industry.âDamageâfromâpinholeâborersâmayâoccurâ
10â Agathis macrophylla (Pacificâkauri)
inâ standingâ trees,â whileâ drywoodâ termitesâ andâ Anobiumâborersâmayâcauseâdamageâinâservice.Theâwoodâ isâ readilyâkilnâdriedâwithâaâmediumâshrinkageâvalue.âTheâairÂdryâdensityâ isâ 540âkg/m3â (34â lb/ft3).â Inâ serÂviceâtheâtimberâisâveryâstable.âTheâtimberâisâsuitableâforâaâwideâ rangeâ ofâ endÂusesâ includingâ laboratoryâ benchâ tops,âvats,âsaunaâbaths,âbatteryâseparators,âweatherboards,âbowls,ânovelties,âhandles,âfurniture,âveneer,âandâboatâbuilding.Theâ useâ ofâ selected,â superiorâ seedâ provenancesâ (notablyâfromâVanuatu)âandâgoodâsilvicultureâwillâenableâtheâcomÂmercialâproductionâofâtimberâandâveneerâinâplantationsâonâaâ40â55Âyearârotationâperiod.
SpacingSelectionâ ofâ spacingâ regimeâ willâ dependâ onâ theâ environÂmentâinâwhichâtheâplantationâwillâbeâestablished:
inâ secondaryâ orâ loggedâ forest,â enrichmentâ plantingâwithâ aâ spacingâofâ 2â3âmâ (6.6â10â ft)â inâ linesâ 9â10âmâ(30â33âft)âapartâinâclearedâareasâaâspacingâofâ4â5âxâ4â5âmâ(13â16âxâ13â16âft)â inâassociationâwithâagriculturalâ intercropsâ forâ sevÂeralâyearsâtoâreduceâweedingâcosts.
ManagementâobjectivesâTheâ overallâ managementâ objectiveâ isâ toâ produceâ aâ highâstockingâofâwellâ formedâstems.âAccordingly,â implementaÂtionâofâaâthoroughâweedingâregimeâinâearlyâyearsâisâessenÂtial,âincludingâregularâremovalâofâclimbersâandâsinglingâofâanyâmultiÂstemmedâseedlings/saplings.Anâinitialâdensityâofâ400â500âstems/haâ(160â200âstems/ac)âisâ recommended,âreducingâtoâaâfinalâdensityâofâaboutâ150âstems/haâ (60â stems/ac)â throughâmortalityâ andâoneâ selecÂtive,ânonÂcommercialâ thinningâatâaboutâhalfâ theâ rotationâlength,âi.e.,âaboutâ20â25âyears.InânativeâforestsâitâisârecommendedâthatânaturalâregeneraÂtionâbeâperiodicallyâtended,âmainlyâreleaseâfromâvinesâandâclimbers,âfollowingâopeningâupâofâtheâcanopyâthroughâlogÂging.
DesignâconsiderationsTheâwoodâisâvaluable,âandâaccordinglyâplantationsâdoânotânecessarilyâhaveâtoâlocatedâespeciallyâcloseâtoâmarketsâbutâshouldâ preferablyâ beâ locatedâ withinâ economicâ rangeâ ofâprocessingâ facilities.â Excessiveâ delaysâ inâ processingâ mayâdiminishâlogâqualityâdueâtoâsapâstainâand/orâborerâattackâ(includingâtoredo,âaâtypeâofâmarineâborer,âifâexposedâtoâtheâsea).
â˘
⢠YieldsNoâdataâisâavailableâforâolderâplantationsâofâA. macrophylla.âInâtheâSantaâCruzâIslands,âMartenâ(1970)âenvisagedâaâ45â55Âyearâ rotationâwithâaâfinalâ cropâofâ60â80â stems/haâ (24â32âstems/ac)â withâ eachâ stemâ yieldingâ 2â m3â (140â ft3).â Thisâequatesâtoâaâgrowthâincrementâforâmerchantableâtimberâinâtheâfinalâcropâofâonlyâ2â3âm3/ha/yrâ(29â43âft3/ac/yr).âHigherâgrowthâratesâhaveâbeenâobservedâforâotherâAgathis species,âandâ Martenâsâ estimatesâ appearâ conservative.â Whitmoreâ(1980)ârecommendedâthatâA. dammaraâbeâgrownâonâaâ50ÂyearârotationâonâJavaâ(Indonesia)âforâaâtotalâpredictedâyieldâofâ 22â28â m3/ha/yrâ (315â400â ft3/ac/yr)â (volumeâ increment,âincludingâthinnings,âatâ30âyearsâofâageâwasâ23â32âm3/ha/yrâ[329â458â ft3/ac/yr]).â Agathis robusta,â anotherâ fasterâ growÂingâspeciesâ inâ theâgenus,âexhibitedâaâmerchantableâwoodâincrementâofâ11âm3/ha/yrâ(157âft3/ac/yr)âatâageâ22âyearsâonâaâ subÂoptimalâ siteâ inâ southernâ Queensland,â Australiaâ(Whitmoreâ1980).
MarketTheâtimberâandâveneerâofâtheâspeciesâhasâgoodâlocalâandâexÂportâmarketâprospects.âBecauseâofâitsâdeservedlyâhighârepuÂtationâinâtheâtimberâtradeâandâtheâmultipleâusesâtoâwhichâitsâtimberâcanâbeâput,âdemandâandâpricesâwillâremainâsolidâforâtheâindefiniteâfuture.âInâformerâtimesâanâannualâoutputâofâaroundâ10,000âm3/yrâ(35,300âft3/yr)âfromâtheâSolomonâIslandsâ wasâ consideredâ necessaryâ toâ meetâ Australianâ deÂmandâandâreturnâaâprofit.âThereâisâcurrentlyânoâproduction,âbutâthereâisâestimatedâtoâbeâaboutâ450,000âm3â(15,900,000âft3/yr)âavailable,âandâloggingâmayâresumeâinânearâfuture.
CONSERVATION OF PACIFIC KAURITheâ highÂqualityâ timberâ ofâ Pacificâ kauriâ hasâ ledâ toâheavyâ postÂEuropeanâ exploitation,â andâ itâ remainsâ aâspeciesâ highlyâ preferredâ byâ loggingâ companies.â ForÂmerâextensiveâloggingâofâtheâspeciesâhasâleftâjustâaâfewâmoreÂorÂlessâ pristineâ standsâ remainingâ inâ VanuatuâandâFiji,âandâsomeâofâtheseâhaveâsomeâlevelâofâprotecÂtion.âAlthoughâunderânoâ imminentâ threat,âwhichâ isâindicatedâbyâ itsâânearâ threatenedââ (LR/nt)â listingâ inâtheâInternationalâUnionâforâConservationâofâNatureâandâNaturalâResourcesâ(IUCN)ââredâlist,ââitâisâanâopenâquestionâwhetherâpresentâconservationâeffortsâareâsufÂficientâ toâ maintainâ theâ remainingâ geneticâ resourcesâofâtheâspeciesâinâtheâlongâterm.âAnâintensificationâofâcommercialâtimberâharvestingâmayâleadâtoâaâCITESâlistingâforâtheâFijianâpopulations.
âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)â 11
INTERPLANTING/FARM APPLICATIONSPacificâ kauriâ appearsâ toâ beâ suitableâ forâ growingâ inâmonoculturesâ butâ isâ preferablyâ cultivatedâ withâ aâ diverseâtree/shrubâunderstory.
Exampleâsystem
LocationSharkâBay,âEspirituâSanto,âVanuatu.
DescriptionNewâsystem:âSeedlingsâareâunderplantedâasâanâunderstoryâinâaâmoribundâ (stagnantâgrowthâwithâ someâdeathsâ fromâPhellinus)â Cordia subcordataâ plantation,â commencedâ inâaboutâ1997âonâtrialâbasis.
Yields/benefitsTheâtreesâhaveâgrownâmoderatelyâfast,âaboutâ1â1.5âmâ(3.3â5âft)âperâyear,âandâhaveâveryâgoodâstemâform.
SpacingSpacingâofâAgathis treesâisâ5âxâ5âmâ(16âxâ16âft).â
PUBLIC ASSISTANCESeeâgeneralâextensionâlinksâat:â<http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html>.
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âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)â 1ďż˝
SpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestryâ(www.traditionaltree.org)
Agathis macrophylla (Pacificâkauri)Author:âLexâA.âJ.âThomson,âSouthâPacificâRegionalâInitiativeâofâForestâGeneticâResourcesâ(SPRIG)âProject,âSPCâForestryâProgram,â
Suva,âFijiâ(currentâcontactâinfo:âIPGRI,âViaâdeiâTreâDenariâ472/a,â00057âMaccareseâ(Fiumicino),âRome,âItaly;âEÂmail:â[email protected]).
Acknowledgments:âTheâauthorâandâpublisherâthankâTonyâBeveridge,âDaleâEvans,âGunnarâKeppel,âandâMikeâWilcoxâforâtheirâinput.âPhotoâcontributionsâbyâTonyâBeveridgeâandâtheâGTZÂPacificÂGermanâRegionalâForestryâProjectâareâgreatlyâappreciated.
Recommendedâcitation:âThomson,âL.A.J.â2006.âAgathis macrophyllaâ(Pacificâkauri),âver.â1.2.âIn:âElevitch,âC.R.â(ed.).âSpeciesâProfilesâforâPacificâIslandâAgroforestry.âPermanentâAgricultureâResourcesâ(PAR),âHĹlualoa,âHawaiâi.â<http://www.traditionaltree.org>.
Sponsors:âPublicationâwasâmadeâpossibleâbyâgenerousâsupportâofâtheâUnitedâStatesâDepartmentâofâAgricultureâWesternâRegionâSusÂtainableâAgricultureâResearchâandâEducationâ(USDAÂWSARE)âProgram;âSPC/GTZâPacificÂGermanâRegionalâForestryâProject;âUSDAâNaturalâResourcesâConservationâServiceâ(USDAâNRCS);âStateâofâHawaiâiâDepartmentâofâLandâ&âNaturalâResourcesâDiviÂsionâofâForestryâ&âWildlife;âandâtheâUSDAâForestâServiceâForestâLandsâEnhancementâProgram.âThisâmaterialâisâbasedâuponâworkâsupportedâbyâtheâCooperativeâStateâResearch,âEducation,âandâExtensionâService,âU.S.âDepartmentâofâAgriculture,âandâAgriculturalâExperimentâStation,âUtahâStateâUniversity,âunderâCooperativeâAgreementâ2002Â47001Â01327.â
Seriesâeditor:âCraigâR.âElevitchPublisher:âPermanentâAgricultureâResourcesâ(PAR),âPOâBoxâ428,âHĹlualoa,âHawaiâiâ96725,âUSA;âTel:â808Â324Â4427;âFax:â808Â324Â
4129;âEÂmail:â[email protected];âWeb:â<http://www.agroforestry.net>.âThisâinstitutionâisâanâequalâopportunityâprovider.Reproduction:âCopiesâofâthisâpublicationâcanâbeâdownloadedâfromâ<http://www.traditionaltree.org>.âThisâpublicationâmayâbeâreproÂ
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